
Class. 
Book. 






no 



HAYDN'S 

DICTIONARY OF DATES 

COMPREHENDING 

REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 

THE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — ^THEIR PROGRESS 

IN ARTS, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN 

ARMS — AND THEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, 

AND PHILANTHROPIC INSTITUTIONS. 

With American Supplement and Biographical Index, 
by G. P. PUTNAM, A. M. 



\ 



NOW READY. 

The Twelfth Thousand, revised, enlarged, afid brought down to the present time— 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: A Manual of Dates connected with the History of 
Every Age and Nation, anJ the Progress of Society in BInowledge and Arts. Both alph i- 
betically aud synchronistically arranged ; continued to August, 1867. With a colored 
chart. Designed for the the counting-room, for teachers, students, and for uaiversal 
reference. By G. P. Putnam, A.M. In one toI., large 12mo, cloth, |3.50. Half calf, $5. 
Notices of former Editions. 

A more convenient literary labor-saving machine than this excellent compilation can scarcely be found 
In any language. — ISeio York IHbune. 

It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the largest amount of nsefal information in the smallest 
possible compass.— ^i#«/<> Cou ier. 

The best manual of the kind that has yet appeared in the English language.— 5i)sto)t Courier. 

An exceedingly valuable book ; well nigh indispensable to a very large portion of the community. — 
New York Courier and Inquirer. 

Also, — {Sold Separately.) 

THE AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT TO HAYDN'S DICTIONARY OP 
DATES. Including a Copious Biographical Index. Bj G. P. Putnam. Sto. |].50. 



RELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS^"' 



HAYDN'S 

Dictionary of 




UNIVERSAL REFERENCE. 



By BENJAMIN VINCENT, 

AMISTANT 8E0EBTART AND KKEPBB OF THE LIBRABT OP TUB BOTAL INSTITUTION OF GBBAT BRITAIir. 



Authorized American Edition, with Supplement relating chiefly to American 
topics, and a Copious Biographical Index, 

GS^Pi)pUTNAM, A.M. 



By 




NEW YORK : 
G. P. PUTNAM & SONS, 

4TH AV. AND 2 3D STREET. 
1870. 









Entered, according to act of Congress, in tlie year 1869, 

by G. P. PUTNAM, 

In tb« Clerk's Office of tlie District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. 



^4 



90^ 



H3^^^ 



NOTE TO AMERICAN EDITION. 



This edition comprises the whole of the 13th English edition of Haydn's 
valuable compilation, edited by Mr. B. Vincent of the British Museum, and 
imported in its original shape, — with the addition of a Supplement relating 
chiefly to American affairs, and giving dates of recent events in Europe and 
the East, To this is added a Biographical Index, which will probably be 
found sufficiently copious and convenient for ordinary reference. 

Mr. Vincent's edition of Haydn is wonderful for its comprehensiveness and 
accuracy, even on American topics ; and this is a gratifying surprise to those 
who have had occasion to refer to other English works which have attempted 
to give American statistics. Bat the paragraphs which have been added in 
the American Supplement will be found in some cases to be essential to the 
usefulness of the volume as a book of reference in this country. Absolute 
completeness in such a work is, of course, unattainable. The difficulty of 
obtaining accurately the details and dates of recent occurrences can only be 
appreciated by actual trial. But the reader will find in these pages all that 
can be reasonably expected in a single volume so compact and portable as this. 

Gt. P. P. 



V^\ 



PREFACE 



THE THIRTEENTH EDITION. 



This Volume is once more presented to the Public, with gratitude for its 
long-continued favourable reception; the frequency of New Editions having 
increased, althougli larger numbers of each have been printed. 

Since 185' 5, when my connection with the book began by the superinten- 
dence of the printing of the Seventh Edition, my constant aim has been its 
thorough renovation ; and this has been effected at the cost of very much time 
and thought, by careful revision and selection from the abundance of invaluable 
materials at my disposal. The great difficulty, indeed, has been to keep the 
book within convenient dimensions : its enlargement by the insertion of 
matters of merely local and temporary interest, and of commonplace remarks 
upon the events recorded, would have been a far easier task. Among the new 
features are the Chronological Tables at the beginning of the work, the dated 
Index, and many biographical, geographical, and scientific facts inserted 
wherever they seemed requisite. To afford room for the new matter, the size 
of the page and the bulk of the book have been enlarged, and very many 
articles have been condensed. 

Encouraged by success, I hope still to maintain the reputation which this 
work has attained, by daily watching and recording in its pages the progress 
of events, and sedulously endeavouring to make it, not a mere Dictionary of 
Dates, but a dated Cyclopeedia, a digested summary of every department of 
human history, brought down to the eve of publication. I have endeavoured to 
act under the influence of the old maxims : '^ Homo sum ; humani nihil a me 
alienum, puto^'' and " Nulla dies sine linetV 

BENJAMIN VINCENT. 

June, 1868. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the 
greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume, 
and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may render its 
possession material to every individual — in the same manner that a London 
Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London merchant. 

He grounds his hope of the Public taking an interest in this work altogether 
upon its own intrinsic utility. Its articles are drawn principally from historians 
of the first f-ank, and the most authentic annalists ; and the Dictionary of 
Dates will, in almost every instance, save its possessor the trouble of turning 
over voluminous authors to refresh his memory, or to ascertain the date, order, 
and features of any particular occurrence. 

The volume contains upwards of Fifteen Thousand Articles, alphabeti- 
cally ai'ranged;* and, from the selection of its materials, it must be important 
to every man in the British Empire, whether learned or unlearned, or whether 
connected with the professions or engaged in trade. 

It would be difficult to name all the authors from whose works the Compiler 
of this volume has copiously extracted ; but he may mention among the classics, 
Herodotus, Livy, Pliny, and Plutarch. He has chosen, in general chronology, 
Petavius, Usher, Blair, Prideaux, and the Abbe Lenglet Dufresnoy. For the 
events embraced in foreign history, he has relied upon Henault, Voltaire, La 
Combe, Rollin, Melchior Adam, the Nouveau Dictionnaire, and chief authors of 
their respective countries. On subjects of general literature, his authorities 
are Cave's Eistoria Literaria, Moreri, Bayle, Priestley, and others of equal 
repute. And English occurrences are drawn from Camden, Stow, Hall, Baker, 
Holinshed, Chamberlayne, Rapin, Hume, Gibbon, Goldsmith, &c. Besides 

* Mr. Haydn evidently meant fifteen thousand articles placed under alphabetical 
headings, not fifteen thousand headings, and this was a correct statement as far as regards 
the First Edition. 



PREFACE, vu 

these, the Compiler has freely used the various abridgments that have brought 
facts and dates more prominently forward ; and he is largely indebted to 
Chambers, Aspin, Beatson, Anderson, Beckmann, the GydopcBdias, Annual 
Register, Statutes at Large, and numerous other compilations. In almost every 
instance the authority is quoted for the extract made and date assigned, 
though inadvertence may have prevented, in some few cases, a due 
acknowledgment. 

The leading events of every country, whether ancient or modern kingdoms, 
are to be found in the* annals of each respectively, as in the cases, for instance, 
of Greece, Rome, the Eastern Empire, England, France, and Germany. 
But, independently of this plan of reference, when any historical occurrence 
claims, from its importance, more specific mention, it is made in a separate 
article, according to alphabetical arrangement. Thus, in the annals of 
England, the dates are given of the foundation of our universities, the 
institution of honorary orders, and signature of Magna Charta; we find, in 
those annals, the periods of our civil wars, and remarkable eras in our history, 
set down as they have occurred ; but if more ample information be necessary 
to the Reader, and if he desire to know more than the mere date of any fact or 
incident, the particulars are supplied under a distinct head. In the same way, 
the pages of Battles supply the date of each, in the order of time ; yet in all 
instances -where the battle has any relation to our own country, or is 
memorable or momentous, the chief featui-es of it are stated in another part 
of the volume. 

The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary op Dates will be 
received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, 
to tilings as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the 
range or design of such publications. 

Joseph Haydn. 

LONDOK, May, 1841. [Died Jan. 17, 1856.] 











TABLE 


OF CONTEMPORARY 


Great Britain, 


France. 


Peninsula. 






_ 










Germany. Jdungary. 


EXGLAND. 


Scotland. 




Leon. 


Arbagon. 


Portugal. 




1066. Will. I. 


1057. Male. 3. 
1093. Donald 


1060. PhUip. I. 


1066. SanchoII. 


1065. Sancho. 


1065. Sancho of 
Castile. 


1056. Hen. 4, 
emperor. 


1064. Solom. , 


1087. Wil. II. 


1094. Donald 




1072. Alfonso VI. 




1072. Alfonso VI. 




1075. Geisa. 

1076. Lad. I. 




agani. 
1098. Edgai-. 


1 108. Louis VI. 




1094. Peter. 


1093. Henry, 

COUllt. 




1098. Colo- 
man. 


1 100. Hen. I. 


1107. Alex.I. 


1 109. [Jrracaand 


1104. Alfonso I. 


1 1 12. Alfonso, as 


1 106. Hen.s, 


1 1 14. Step. 2. 








Alfonso VII. 












1124. Dav. I. 




1 1 26. Alfon. VII. 






1125. Loth.2, 


1131. Bela 2. 


1 135. Steph. 




1 137. Louis VII. 




1134. Ramiro. 








1154. Hen. 2. 


1 153. Mai. IV. 
1165. Will. 




1157. SanchoIII. 
1158.Alfon.VIII. 


1137. Petronella 
and Raymond. 


1 139. Alfonso I., 
as king. 


1 1 38. Conr.3 
ii52.Fred.i. 


1 141. Geisa3. 
1 161. Step. 3. 


1172. (Ireld.'i 








1163. Alfonso II. 








annexed.) 




1 1 80. PhiUpII. 


1 188, Alfon IX. 






1 173. Bela 3. 


1189. Eich.I. 






(Leon.) 




118$. Sancho I. 


1 1 go. Hen. 6. 




1199. Jolin. 








1 196. Peter II. 




1 1 98. Philip. 


1196. Emeric 


1216. Hen. 3. 


1214. Alex.2. 


1223. Louis VIII. 


1214. Henry I. 


1213. James I. 


1212. Alfonso IL 


1208. Otho 4. 
1215. Fred. 2. 


1204. Ladis- 
las II. 

1205. An- 






1226. Louis IX 


1217. Ferdin.III. 
(Castile.) 




1223. Sancho II. 




drew II. 
1235. Bela 4. *^ 








1230. (Leon.) 










1249. Alex. 3. 




1252. Alfonso X. 




1248. Alfon. III. 


1250. Con. 4. 
1254. Will. 

1257. Rich. 




1272. Ed. I. 




1270. Philip III. 




1276. Peter III. 


1279. Dionysius 


1273. Eo- 


1270. Ste. 4. 
1272. Lad. 3. 


1282. (Wales 


Interregnum 




1284. Sancho IV. 




or Denis. 


dolph. 




annexed.) 


1292. John 
Baliol. 


1285. Philip IV. 




1285. Alfons. III. 




1292. Adolp. 










1295, Ferdin.IV. 


1291. James II. 




1298. Alb. I. 


1290. And. 3. 


1307. Ed. II. 


1306. Robert 










1308. Hen. 7. 


1 301. Charo- 




(Bruce) I. 


1314. Louis X. 
1316. John. 


1312. AlfonsoXI. 


1327. Alfonso IV. 


1325. AlfonsoIV. 


1314. Lou. 5. 


bert. 


1327. Ed.III. 


1329. Dav. II. 
1332.Bd.Bal 


Phil. V. 
1321. Chas.lV. 














1342.Dav.II. 


1328. Phil. VI. 




1336. Peter IV. 






1342. Louis. 




again. 


1 350. John. 
1364. Chas. V. 


1350. Peter. 
1369. Henry. 




1357. Peter. 
1367. Ferdinand. 


1347. Chas. 4. 




1377. Rich. 2. 


1371.R0b.II. 




1379. John I. 






1378. Wen- 






(Stuart). 


1380. Chas. VI. 






1383. John I. 


ceslas. 


1382. Mary. H 








1390. Henry II. 


1387. John I. 




, 


1387. Maryife 


1399. Hen. 4. 


1390. Rob. 3. 






1395. Martin. 




1 400. Rupert 


Sigismund. 


1413. Hen. s. 


1406. Jas. I. 




1406. John II. 


1410. Interregnm. 




1 410. Sigismund. 


1422. Hen. 6. 


1437. Jas. II. 


1422. Chas. VII. 




1412. Ferdinand 

of Sicily. 
1416. Alfonso V. 


1433. Edward. 










1454. Henry IV. 


1438. Alfonso V. 


1438. Albert. 








1458, John II. 




1440. Fred. 3. 


1440. Lad. 4. 


i4Gi. Ed.IV. 


1460.Jas.III. 


1461. Louis XI. 


1474. Isabella. 1479. Ferdin. II. 






1445. Lad. 5. 
1458. Mat- 


1483. Ed.V. 
Rich. 3. 






Spain. 






thias. 




1483. Chas. VIII. 


1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 


1481. John II. 


1493. Max. I. 




1485. Hen. 7. 


1488. Jas IV. 








1499. Svrdz. 








1498. Louis XII. 




1495. Emanuel. 


independ. 


1490. Lad. 6. 

1 



IrlUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. 



Scandinavia. 



Sweden. 



6. Halstan. 



o. Ingo. 



2. Philip. 
8. Ingo II. 
,9. Swerker. 



5. Eric I. 

.1. Char. VII. 
17. Canute. 



Swei-k. II. 



o. Eric II. 
6. Jolm I. 
12. Eric III. 



o. Birger Jarl 
6. Waldemar 
5. Magnus I. 

, D. Birger II. 



). Magn. II. 



Denmark. 



1069. Olaf. 



1093. Magnus. 



1 103. Sigurd I., 
and others. 

1 1 22. Sigurd I. 

1 130. MagnusIV. 
and others. 



Civil mar and 
anarchy. 



11S6. Swcrro. 



1202. Hako III. 

and others. 
1207. Hako IV. 



1263. Magnus VI, 



1280. Eric. 



1299. Hako V. 



1319. United to 
Sweden. 



1350. Eric IV. 
1359. Magnus II. 
1363. Albert. 



Margaret. 



39. United to 
Denmark. 



1412. EricSIII. 

1440. Christopher III. 

. Chas.VIII. 
1457. Christian I. 

T4S3. John of Denmark. 



1047. Sweyn II. 
1076. Harold. 

D. Canute IV. 

6. OlausIV. 
1095. Eric I. 



1105. Eric II. 



ii37.-Eric III. 

1147. Sweyn III, 

Canute V. 

1157. Waldemar, 



1182. Canute VI. 



1202. Walde. II. 



1241. Eric IV. 
1250. Abel. 
1252. Christoph. 
1259. Eric V. 



1320. Christo- 
pher II. 

1334. Interregnm. 

1340. Wald. III. 

1375. Interregnm. 

1376. OlausV. 

1387. Margaret. 



Poland. 



Eastern 
Empire. 



1058. Boles- |io5S. Rom. 4 
las. 



1082. Ladis- 
las. 



1 102. Boles. 3 

1138. Lad. 2. 
1145. Boles.4 



1173. Miecis- 

las III. 
117S. Ca- 

simir II. 

1194. Lesk.s. 



1200. Miec.3. 
1202. Lad. 3. 
i227.Boles.5. 



1279. Lesk.6. 



i2Sg.A7iarch. 
i29o.Premis- 

las. 
i296.Ladis.4 



1448. Christin. I. 



1481. John. 



1300. Win- 
ceslas. 



1333. Cas. 3. 



1370. Louis. 

1382. Mary. 
1384. Hedw. 
1396. Lad. 5. 



1434. Lad. 6. 
1445. Casi.4. 

1492. Albert 



1071. Mich. 7, 
io78.Nicep.3 
1081. Alexius 



1 1 18. John 
Comnenus. 



1 143. Manuel 
Comnenus. 



iiSo."Alex.2. 
1183. Andro- 

nicus C. 
1185. Isaac 2. 
1195. Alex. 3. 



i2o4.Theodo 

1222. John 

Ducas. 

i25S.Theo.2 

1258. John 
Lascaris. 

1 259. Mich. 8, 



1282. Andro- 
nious II. 



1332. And. 3, 
1341. Johns. 



1 39 1. Man- 
uel VI. 



1425. John 6, 



1448. Con- 
stant. 13. 



Turkey. 



1433. Ma- 
homet II 
i48i.Bajaz.2 



Italy. 



1061. Alex. II. 

1073. Greg. VI r. 
ioS5. Victor III. 
1088. Urban II. 
1099. rascal II. 



1118. 
1119. 
1 124. 
1 1 30. 

1143- 
1 144. 

1145- 
IIS3- 
"54- 
IIS9- 
1181. 



Gelas. II. 
CaUxt. II. 
Honor II. 
Innoc. II. 
Celest. II. 
Lucius n. 
Eugen.III. 
Anasta.IV. 
Adrian IV. 
Alex. III. 
Lucius III. 
Urban III. 
Greg.VIIl. 
Clem. III. 
Celest. III. 
Innoc. HI. 



1216. 
1227. 
1241, 
1243, 

I254. 
1261, 
1265 
1268 
1271. 
1276. 

1276, 
1277. 
1281, 
1285. 
1288. 
1292- 
1294. 



Honor. Ill, 
Greg. IX. 
Celest. IV. 
. Innoc. IV. 
Alex. IV. 
Urban. IV. 
Clem. IV. 
•9. Vacant. 
Gregory X. 
Innoc. V. 
Adrian V. 
John XXI. 
Nichol.111. 
Jlartin IV. 
Honor. IV. 
Nich. IV. 
3. Vacaiit. 
Celest. V. 
Bon if. VI I L 



1303. Bened. XI. 
1305. Clement V. 
{Avignon). 
1314-15. V"Cant. 
1316. John XXII. 
1334. Bene. XI [. 
1342. Clem. V(. 
1352. Innoc. VI. 
1362. Urban V. 
(Rome). 
1370. Greg. XI. 
1378. Urban VI. 
1389. Bonif. IX. 



1404. 
1406. 
1409. 
1410. 
1417. 
1431. 
I447. 
1455' 



Innoc. VII. 
Greg. XII. 
Alex. V. 
John 23. 
Martin V. 
Eugen. IV. 
NicholasV. 
Calix. III. 
Pius II. 
Paul II. 
Sixtiis IV. 
Inno.VIIL 
Alex. VI. 



Naples and Sicily. 



1131. Roger I. 

1 1 54. William I. 
1 166. WilUamlL 



11S9. Tancred. 
1 194. William III. 

1197. Fred.II. of Germany. 



1250. Conrad. 

1254. Conradin. 

1258. Manfred. 

1266. Charles of Anjoii. 



Sicily. 

1282. Peter 

of Arragon, 

1285. Chas.2. 1285. James, 



1295. Pred.2. 



1309. Robt. 



1337. Peter 2, 
1343. Joan 2, 1342. Louis, 
(fc Andrew 1355. Fred. 3, 
of Hurjg. 
1349. Louis 1376. Maria 
<fc Martin, 
i38i.Chas. 3. 
i38s.Ladlslas. 



1402. Mart. I, 

1409. Mart. 2, 
1414. Joan2. (United to 

Arragon.) 

1410. Ferd. i. 
1416. Alfo. I. 

1435. Alfonso I. 
i458.Perd.i. 1458. John. 

1494. Alfo.2.'479- Ferd. 

1495. Fei-d.2. 

1496. Fred. 2. 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 



1509. Heu. 8. 



1547. Ed. VI. 
1553. Mary. 
1558. Eliz. 



1513. Jas. V. 

1542. Mary. 
1567. Jas. VI. 



Peninsula. 



France. 



Castile and 
Leox. 



Ann AGON. 



Portugal. 



1515. Francis I. 



1547. Henry II 



1504. Joanna & Lerdinand IT I 



Spain. 



Germany. 



Hunga: 



1559. Francis II. 1 1556. Philip II. 



1512. Ferd.V.CCast.)II. (Arragon).l 
1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). i 



'603. Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.) 
1625. Charles I, 



1649. Commonwealth. 
1660. Charles II. 

1685. James II. 

1689. William and Mary. 

1695. William III. 



1560. Charles IX. 
1574. Henry III. 
1589. Henry IV. 



1702. Anne. 
1714. George I. 
1727. George II. 



1760. George III. 



1783. [United States in- 
depeudent.J 



1812. (George, Prince of 
Wales, regent.) 



1820. George IV. 



1830. William IV, 
1837. Victoria. 



1610. LouisXIII. 



1643. Louis.XIV. 



1598. Philip III. 



Holland. 



1579. William of 
Orange, stadt 
holder. 

1587. Maurice. 



1715. Louis XV. 



1774. Louis XVI. 



1793. Lou. XVII. 
Republic. 



1621. Philip IV. 



1665. Charles II 



1700. Philip V. 

(abdicated). 
1724. Louis. 

PhiUp V. 

again. 

1746. Ferd. VI. 
1759. Chas. III. 



. Chas. IV. 
{abdicated). 



1802. Consulate. !i8o8. Ferd. VII. 
1804. Niipoleon I. {dethroned). 

i8i4.Lou.XVIII. I Jos. Bonap 

1814. Ferd. VII. 
{restored). 



1824. Charles X. 

1830. Lou. Philip. 
1848. Eepublic. 

1832. Napol. III. 



1833. Isabella II. 



1625. Fred. Hen 



1647. William II. 
1650-72. No 

stadtholder 

1672. Will. Hen 
(Will. III. oj 
England.) 



1702-47. No 

stadiholder 



1747. Will. Hen. 
1757. .Will IV. 



1795. Annexed to 
France. 



1806. liouis,Jcirig. 
Netherlands. 



1814. Will. Fred, 
king.* 



1840. William II. 
1S49. Will. III. 



1557. Sebastian. 



1578. Henry. 



1580. Annexed to 
Spam. 



Kingdom restored 

1640. John of 

Braganza. 
1656. Alfonso VI 
1667. Peter, 

regent. 
1683. Peter II. 



1706. John V. 



1750. Joseph. 



1777. Maria and 
Peter III. 

1786. Maria, 
alone. 

1791. Joim,regaH 



1816. John VI. 
1S26. Peter IV. 
Maria II. 
1828. Miguel. 



1833. Maria II. 



1853. Peter V. 



1861. Luis I. 



1516. Loi 

1519. Chas 5 1526. Jn. 

(I. of Sp.) I polski 

Ferdir 

(Kings of Hungar'! 



1558. Ferdinand. 
1564. Maximilian I 

1576. Rodolph II. 



1 61 2. Mathias. 
1619. Ferdinand II. 

1637. Ferdinand II. 
1658. Leopold I. 



1705. Joseph 
1711. Chas 6. 



1742. Chas.7. 
1 745. Francis 

1765. Jos. 2. 



i7qo.Leop. 2. 
1792. Fran. 2. 



Prussi 



1701. Fre 

1713. Fr( 

Willia: 

1740. Fr< 



1786. Fr 
WiUia 

1797. Fr 
WiUia 



Austria. 



S.Fran.L 



1835. rerd.2. 



1 848. Francis 
Joseijh. 



840. Fi 
WiUia 



1860.W 



ium, — 1S31. Leopold I. 
1865. Leopold II. 



EUROPEAN SOVEEEIGNS, continued. 



Scandinavia. 



Sweden. 



Norway. 



1520. Christian II. 



!3. Giistavus 
Vasa. 



3. Eric XIV. 
i. John III. 

,92. Sigismund 



Russia.* 



;o4. Chas. IX. 



1533. Ivan lY. 



1584. Feodor I. 



1598. Boris. 



1606. Basil. 



ill. Gustavus 1613. Michael 
Adolphus. (Romanoff). 

633. Christina. | 

: 1645, Alexis. 
654. Chas. X. I 
660. Chas. XI. [1676. Feodor. 

I2. Ivan V. & 



S97. Chas. XII. 



719. Ulrica and 
Frederick I. 



741. Fred. I. 
751. Adolphus 
Frederick. 



771. Gustav.III. 



792. Gustav. IV, 



309. Chas. XIII. 
314. Norieay an- 
nexed. 
h8. Chas. XIV. 



844. Oscar. 
159. Chas. XV. 



Peter I. 
1689. Peter I. 



1725. Gather. I. 
1727. Peter II. 
1730. Anne. 

1740. Ivan VI. 

1 741. Elizabeth. 



1762. Peter III. 
Gather. II, 



1796. Paul. I. 



Denmark. 



1513. Christn. II. 

1523. Fredrick I 
and Norway. 

1534. Christ. Ill 
1559. Fred. II. 

1588. Christn.IV. 



Poland. 



1648. Fred. III. 
1670. Christn. V. 

1699. Fred. IV. 



1730.Christn.VI. 
1746. Fred, V. 
j 1766. Christ. VII. 

i784.PrinceFred. 

regent. 



1801. Alexand. I, 
1828. Nicholas. 



1855. Alex. II. 



1501. Alex. 
1506. Sig. I. 



1548. Sig.II. 



1573. Henry. 
1575. Steph. 
1587. Sig. 3. 



1632. Lad. 7. 

1648. John C. 
1669. Mich. 
1674. John 

Sobieski. 
1697. Fredk, 

August. I 



Turkish 
Empire. 



1512. SeUm. 

1520. Soly- 
man II. 



1566. Sel. 2. 

1574. Amu- 
rath III. 



1595. Mah. 3. 



1808. Fred. VI. 
1814. Norway 
taken away. 



1839. Chris. VIII. 
1848. Fred. VII. 



1863. Chrisn. IX. 



1704. Stan. I. 

1709. Fredk 
Augustus, 
restored. 

1733. Fredk, 
August, 2. 



1764. Stan. 2 



1795. Parti- 
tion. 



Greece. 



1832. Otho I 



1863. Geo. I. 



1603. Ach. I, 

1617. Mus. I. 

1618. Osm 2. 

1622. Musta- 
pha, again 

1623. Am. 4. 
1640. Ibrah. 
1648. Mah. 4, 
Tfis, Sol. 3. 

Ach. 2 
Mus. 2. 



Italy. 



Popes. 



1503. Pius III. 
Julius II. 
1513. Leo X. 

1522. Adrian VI. 

1523. Clem. VII. 
1534- Paul III. 
1550. Julius III. 
1555. Marcel. II. 

Paul IV, 
1559. Pius IV. 
1566. Pius V. 
572- Greg.XIIL 
1585. SixtusV. 

1590. Urban VII. 
Greg. XIV. 

1591. Innoc.IX. 

1592. Clem. VIII. 



1695, 



1703. Ach, 3 
1730. Mah. 5, 



1754. Osm. 3 
1757. Mus. 3 



1774, Ach. 4, 
i789,Selm.3, 



1807. Mu.s. 4. 

1808. Mah- 
mud6. 



1839. Abdul 
Medjid. 



1605. Leo. XI. 
Paul V. 
1621. Greg. XV. 
i623,UrbanVIII. 
1644. InnocentX. 
1665. Alex. VH, 
1667. Clem. IX. 
1670. Clem. X. 
1676. Innoc. XI. 
1689. Alex. VIII. 
1691. Innoc. XII. 



1700. Clem. XL 

1721. Inno.XIII. 
1724. Bene. XIII. 

1730. Clem. XII. 
1740. Bene. XIV. 



1758. Clem.XIII. 
1769. Clem. XIV. 
1775. Pius VI. 



1800. Pius VIL 



Naples and Sicily. 



1501. United to Spain. 



Naples and 
Sicily. 



1713. Chas. 3 
Naples. 
Victor- 
Am. of Sa- 
voy, 5Jci(y, 

z-j 2.0 Annexed 

to Germany. 

1738. Chas. 4, 
Naples. 

1759. Pred.4, 
Sicily. 



1823. Leo XIL 



829. 
1851. 



Pius VIII. 
Greg. XVI, 



1846. Pius IX. 



861. Abdul 
Aziz. 



Naples. 



1806. Joseph 
Bonaparte 

1808. Joach. 
Murat. 



Naples and 
Sicily, 




Sardinia. 



1720. Victor- 
Amadeus. 

1730 Charles 
Emman.i. 

1773. Victor- 
AmadeuS2 

1 796. Charles 
Emman.2 



1802. Victor- 

Emman. i, 
iSosAnnexed 

to Hngdom 

of Italy. 
1 81 4. Victor- 

Emman.i. 
1821. Charles 

Felix. 

3 1. Charles 

Albert. 
1849. Victor- 

Emman.2. 



Italy. 



i86i. Victor-Emmanuel. 



See Article Russia for preceding Rulers. 



POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 

{According io the. Almanack de Goihafor 1868.) 



COUNTRIES— RELIGIONS. 



Aahalt, E. Population in Dec. 1864 
Argentine Confederation, R.C. 1867 
Austrian Emp. iv.C. (after ces- 
sion 1866) 1867 

Batlen, R.C Dec. 1864 

liivaria, R.C. (after cessions 

1866) Dec. 1864 

Belgium, R.C. .... Dec. 1865 

Bolivia, R.C. 1858 

Brazil, R.C 1867 

Bremen, P Dec. 1864 

Brunswick, L Dec. 1864 

Chili, JJ.a 1865 

Cliinese Empire (estimated), B. . . 

Costa Rica, iJ.C. 1864 

Denmark & colonies, X. (estm.) 1864 

Egyirt, M. 1867 

Equator, R.C. (estimated) . . 1858 
France and cols., R.C. (estm.) 1862 
Gt.Britain& colonies, P. (estm.) 1861 
Greece & Ion. Is., G.C (estim.) 1865 

Guatemala, R.C. 1865 

Hamburg, P Dec. 1866 

Hanover, L Dec. 1864 

annexed to Prussia, 20 Sept. 1866. 

Hiyti (estimated) 

Hesse-Cassel, P. . . . Deo. 1864 

annex. toPnmsia, 20 Sept. 1866. 
Hesse-Darmstadt, i. (estim.) 1867 
Holland and colonies, C. . . 1863 

Honduras, iJ.C 1858 

Italy, iJ.C. (estimated) . . .1866 

Japan (estimated) 

Liberia, P 

Liechtenstein, iJ.C. .... 1861 

Lippe, C Dec. 1864 

Lubeck, P 1862 

Liixemburg, C Dec. 1866 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin, L. Deo. 1866 
Mecklenbiu-g-StreUtz, £. . . 1866 
Mexico, R. C. (estimated) . . 1865 
Modena, R.C. 1862 

annex, to Sardinia, 18 Mar. 1860. 

Monaco, iJ.C 1864 

Montenegro, G.C. (estim.) . . 1865 

Morocco, M. about 

Naples, kcR.C. 1856 

annexed to Sardinia, Oct. 1860. 
Kassau, P Dec. 1864 

an7iex. to Prussia, 20 Sept. 1866. 

New Granada, iS.C 1864 

Nicaragixa, jB.C 1858 

OJdenbm-g, P. (estmated) . . 1866 

Panama, iJ.C 1864 

Pspal States (estimated) . . . 1863 

Paa-aguay, R.C 1857 

Parma, R.C. 1862 

annexed to Italy, 18 March, 1860. 
Persia, M. (estimated) , . . 1859 

Peru, R.C 1859 

Portugal and col., JJ.C. Dec. 1863 

Prussia, E Dec. 1865 

Eeuss-Greiz, L. . . . . Dec. 1864 
Eeuss-Schleiz, £. . . . Dec. 1864 
Eoumania (Dan. Pmcip.)estim. 1862 
Russia, G.C, Poland, &c. (est.) 1865 
Sandwich Islands (Hawai, &c.) 1861 

San Maiino, R.C 1860 

San Salvador, JJ.C 1858 

Saxe-Altenburg, P. . . Dec. 1864 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, L. . Dec. 1864 
Saxe-Meiuingen, L. . . Dec. 1864 
Sa.x.e-Weimar-Eisenach,X.Dec. 1864 

Saxony, P Dec. 1864 

Schaumburg-Lippe L. . Dec. 1864 
Schwartzburg-Eudolst.,£. Dec. 1864 
Schwartzburg-Sondershaus., L. 1864 
Servia, G. C. (estimated) . . . 1865 
Spain and colonies, R.C. (estm) 1864 
St. Domingo, R. C. (estimated) . . 
Sweden, Norway, L. (estimtd.) 1866 
Switzerland, R.C. and P. Deo. 1860 
Turkish Empire, M. (estimtd.) 1865 
Tuscany, R.O • . 1862 

annex, to Sardinia, 2 Mar. 1860. 

Uruguay, Pl.C 1860 

Venezuela, R.C. 1859 

Wiirtemberg. L Dec. 1864 

United States of America, P. . 1860 



roruLA- 

HON. 



193,046 

1,465,000 

32,530,002 
1,429,199 

4,774,464 

4,984,451 

1,987,352 

11,780,000 

104,091 

293,388 

1,819,223 

450,000,000 

120,471 

1,825,220 

7,465,000 

1,040,371 

43,534,245 

223.820,099 

1,325,341 

1,180.000 

298,324 

1,923,402 

572,000 
745,063 

816,926 

21,805,607 

350,000 

24,236,323 

35 to 40 mil. 

717,000 

7,994 

111,336 

50,614 

202,937 

560,123 

98,255 

8,218,080 

260,591 

3,127 

196 238 

8,000,000 

9,117,050 

468,311 

2,794,473 
400,000 
314,416 

2,784,473 
700,000 

1,337,431 
256,029 

10,000,000 

2,500,000 

8,037,194 

19,304,843 

43,924 

86,472 

4,003,000 

80,255,430 

69,800 

7,080 

600,000 

2,343,994 

141,839 

164,527 

178,065 

280,201 

31,382 

73,752 

66,189 

1,220,000 

21,031,258 

136,500 

4,552,662 

2,510,494 

40,590,367 

696,214 

240,965 
1,565,000 
1,748,328 
31,445,080 



Leopold, duke 

Bartolomeo Mitre, president 



Francis-Joseph, emperor 
Frederick, grand-duke . 



Louis II., king 

Leopold II., king 

Gen. M.'Melga.rejo, president. 
Pedro II., empn'or . . , . 
C. F. Mohr, hurgomaster , . 

William, duke 

Jose J. Perez, president . . . 
Ki-tsiang, emperor . . . . 
Joseph M. Castro, president . 
Christian IX., king . . . . 
Ismail Pacha, viceroy . . . 
G. Carrion, president . . . 
Napoleon III., emx>eror . . . 

Victoria, queen 

George I., king 

Vincent Cema, president . . 

Senate. 

George V., king 



General Salnave, president . . 
Frederic WiUiam, elector . . 

Louis III., grand-duke . . . 
William III., king .... 
J. M. Medina, president . . 
Victor-Emmanuel, king . . 
Mikado [spiritual] ; Ta'icoon 
Daniel B. Warner, president . 

John II., jjrince 

Leopold, i)rince 

Burgomasters and Senate. 
King of Holland, grand duke 
Frederic Francis, grand-duke . 
Frederic William, grand-duke 

Benito Juarez 

Francis V., duke 



Charles, prince . . . 
Nicholas I., prince 
Sidi Mohamed, sultan 
Francis II., king . . 



Adolphus, duke . 



S. Gutierrez, president . . . 
Fernando Guzman, president 

Peter, grand-duke 

Vincent Olarte, govei-nor . . 

Pius IX., pope 

Francisco S. Lopez . . . . 
Robert, duke 



Nassir-ed-Deen, shah . . . 
Mariano J. Prado, president . 

Louis I., king 

WiUiam I., king 

Hemy XXII., prince . . . 
Henry XIV., prince .... 
Chas.of Hohenzollem, hospdr. 
Alexander II., czar .... 

KamehamehaV 

Capitani reggenti. 

Francis DueCas, president . . 

John, king 

Ernest, duke 

Ernest II., duke 

George II., duke 

Charles- Alexander, grand-duke 

Adolphus, prince 

Albert, prince 

Gmither, prince 

Milan 

Isabella II., queen 

Joseph M. Cabral, president . 

Charles XV., king 

Annual president 

Abdul-Aziz, sultan .... 
Ferdinand IV., grand duke . 



Lorenzo-Battle, president . 
J. 0. Falcon, president . . 

Charles, king 

Andrew Johnson, president 



18 Aug. 1830 
9 Sept. 1826 



25 Aug. 1845 
9 April, 1835 



2 Dec. 1825 . 
25 Api-U, '1806 



5 April, 1855 
8 April, i818 



20 April, 1808 
24 May, 1819 
24 Dec. 1845 



27 May, 1819 



20 Aug. 1802 



9 June, 1806 
19 Feb. 1817 



14 March, 1820 
(temporal). 



5 Oct. 1840 . 
1 Sept. 1821 . 



28 Feb. 1823 
17 Oct. 1819 . 



1 June, 1819 



8 Dec. 1818 . 
1840 . . . 



16 Jan. 1836 . 
24 July, 1817 . 



8 July, 1827. 
is May, 1792 



9 July, 1848 
1829 . . . 



31 Oct. 1838. . 
22 March, 1797 
28 March, 1846 

28 May, 1832 
20 April, 1839 

29 April, 1818 
11 Deo. 1830 



12 Deo. 1801 
16 Sept. 1826 
21 June, 1818 
2 AprU, 1826 
24 June, 1818 
1 Aug. 1817 . 
30 April, 1798 
24 Sept. 1801 
1856 . . . 
10 Oct. 1830. 



3 May, 1826 . 



9 Feb. 1830 . 

10 June, 1835 



6 March, 1823 
1809. . . . 



9 Aug. 1817. 
12 Oct. 1862. 

2 Dec. 1848. 

24 April, 1852. 

10 Mai-ch, 1864. 
10 Deo. 1865. 
Dec. 1864. 

7 April, 1831. 
31 Dec. 1863. 

25 April, 1831 
18 Sept. 1861. 
22 Aug. 1861. 

8 May, 1866. 

15 Nov. 1863. 
18 Jan. 1863. 

4 Aug. 1865. 

2 Deo. 1852. 
20 June, 1837. 

5 June, 1863. 

3 May, 1865. 

18 Nov. 1851. 

16 June, 1867. 
20 Nov. 1847. 

16 June, 1848. 

17 March, 1849. 
Feb. 1864. 

17 March, 1861. 

4 Jan. 1864. 
12 Nov. 1858. 
1 Jan. 1851. 



7 March, 1842. 
6 Sept. 1860. 
June, 1867. 

21 Jan. 1846. 

20 June, 1856. 
14 Aug. 1860. 
Sept. 1859. 

22 May, 1859. 

20 Aug. 1839. 

May, 1867. 
1 March, 1867. 
27 Feb. 1853. 
1 Oct. 1866. 
16 June, 1846. 
Sept., 1862. 
27 March, 1854. 



31 Aug. 1867. 
11 Nov. 1861. 
2 Jan. 1861. 

8 Nov. 1859. 
11 July, 1867. 
20 Api-il, 1866. 

2 March, 1855. 
Nov., 1863. 

April, 1865. 

9 Aug. 1854. 

3 Aug. 1853. 
29 Jan. 1844. 

20 Sept. 1866. 
8 July, 1853. 

21 Nov. 1860. 

28 June, 1867. 
19 Aug. 1835. 
Jime, 1868. 

29 Sept. 1833. 
1866. 

8 July, 1859. 

4 July, 1864. 
25 Jmie, 1861. 
21 July, 1859. 

1 March, 1868. 
18 March, 1865. 
25 June, 1864. 
15 April, 1865. 



Predominant RBl,iaiONS.—B;:a,' Roman CathoUc; G.C, Greek Church; P., Protestant ; £., Lutheran- E 
J^vangehcal Church— a combmation of Calvmists and Lutherans ; C, Calvinist or Reformed ; M., Mahometan • 
i>., xJucldhist. * 



SUPPLEMENT TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION 



OF THE 



DICTIONAEY OF DATES, 



ABE 



ACO 



A. 

ABEEDEEN" ACT, introduced by the earl of Aberdeen, and passed, 1845, to enforce 
the observance of a convention made with Brazil in 1826 to put down the slave trade. It 
was repealed in April, 1869. 

ABERRATION" of Lioht, discovered by James Bradley, through his observation of 
an apparent motion of the fixed stars, 1727- 

ABRANTES (Portugal). By a treaty between France and Portugal, signed here 29 
Sept., 1801, the war was closed, and the French army withdrew; a money compensation having 
been agreed to, and territories in Guiana ceded to France. 

ABSCONDING DEBTORS' ACT, passed 9 Aug. 1870. 

ABYSSINIA (p. 4). 

The captives relieved of their chains, 29 March, 18 
Sir R. Napier anives before Magdala . 2 April, , 
Theodore raassacres about 300 native prisouers 

9 April, ,, 
Battle of Arogee or Fahla ; Theodore's troops 

attack the British first brigade ; defeated 

with much slaughter (Good Friday), 10 April, , 
Theodore retires to his stronghold in Magdala, 

and requests Mr. Rassani to mediate ; lieiit. 

Prideaux sent to Sir R. Napier returns with a 

letter; Theodore receives it indignantly, and 

sends an insulting reply ; lieut. Prideaux 

returning, meets Mr. Rassam with some of 

the captives proceeding to the British camp, 

11 April, , 
Theodore .sends a letter of apology offering a 

present of cattle ; Mr. Rassam understand- 
ing this present to have beeu accepted, tells 
the king's minister ; the rest of the ciptives, 
with their property, seutto the British camp, 

12 April, , 
Theodore rejects the terms offered ; Magdala 

bombarded and stormed; Theodore kills 

himself 13 AprU, , 

["I fail to discover a single point of view from 
which it is possible to regard his removal 
with regi'et."- -Sir R. Napier . 18 June,] , 



Death of Theodore's queen . . .10 May, 1868 

Henry Dufton of the ' ' intelligence department " 
shot by Shosho robbers ... 28 May, ,, 

Immediate return of the troops ; — all had em- 
barked 2 June, „ 

Troops arrive at Plymouth, 21 June ; sir R. 
Napier at Dover .... 2 July, ,, 

[Cattle said to have been employed in the expe- 
dition : 45 elephants, 7417 camels, 12,920 
mules and ponies, 7033 bullocks, 827 donkeys. 
Natives also were largely employed in the 
transport service.] 

Theodore's son Alamayou, aged 7, arrives at 
Plymouth, 14 July ; presented to Queen 
Victoria 16 July, „ 

Pension of 350^. to col. Cameron [he died 30 
May, 1870]; 5000^ given to Mr. Rassam; 
2000L to' Dr. Blanc ; 2000?. to lieut. Pri- 
deaux announced . . . .23 Dec, ,, 

Prince Alamayou sailed to India for education, 

26 Jan., 1869 

Expenses of the war: 5,000,000?. voted 18 Dec, 
1868 ; 3,300,000?. more voted . . 4 Mar. ,, 

Report of a commission on the expenses of the 
expedition disclosed much waste, attributed 
to urgency and divided aiithority . Aug. 1870 
18 June,] ,, 
Magdala burnt to the gi-ound . . 17 April, 

ACACIANS. I. Followers of Acacius, bishop of Csesarea, in the fourth century, who 
held peculiar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ. 2. Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of 
Constantinople, promoter of the Henoticon {which see), 482-4. 

ACCIDENTAL DEATHS in England and Wales; in 1856, 9176; in i860, 9225; in 
1865, 11,397; in 1869, 10,725. 

ACCOUNTANTS' INSTITUTE established at a :iieeting 30 July, 1870. William Quilter 
in the chair. 



ADM 



ALB 



ADMINISTEATIONS (p. ii). In consequence of the majority of about 114 obtained by 
the Liberal party in the elections in Nov., 1868, the Disraeli Administration resigned, 2 Dec. 
and was succeeded by the Gladstone Administration {wliich nee) 9 Dec. following. 

ADMIRALTY (p. 12). Hugh Culling Eardley Childers, succeeded Henry Thomas Corry 
as first lordj 9 Dec, 1868. 

ADULLAM (p. 13). The AduUamites (lord Elcho and Mr. Wyld excepted) voted with 
Mr. Gladstone for the disestablishment of the Irish Church, i May, 1868. 

ADULTERATIOlSr OF SEEDS ACT passed 11 Aug. 1869. 

^LFEIC SOCIETY (founded 1842, stopped 1856), published homilies of ^Ifric, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, and other works in Anglo-Saxon. 

.^DILES. Roman city officers of three degrees, said to owe their name to having had 
charge of the cedes or temple of Ceres, i. Two plebeian sediles were appointed with the 
tribunes, to assist them in looking after buildings, weights and measures, the supply of 
provisions and water, &c., 494 B.C. 2. The cediles cur ules, at first patricians, were appointed 
365 B.C. 3. Julius Csesar appointed cediles cereales for watching over the supply of corn. The 
sediles became a kind of police under the emperors. 

AERO-STEAM-ENGINE. The invention of George Warson, a mechanic of Nottingham, 
who, by employing compressed air united with steam, is said to have effected the saving of 
47 per cent, of fuel. The plan was reported to the British Association, at Exeter, in Aug. 
1869, and was said to act successfully in a tug-steamer (for China) in the Thames, 
26 March, 1870. 

AFGHANISTAN (p. 15). 
The sirdar Mahomed Yakoob Khan defeated 
troops of the reigning Ameer, took Candahar, 
and proclaimed Share AU sovereign of Afghan- 
istan April, 18 

Shere AU defeats his nephew, Abdul-rahman, 

12 or 13 Nov. J 

AFRICA (p. 15). 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated 2 Mar. 1867 ; 

heard of down to Dec. 18 

His despatch to lord Clarendon, dated 7 July, 

i858 ; read to the Royal Geographical Society, 

8 Nov. 18 



Interview with the viceroy, the earl of Mayo, 
at Umballah 27 March, 1869 

Insurrection of the ameer's son, Yakoob, about 
24 Aug. ; it fails, and he retreats, Nov. ; re- 
ported as still resisting . . Dec. 1870 



Letter dated 30 May 1869, published . x^cu. 
Uncredited reports of his murder by negroes^ 

Jan. I 



Dec. 1869 



uaii. 

His probable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 

"" June ; said to be at Mozambique, Nov. 



AGRICULTURAL HALL, Islington (p. 17). 



Workmen's International exhibition opened by 
the Prince of Wales . . . .16 July, 1870 



Excellent horse-shows held here May, 1868, 

1869, : 
Theatrical bull-fights here stopped, on account 
of cruelty 28 Mar. 

AID TO THE SICK AND WOUNDED, National Society for. On 4 Aug. 1870 
soon after the breaking out of the Franco-Prussian war, a meeting was held in London, which 
established this society, for immediate communication with the international society estab- 
lished at Geneva, see Geneva Convention. The queen became patron and the prince of Wales 
president ; the duke of Manchester, the earl of Shaftesbury, lords Overstone and Bury, sir 
John Burgoyne, and col. Loyd Lindsay being very energetic supporters. The operations 
have been directed chiefly by capt. H. Brackeubury and sir Vincent Eyre. Capt. Douglas 
Galton and Mr. Henry Bonham Carter went to the seat of war as commissioners, in Sept. 



sions of distress, the help of the English public 
has been poured out with a liberal and an im- 
partial hand. The gifts which have been 
offered in a truly Christian spirit have excited 
a feeling of heartfelt gratitude among those 
on whose behalf I speak " . . 2 Nov. 1870 



Col. Loyd Lindsay convej'ed to Versailles and 

Paris from the society 40,0001., equally divided 

between the Germans and French (gratefully 

acknowledged) . . . about 11 Oct. j 
The crown-prince of Prussia wrote to colonel 

Loyd Lindsay : — "In this, as on other occa- 

Subscription Lists published : — 
3rd, 17 Aug. . . . 2,377J. 
loth, 25 Aug. . . . 33,339 
15th, 31 Aug. . . . 41,789 
20th, 6 Sept. . . . 68,677 
25th, 12 Sept. . . . 109,292 

ALBERT MEDAL (Gold), awarded by the Society of Arts to sir Rowland HiU, 1864; 
Napoleon III. 1865; Michael Faraday, 1866; Charles Wheatstone and William Fothergill 
Cooke, 1867; Joseph Whitworth, 1868; Justus Liebig, 1869; Ferdinand de Lesseps, 1870. 



30th, 17 Sept. 


. 153,214'- 


35th, 23 Sept. 


. 185,790 


40th, 29 Sept. 


. 208,147 


45th, 5 Oct. . 


. 228,039 


50th, II Oct. 


• 243,444 



SSth, 17 Oct. . . 252,416?. 

60th, 26 Oct. . . 260,849 

65th, 9 Nov. . . 270,096 

70th, 30 Nov. , . . 280,598 
78th7Jan.(rcwd.to3iDec.)289,674 



ALG 3 ARM 

ALCOLEA (Andalusia, S. Spain). Near the bridge a sharp engagement took place 
betweea the royalists under general Pavia y Lacy, marquis de Novaliches, and the insurgents 
under marshal Serrano, 27 Sept. 1868. The former was defeated, and, being severely wounded, 
surrendered 28 Sept. About 600 were killed on both sides. 

ALEXANDRA PARK (p. 22). Horse races held here, 30 June, i July, 1S68. 

ALGIERS (p. 24). Insurrection of the Arabs; 4000 defeated by col. Sounis, 2 Feb. 
1869 ; a state of siege was proclaimed 15 Aug. 1870. 

ALIENS (p. 24). Their status in the United Kingdom was again defined in the Naturali- 
zation Act, passed 12 May, 1870. 

ALIZARINE, a crystalline body, the colouring principle of madder, discovered in it by 
Robiquet and Colin in 1831. Schunck showed that all the finest madder colours contained 
only alizarine combined with alkalies and fatty acids. Graebe and Liebermann obtained 
anthracene from alizarine in 1868, and alizarine from anthracene in 1869. Ihe crystalline 
body anthracene was discovered in coal oils by Dumas and Laurent in 1832. See Madder. 

ALMONER (p. 26). The Rev. Dr. Wellesley, dean of Windsor, was appointed queen's 
almoner 28 May, 1870, succeeding the present bishop of Winchester. 

ALPS: Cenis Tunnel: 8498 metres excavated i July, 1868; completed, 4.15 p.m.. 

25 Dec. 1870. 

ALSACE (p. 28) was nearly all conquered by the Germans in the war, Aug. — Sept. 1870 ; 
and its acquisition made a condition of peace by them. 

ALSEN (Denmark). Besieged by the Prussians and heroically defended by the Danes, 

26 June ; captured 29 June, 1864. 

ALTENKIRCHEN (Prussia). The French, who had defeated the Austrians here, 4 June, 
1796, were themselves defeated, and their general, Marceau kiUed, 19 Sept., following. 

ALTONA (Holstein, N. Germany), acquired by the Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. 
It was occupied first by the German federal troops, 24 Dec. 1863, and then by the Prussians 
the federal diet protesting, 12 Feb. 1864. 

AMIENS (p. 31), after a battle in which the French were defeated, 27 Nov., surrendered 
to the Germans, under Von Gceben, 28 Nov. 1870. 

AMYL, an alcohol radicle, first isolated by Professor Edward Frankland in 1849. 

ANNUITY TAX (Edinburgh), (p. 36). Its abolition was provided for in an act passed 
9 Aug., 1870. 

ANORTHOSCOPE, a new optical apparatus, described by Dr. Carpenter in 1868. In it 
distorted figures lose their distortion when put into rapid motion. 

APOLOGIES FOR Christianity were addressed by Justin Martyr to the emperor 
Antoninus Pius about 139, and to the Roman senate about 164. Other apologies were written 
by the early fathers of the Church. 

APPORTIONMENT ACT (for rents) passed I Aug., 1870, 

ARCHjEOPTERYX (ancient bird) ; the name given to the earliest known remains of a 
bird, found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, by Herman von Meyer, and Dr. 
Haberlein in 1861. Its structure approximated more to that of a reptile than that of modern 
birds does. It was described by Owen in 1863. 

ARCHITECTURAL MUSEUM, Westminster, opened 21 July, 1869. 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (p. 45). Col. Dominique F. Sarmiento was elected president 
for six years, 12 Oct. 1868. Urquiza, a former president, was murdered 12 April, 1870. 

ARMY, British (p. 49). 

Sir Henry Storks appointed ControUer-in- 

Chief I Jan. 18 

Flogging abolished in time of peace, by an 

amendment iu the Mutiny Act . . Mar. ,, 
Eoyal commission on the purchase system, (fee, 

appointed 5 April ; report recognises the 

" over regulation payments " hitherto ignored 

Aug. 18 
Regulations under the new " Army Enlistment 

Act "issued 12 Aug. ,, 

Sum voted for the army: 1867, 14,675, 540^.; 



1868, 15,418,582^. ; 1869, 15,000,000^ ; 1870, 
i3>575.40o' 1869 

Royal commission on military education ap- 
Ijointed, 23 June, 1S68 ; report with recom- 
mendations issued about . . . Oct. ,, 

Army Service Corps, to be composed of volun- 
teers commajided by regular of&cei's, estab- 
lished by royal waiTant . . 12 Nov. ,, 

2,ooo,oooi. voted to increase the army by 20,000 
men i Aug. 1870 

R 2 



ARO 



BAL 



AKOGEE, OR Fahla, see Abyssinia. Here Sir Robert, since lord, Napier totally defeated 
the Abyssinians, who lost about 700 killed and wounded, 10 April, 1868. The British had 
20 wounded. 

ARTILLERY (p. 50). Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich, established 1 838 ; building 
completed 1840. The great deficiency of artillery in the British army discussed Sept. 1870. 

ARTIZANS' AND Labourers' Dwellings Act, "to provide better dwellings," passed 
31 July, 1868. 

ASAPH, St. Bishop T. Vowler Short resigned Feb., 1870, and was succeeded by Dr. 
Joshua Hughes. 

ASSESSED TAXES (p. 54). An act to provide for uniformity in the assessment of 
rateable property in the metropolis was passed 9 Aug. 1S69. The " Court of General Assess- 
ment" first met 19 May, 1870. 

ASSIZE OF JERUSALEM, a code of laws compiled under the direction of Godfrey of 
Bouillon, king of Jerusalem, about i loO. A fine edition of these laws, edited by the comte 
Beugnot, was published by the French government in 1841. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL (p. 59). Sir Robert Porrett Collier succeeded sir John 
Karslake, 12 Dec. 1868. 

ATTORNEYS' AND SOLICITORS' ACT, passed 14 July, 1870. 

AUSTRIA (p. 66). The empire was named the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy by decree 
14 Nov. 1868. 



New rainistry under prince Auersperg, 30 "Dec. 18 

Civil marriages bill (annulling- clerical jurisdic- 
tion over them) passed by the upper house, 
after sharp resistance, 21-23 March; received 
the emperor's assent . . -25 May, 18 

German sharp-shooting match, held at Vienna, 

26 July, , 

Von Beust justifies the maintenance of an army 
of 800,000, II Oct ; is made a count Dec. , 

Continued opposition of the clergy to the go- 
vernment Jan. 18 

The crown prince of Prussia visits Vienna, 

7 Oct. , 

The emperor visits the East; — at Jerusalem, 
10 Nov. ; present at the opening of the Suez 
canal 17 Nov. 

Successful insurrection against the conscription 
in Dahnatia, Oct. ; ceased . . . Nov. , 



The Reichsrath opened by the emperor at 
Vienna 13 Dec. 18 

Ministerial crisis, Jan. ; the Cis-Leithan minis- 
try resigns ; Count Potocki prime minister, 

4 April, 18 

Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war an- 
nounced ..... 30 July, , 

The concordat with Rome declared to be 
abolished in consequence of the promulgation 
of the doctrine of papal infallibility, 30 July . 

The Reichsrath opened by the emperor ; no 
deputies fi-om Bohemia . .17 Sept. , 

Dissension between the federal and national 
parties, 29 Sept. ; the Reichsrath adjourned, 

Oct. , 

The ministry support Great Britain in opposing 
the Russian repudiation of the treaty of Paris 
(See Russia) .... Nov. , 

Austrian array, 864,869 regulars ; 187,527 land- 
wehr (militia) Dec. 



B. 

B ABYSM, "a new Mahometan sect in Persia, founded in 1843 by Mirza AU Mahomed 
an enthusiast, at Shiraz. He termed himself the " B^b," or "gate," of knowledge, and, giving 
a new exposition of the Koran, claimed to be the incarnate Holy Spirit. The destruction of 
himself and the greater number of his followers was due to H ossein, one of his disciples, com- 
bining political and warlike principles with their spiritual dogmas. The sect was tolerated by 
the shah Mohammed, but nearly exterminated by his successor in 1848-9. The B4b himself 
was executed 15 July, 1849. 

BACCON or BACON, see Orleans. 

BADEN (p. 69). 
Meeting of the chambers ; liberal measures 
promised, 24 Sept. ; universal suffrage 
adopted by the second chamber, 29 Oct. 18 



Civil marriage made obligatory, 17 Nov. i86g 
Baden joins Prussia in the war with France, 

about 20 July, 1870 



BALLOON (p. 71). The use of balloons for postal purposes was invented by Mr. G. 
Shepherd, C.E., in 185 1. 



J. B. Lassie's model of an "aerial ship," in 
which the screw was used, was submitted to 
the academy of sciences at Paris, 1859 ; and 
exhibited at Washington, U. S. 

A gi^eat balloon exhibited at Ashbumham-park, 
London, escaped, and was captured at Boul- 
don, Bucks 25 May, 1869 

Charles Green, aeronaut, said to have made 
about 600 ascents, died, aged 84 27 Mar. 1870 



M. Duruof conveyed the mail bags from Paris 
to Tours during the siege . . 23 Sept. 1870 

Postal balloons sent up from Metz and Paris, 

Sept. — Dec. ,, 

Postal balloon sent up from Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham (successful) . . .6 Oct. ,, 

M. Gambetta escaped from Paris in a balloon, 
and arrived at Rouen ... 8 Oct. ,, 

Many balloons despatched since. 



BAL 



BEA 



BALLOT (p. 72). A ballot-box was iised in the election of aldermen of London in 1526. 
Its use by the compan}- of merchant adventurers, in electing an agent, was prohibited by- 
Charles L 17 Dec. 1637. A test-ballot was adopted at Manchester, ami Ernest Jones was thus 
chosen as a candidate for representing the city in parliament, 22, 23 Jan. 1S69. He died the 
next day. Mr. E. Leatham introduced a ballot bill into parliament, March, 1870, and Mr. 
Gladstone spoke in favour of the ballot, 27 July, 1870. The bill was withdrawn. The ballot 
was employed in electing the London school board in 9 districts, 29 Nov. 1870. 

BANK OF ENGLAND : (p. 75). 



DrscocNT. 

868. Raised to 2J per cent. Nov. 19 ; to 3, Dec. 3. 

869. Raided to 4, April i ; to 45, May 6 ; nducal to 
4, June 10; to 3i, June 24; to 3, July 15; to 2g, 
Aug. 19 ; raised to 3, Nov. 4. 



1870. Raised to 3J, July 21 ; to 4, July 23 ; to s 
(Franco- Prussia-It War), July 28; to 6, Aug. 4; 
reduced to 5J, Aug. 11 ; to 4r^, Aug. 18 ; to 4, Ang. 
25 ; to 3i-, Sept. I ; to 3, Sept. 15 ; to 2^, Sept. 29. 

BANKEUPTOY (p. 76). By the Bankruptcy Act passed 9 Aug. 1869, a new bankruptcy 
court was established in place of the commissioners', which sat last time 31 Dec. 1869, when 
above 300 petitions of bankruptcy were received. The new judge, the hon. James Bacon, 
sat I Jan. 1870. Justice Giftard, the judge of the Bankruptcy Appeal Court, decided (in the 
case of the duke of Newcastle) that a peer can be made a bankrupt, Nov. 1869, which decision 
was affirmed on appeal to the house of lords in the following year ; other petitions against 
peers have been filed. 

BARTHOLOMEW THE GREAT, St. near Smithfield. The building of the church is 
said to have begun 1102 ; restored by subscription and reopened, 29 March, 1868. 



BATH AND WELLS (p. 82). Lord Auckland, the bishop, resigned 6 Sept. li 
was succeeded by the Hon. and Rev. Arthur Charles Harvey, 10 Nov. 1S69. 

BATTLES (p. 90). 
Arogee or Fahla (Abyssinians defeated), 10 April, 1868 
Magdala stormed ... 13 April, ,, 

Russians defeat Bokharians and occupy Samar- 

caud 25 May, ,, 

K].co\ea.{Spani:'h royalists defeated) 27, 28 Sept. „ 
Villeta {Lopez defeated, by Brazilians). &c. 11 Dec. ,, 
Aquidaban {Lopez defea.ted and killed) i March, 1870 

FRAKCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (wllich See). 

Saarbriick. taken by the French, and Prussians 

repul.«ed 2 Aug. 1870 

Wisseinbourg (French defeated) . . 4 Aug. 



3, and 



Worth {ditto . . . . . .6 Aug. 

Saarbriick or Forbach [ditto] . . .6 A\ig. 
Courcelles or Pange {ditto) . . 14 Aug. 

Strasburg (ditto) .... 16 Aug. 

Vionville or Mais-Ia-Tour (ditto) . 16 Aug. 

Gravelotte or Rezouville [ditto) . 18 Aug. 

Beaumont (ditto) . . . .30 Aug. 

Carignau (ditto) .... 31 Aug. 

Metz (ditto) 31 Aug. 

Sedan (ditto) .... 31 Aug., i Sept. 



Before Paris (French defeated) . . 30 Sept. 1870 

Thoury (Germans .tv.rprifed and repulsed). 5 Oct. ,, 

St. R6my (French dt-feated) . . 6 Oct. „ 

Before Metz (ditto) . ' . . . 7 Oct. ,, 

Artenay (ditto) 10 Oct. „ 

Cherizy I Germa.ns repulsed) . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Orleans (French defeated) . . .11 Oct. ,, 

Ecouis (indecisive) . . . . 14 Oct. ,, 

Chateaudun iFnnch defeated) . . 18 Oct. „ 
Coulmiers, near Orleans (Germans defeated), 

9, 10 Nov. ,, 

'i^ea.r Amiens (French defeated) . 27 Nov. ,, 

Villiers, before Paris (French retreat), 30 Nov. „ 

2 Dec. „ 

Before Orleans {French defeated) . 4 Dec. ,, 

Beaugency (ditto) . . . 7, 8, Dec. ,, 

Isinits (Fnnchdefeatfd) . . . 18 Dec. „ 

Pont aNoyelles{i?re/(c7i, claim a victory), 23 Dec. ,, 

(For numerous skirmishes see Franco-Prussian 
War, and for details of important engagements see 
separate articles.) 



The king announces his intention of joining 
Prussia in the war with France, about 20 July 1870 
L^ee Franco- Prussian war]. 

The king, in a letter to the king of Saxony, 
proposes that the king of Prussia should be 
made emperor of Germany . about 5 Dec. „ 



BAVARIA (p. 90). 
An international exhibition in a crystal palace 

opened 20 July iS 

The chambers dissolved, as through a party 

struggle no president was elected . 6 Oct. , 
Resignation of the ministry, 25 Nov. : only 

partially accepted bj- the king . g Dec. , 
Vote of want of confidence in prince Hohenlohe, 

the president, 12 Feb. ; he resigns . 14 Feb. iJ 

BAZEILLES a village in the Ardennes, N.E. France. During the dreadful battle of 
Sedan, i Sept., 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the Bavax-ians, and atrocious outrages com- 
mitted. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants scarcely fifty remained alive, and these indignantly 
denied having given provocation. It appears that an old woman, whose husband and sons 
had been killed, had fired upon and killed two Bavarians. Much controversy ensued, but 
the above statements are generally considered authentic. 

BAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES, near Orleans, central France. Here a part of the army of the 
Loire, under gen. D' Aurelle de Paladines, were defeated after a severe action, by the Germans 
under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 2 Dec. 1870. See Orleans. 

BEAUMONT, a village near Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E.France. Near here a 
part of the army of marshal MacMahou under De Failly, which, after vainly endeavouring to 



BEA 



BIS 



reach Metz, was retreating before the Germans under the crown prince of Prussia, was 
surprised, defeated, and driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, 30 Aug. 1 870. The French 
loss included about 7000 prisoners, many guns, and much camp equipage. The victory was 
chiefly gained by the Bavarians. 

BEAUlSrE-LA-EOLLANDE, a village in the Loiret, France. Here the French army of 
the Loire, under General D'Aurelle de Paladines, was defeated by the Germans, under prince 
Frederick Charles, in an attempt to march in the direction of Fontainebleau to relieve Paris, 
28 Nov. 1870. The French loss was reported by the Germans to be looo dead, 4000 
wounded ; above 1 700 prisoners. Their own loss was heavy. 

BEEE-HOUSES, laws respecting, amended in 1869, 1870. 

BELGIUM (p. 94). 



New ministry (under M. Frfeie-Orban) ; liberal ; 

3 Jan. 18 
Serious riots in the mining districts ; put 
down by tbe military; 10 lives lost, 

25-29 March, , 
Monument to Charlemagne at Lifege inaugurated, 

26 July, , 
The crown prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of 

Brabant, died 22 Jan. 18 

Conce.?sion of a Luxembourg railway to a French 
railway company, without the assent of the 
state, prohibited by the assembly, 13 Feb. ; 



dispute with the French government ar- 
ranged ...... May, 1869 

International rifle meeting, held at 'Lifege, 

19 Sept. ,, 

Eesignation of the Frfere-Orban ministiy, 

about 19 June, 1870 

M. D'Anethan's ministry announced 3 July, „ 

Treaty for the neiitrality of Belgium between 
Great Britain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. ; 
and France, S'gned . . . .11 Aug. ,, 

Warm gratitude to Great Britain expressed by 
the king and people . . . .8 Aug. ,, 



BERMUDAS (p. 98), a large iron dry dock, which cost 250,000?, for its construction, was 
towed here from the Medway, in June and July, 1869. 

BETTING (p. 99). A Pari-mutuel, or mutual betting machine, was declared illegal by 
the magistrates Au.g. 1870. The " Knightsbridge Exchange," a betting company, declared 
illegal, 2 Nov., 1870. 

BEVERLEY, E. Yorkshire, the Saxon Beverlac, or Beverlega. St. John of Beverley, arch- 
bishop of York, founded a stately monastery here, and died 721 ; and on his account the town 
received honours from Athelstan, William I., and other sovereigns. It was disfranchised for 
corruption in 1870 after a long investigation. 

BIBLE MSS. The Codex Sinaiticus, probably written in the 4th century, was discovered 
by M. Constantine Tischendorf at St. Katherine's monastery in 1844 and 1859, and presented 
to the present czar of Russia, at whose cost a splendid edition was published in 1862. 

BIBLE TRANSLATIONS (p. loi). The revision of the English version now in use was 
recommended by the bishops in convocation, 10 Feb. 1870. The committee, including 
eminent scholars of various denominations, appointed in May, held their first meeting at 
"Westminster Abbey 22 June, 1870. 

BILLS OF MORTALITY (p. 102). Births in England and Wales : in 1866, 753,870 ; in 
1867, 768,349 ; in 1868, 786,858 ; in 1869, 772,877. Deaths in England and Wales: in 1866, 
500,689; in 1867,471,073; in 1868,480,622; in 1869,495,086. 

BIRMINGHAM (p. 103). 

First annual horse show 

Meeting of National Social Science Association, 

7 Oct. : 
First chib house here opened . . 3 May, : 
Erdiugton orphan houses, endowed by Josiah 
Mason, begun 1858 ; finished . July, 

National Education League meet 12, 13 Oct. 



Explosion at Kynoch's cartridge-factory, Wit- 
ton, many deaths and injuries . 17 Nov. 1S70 

Explosions at Messrs. Ludlow's cartridge-factory 
at Witton, 17 killed and 53 injured, several 
dying soon after : noon, 9 Deo. ; 33 dead up to 
13 Dec; 51 up to 26 Dec. . . . . ,, 



BISHOPS IN Scotland were probably nominated in the fourth century. 



The Reformers, styling themselves " the Con- 
gregation of the Lord," having taken up 
arms and defeated the queen-mother, Mary 
of Guise, called a parliament, which set up a 
new form of church polity on the Genevese 
model, in which bishops were replaced by 
"superintendents" ...... 1561 

Three prelates for Scottish sees consecrated at 
Lambeth (John Spottiswood, Gawin Hamilton, 
and Andrew Lamb) for Glasgow, Galloway, 
and Brechin .... 21 Oct. 1610 

Episcopacy abolished, the bishops in a body 
deposed, and four excommunicated, by a par- 



liament, elected by the people (covenanters), 
which met at Glasgow . . . Dec. 1638 

Episcopacy restored ; an archbishop (James 
Sharp) and three bishops consecrated by Shel- 
don, bishop of London . . 15 Dec. 1661 

The Scottish convention expelled the bishops ; 
abuUshed episcopacy ; declared the throne 
vacant ; drew up a claim of right ; and pro- 
claimed William and Mary . .11 April, 1689 

Episcopacy formally abolished, and the bishops' 
revenues .sequestrated . . ig Sept. ,, 

The Episcopal church was thus reduced to the 
condition of a Non-conformist body, at first 
barely tolerated. 



BIS 7 CAM 

BISHOPS, Suffragan, to assist metropolitans, existed in the early churcli. Twenty-six, 
appointed by Henry VIII. 1534, were abolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 
1558. The last appointed is said to have been Sterne, bishop of Colchester, 1606. The 
aj^poiutment of suffragan bishops was revived in 1S69, and archdeacon Henry Mackenzie, 
suffragan bishop of Nottingham (diocese of Lincoln) was consecrated 2 Feb 1870, and arch- 
deacon Edward Parry, suffragan bishop of Dover (diocese of Canterbury), 23 March, 1870, 

BISHOPS' EESIGFATION for Infirmity Act, passed 11 Aug. 1869. 

BLACK SEA (p. 106) : by the treaty of Paris, 30 March, 1856, it was opened to the com- 
merce of all nations, and interdicted to any ships of war ; and the erection of military 
maritime arsenals forbidden. The article was repudiated by a Russian circular, dated 3 1 
(19) Oct. 1870, and after some correspondence, the meeting of a conference on the subject, 
in London, was agreed to by all the powers concerned in the treaty. 

BOKHARA (p. III). The Russians were again victors. 25 May, 1868, and occupied 
Samarcand the next day. Further conquests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand was 
secured by treaty^ Nov. 1868. 

BORDEAUX (p. 116). The French delegate government and the representatives of foreign 
powers, removed here from Tours, 11 Dec. 1870. M. Gambetta remained with the army of 
the Loire. 

BORNEO. Sir James Brooke returned to England, and died in Devonshire li June, 1868. 
BRAZIL (p. 119). 



Three monitors pass Curupaity, on the Para- 
guay, 17 Feb. ; 6 h'onolads force the passage 
of Humaitd ; they find Asuncion abandoned, 

21 Feb. 18 

Fierce resistance of the Paraguayans ; Lopez 
said to have armed 4000 women . June, , 

After several conflicts Lopez is totally defeated 
at Villeta, and flies . . . 11 Dec. , 

The comte d'Eu appointed general of the allied 
army 24 March, 18 



The allies surprise and capture Rosorio and 

garri^un 8 May, 1869 

Lopez defeated in severe conflicts, 

12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. ,, 
Lopez defeated and killed near the Aquidaban, 

I March, 1870 
The count and countess d'Eu arrive in England, 

13 Sept. , 
New ministry under viscount St. Vincent, 

29 Sept. „ 



" BREECHES BIBLE"; a name given to the Geneva Bible published 1570, from the 
translation of Genesis iii. 7. 

BRIBERY AT Elections. The Parliamentary Elections Act (passed 31 July, 1868) 
enacted that election petitions should be tried by a court appointed for the purpose. 

sentenced to be fined for bribery in parlia- 
mentary elections ... 10 Jlay, 1869 

Mr. Wm. H. Leatham (not Edward) convicted 
of bribery at Wakefield . . -19 July, ,> 

Beverlej', Bridgwater, Shgo, and Cashel dis- 
franchised 1870 



First trials under this act ; Mr. Roger Eykyn (at 
Windsor) was declared duly elected, 15 Jan., 
and Sir H. Straoey (at Norwich) was unseated, 

18 Jan. : 

Dr. Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, were 



BRIDGWATER (p. 122), after a lengthened investigation, was disfranchised for bribery, 
1870. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATION met at Exeter Aug., 1869 ; at Liverpool, Sept. 1870; to meet 
at Edinburgh, 1871 ; at Brighton, 1872. 

BROKERS (p. 127) in the city of London were relieved from the supervision of the lord 
mayor and aldermen by an act passed 9 Aug., 1870. 

BULLION (p. 131). Value of bullion imported into Great Britain in 1858 : gold, 
22, 793,1 26Z. ; silver, 6, 700,064^ ; total, 29,493, 190^. ; in 1868: gold, 17,136,177^.; silver 
7,716,418^.; total, 24,852,595/. 



C. 

CAMPBELL'S ACTS, introduced by John Campbell, lord chancellor. I. Against libels 
and slanders, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (1843), and 8 & 9 Vict. c. 75 (1845). 2. To compel railway 
companies to make compensation for injuries by culpable accidents, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 93 (1846). 
3. Against obscene publications, prints, &c. 20 & 21 Vict. c. 83 (1857). 



CAN" 



CEN 



■ CANADA (p. 143.) Since the union of the British North American Colonies, i July, i5 
Canada has been termed " The Dominion," see Ottawa. 



Murder of Mr. Daroy McGhee . . 7 April, i 

Sir John Young ,'now lord Lisgar) appointed 
governor-general in room of lord Monok (re- 
signed), arrives . ... 27 Nov. 

A Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled 
by tbe militia . . . about 24 May, 

Visit of prince Alfred . . . Sept. et seq. 

Hudson's Bay territories purchased, subject 
to conditions, for 3oo,ooo(., Nov. 1869 (see 
Hudson's Bay) ; and in consequence of tbe 



resistance of some of tbe settlers (see 
Rii.pert'x land), an expedition, under colonel 
■Wolseley, arrived at Fort Garry, and a con- 
ciliatory proclamation was issued 23 July, : 

Rupert's land formed into a province, named 
Manitoba ; Mr. Adams G. A. Archibald 
named the first governor . . . Aug. 

Canada defences loan act passed . . g Aug. 

Disputes with the United States respecting 
fishing Nov. 



CANDIA (p. 144). The Petropaulakes landed about 2500 men on opposite sides of the isle, 
10 Dec. 1868, but failed in their attempt to unite; after several skirmishes, in which they 
lost about 650 men; all surrendered, 26 Dec. and were sent to Greece. The provisional govern- 
ment surrendered 30 Dec. The new Turkish governor, Omer Fenizi, arrived and the blockade 
ended 8 March, 1869. 

CANNING ADMINISTEATION (p. 145). Mr. Canning was foreign secretary in the 
Portland Administration 1807, and president of the India Board 1820. 

CANNON (p. 145). 



The first cannon cast in England was by Hug- 
get, at Uckfield, Sussex, 1543 

Mo as Meg, a large cannon in Edinburgh castle, 
said to have been cast at Mons in Hainault, 
in i486, but more probably forged at Castle 
Uouglas, Galloway, by three brothers named 
M'Kim, and presented by thorn to James II. 
at the siege of Thrieve castle, 1455. It was re- 
moved to London, 1754 ; but, at the reqiiest of 
Sir "Walter Scott, restored to Edinburgh, 1829 

A cannon of Mahomet 11., dated 1464, presented 
to the British government by the Sultan of 
Turkey, and placed in the Artillery Museum, 



Continued experiments at Shoeburyness ; Ply- 
mouth model fort, with 15-inch solid shield- 
plates, tried with 23 ton gun of 12-inch bore, 
bearing 600 lb. Palliser shot : exterior of fort 
destroyed ; interior intact ;— the lo-inch Eng- 
lish gun shown to be superior to American 
and Prussian great guns . . 16 — 24 June, 1868 

Capt. Moncrieff's protected barbette gun-car- 
riage (in which the recoil is utilized for re- 
loading) tried and reported successful at 
Shoeburyness 2 Oct. „ 

Contest at Shoeburyness between the Whit- 
worth guns and the iron targets of Brovra of 
Sheffield (which stand) . . .2 March, 1870 



Woolwich, I 

CANTERBURY. Archbishop Longley died 27 Oct., and was succeeded by Archibald 
Campbell Tait, bishop of London; elected 4 Dec. 1868. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, discovered by Diaz, 1489. Large tracts of territory were 
devastated by fire, Feb. 1869. Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor, Aug. 1870. New 
harbour, breakwater, and docks inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh, 12 July, 1870. 

CAPITULATIONS : a name given to the judicial rights granted by treaties to foreign 
consuls in Turkey. After many years' opposition, the sultan addressed a memorial to the 
sovereigns of Eui'ope, in June, 1869 ; and modifications were agreed to, April, 1870. 

CAPTAIN, H.M.S, iron-clad turret ship, capsized during a squall, 12.15 A.M., 7 Sept., 1870. 
Capt. Hugh Burgoyne, capt Cowper Coles, who designed the vessel, and 469 persons perished. 
See under Navy of England. Subscriptions for relief of the widows and orphans of the lost 
up to 17 Nov., 34,894^. ; 3 Dec, 38,oo4Z. ; 31 Dec, about 46,000^. 

CARIGNAN, a small town about twelve miles from Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E. 
France. At the plain of Douzy. near this place and the encampment of Vaux, a part of Mac 
Mahou's army, retreating before the Germans, turned round and made a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. 
After a long severe engagement, in which the same positions were taken and retaken several 
times, the Germans turned the flank of their enemies, who were compelled to fall back upon 
Sedan, were they where finally overcome, I Sept. 

CASSEL, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, Central Germany, acquired importance 
through becoming the refuge of French protestants after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
1685. It was the capital of Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, 1807-13, and Wilhelms- 
hohe, a neighbouring castle, became the residence of Napoleon HI. after his surrender to the 
King of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, arriving at 9.35 p.m. 5 Sept. 

CATTLE (p. 156). Estimated loss by the plague, 1865-7, 5,ooo,oooZ. 
Order of council permitting cattle to be re- | Disease appears at Kaiserslautern, rear of the 

moved from the motropL.lis . . 25 July, 1868 | German army ; cautionary regulations pro- 
New general orders issued . . . Aug. i86g I mulgated by the privy council . . 9 Sept. 1870 
PrevKlence of "foot and mouth disease" in | Horned cattle imported in 1866, 237,739; in 1867. 

1 1868, 136,688; in 1869, 220,190 



England .... Aug. 1869— Dec. 1870 | i77,94B ; m 
CENSUS ACTS, for 3 April, 1871, passed 10 Aug. 1870. 



CIIA 



CHR 



CHAMBEI'LAIN of England, Hereditary Great (p. 159). This rHguity was for 
some time held jointly by the lord Willoughby D'Eresby and the marquis of Cholmondeley, 
descendants of John de Vere, earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby D'Eresby died without issue 
27 Aug. 1870. 

CHANCELLOE, Lord High (p. 161). William Page Wood, Lord Hatherley. succeeded 
Hugh lord Cairns, as lord chancellor of England, and Thomas lord O'Hagan succeeded the 
right hon. Abraham Brewster as lord chancellor of Ireland, Dec. 1868. 

CHARITABLE FUNDS INVESTMENT ACT passed i Aug., 1870. 

CHARITABLE USES, statute of, 43 Eliz. c. 4(1601), passed "to redresse the misemploy- 
ment of landes, goodes, and stockes of money, heretofore given to charitable uses." 

CHASSEPOT (p. 164). " The range of the chassepot being 1800 paces, and that of the 
needle-gan only between 600 and 700, the Germans in all their charges had to traverse 1,200 
paces before their arms could be used to purpose." Many Germans were armed with the 
chassepot after the surrender of the French army at Sedan, 2 Sept. 1870. 

CHATEAUDUN, an old city, N. C. France, the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died 
1468. Here were massacred 20 July, 1183, about 7000 Braban^ons, fanatic mercenaries who 
had been hired to exterminate the Albigenses by the cardinal Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in 
1 181. They had become the scourge of the country, and the '' Capuchons" were organised 
for their destruction. Chateaudun was captured by the Germans after a severe conflict of 
about nine hours, 18 Oct. 1870. Barricades had been erected in the town, and the Garde 
Mobile fought bravely. The town was re-occupied by the French, 6 Nov. 

CHAUVINISM, a term derived from Chauvin, the principal character in Scribe's 
"Soldat Laboareur," a veteran soldier of the first empire, filled with intense admiration for 
Napoleon and for all that belonged to him. Scribe was born 24 Dec. 1794, died 20 Feb. 1861. 

CHEMISTRY. Henry Watts's great Dictionary of Chemistry was completed May, 1868. 
The publication of M. Ad. Wurtz's equally great " Dictionnaire de Chimie," began in 1868. 

CHICAGO, a flourishing town of Illinois, United States; settled 1831 ; incorporated 
1837. Population above 200,000, 1867. 

CHICHESTER. Bishop Ashhurst Turner Gilbert, who died 21 Feb. 1870, was succeeded 
by Dr. Richard Dornford soon after. 

CHINA (p. 171). 

Chinese embassy (Mr. Anson Burlingame, Chin 
Kang, and Sun Chia Su) received by Presi- 
dent Johnson at Washington, 5 June ; they 
sign a treaty, 4 July ; arrive in London, 
Sept. ; received by the Queen . . 20 Nov. 1868 

The rebels seize Ning-po .... Oct. ,, 

The people at Yang-chow, incited by the "lite- 
rati " (learned classes) destroy the Protestant 
mission-houses, 22 Aug. ; redress not obtained ; 
a British squadron proceeds to Nankin, 8 
Nov. ; the viceroy is superseded, and the 
British demnnds acceded to . . 14 Nov. „ 

Chinese embassy received by the emperor at 
Paris 24 Jan. i86g 

Pekin visited by the duke of Edinburgh, in- 
cognito Oct. ,, 

Supplementary convention to the treaty of Tien- 
tsin (June, 1858) for additional commercial 
freedom, signed 24 Oct. ,, 

Burlingame dies at St. Petersburg . 22 Feb. 1870 

SuoceRslul rebellion of Mahometans in north- 
west provinces reported . . . May, ,, 

Cruel massacre of the French consul at Tien- 



tsin, Roman Catholic priests, sisters of mercy 
(22 persons), besides many native converts, 
and above 30 children in the orjihanage, by a 
molj, with, it is said, the complicity of the 
authorities ; the missionaries were accused 
of kidnapping children . . . 21 June, 1870 

Increased hatred of the people to foreigners at 
Tien-tsin ; lukewarm proceedings of the go- 
vernment against the murderers ; reported, 

July, „ 

Ma, a viceroy of Nankin, favourable to Euro- 
peans, assassinated . . about 23 Aug. ,, 

Chapels destroyed at Fatshan . . 21 Sept. ,, 

The French ultimatum refused ; the murderers 
of the nuns unpunished; Chinese warlilie 
preparations reported . . 26 Sept. ,, 

Judicious mandate from the mandarin Tseng- 
kwo-fau, exculpating the missionaries, and 
condemiaing their massacre . . Oct. ,, 

16 coolies beheaded, 15th Sept., and 23 exiled ; 
indemnity to the sufferers by the outrage 
ordered ; reported . . . .26 Oct. ,, 

End of the difficulty announced . 3 Nov. ,, 

OH LOR ALUM, or chloride of alumina, a compound of chlorine and alumina, a new 
antiseptic disinfectant, recently invented by Dr. Gamgee. It is said to be safe and efl&cacious, 
and useful in medicine for gargles, washing wounds, &c. 

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (p. 172). The Rev. G. C. Bell succeeded Dr. Jacob, 12 Aug. 1868, 
In March, 1 870, great changes were proposed in the application of the funds, including the 
removal of the principal school to the country, which were negatived at a meeting of the 
governors, 26 April, 1870. The annual income in 1 870 was about 70,000^. for 300 boys in 
London, and 200 boys and 20 girls at Hertford. 



CHR 



10 



COM 



CHRONOSCOPE (p. 174). Capt. Andrew Noble (engaged by sir William Armstrong), 
invented an apparatus for determining the velocity of a projectile in a gun ; a second of time 
is divided into millionths, and the electric spark is employed in recording the rate of the 
passage. The apparatus was exhibited at Newcastle-on-Tyne in Aug. 1869, and in London in 
April, 1870. 

CHURCH OF England (p. 175). 

Great meeting at St. James'.=! Hall, in defence 

of the Irish Church establishment; 23 bishops 

present 6 May, 18 

District Churches Act, constituting vicarages 

(Bishop of Oxford's Act), passed . . . 18 

Sharp party contests at a special meeting of the 

Christian Knowledge Society . . 8 Dec. 
Martin v. Mackonochie : appeal case ; verdict 

for plaintiff, declaring certain ritualistic prac- 
tices illegal 23 Dec. , 

Warm meeting at St. James's Hall . 12 Jan. 18 
First meeting of a Church Eeform Society ; 

Lord Ebury chairman ... 13 May, , 

CHURCH OF Ieeland (p. 175). 

" An act to put an end to the establishment of 

the Church of Ireland," introduced into the 

House of Commons by Mr. Gladstone, i Mar., 

vote for second reading, 368 ; against, 250 ; 

2 A.M., 24 March; for third reading, 361; 

against, 247 31 May, 18 

Introduced into the House of Lords by earl 

Granville, i June ; read third time, 12 Jidy; 

some amendments by the lords accepted, 



Church conference at Sheffield . . 24 May, 1869 
Church Congress meets at Liverpool . 5 Oct. „ 
Martin v. Mackonochie : defendant censured 

for evading sentence ... 4 Dec. ,, 
Bishop of London's Fund : — 411,839^. received, 

July, 1870 
" Clerical Disabilities Act" passed . Aug. ,, 
Ch.vrch Congrens meets at Southampton, 11 Oct. ,, 
Christian Knowledge Society votes 10,000/. to 

support Church schools . . 20 Oct. „ 

Rev. Mr. Mackonochie suspended from duty 

for three months by decree of Privy Council 

for evading former sentence . 25 Nov. „ 



others rejected ; received royal assent, 
[came into effect, i Jan. 1871] . . 26 July, 1 

Address of bishops to the clergy and laity, 

dated 18 Aug. 

Meeting of the general sjraod of the Irish. 
Church in St. Patrick's cathedral, Dublin, 
for re-organisation of the general council, 

14 Sept. 

Conference of the laity ; Duke of Abercom 
chairman 13 Oct. 



CIVIL SERVICE (p. 179). By an order of council, 4 June, 1870, the system of com- 
petitive examination was made general after i Oct. 1870. 

CLERICAL DISABILITIES ACT, passed 9 Aug. 1870, relieves persons who have been 
admitted priests or deacons of certain clerical disabilities upon their resigning their ecclesias- 
tical offices and preferments, and declares them incapable of officiating henceforward. 

CLIlSnCAL SOCIETY of London, for the cultivation and promotion of practical 
medicine and surgery, was established in Dec. 1867, sir Thomas Watson, first president. 

CLOUD, ST. (p. 182). The palace here, long the property of the dukes of Orleans, was 
bought by Marie Antoinette in 1785. It was a favourite residence of the empress Josephine, 
of Charles X. and his family, and of the emperor Napoleon III. It was burnt during the 
siege of Paris, having been fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. 1870. 



COAL (p. 185)— Accidents. 

868. Explosions : at Green pit, near Ruabon, 11 
persons killed, 30 Sept. ; at Arley mine, Hindley- 
green, near Wigan, 62 killed, 26 Nov. ; at Norley 
mine, near Wigan, about 7 killed, 21 Dec. ; at 
Haydock collieries, near St. Helen's, 26 deaths, 
30 Dec. 

869. Brierly pit, near Stourbridge, inundated 17 
March, many lost ; — some rescued, 20, 21 March ; 
Explosions at Highbrooks colliery, near Wigan, 



about 33 persons perished, i April ; at Ferndale 
colliery, Glamorganshire, about 60 lost, 10 June 
Haydock pit, St. Helen's, about 58 lost, 21 July; 
Moss Coal Company's pit, near Hindley, about 30 
lost, 22 Nov. 
1870. Explosions — at Silverdale colliery, Stafford- 
shire, 19 killed, 7 July; Llansamlet, near Swan- 
sea, 19 killed, 23 July ; Brynn-hall, near Wigan, 
about 20 killed, 19 Aug. 



COFFEE (p. 186). Imported into Great Britain in 1867, 137,729,716 lbs.; in 1869 
173,416,332 lbs. 

COINAGE (p. 187). In 1869 ; gold, 7,372,204^. ; silver, 76,428/. ; copper, 20,832/. Total 
value, 7,469,464/. The new Coinage Act was passed 4 April, 1870, see Mint. 

COLONIAL SOCIETY, established to promote the interests of the colonies. Lord Bury, 
president, held its first meeting 26 June, 1868, and first annual meeting 28 June, 1869, 
when it assumed the title " Royal." On 7 March, 1 870, it became " The Royal Colonial In- 
stitute." The first volumes of its " Proceedings " have been published. The formation of a 
National and Colonial League was resolved on at a meeting held at Cannon-street, London, 
5 Jan. 1870. 

COMETS (p. 191). The thirteenth return of Encke's comet was observed at Copenhagen 
by M. D' Arrest, 20 July, 1868. Biela's comet has not appeared since 1852. 

COMMON PRAYER (p. 193). Changes in the Lectionary, or calendar of lessons, were 
recommended in the third report of the Ritual Commission, 12 Jan. 1870. A bill for sane- 



COM 



11 



COT 



tioning these changes passed the house of lords, but was dropped in the house of commons 
through want of time, Aug. The fourth report of the Ritual Commission disclosed great 
difference of opinion amongst the commissioners, Aug. 1870. 



COMMONS, House of (p. 193) ; past and present constitution 



Old House. 

ENGLAND. Members. 

202 Cities or boi-oughs . . 403 

40 Counties . . . . 82 

3 Universities ... 4 



WALES. 

12 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties . 



SCOTLAND. 

IS Cities or boroughs 
33 Counties . 



48 

IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs 
32 Counties . 
I University . 

66 



382 



Total 658 



By the Reform Act of 1832. 

ENGLAND. Members- 
187 Cities or boroughs . . 323 
40 Counties . . . . 144 

1 Isle of Wight ... I 

2 Universities . . . 4 



WALES. 

14 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties 



SCOTLAND. 

21 Cities or boroughs 
33 Counties 



54 

IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs 
32 Counties 
I University 



472 



Bjj tJie Acts of 1867 and 1868. 

ENGLAND. Members. 

[86 Cities or boroughs *. . 286 

40 Counties . . . . 171 

I Isle of Wight ... I 

3 Universities. . • . S 



230 

WALES. 

14 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties 

26 

SCOTLAND. 

22 Cities or boroughs 
33 Counties 
4 Universities . 

59 

IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs 
32 Counties . 
I University . 



376 



Total 658 381 



66 



463 



60 



los 



Total 658 



* Disfranchised, 1870: Beverley and Bridgwater, each two members; Cashel and Sligo, each one mem- 
ber : present house, 652 members, Dec. 1S70. 

COOKERY (p. 201). Three medals were awarded to the Norwegian self-acting cooking 
apparatus (Sorenson's patent) at the Paris Exhibition, 1867, Cooking is effected by boiling 
water, the heat of which is maintained by enclosing it in a non-conducting substance. 

COPYRIGHT (p. 203). In the case of Routledge v. Low, the house of lords on appeal 
decided in favour of the copyright of a foreign author, 29 May, 1868. 

CORINTH (p. 204). In April, 1870, a concession was granted for 99 years to a French 
company to cut the isthmus for a canal ; to be completed in six years, by MM. E. G. Piat and 
ChoUet. 

CORK (p. 204). For a seditious speech in favour of the Fenians on 27 April, 1869, the 
mayor was compelled to resign, II May, an act for his disability having been introduced 
into parliament. Riots, partially connected with a strike, were suppressed, 26, 28 June, 1870. 
New Protestant cathedral consecrated, 30 Nov. 1870. 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, New York : for the study of the applied sciences 
agriculture, engineering, &c. ; partially on a self-supporting system ; founded by Ezra Cornell 
in 1868. He had risen from poverty to wealth by patenting his inventions. 

CORONATION (p. 205). Leo I., emperor of the East, was crowned by Anatolius 
patriarch of Constantinople, being the first instance of a Christian sovereign receiving his 
crown from the hands of a priest, 457. Majorian, emperor of the West, is said to have been 
crowned in the same year in a 'similar manner. The coronation oath for British sovereigns 
prescribed by i William and Mary, c. 6 (1689), was modified in 1 706, and again in 1 82 1, on 
account of the union of the Churches of England and Ireland. 

CORONERS (p. 206). Inquests in England and Wales in 1867, 24,648; in 1868, 
24,774; in 1869, 24,709 {17,191 males; 7518 females). 

COSTA RICA. Dr. Joseph Castro was deposed and J, Jimenez appointed governor, 
Nov. 1868. 

COTTAGE IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY, founded 12 April, 1861, has a museum in 
Arundel-street, Strand. Some of the society's models appeared in the International Exhibi- 
tions — in London, 1862; in Paris, 1867. 



COT 12 DAL 



COTTON (p. 209). 

A memorial winduw, the gift of the cotton 
operatives of Lancashire, who suhscribed for 
it in order to commemorate the munifioence 
of the metropolis to them during the cotton 
famine (1861— 4), was placed in Guildhall and 
uncovered .... 15 July, 18 



Raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom : in 

1866, 1,377,129,936 lbs, ; in 1867, 1,262,536,912 lbs. ; 

in 1868, 1,328,084,016 lbs.; in 1869, 1,220,809,856153. 
Coitiin yarn and niann/actures iiiijjorted (declared 

value) : in 1866, 74,613,046?. ; in 1867, 70,836,973?. ; 

in 1868, 67,686,772?. ; in 1869, 64,159,064^. 



COULMIERS, a village ten miles west of Orleans, central France. Here tte Bavarians, 
under general Von der Tann, were defeated by the French army of the Loire, under general 
D'Aurelle de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, 9 Nov. 1870, and regained Orleans. 

COUNCILS (p. 210). The twenty-first (Ecumenical or General Council, summoned by 
an encyclical letter, 8 Sept. 1868, met at Home 8 Dec. 1869. Present: 6 archbishop- princes ; 
49 cardinals ; 1 1 patriarchs ; 680 archbishops and bishops ; 28 abbots ; 29 generals of orders — 
803 in all. There were held four public sessions, and between 90 and lOO congregations. 
New canons were issued 24 April, 1870, and after much discussion and oppcsition, the 
infallibility of the Pope as head of the Church was affirmed by 547 placets against 2 non- 
placets, and promulgated 18 July. The council then adjourned to II Nov. Many bishops 
withdrew from the discussion. 

CKE.DIT MOBILIER (p. 213). The high court of appeal decided that MM. Pereire and 
other directors were responsible to the shareholders for their acts, and that damages should 
be given. 

CRIME (p. 214). The important " Habitual Criminals Act" passed 11 Aug. 1869. 
Convictions. Capital. Executions. 

^3^7 • . . 14,207 ... 27 .... 10 

1868 . . . i5)033 .... 21 12 

1869 . . . 14,340 .... 18 .... 10 

CROATIA (p. 215). The union of Croatia with Hungary was recognized by a Croatian 
deputation, 27 May, 1868, and Croatian delegates entered the Hungarian diet, 24 Nov. The 
emperor and empress visited A gram, 9-10 March, 1869. 

CROWN LANDS (p. 216). The revenues of the duchy of Cornwall, not those of 
Lancaster, belong to the prince of Wales. 

CRYPTOGRAPH, an apparatus for writing in cypher, invented by sir Charles Wheat- 
stone, and made known in 1868, in which different key-words may be employed, and, it is 
said, absolute secresy ensured. 

CRYSTAL PALACE (p. 217). . 
The Aeronautical Exhibition opened, 25 June, i£ 
Protestant meeting to defend the Irish Church, 

17 Aug. , 



Reception of the vicomte de Lesseps . Jtily, 1870 
Suicide of Mr. Bobert K. Bowley, fourteen 
years manager of the company . 25 Aug. ,, 



CUBA (p. 218). Population in 1870, about 765,000 whites, 250,000 coloured, 368,000 
blacks. Immediately after the Spanish revolution, Sept. 1868. an insurrection of the Creoles 
to expel the Spaniards broke out; and after violent struggles and much bloodshed, was not 
quelled in June, 1870, when the United States decided not to recognize the insurgents as 
belligerents. A filibusters' attack on Cuba was repelled, 17 May, 1869. About 2000 lives 
lost by a hurricane, about 14 Oct. 1870. The captain-general De Rodas resigned, and left 
Cuba, 15 Dec. 1870. 

CUMULATIVE VOTE (p. 219), was employed with much effect in electing the metro- 
politan school board, 29 Nov. 1870. 

CUSTOMS (p. 228). Gross annual receipts, 31 March, 1868, 22,650,000?.; 1869 
22,424,000?. ; 1870, 21,529,000?. A Customs and Inland Revenue Act passed i Aug. 1870. 



D. 

DALMATIA (p. 223). An insurrection opposed to the new military law broke out at 
Bocche di Cattaro, and a conflict with the troops at Dragali took place, 10 Oct. 1869. 
Several regiments were sent there, but the insurgents obtained several successes during the 
month. A deputation offered submission, 2 Nov., and the operations against them were 
suspended about the end of the month. 



DEA 13 DOC 

DEATH (p. 227). The " Capital Punishment within Pi'isons Act" passed May, 1868 ; see 
Executions, 13 Aug. 1868. The abolition of the punishment of death in Great Britain, pro- 
posed by Mr. Gilpin in the commons, was negatived (127 to 23), 21 April, 1868; again 
negatived (118 to 58) 27 July, 1S69. Capital punishment was abolished in Saxony, 
I April 1868. 

DEBT (p. 227). By an act passed 9 Aug 1869, the imprisonment of fraudulent debtors 
was abolishe 1, with certain exceptions, and nearly a hundred debtors were released by a 
judge's order in Jan. 1870. An act to facilitate the arrest of absconding debtors, passed 
9 Aug. 1870. 

DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. Much new and interesting information respecting the 
animal life and temperature of the deep sea has been acquired by the dredgiugs on the 
coast of Norway by M. Sars, and by those of Ur. W. B. Carpenter and professor Wyville 
Thomson on our own coasts, near the Faroe isles, in 1868 and 1869, and in the Mediterranean 
by Dr. Carpenter in 1870. Living animals have been found at a depth of three miles. 

DEISM (p. 229). The "Progressive Brahmins," theists, opened a place of worship at 
Calcutta, 24 Aug, 1869, Their leader, Baboo Keshub Chunder Sen, was received at a public 
meeting in London as a reformer, 12 Aprd, 1870, and subsequently preached in a Unitarian 
chapel, Finsbury, London. 

DEN HAM MUEDEKS, see Trials, 1870. 

DENMARK (p. 233). 
Marriage of the crown prince Frederic to the 

princess Louise of Sweden . . 28 July, 18 
New ministry formed by M. Holsteinborg, 

20 May, ,, 



Denmark remains neutral in the Franco- 
Prussian war ; fruitless visit of the due de 
Cadore to Copenhag-en . . 4 — n Aug. 

Bii'th of a son to the crown prince . 27 Sept. 



DEONTOLOGY, the knowledge of what is right, or the science of duty (from the Greek 
to dean, that which is proper), an element of the Utilitarian philosophy propounded by 
Jeremy Bentham in his '• Deontology," published by Dr. Bo wring in 1834. 

DERBY. The new town-hall was opened 29 May, 1866. The midland counties fine art 
exhibition was held here, and was opened by the duke of Devonshire, 5 May, 1870. The 
earl of Derby, statesman and scholar, died 25 Oct. 1869. 

DIALECTIC SOCIETY", for the philosophical treatment of all questions, especially of 
those which lie at the root of the differences of opinion which divide mankind, was established 
early in 1867. 

DIAMONDS (p. 236) were discovered in Cape Colony, S. Africa, in March, 1867. A fine 
one, termed the " Star of South Africa," brought to England in 1869, was purchased by 
Messrs. Hunt and Roskell, and valued at 25,000^., in June, 1870. Rich diamond fields recently 
discovered near the Vaal and Orange rivers, Sept. 1870. Great influx of diggers, and many 
fine diamonds found, Nov. 

DIJON, E. France, the ancient capital of Burgundy, is said to have been founded by Julius 
Csesar, fortified by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, and named Divio, about 274. It has been 
several times captured in war ; and a castle was erected here by Louis XI. Dijon became the 
capital of the dukes of Burgundy about 1180. It was attacked by the Germans, under 
general Beyer, 30 Oct. 1870. The heights and suburbs were taken by prince \Villiam of 
Baden, and the town surrendered on 31 Oct. 

DISRAELI ADMINISTRATION (p. 239) resigned 2 Dec. 1868, as soon as the result of 
the elections showed a large majority in favour of the Liberal party. Mrs. Disraeli was 
created viscountess Beaconsfield, 28 Nov. 1868. 

DISTRICT CHURCHES ACTS. By the one passed in 1865 certain new churches were 
constituted rectories, and by another act, passed in 1868 (the bishop of Oxford's Act) the 
new parishes not rectories were ordered to be styled vicarages. 

DIVIDENDS OF Public Stocks. By an act passed 11 Aug. 1869, these may be paid 
by post if the recipients desire it, as railway dividends are. 

DIVORCE AMENDMENT ACT (p. 240) passed 21 July 1868. Between 1856 and 
1867 1279 dissolutions of marriage and 213 judicial separations were decreed. 

DOCKS (p. 241). A great floating iron dry dock which cost 250,000?. was launched at 
North "Woolwich, 3 Sept. 1868 ; and towed from the Medway by two ships of war, 23 June, 
1869, and arrived at the Bermudas (in thirty-six days), 30 July. 



DUA 



14 



EDIT 



DUALIN, a name given to new explosive substances, compounds of nitrogen and woody 
fibre, by M. Ditman and M. Nobel, 1870. 

DUBLIN (p. 248). Sir Benjamin L. Guinness, the restorer of St. Patrick's cathedral, died 
19 May, 1868. The Church Congress met here, 29 Sept. 1868; and the Irish Church Con- 
vention, 25 Oct. 1870. Smith O'Brien's statue publicly unveiled, 26 Dec. 1870. 

DUST AND DISEASE. A controversy respecting the connection between them 
originated with a lecture on the subject by professor Tyndall at the Royal Institution, 
21 Jan. 1870, when he demonstrated the presence of organic matters in the dust of the 
atmosphere in conformity with the experiments of Pasteur and other eminent philosophers. 
Professor Huxley, at the meeting of the British Association, 14 Sept. 1870, expressed his 
opinion that contagious diseases are propagated by germs in the atmosphere. 

DYNAMITE, a new explosive compound, consisting of 75 parts of silica saturated with 
25 parts of nitro-glycerine. It is suitable for mining purposes, and was tried and approved 
at Merstham, 14 July 1868. 



E. 



EARTHQUAKES (p. 254). 

The cities of Arequipa, Iquique, Tacna, and 
Chencha, and many small towns in Peru 
and Ecuador destroyed; about 25,000 lives 
lost, and 30,000 rendered homeless ; loss of 
property estimated at 6o,ooo,oooL 13—15 Aug. 18 

[About ii,ooo^ collected in London to relieve 
the sufferers.] 



Slight earthquake in W. England and S. Wales ; 

felt at Bath, Swansea, &c. . . . 30 Oct. 1868 
In Santa Maura, an Ionian Isle, the town Santa 
Maura destroyed ; about 17 persons perished, 

28 Dec. 1869 
At Quebec, not much damage , 20 Oct. 1870 

In Calabria ; several villages destroyed, early in 

Oct. „ 



ECLIPSES (p. 257). During the solar eclipse, 18 Aug. 1868, as observed in India, 
M. Janssen invented a method of studying the phenomena of the sun at any time, by employ- 
ing several spectroscopes, whereby the spectrum is lengthened and the dazzling brilliancy 
diminished. Mr. Joseph Norman Locliyer had suggested a similar method of observation in 
1866, but did not use it till 20 Oct. 1868, being then not aware of M. Janssen's discovery. 
The solar eclipse, 7 Aug. 1869, was well observed in North America. Two expeditions to 
observe the solar eclipse of 22 Dec. 1870 were sent out by the British government (not very 
successful). 

ECORCHEUES (Flayers). A name given to bands of armed adventurers who desolated 
France and Belgium during the 15th century, beginning about 1435. Amongst their leaders 
■were Chabannes, comte de Dammartin, the bastard of Armagnac, and Villandras ; and they 
at one time numbered 100,000. They are said to have stripped their victims to their shirts, 
and flayed the cattle. They were favoured by the English invasion and the civil wars. 

EDINBURGH (p. 259). The prince of Wales was installed as patron of the Freemasons of 
Scotland, 12 Oct. ; and laid the foundation of the new royal infirmary, 13 Oct. 1870. The 
annuity-tax abolition act passed 9 Aug. 1870. 

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. Dr. Lyon Playfair was elected the first M.P. for this 
and St. Andrew's university, 4 Dec. 1868. 

EDUCATION (p. 260). 

Foundation of the first new building for a mid- 
dle class school in London laid by the lord 
mayor, Lawrence . . . .15 Dec. i; 

Public Schools Act (modifying the government 
of Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charter- 
house, Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury 
schools) passed 31 July, 1868 ; amendment 
acts 9 Aug. 1869- 

New statutes for them issued . Oct. — Nov. i. 

National Education League (advocating com- 
pulsory education by the state,) first met at 
Birmingham . . . . 12, 13 Oct. ,, 

National Education Union for supplementing 
the present system, first met at Manchester, 

3 Nov. ,, 

Conference at the Society of Arts to reconcile 
the League and the Union . . .7 Feb. 1870 

Scientific instruction and advancement com- 
mission appointed ... 19 May, ,, 



•70 



Elementary Education Bill introduced by Mr. 
W. E. Porster, 17 Feb. ; after much discus- 
sion, and opposition from the dissenters, it 
passed, and received the royal assent 9 Aug. 1870 

io,oooi. voted by the Christian Knowledge 
Society in aid of Church of England schools, 

20 Oct. „ 

Order for first election of Metropolitan school- 
board on 29 Nov 27 Oct. „ 

National urdversity for industrial and technical 
training proposed . . . Oct. „ 

Metropolitan school-board elected . 29 Nov. „ 

Regulations for school-boards issued, 21 Dec. „ 

Friraary schools in Great Britain : in 1855, 
4800 ; in i860, 7272 ; in 1869, 10,337. 

Annual grant for primary schools in Great 
Britain : in 1861, 813,442;. ; in 1865, 636,8o6J. ; 
in 1869, 820,8272. 



EGG 



15 



EXC 



EGGS (p. 260). Number imported into Great Britain: in 1861, 203,313,360; in 1865, 
364,013,040; in 1869, 442,175,040. 

EGYPT (p. 262). The viceroy (now termed the Khedive) visited England, 22 June- 
I July, 1869. He was present at the inauguration of the Suez canal, 17 Nov. The differences 
between the sultan and himself respecting prerogatives were arranged in Dec. 1869, the 
viceroy giving up the power of imposing taxes and of contracting loans. 

ELECTION PETITIONS. The laws respecting them were consolidated in 1828, 1839, 
and 1844. A new act passed 1848 was amended 1865. By the act passed 31 July, 1868, 
these petitions are to be tried before judges, and the punishments of candidates and their 
agents for bribery are enacted. Three additional judges were appointed in consequence : 
justices Willes and Blackburn and baron Martin were the first to act, Nov. 1868. 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS ACT, enabling the postmaster-general to acquire, work, and 
maintain electric telegraphs, was passed 31 July, 1868, and the work began, 5 Feb. 1869. The 
French Atlantic Telegraph, from Brest to Duxbury, Massachusetts, was laid, 17 June- 
23 July, 1869. 

ELECTRICITY (p. 264). 
C. F. Varley's "reciprocal eleotrophorus " in- I Mr. Apps' great inductorium, or induction coil, 

vented 1862 giving the largest sparks ever seen, exhibited 

Sir William Thomson's " electric replenisher " at the Royal Polytechnic Institution, 29 Mar. 1869 

described Jan. 1868 | 

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ACT, 33 & 34 Vict. c. 75, passed 9 Aug. 1870. 
EMIGRATION (p. 268). 



To Australia and New Zealand : 
1867, 14,466 ; in i858, 12,809 '> 



3, 24,097 ; 
14,901. 



trom the United Kingdom ; in 1866, 204,882 ; in 1867, 

195,953 ; in 1868, 196,325 ; in 1869, 258,027. 
To North American Colonies : in 1866, 13,255 ; in 

1867, 15,503 ; in 1868, 21,062 ; in i86g, 33,891. 

ENDOWED SCHOOLS ACT, containing the " Conscience Clause," passed i860 ; another 
similar act passed 2 Aug. 1869. 

ENGINEERS' AMALGAMATED SOCIETY in 1867 consisted of above 30,000 
members ; annual income 86,000^. ; disbursed to disabled workmen, &c., about 50,000?. ; 
amassed capital about 125,000?. 

ENGLAND (p. 274). 
Michael Faraday, natural philosopher (nearly 

76), died 25 Aug. 1867 

Death of lord Brougham, aged 89 . .7 May, 1868 
Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh from Aus- 

traha . . .... 26 June, , , 

Irish and Scotch reform acts passed . 13 July ,, 
Mr. Gladstone's resolution for disestabhshing 

the Irish church ; adopted by the commons, 

30 April, „ 
Nearly 21,000 extra deaths attributed to the 

hot summer (23 July said to be hottest), 

I July — 30 Sept. ,, 
Parliament dissolved 11 Nov., new parliament 

meets ...... 10 Dec. ,, 

Besignation of Disraeli ministry, 2 Dec. ; Glad- 
stone ministry take ofl&ce . . 9 Dec. ,, 
Convention with United States respecting the 

Alabama claim signed (afterwards rejected 

by the States) 14 Jan. 1869 

New parliament meet for business . 16 Feb. „ 
Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 

I March ; royal assent . . . 26 July, ,, 
The earl of Derby dies (aged 70) . 23 Oct. ,, 
Parhament meets .... 8 Feb. 1870 

ENLISTMENT, see Army, and Foreign Enlistment. 

EQUATOR or ECUADOR (p. 279). Geronimo Carrion resigned in consequence of dis- 
putes with the chambers. Dr. Xavier Espinosa was elected president, 13 Sept. 1867. See 
Earthquakes, 1868. 

EVANGELICAL CHURCH in Germany began with a fusion of the Lutherans and 
Calvinists in Nassau in 1817 ; followed by similar movements in different parts of Germany, 
1818-22. 



Charles Dickens died (aged 58) . .9 June, 1870 

Earl of Clarendon died (aged 70) . 27 June, 

Irish laud bill brought in, 15 Feb., received 
royal assent 8 July, 

Neutrality in Franco-Prussian war proclaimed, 

19 July, 

2,ooo,oooJ. voted to increase the army by 20,000 
men i Aug. 

Foreign enlistment act passed ; stringent pro- 
clamation of neutrality issued . . 9 Aug. 

Parliament prorogued . . .10 Aug. 

Treaty with Prussia and France for neutrality 
of Belgium signed . . . 9, 11 Aug. 

Long drought : bad hay harvest : good wheat 
harvest Mar. — Aug. 

The queen's consent to the marriage of the 
princess Louise to the marquis of Lome an- 
nounced 24 Oct. 

Foot and mouth disease prevalent among 
cattle Aug. — Nov. 

Election of elementary school-boards . Nov. 

Resignation of Mr. Bright aimounoed, 20 Dec. 
i^QQ Russia, Nov., 1870.] 



EXCHEQUER, Chancellor of (p. 284). 
9 Dec. 1868. 



Mr. Robert Lowe succeeded Mr. Ward Hunt, 



EXC 



16 



FEN 



i, 20,162,000?.; 1869, 20 462,000?. 



EXCISE (p. 285). Gross annual receipts : 31 March, li 
1870, 21,763?. 

EXECUTIONS (p. 288) : in England and Wales, in 1867, 10; in 1868, 12; in 1869, 10. 

Wm. Taylor, soldier, murder of his corporal ; 

Exeter 11 Oct. 181 

Frederick Hinson, murder of his concubine 



Maria Death, aud of Wni. Douglas Boyd, her 
paramour, at Wood Green, Middlesex ; Old 
Bailey 13 Dic. ,, 

Walter Miller ; murder of Rev. Elias Huelin, 
and Ann Boss (at Chelsea) ; Old Bailey, i Aug. 1870 

John Owen or Jones, for murder of a family at 
Denham ; Ayleshury . . . S Aug. „ 

Thomas Ratcliff e ; murder of a warder in Port- 
land prison ; Dorchester . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Maj-garet Waters ; murder of in fants, baby- 
farming case ; Hoi-semouger Lane . 11 Oct. „ 

Patrick Durr ; murder of his wife ; Manchester, 

26 Dec. ,, 



O'Farrell, for attempting to assassinate the 

duke of Edinburgh; Sydney, N.S. Wales, 

21 April, 

Richard Bi.shop; murder of Alfred Oartwright; 
Maidstone 3° Aijrll, 

Michael Barrett, Fenian ; for ClerkenwcU 
explosion ; the last public execution in 
England ; Old Bailey ... 26 May, 

Thomas Wells, for murder of Mr. Walsh, station- 
master at Dover ; {the first x>rivate execution), 

13 Aug. 

Wm. Mobbs, purposeless murder of a child ; 
Aylesbury 28 Mar. 

William Sherward, for murder of his wife, Nor- 
wich (see A'onoicli) . . . .20 April, 

Josiah Detheridge, murder of warder m Port- 
land prison ; Doi-chester . . 12 Aug. 

EXETER (p. 288). Bishop Henry Phillpotts died 18 Sept. 1869, and was succeeded by 
Dr. Frederick Temple, elected 11 Nov., and enthroned (after much opposition from some of 
the clergy) 29 Dec. 1869. The Albert Memorial museum, Exeter, was given up to the town 
council, 21 April, 1 870. 

EXHIBITIONS. A meeting was held 4 April, 1870. the Prince of Wales in the chair, to 
promote annual international exhibitions, to commence i May, 1871. The Workmen's 
International Exhibition, Agricultural Hall, Islington, was opened by the Prince of Wales 
16 July, 1870. 

EXPORTS (p. 290). Declared real value of British and Irish produce expoited fi-om the 
United Kingdom : in 1866, 188,917,536?. ; in 1867, 180,961,923?. ; in 1868, 179,677,812?.; in 
1869, 190,045,230?. 

EXTRADITION of CRIMINALS. A new act was passed 9 Aug. 1870. 



F. 



FACTORY AND WORKSHOP ACT, passed 9 Aug. 1870. 

FARADAY MONUMENT. Professor Michael Faraday, natural philosopher and chemist 
(see Electricity), died 25 Aug. 1867. A public meeting was held at the Royal Institution, 
21 June, 1869, the prince of VVales in the chair, to take measures to provide a public monu- 
ment to him. A suflicient sum having been subscribed, the production of a statue was 
entrusted to Mr. Foley. The "Faraday Medal," to be given to distinguished foreign 
philosophers by the Chemical society, was awarded to M. Dumas, June, 1869. 

FELONY (p. 293). An act to abolish forfeitures for treason and felony, and to otherwise 
abolish the law relating thereto, passed 4 July, 1870. 

FENIANS (p. 295). 
Consequences of the Clerkenwell explosion, 13 

December 1867 : — " Six persons were killed 

' outright,' six more died from its effects, 

according to the coroner's inquests ; five, 

in addition, owe their deaths indirectly 

to this means ; one young woman is in a 

madhouse, 40 mothers were prematurely 

confined, and 20 of their babes died from the 

effects of the explosion on the women ; othei-s 

of the children are dwarfed and unhealthy. 

One mother is now a raving maniac ; 120 

persons were wounded ; 50 went into St. 

Bartholomew's, Gray's Inn-lane, and King's 

College Hospitals; 15 are permanently in- 
jured, with loss of eyes, legs, arms, &c. ; 

besides 20,000^ worth of damage to person 

and property. Such was the horrifying and 

pitiable devastation caused by that one barrel 

of gunpowder. " — Times . . 29 April, 18 
Richard Burke, a leader, convicted of treason- The convicts released .... Jan. 1871 

felony . . . .30 April, 



Michael Barrett, (for causing the Clerkenwell 
explosion), executed . . .26 May, 

O'Donovan Rossa and others released, behave 
violently March, 

The government declines to release others, 

18 <.)ct. 

Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled 
by the militia, and their general O'Neil 
captured by the U.S. marshal . 26 May, 

Micnael Davitt and John Wilson convicted of 
treason-felony for endeavoiu-iug to transmit 
arms secretly to Ireland . . 18 July, 

Captured Fenian generals in United States 
sentenced to imprisonment for breach of 
neutralit}' laws July, 

President Grant's proclamation against Fenian 
raids into Canada ... 13 Oct. 

Letter from Mr. Gladstone announcing eai-ly 
release of Fenian convicts . .15 Kec. 

The convicts released .... Jan. 



FIR 



17 



FRA 



FIRE-ARMS (p. 297). The '' Money- Walker" rifle (patented by Mr. Mowbray-Money 
and lieut.-col. Walker), tried and approved 18 June, 1868. A report in favour of the 
Martini and Henry rifles was issued in March, 1869. See Mitrailleuse. An act to grant a 
duty of excise in licenses to iise guns, passed 9 Aug. 1870. 

FIRES IN London (p. 300): in 1866, 1338 (326 serious) j in 1867, 1397 (245 serious); 
in 1868, 1668 (235 serious); in 1869, 1572 (199 serious). 
Northumberland house, Strand; valuable pic- 
tures, ifec, injured . . . -19 A.ug. i 
Mrs. Jago's, Pentonville-hill ; 3 perish, 5 June, i 



Moscow-road, Bayswater; through explosion 
of fireworks ; 7 persons perish . . i Oct. 

Mr. Mc Mickeu's, Newington-butts ; 4 lives lost, 

10 Oct. 

Old Star and Garter hotel, Richmond; Wm. 
Lever the manager killed . .12 Jan. 



Mr. Hill's, upholsterer's, Waterloo-road; 6 chil- 
dren suffocated .... 23 July, 1870 

Church-street, Rotherhithe ; 3 lives lost, 23 Aug. , , 

Cecil house, Cecil-street, Strand ; Mr. Forbes 
burnt ; architectural books, cfcc, of Mr. G. G. 
Scott destroyed .... 4 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Bush's, manufacturing chemist's, Liverpool- 
street, Bishopsgate ; 4 lives lost . 27 Sept. ,, ' 



_ FOREIGIT CATTLE MARKET. The city of London having been required to provide 
this market before i Jan. 1872, by the Contagious Diseases Act (for Animals), 1869, the 
common council, 7 Nov. 1870, agreed to the expenditure of 160,000^. for the purpose. The 
site chosen, Deptford dockyard, was much opposed. 



FOREIGiSr ENLISTMENT ACT passed 9 Aug. 1870. 
building, and expeditions. 



It relates to illegal enlisting, ship- 



FOREIGN OFFICE (p. 
entertainment 24 June, 1868 



305) completed, and occupied by lord Stanley, who gave an 



FORGERY (p. 365). 
FRANCE (p. 314). 

Defeat of an attack on free ti'ade in the 
chamber May, 186 

New press law put in force ; increasing facility 
for publishing new journals . . June, ,, 

Eochefort's' weekly satu-ical pamphlet La 
Lanterne, suppressed ; he and his printer, 
condemned to fine and imprisonment, escape, 

Aug. ,, 

M. Berryer, the advocate, died . . 29 Nov. , , 

Ministerial changes ; marquis de la Valette, 
foreign minister, in room of De Moustier ; 
Forcade de la Roquette, minister of the inte- 
rior Dec. ,, 

The Moniteur replaced by the Journal ODiciel 

1 Jan. 186 

Death of Lamartine, 28 Feb. ; of Troplong, 
president of the senate . . .1 March, ,, 

Dissolution of the legislative assembly of 1863, 

26 April, ,, 

Difference with Belgium respecting the Luxem- 
bourg railway settled . . . . April, ,, 

Fierce election riots at Paris, 9 June ; the em- 
peror and empress ride boldly through the 
Boulevards 11 June, ,, 

The new legislative chamber meets ; the oppo- 
sition to the government more than trebled, 

26 June, „ 

Message from the emperor announcing import- 
ant political changes ; introducing ministerial 
responsibility, &o., read 12 July ; resignation 
of ministers 13 July, ,, 

New ministry : Forcade de la Roquette (inte- 
rior) ; La Tour d'Auvergne (foreign) ; Chasse- 
loup-Laubat, president, &c. . 17 July, ,, 

M. Rouher made president of the senate, 20 July, „ 

French Atlantic telegraph completely laid, 

23 July, ,, 

Marquis de la Valette appointed ambassador in 
London July, ,, 

The political changes announced to the senate, 

5 Aug. ,, 

Marshal Niel, war minister, aged 66 ; dies, 

13 Aug. ,, 

Centenary of the birth of Napoleon I. ; amnesty 
granted to political offenders ; increased pen- 
sions to survivors of the grand army ; troops 
reviewed by the imperial prince (the empe- 
ror ill) IS Aug. „ 



Law amended by the " Forgery Act," passed 9 Aug. 1870. 



Ultra-liberal speech of prince Napoleon Jerome 
in the senate ... .1 Sept. 

New constitution promulgated . 10 Sept. 

Pfere Hyacinthe (name Loyson), popular Car- 
melite preacher at Paris, protests against 
papal infallibility and encroachments and re- 
signs by letter 20 Sept. 

Great excitement at Paris through discoveiy of 
the miu-der of the Kinck famUy at Pantiu by 
Tropmann .... about 19 Sept. 

Proposed meeting of republicans at Paris (did 
not take place) 26 Oct. 

Agitation against free-trade Oct., Nov., Dec. 

Journey of the empress to the East ; arrival at 
Constantinople, 13 Oct; at Alexandria, 

13 Nov. 

Firm and temperate manifesto of the left (ultra 
republican opposition) issued about 16 Nov. 

Henri Rochefort (of La Lanterne) elected a de- 
puty for Paris 22 Nov. 

The chambers opened by the emperor with a 
liberal speech .... 29 Nov. 

Resignation of ministers announced . 27 Dec. 

Tropmann condemned . . . 31 Dec. 

New liberal ministry formed by Emile OlUvier 
(justice); Daru (foreign); Le Boeuf (war) 

3 Jan. 

Resignation of M. Haussmann, prefect of the 
Seine about 6 Jan. 

Victor Noir, a journalist, kiUed by Pierre Bona- 
parte during an interview at Auteuil respect- 
ing a challenge sent to M. liochefort, lo Jan. 

Tropmann, the murderer, executed, 19 Jan. 

Great e.xcitement amongst lower orders ; pro- 
secution of Rochefort for hbel in his jjaper, 
the Majseillaise ; he is sentenced to fine and 
imprisonment .... 22 Jan. 

Barricades erected in Paris, and riots after the 
apprehension of Rochefort, 7 Feb. ; soon 
quelled 8, 9 Feb. 

Jules Favre's attack on the ministry in the 
chamber defeated {236 to 18) . 22 Feb. 

Charles, oomte de Montalembert, eminent 
author, dies .... 13 March, 

Trial of Pierre Bonaparte at Tours ; acquitted 

(but ordered to pay loooi. to Noir's family) ; 

21 — 27 March, 

Emperor's letter to Ollivier, agreeing to modi- 





1870 



FRA 



18 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

fioation of the constitution of the senate, 

22 March, 1870 

Se'natns consultum communicated to the senate, 
28 March ; adopted ... 20 April, „ 

Ministerial crisis : resignation of Daru and 
other ministers opposing the proposed pU- 
biscite 10 April, ,, 

Proclamation of the emperor respecting changes 
in the constitution ... 24 April, ,, 

Conspiracy against the emperor's life detected ; 
Baurie (aged 22) and others arrested, 

about 30 April, ,, 

PUbiscite to ascertain whether the people ap- 
prove of these changes, — yes, 7,527,379 ; no, 
1,530,909 8 May, ,, 

OUivier ministry reconstructed, 13 April; due de 
Grammont foreign minister about 15 May, ,, 

Rioting and barricades in Paris, 9, 10 May ; 
about 100 arrested, many sentenced to im- 
prisonment 14 May, ,, 

Speech by the emperor on receivmg result of 
the plebiscite .... 23 May, „ 

The Orleans princes address the legislative as- 
sembly, demanding their return to France, 
19 June ; opposed by 173 to 31 .2 July, ,, 

Discovery of a plot against the emperor's life, 

5 July, ,, 

Great excitement through the nomination of 
prince Leopold of HohenzoUern Sigmaringen 
for the Spanish throne ; warUke speeches of 
the ministers . . . 5, 6, 7 July, ,, 

The prince Leopold withdravrs from candida- 
ture ; guarantees required by France from 
Prussia refused ; France decides to declare 
■war against Prussia, 15 July; declaration 
signed 17 July ,, 

[For the events of the war, see Franco-Prussian 
War.'] 

The empress appointed regent . 23 July, „ 

The emperor joins the army . . 28 July, ,, 

PubUcation of the Marseillaise of Rochefort 
ceases ..... end of July, ,, 

The government declare that they are only " at 
war with the policy of Bismarck " . 2 Aug. ,, 

Great excitement in Paris through the false 
announcement of a great victory 6 Aug. ,, 

State of siege proclaimed in Paris after the 
great defeat of Mac Mahon at Woerth, 7 Aug. „ 

Decrees for the enlargement of the national 
guard, appeahng to patriotism and depre- 
cating discord . . . 7, 8 Aug. ,, 

At Blois, the conspirators against the em- 
peror's life sentenced to long imprisonments, 

8 Aug. „ 
Energetic measures taken for the defence of 

Paris ; Changarnier offers his services to the 
emperor; well received . . . 8 Aug. ,, 

The govei'ument appeals to France and Europe 
against Prussia 8 Aug. ,, 

Stormy debate in the corps legislatif/ (M. de 
K^ratry called on the emperor to abdicate ; 
M. Guyot Montpeyroux said that the army 
were " Uons led by asses ; " ) ending with the 
resignation of OUivier and his ministry, 

9 Aug. „ 
New ministry formed : General Cousin-Montau- 

ban Count de Palikao (distinguished in the 
war with China), minister of war, chief : M. 
Chevreau, minister of the interior ; M. Magne, 
minister of Finance ; M. Clement Duvernois, 
minister of commerce and agriculture ; Ad- 
miral Eigault de Genouilly, minister of 
marine ; Baron Jerome David, minister of 
public works ; Prince de la Tour d'Auvergne, 
minister of foreign affairs ; and others 

10 Aug. ,, 
Decree for the great augmentation of the army 
during the war and appointing a ' ' defence 
committee " for Paris . . . 10 Aug. „ 



The Orleans princes, (the due d'Aumale, prince 
de Joinville, and due de Chartres), proffer 
their services in the army : declined . Aug. 1870 

Extraordinary sitting of the corps legislatif 
respecting the new levies . Sunday, 14 Aug. ,, 

Great disturbances at La Villette, a suburb of 
Paris : about 200 armed men attack the 
police, crying "Vive la repubUque ! " soon 
suppressed, and many arrested . 14 Aug. ,, 

The government declare against any negotia- 
tions for peace .... 14 Aug. „ 

Atrocious murder of M. Allain de Moneys, 
suspected of republicanism and Germanism ; 
he was half killed by blows and then burnt 
to death by infuriated peasants at Hautefaye, 
Dordogne, not far from Bordeaux 16 Aug. „ 

General Trochu (Orleanist), energetic and able 
author of " L'ArmSe Frangaise en 1867," ap- 
pointed governor of Paris, 17 Aug. : issues a 
stirring proclamation . . .18 Aug, ,, 

A loan of 750 million francs announced, 21 Aug. „ 

Frequent diplomatic conferences at the British 
embassy respecting mediation about 22 Aug. ,, 

Confident statement of the national position by 
the ministry 23 Aug. ,, 

M. Thiers placed on the defence committee 
about 26 Aug. ,, 

Decree of M. Trochu for the expulsion from 
Paris of all foreigners not naturalized, 28 Aug. ,, 

Death of count Flahault de la Billarderie, chan- 
cellor of the legion of honour, aged 85 (served 
under Napoleon I., Louis PhUippe, and 
Napoleon III.) .... 31 Aug. „ 

Deputation fi-om 10,000 persons call on Trochu 
to assume the government : he declines, 

8 p.m., 3 Sept. ,, 

The news of the final defeat of MacMahon near 
Sedan, and the surrender of the emperor and 
the remainder of MacMahon's army (90,000) 
to the King of Prussia announced by conate 
de Palikao to the legislative assembly. Jules 
Favre declares for defending Prance to the 
last gasp, attacks the imperial dynasty, and 
proposes concentration of all power in the 
hands of general Trochu, amid profound 
silence .... 3"35 a.m. 4 Sept. „ 

The ruin of MacMahon's army announced 
in the Journal Officiel . . 4 Sept. „ 

At the proposition of Thiers the chamber ap- 
points a commission of government and 
national defence, and orders the convocation 
of a constituent assembly, and adjourns, 

3.10 p.m. 4 Sept. ,, 

At the resumption of the sitting of the 
assembly it is invaded by the crowd, demand- 
ing a republic ; most of the deputies retire. 
Gambetta and other liberal members of the 
"left" proclaim the deposition of the im- 
perial dynasty and the estabUshment of a 
repubhc .... 4.15 p.m. 4 Sept. „ 

Last meeting of the senate ; it declares ad- 
hesion to the emperor . . .4 Sept. „ 

Proclaniation of a " government of defence " 
General Trochu, president ; MM. LSon Gam- 
betta (interior), Jules Simon (public instruc- 
tion), Jules Favre (foreign), Cr^mieux (justice), 
Jules Picard (finance), general Le Flo (war), 
Fourichon (marine), Magnin (agriculture), 
Dorian (public works), Etienne Aiago (mayor 
of Paris), K^ratry (police) . . 4 Sept. ,, 

An informal meeting of the legislative as- 
sembly held, M. Thiers, president. M. Jules 
Favre reports to it the formation of the 
provisional government ; some protest ; Thiers 
recommends moderation, and the meeting 
retires .... evening 4 Sept. ,, 

The empress, the comte de Palikao, and other 
ministers secretly leave Paris and enter 
Belgium .... evening, 4 Sept. ,, 

Legislative chamber dissolved ; senate abolished ; 



FRA 



19 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

Regular troops and national guard fraternise. 

*' Perfect order reigns " . . . 5 Sept. iS 
M, Favre calls on the United States of America 

for moral support .... 5 Sept. , 
The emperor Napoleon arrives at Wilhelmshohe, 

near Cassel . . . 9.35 p. m. 5 Sept. , 

The republican deputies in the Spanish cortes 

greet the republic . . . s Sept. , 

Hem-i Roehefort added to the government, 

5 Sept. , 
The red republican flag raised at Lyons, s Sept. ,, 
Victor Hugo and Louis Blanc arrive in Paris, 

6 Sept. „ 
Jules Favre, in a circular to French diplomatic 

representatives, while professing desire for 
peace, says, " We will not cede either an inch 
of our territories or a stone of our fortresses," 

6 Sept. ,, 
Proclamation of general Trochu, saying that 

the defence of the capital is assured, 6 Sept. „ 
The police dismissed, and replaced by national 

guards 6 Sept. ,, 

Proffered services of the Orleans princes again 

declined 6 Sept, ,, 

The imperial correspondence seized, about 

7 Sept. „ 
The government proclaim that to-day, as in 

1792, the republic signifies the hearty union 
of the ai-my and peojile for the defence of the 

country 7 Sept. ,, 

The republic i-ecognized by the United States, 

8 Sept. „ 
The defence committee summon the king of 
Prussia to qmt French territory without loss 

of time 8 Sept. ,, 

Reappearance of the Marseillaise : Roehefort 
resigns editorship, and disclaims connection 
on account of a violent article ; the paper 
ceases to appear soon after ... 8 Sept. ,, 
Decree convoking the constituent assembly, to 
be composed of 750 members (to be elected on 

16 Oct.) 8 Sept. „ 

The imperial prince at Hastings, 7 Sept., joined 

by the empress .... 8 Sept. „ 
Victor Hugo publishes an address to the 
Germans, appealing to their fraternal senti- 
ments 9 Sept. „ 

Cattle plague began in Alsace and Lorraine, Sept. , , 
The republic recognized by Spain, 8 Sept. ; by 

Switzerland 9 Sept. „ 

M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from 

the government 13 Sept. ,, 

Lyons said to be ruled by a "committee of 
safety ; " red flag raised ; reign of terror, 

13 Sept. „ 
Letter from M. Pietri, private secretary to the 
emperor, stating that " his .master has not a 
centime in foreign funds " . . 15 Sept. ,, 
Elections for constituent assembly ordered to 

take place on 2 Oct. . . .16 Sept. ,, 
The academies of the institute protest against 
the bombardment of the monuments, mu- 
seums, &c., in Paris . . . 16 Sept. ,, 
Diplomatic circular from M. Jules Favre : he 
admits he has no claim on Prussia for dis- 
interestedness ; urges that statesmen should 
hesitate to continue a war in which more 
than 200,000 men have already fallen; an- 
nounces that a freely elected assembly is 
summoned, and that the government will 
abide by its judgment, and that Prance, left 
to her free action, immediately asks the 
cessation of the war, but prefers its disasters 
a thousand times to dishonour. He admits 
that France has been wi-ong, and acknow- 
ledges its obligation to repair by a measure 
of justice the ill it has done . . 17 Sept. „ 
A government delegation at Tours under M. 
Cremieux, the minister of justice ; the 
foreign ambassadors proceed there, 18 Sept. ,, 



Manifesto of the red republicans signed by 
general Cluseret, placarded in Paris, about 

18 Sept. 1870 
Bronze statues of Napoleon ordered to be made 

into cannon. . . . about 19 Sept. „ 

Stern proclamation of Trochu respecting the 

cowardice of the Zouaves on 19 Sept. , 20 Sept. „ 
M. Duruof in a post-balloon quits Paris with 
mailbags, arrives at Evi'eux, and reaches 

Tours 23 Sept. ,, 

The JournoA, Officiel replaced by the Moniteur 
Universel as the organ of the government, 

about 23 Sept. , 
Esquiros struggles to maintain order at Mar- 
seilles 24 Sept. ,, 

Failure of the negotiations for peace between 
count Bismarck and Jules Favre ; manifesto 
of the government at Tours, calling on the 
people to rise and either disavow the ministry 
or " fight to the bitter end " ; the elections for 
the assembly suspended . . 24 Sept. „ 

All Frenchmen between 20 and 25 years of age 

prohibited leaving France . about 26 Sept. „ 
Great enthusiasm in the provinces on the failure 
of the negotiations; "war to the knife" 
and levee en masse proclaimed by the prefects ; 
efforts made to excite warlike ardour in 
Britanny by M. Cathelineau . 26, 27 Sept. „ 
The due d'Aumale consents to become a candi- 
date for the representative assembly, and 
promises submission to the de facto govern- 
ment for defence . . about 27 Sept. ,, 

Attempted insurrection of the red republicans 
at Lyons : order restored by national guards ; 
general Cluseret disappears . 28 Sept. „ 

Great order in Paris maintained by the national 
guard ; report from surgeon-major Wyatt, 

28 Sept. ,, 
All between 21 and 40 to be organised as a 
national garde mobile ; all men in arms 
placed at the disposal of the minister of war, 

30 Sept. ,, 
The empress and her son residing at Camden- 

house, Chiselhurst, Kent . . Sept. ,, 

The elections for the constituent assembly (753 
members) ordered by the delegates at Tours 
to take place on 16 Oct. . 29 Sept. — i Oct. „ 
Proclamations of general Trochu for maintain- 
ing order in Paris . . about i Oct. „ 
Marseilles said to be unsettled : many arrested, 

I Oct. „ 
The elections deferred till they can be carried 
out throughout the whole extent of the re- 
pubhc, by order of the government at Paris, 

I Oct. „ 
M. Cremieux becomes delegate minister of war 
at Tours in room of admhal Fourichon (re- 
signed), still minister of marine . 3 Oct. „ 
Gustave Flourens, heading five battalions of 
national guards, marches to the Hotel de Ville 
and demands chassepots (not to be had), 

5 Oct. „ 
Suppression of the schools of the " brethren of 
the Christian doctrine " by the repubhcans : 
much dissatisfaction ... 8 Oct. „ 
All Frenchmen under 60 years of age forbidden 

to quit France 8 Oct. „ 

M. Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon, 
7 Oct. ; arrives at Rouen and declares for "a 
pact with victory or death," 8 Oct. ; arrives 
at Tours and becomes minister of war as well 
as of the interior .... 9 Oct. „ 
Address from the comte de Chambord, saying 
that his whole ambition is to found with the 
people a really national government, 9 Oct. „ 
Battalions of amazons forming in Paris, 12 Oct. „ 
Blanqui, Gustave Flourens, Ledru Rollin, Felix 
Pyat, and other red republicans defeated in 
their attempts to establish a commune at 
Paris to supersede the government, 10, 11 
C 2 



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20 



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FRANCE, continued. 



The government proclaim a plebiscite in Paris 
on 3 Nov. to ascertain whether the people 
maintain the povyer of the government of 
national defence . . . . i Kov. 1870 

M. Rochefort, member of the defence govern- 
ment, resigns . . . . ' . 2 Nov. ,, 

Result of the plebiscite : — for the defence 
government, 557,976 ; against, 62,638, 3 Nov. 

Resignation of M. Esquiros at Marseilles, suc- 
ceeded by M. Alphonse Gent . 3 Nov. ,, 

The ex-empress has returned to Chiselhurst, 

3 Nov. ,, 

Mobilization of all able-bodied men between 
20 and 40, ordered . . .4 Nov. , , 

Failure of the negotiations for an armistice, 

6 Nov. ,, 

Felix Pyat and others arrested for the affair of 
31 Oct. 6 Nov. „ 

" France can do nothing now but carry on with 
such courage and strength as remain to her 
a war d oMirafU'g. " — Guizot. . . 8 Nov. ,, 

Decree for melting some of the church-bells to 
make cannon .... 10 Nov. ,, 

Alexander Dumas, novelist and dramatist, dies, 

10 Dec. „ 

The delegate government removed from Tours 
to Bordeaux 11 Dec. „ 

Murder of lieut. Amaud at Lyons by the people 
for resistmg them . . . .20 Dec. „ 

Trial of 21 peasants for murder of M. Moneys 
(see 16 Aug.) ; 4 condemned to death ; others 
to imprisonment . . . about 23 Dec. ,, 



Oct. : reconciliation effected by Rochefort, 

about 14 Oct. 1870 

Riots at Honfleur : the people oppose the em- 
bai'kation of cattle to England, 12 Oct. ; similar 
riots at St. Malo .... 15 Oct. ,, 

M. EdmondAdam, prefect of police ; replacing 
M. de K^ratry, sent on a foreign mission, 

about 16 Oct. ,, 

M. de K^ratry quits Paris in a balloon, 12 Oct. ; 
at Madrid fails in obtaining assistance from 
Prim 19, 20 Oct. ,, 

Marseilles disturbed by red republicans ; Es- 
quiros still in office . . -19 Oct. ,, 

Publication of the imperial correspondence 
seized in the Tuileries . . . Oct. ,, 

Decree for a loan of io,ooo,oooL issued on be- 
half of the French government . 25 Oct. ,, 

The imperial guard suppressed by decree, 

26 Oct. „ 

Circular of Gambetta stigmatizing the sur- 
render of Metz (on 27 Oct.) as a crime, 28 Oct. „ 

Death of M. Baroche in Jersey . 30 Oct. „ 

M. Thiers arrives in Paris with news of the sur- 
render of Metz and the proposals for an 
armistice ...... 30 Oct. ,, 

Riots in Paris : general Trochu threatened ; the 
principal members of the defence govern- 
ment imprisoned in the Hfitel de Ville ; Ledru 
Rollin, Victor Hugo, and Gustavo Flourens, 
and others, established as a committee of 
public safety and of the commune of Paris, 
under the direction of M.Picard ; the national 
guard releases the government, and order is 
restored 31 Oct. ,, 

General Boyer, replying to Gambetta, says, 
" We capitulated with hunger " . 31 Oct. ,, 

The empress airives at Wilhelmshohe ; inter- 
view of Bazaine with the emperor . 31 Oct. ,, 

Etienne Arago and other mayors of Paris resign, 

I Nov. ,, 

Marshals Canrobert and Le Bceuf and many 
generals at Wilhelmshohe. . . i Nov. ,, 

Proclamation of Gambetta calling on the army 
to avenge the dishonour at Metz . i Nov. ,, 

FRANCO-PRUSSIAISr WAR. The origin of ttis dreadful series of sanguinary conflicts 
is ascribed to the jealousy of the emperor of the French of the greatly increased power of 
Prussia, in consequence of the successful issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and more 
especially of that with Austria in 1866. By these events the German Confederation was 
annulled, and the North German Confederation established under the supremacy of the king 
of Prussia, whose territories were also enlarged by the annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, 
Nassau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great augmentation of the power of Prussia 
was mainly due to the energetic, unscrupulous, and unconstitutional policy of count 
Bismarck-Schonhausen, prime minister since Sept. 1862. In March, 1867, a dispute arose 
through the emperor's proposals for the purchase of Luxemburg of the king of Holland, 
which was strongly opposed by Prussia, as that province had formed part of the dissolved 
Germanic Confederation ; but the affair was eventually settled by a conference of the repre- 
sentatives of the great powers in London, 7-I i May, when the perfect neutrality of Luxemburg 
■was determined, together with the withdrawal of the Prussian garrison and the destruction of 
the fortifications. On 25 July, 1870, the Times published the draft of a treaty between 
France and Prussia, drawn up in 1866, whereby it appeared that the emperor was willing to 
enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with the king for making certain territorial 
changes on the continent for their mutual aggrandizement, such as the annexation of Luxem- 
burg by Fiance, &c.* The authenticity of this document was admitted after some discvission, 
but count Bismarck asserted that it emanated wholly from the emperor, and had never been 
entertained by himself. Both governments had prepared for the impending struggle, and 
the crisis came when prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (connected with the 
Prussian dynasty, and brother of Charles, prince of Roumania), consented to become a 

* By this proposed treaty, 1. The emperor recognizes the acquisitions which Prussia has made in the 
last war ; 2. The king of Prussia promises to facilitate the acquisition of Luxemburg by France ; 3. The 
emperor will not oppose a federal union of the northern and southern states of Germany, except Austria ; 
4. The king of Prussia, in case the emperor should enter or conquer Belgium, will support him in arms 
against any opposing power ; 5. They enter into an alliance offensive and defensive. 



Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte: declared 
president of the French republic by the 
national assembly, 19 Deo. ; proclaimed, 20 
Dec. 1848; cotq) d'etat, 2 Dec. 1851 ; elected 
president for ten years, 21, 22 Dec. 1851 ; 
elected emperor, 21, 22 Nov. 1852 ; pro- 
claimed emperor, 2 Dec. 1852 ; surrendered 
himself a prisoner to the king of Prussia at 
Sedan, 2 Sept. 1870; deposed at Paris, 4 Sept. 
arrives at Wilhehnshohe, near Cassel, 

9-35 p.m. 5 Sept. 



FRA 



21 



TEA 



candidate for the throne of Spain, about 3 July, 1870. This was violently denounced by the 
French government. Threatening speeches were made in the French chamber by the due 
de Gramont, the foreign minister, and eventually, after some negotiation and the intervention 
of Great Britain, the prince, with the consent of his sovereign, declined the proffered crown 
12 July. This submission did not satisfy the French government and nation, and the demand 
for a guarantee against the repetition of such an acceptance irritated the Prussian govern- 
ment, and led to the termination of the negotiations, the king refusing to receive the count 
Benedetti, the French minister, 13 July. Energetic but fruitless efforts to avert the war 
were made by earl Granville, the British foreign minister, 1 5 July. War was announced by the 
emperor 15 July, with the hearty consent of the great majority of the chambers. The left 
or republican party opposed the war, but M. Thiers and a few others only protested against 
it as premature. After his surrender on 2 Sept., the emperor told count Bismarck that he 
did not desire war, but was driven into it by public ojjinion. He appears to have been 
greatly deceived as to the numerical strength of his army, and its state of preparation. 
{For details of the battles see separate articles.) 



Feench Army, about 300,000: — 

ist corps, under marshal MacMahon. 

2nd corps, under general Frossard. 

3rd corps, under marshal Bazaine. 

4th corjas, under general Ladmirault. 

5th corps, under general Ue Failly. 

6th corps, under marshal Canrobert. 

Imperial guard, under general Bourbaki. 
Commander-in-chief, the emperor ; general Le 
Boeuf, second ; succeeded by marshal Bazaine. 
Pkcssian Army, about 640,000 : — 

1. Northern, under generalVogel von Falckenstein, 

about 220,000, defending the Elbe, Hanover, 
&c. 

2. Right, under prince Frederick Charles, about 

180,000. 

3. Centre, under generals Von Bittenfeld and Von 

Steinmetz, about 80,000. 

4. The left, under the crown prince of Prussia, 

about 166,000. ^ 

Commander-in-chief, kiugWilliam ; second, general 
Von Moltke. 

The North German army, at the beginning of August, 
consisted, firstly, of 550.000 line, with 1,200 guns 
and 53,000 cavalry; secondly, of 187,000 reserve, 
with 234 guns and iS.ooo cavalry ; and, thirdly, of 
205,000 landwehr, with 10,000 cavah-y, making a 
grand total of 944,000 men, with i,6So mobilized 
guns and 193,000 horses. 

To these must be added, firstly, the Bavarians, 
69,000 line, with 192 guns and 14,800 horses — 
25,000 reserve with 2,400 horses, and 22,000 land- 
wehr ; secondly, the Wiirtembevgers — 22,000 line 
with 54 guns and 6,200 horses, 6, 500 reserve, and 
6,000 landwehr ; and, thirdly, the Badenese — 
16,000 line with 54 guns, 4,000 reserve, and 9,600 
landwehr. 

All the German troops taken together as under arms 
at the present moment reach the enormous figure 
of 1,124,000 men. Aug. 1870. 

Four weeks previously, on the peace footing, they 
numbered no more than 360,000. 

The French and Germans in this war were shown to 
be equally brave and efficient ; but tbe generals of 
the former appear to have acted greatly upon im- 
pulse. The latter seem to have been invariably 
guided by a well matured plan, their tactics mainly 
consisting in bi-lnging vast masses to bear on the 
poiut where they were an.Kious to larevail. From 
Saarbriiok to Sedan, Moltke appears to have left 
nothing to chance ; and all his arrangements 
were ably carried out. 

The causes of the early ruin of the French army 
were : " i, the enormous superiority of the Ger- 
mans in regard to numbers ; 2, the absolute unity of 
their command and concert of operation ; 3, their 
superior mechanism in equipment and supplies ; 
4, the superior intelhgence, steadiness and disci- 
pline of the soldiers ; 5, superior education of the 
officers, and the dash and intelhgence of the 
cavab-y."— Quarterly Keview. 



War resolved on by the French government, 
IS July; declaration deUvered at Berlin, 

ig July, 1870 

The north German parliament meet at Berlin, 
and engage to support Prussia in the war, 

19 July, ,, 

Wtirtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse Darm- 
stadt declare war against France and send 
contingents to the army . . .20 luly, ,, 

War proclamation of the emperor Napoleon, 
declaring that the national honour, violently 
excited . . . alone takes in hand the destinies 
of the country 23 July, ,, 

Part of the bridge at Kehl blown up by the 
Prussians 23 July, ,, 

Proclamation of the king that "love of the 
common fatherland, and the unanimous up- 
rising of the German races, have conciliated 
all opinions, and dissipated all disagreements 
.... The war will procure for Germany a 
durable peace, and from this bloody seed will 
arise a harvest blessed by God — the liberty 
and unity of Germany " . . 25 July, ,, 

Skirmish at Niederbronn ; a Bavarian officer 
killed 26 July, „ 

Day of general prayer observed in Prussia, 

27 July, „ 

The emperor Napoleon joins the army ; at 
Metz, assumes the chief command, and issues 
a proclamation declaring that the war will 
be long and severe . . , .28 July, ,, 

Repulse of a French attack at Saarbriick, 

30 July, ,, 

2d Badenese enter France at Lauterburg ; Mr. 
Winsloe killed ; some captured ; others escape 
with valuable information . . 31 July, ,, 

Proclamation of the king of Prussia to his 
peojjle, granting an amnesty for political of- 
fences, and " resolving, like our forefathers, 
placing full trust in God, to accept the battle 
for the defence of the fatherland " 31 July. ,, 

He leaves Berlin for the army, i Aug., and 
announces that " all Germany stands united 
in arms " 3 A\ig. „ 

The P^rench government announce, that " they 
make war, not against Germany, but against 
Prussia, or rather against the policy of count 
Bismarck " 2 Aug. ,, 

The French under Frossard bombard and take 
Saai-brliok in the presence of the emperor and 
his son ; the Prussians, dislodged, retire with 
little loss 2 Aug. „ 

The due de Gramont, French foreign minister, 
publishes a circular replying to Bismarck's 
charges against France . . .3 Aug. „ 

The crown prince crosses the Lauter, the 
boundary of France, and defeats the French 
under Frossard, stomiing the lines of Wis- 
sembourg and Geisberg ; gen. Douay killed, 

4 Aug. ,, 

Battle of Woerth : in a desperate, long-continued 
battle the crown prince defeats marshal Mac- 



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22 



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FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, continued. 

Mahon and the army of the Rhine ; they 
retire to Saveme to cover Nancy . 6 Aug. 

Battle of Forbach : Saarbriick recaptured, and 
Porbach (in France) taken by generals Von 
Gceben and Von Steinrnetz, after a iieroe 
contest ; all the French retreat . 6 Aug. 

Gen. Turr publishes, in a letter, statements of 
proposals by Bismarck for the annexation of 
Luxembourg and Belgium by France, in 
i866 and 1867 6 Aug. 

The emperor, reporting these defeats, says, 
" Tout pent se retablir " . . . 7 Aug. 

The Germans occupy Forbach, Haguenau, and 
Saarguemines 7 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine apjjointed to the chief com- 
mand of the French army at Metz (about 
130,000) ; MacMahon has about 50,000 near 
Saveme ; Canrobert about 50,000 near Nancy, 

8 Aug. 

Nine French iron-clads pass Dover for the 
Baltic 9 Aug. 

St. Avoid occupied by the Germans . 9 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine takes command of the army 
at Metz 9 Aug. 

Phalsburg invested .... 9 Aug. 

Treaty vidth Great Britain, guaranteeing the 
neutrality of Belgium, signed on behalf of 
Prussia, 9 Aug. ; of France . .11 Aug. 

Forced resignation of the Ollivier ministry 9 Aug. 

New ministry constitiited under general Cousin 
Montauban, comte de Palikao, war minister, 

10 Aug. 

Strasburg invested by the Germans, 10 Aug. 

The king of Prussia, at Saarbrtick, proclaims 
that " he makes war against soldiers, not 
against French citizens " . . 10 Aug. 

Lichtenberg capitulates to the Germans, 

10 Aiig. 
MacMahon's army retreating upon the Moselle, 

11 Aug. 
The little fortress, "La Petite Pien'e," evacuated, 

II Aug. 

Communication with Strasburg cut off, 11 Aug. 

Nancy occupied by the Germans without 
resistance 12 Aug. 

The Bavarians pass the Vosges . .12 Aug. 

The king at St. Avoid forbids conscription for 
the French army in territories held by Ger- 
mans 13 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine made commander of the army 
of the Rhine . . . , . 13 Aug. 

Bombardment of Strasburg begun 14 Aug. 

The French government declare that "there 
can be, for a moment, no question of negotia- 
tion of peace " . . . . 14 Aug. 

Blockade of the German ports on the Baltic, 
from 15 Aug,, announced by the French ad- 
miral 14 Aug. 

Many French volunteer sharp-shooters (francs- 
tireurs) take the field (not recognized as sol- 
diers by the Germans) . . about 14 Aug. 

Toul refuses to surrender . . .14 Aug. 

The emperor retires to Verdun . 14 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine's army defeated in three long- 
continued sanguinary battles before Metz (see 
Metz) :— 

1. Battle of Courcelles (Range or Longe- 

ville) gained by Von Steinrnetz and the 
1st army .... 14 Aug. 

2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, 

gained by prince Frederick Charles 
and the 2nd anny . . .16 Aug. 

3. Battle of Gravelotte or RezonvUle, gained 

by the combined armies commanded by 
the king . . . . 18 Aug. 

French sortie from Strasburg repulsed; Ger- 
man attack on Phalsburg repulsed, 16 Aug. 
MacMahon reaches Chalons, 16 Aug. ; joined 
by the emperor; his army between 130,000 
and 150,000 ..... 20 Aug. 



1870 



The king appoints governors-general of Alsace 
and Lorraine 17 Aug. 

Energetic fortification of Paris by general 
Trochu, the governor, and the " defence 
committee " .... 18 Aug. 

Estimated German losses : killed, wounded, 
and missing, 2088 oflBcers, 46,480 men ; up to 

18 Aug. 

Severe bombardment of Strasburg . 19 Aug. 

MacMahon's army of the Rhine retreats as the 
Prussians under the king and crown-prince 
advance ; prince Frederick Charles opposed 
to Bazaine at Metz ; [German armies in France 
about 500,000 ; the French armies about 
300,000 ; communications between marshals 
Bazaine and MacMahon very difficult], about 

20 Aug. 

Lieut. Harth, a Prussian spy, tried and shot at 
Paris 20 Aug. 

The French camp at Ch&lons raised, 20 Aug., 
and the troops extended along the line of the 
Marne, 21 Aug. 

Exportation of food prohibited . 21 Aug. 

Bazaine at Metz said to be completely isolated, 

22 Aug. 

MacMahon at Rheims with his army, including 
the remains of the corps of Failly and Canro- 
bert ; he marches in hope of joining Bazaine : 
the crown-prince and prince of Saxony start 
in pursuit, 23 Aug. ; marching upon ChSlons, 

24 Aug. 
Prussian royal head-quarters removed from 

Pont k Mousson to Bar-le-Duc (125 miles from 
Paris) 24 Aug. 

The alleged violation of the neutrality of 
Belgium denied by its government, 25 Aug. 

The Germans in the arrondissement of Vassy, 

25 Aug. 
Germans repulsed in an attack on Verdun, 

25 Aug. 
800 French national guards captured at St. 

Menehould 25 Aug. 

Chalons occupied by the Germans . 25 Aug. 

Capitulation of Vitry, a small fortress, 25 Aug. 

Formation of three German armies of reserve 
in GeiToany, and a fourth army in the field, 
under the crown-prince of Saxony, to co- 
operate with the crown-prince of Prussia 
against Paris .... 26 Aug. 

Strasburg suffering much by bombardment, 
23-26 Aug. 

Powerful sortie of Bazaine from Metz repulsed, 

26 Aug. 
Phalsburg heroically resisting . 26 Aug. 
Thionville invested by the Germans, 27 Aug. 
Engagement at Busancy, between Vouziers and 

Stenay : a regiment of French chasseurs 
nearly annihilated . . . .27 Aug. 

Two German armies (220,000) marching on 
Paris 28 Aug. 

Continued retreat of MacMahon's army ; severe 
fighting at Dun, Stenay, and Mouzon, 28 Aug. 

Nicholas Schull, a German spy, shot at Metz, 

28 Aug. 

Vrizy, between Vouziers and Attigny, stormed 
by the Germans . . . .29 Aug. 

Municipal meetings at Berlin, Konigsberg, and 

other German cities, protest against foreign 

intervention in arranging terms of peace, 

30, 31 Aug. 

MacMahon's army, about 150,000, accompanied 
by the emperor, retreating northwards ; part 
of it defeated near Beaumont, between 
Mouzon and Mouhns ; several other engage- 
ments, unfavourable to the French, occurred 
during the day . . . -30 Aug. 

Count Bismarck-Bohlen installed governor of 
Alsace at Haguenau ... 30 Aug. 

The Germans enter Carignan ; attack the 
French in the plain of Douzy ; the French, at 



1870 



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23 



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FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, continued. 

first successful, are defeated, and retreat to 
Sedan 31 Aug. 1870 

A French army of old soldiers, about 100,000, 
said to be forming near Lyons . 31 Aug. ,, 

Metz : Bazaine defeated in his endeavour to 
escape from Metz ; after a fierce struggle, re- 
treats into Metz . . 31 Aug. i Sept. „ 

Battle round Sedan : begun at 4 a.m. between 
Sedan and Douzy; the French at first suc- 
cessful ; after a severe struggle and dreadful 
carnage, the Germans victorious ; MacMabon 
wounded, s'3o p.m. ; general De WimpfiEen 
refuses to accept the terms offered by the 
king of Prussia i Sept. „ 

Capitulation of Sedan and the remainder of 
MacMahon's army ; the emperor surrenders 
to the king (see Sedan) . . 2 Sept. ,, 

Vigorous artillery action at Strasburg : a sortie 
repulsed 2 Sept. „ 

Revolution at Paris after the declaration of the 
capture of MacMahon's army ; proclamation 
of a republic (see France) . . 4 Sept ,, 

Eheims occupied by the Germans and the king 

5 Sept. „ 
Jules Favre, the French foreign minister, in a 

circular to the French diplomatic representa- 
tives, says " We will not cede either an inch 
of our territories or a stone of our fortresses," 

6 Sept. „ 
General Vinoy and a corps sent too late to aid 

MacMahon, retreat and arrive in Paris, 

6, 7 Sept. „ 

St. Dizier occupied by the Germans . 7 Sept. ,, 

Strasburg now invested by 60,000 men, 8 Sept. ,, 

Verdun vigorously resisting . . 8 Sept ,, 

The German army, in five corps, advancing on 
Paris 9 Sept „ 

Laon surrendered to save the town from de- 
etructiou ; by the accidental or treacherous 
explosion of a magazine some of the German 
staff and many French perish . g Sept. ,, 

Metz, Strasburg, ThionviUe, Phalsburg, Toul, 
Bitsche, and other fortified places holding 
out 10 Sept. „ 

Messages between belligerents transmitted by 
lord Lyons (at Paris) and count Bem'^torff 
(Prussian minister) in London . 9-10 Sept. „ 

German attack on Toul repulsed . 10 Sept. ,, 

Bridge at Creil over the Oise blown up, 12 Sept. ,, 

Seven German corps (about 300,000 men) ap- 
proaching Paris, which is said to contain 
300,000 combatants . . . .13 Sept. „ 

M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from 
the government . . . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Colruar occupied by the Germans . 14 Sept. ,, 

General Trochu reviews the troops in Paris, 
13 Sept. ; delivers a stirring address ; the 
daily guard ordered to be 70,000 . 14 Sept. ,, 

Estimated German loss : 60,000 killed and 
wounded ; between 20,000 and 30,000 sick ; 
about 1000 prisoners . , . 15 Sept. „ 

French prisoners in Germany : 62 generals, 
4800 officers, 140,000 privates, about 15 Sept. ,, 

Correspondence between count BemstorfE aud 
earl Granville respecting neutrality said 
to have been broken; denied by the earl 

1-15 Sept. „ 

Siege of Paris begun ; ingress and egress pro- 
hibited without a permit . . 15 Sept. ,, 

Blockade of the Elbe and Weser non-effective, 

15 Sept. „ 

Important circular of M. Favre, condemning 
the war and recognizing the obligations of 
the country 17 Sept. „ 

Circular letters of count Bismarck, recounting 
the history of French aggressions on Germany, 
and asserting the necessity of obtaining 
material guarantees for the future safety of 
Germany and removing the frontiers and 
point of attack further west . 13, 16 Sept. ,, 



Prussian head-quarters at Meaux (20 miles from 
Paris) 18 Sept. 

32 German merchant ships reported to have 
been captured by the French fleet up to 

18 Sept. 
Vessels sunk in the Seine and Mame, and 

other vigorous defensive measures adopted, 
18, 19 Sept. 

Paris said to be completely invested ; the forti- 
fications reconnoitred by the king, who has 
fixed his head-quarters at Baron Rothschild's 
chateau at Femferes, near Lagny . 19 Sept. 

Three French divisions under general Vinoy at- 
tack the Gei-mans on the heights of Sceaux ; re- 
pulsed with loss of 7 guns and 2500 prisoners : 
the defeat attributed to the disorder of the 
Zouaves; the national guard behave well, 

19 Sept. 
Count Bismarck consents to receive Jules Favre 

(about 16 Sept.) ; they meet at Chateau de la 
Haute Maison, 19 Sept. ; and at the king's 
head-quarters, Ferriferes, near Lagny, 20 Sept. 

Jules Favre reports to the government the 
result of his interviews with count Bismarck : 
Prussia demands the cession of the depart- 
ments of the Upper and Lower Rhine and 
part of that of Moselle, with Metz, Chateau 
Salins and Soissons, and would agree to an 
armistice in order that a French constituent 
assembly may meet ; the French to sur- 
render Strasburg, Toul and Verdun (or Phals- 
bourg according to Favre), and Mont 
Valerien, if the assembly meet at Paris ; these 
terms are positively rejected by the French 
government .... 21 Sept. 

Versailles and the troops there surrender, 
19 Sept. ; entered by the crown prince of 
Prussia 20 Sept. 

A lunette captured .at Strasburg . 20 Sept. 

General von Steinmetz sent to Posen as governor- 
general ; prince Fi-ederick Charles sole com- 
mander before Metz ... 21 Sept. 

Sfevres surrenders .... 22 Sept. 

The blockade of German ports raised ; officially 
announced in London . . .22 Sept. 

The French government issue a circular ex- 
pressing readiness to consent to an equitable 
peace, but refusing "to cede an inch of our 
territory or a stone of our fortresses," 

23 Sept. 

Three conflicts before Paris : at Drancy, Pierre- 
fitte, and ViUejuif; the two last reported 
favourable to the French . . 23 Sept. 

Toul surrenders, after a most vigorous resist- 
ance 23 Sept. 

Zev('e en masse of men under 25 ordered by the 
French government . . -23 Sept. 

Germans repulsed in conflicts before Paris ; 
said by them to be unimportant . 23 Sept. 

Verdun invested by the Germans . 25 Sept. 

Desperate ineffective sallies from Metz, 

23, 24, 27 Sejjt. 

All the departments of the Seine and Mamo 
occupied by Germans ... 26 Sept. 

The iron cross given by the crown prince of 
Prussia to above 30 soldiers beneath the 
statue of Louis XIV. at Versailles 26 Sept. 

Circular of Von Thile, Prussian foreign minister, 
stating that as the ruling powers in France 
decline an armistice, and as no recognised 
government exists in Paris, the government 
d«/aci!o being removed to Tours, all commu- 
nication with and from Paris can only be 
carried on so far as the military events may 
permit 27 Sept. 

Clermont occupied by the Germans after a brief 
vigorous resistance, overcome by artillery, 

27 Sept. 

Commencement of attack on Soissons, 
i 28 Sept. 



1870 



FRA 



24 



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FRAlSrCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, continued. 

Capitiilation of Strasburg, 27 Sept. ; formally 
surrendered .... 28 Sept. 18 

The duke of Nassau said to be killed near 
Rheims by the francs-tirailleurs, about 28 Sept. , 

Sortie of general Vinoy's army (at Paris) ; re- 
pulsed, after two hours' fighting, crown 
prince present ; above 200 prisoners taken ; 
general Giulham killed . . 30 Sept. , 

Above 375,000 national guards said to be in 
Paris 30 Sept. , 

Conflict near Rouen ; at first favourable to the 
French ; their loss 1200 killed and wounded ; 
300 prisoners 3° Sept. , 

Beauvais captured by the Germans . 30 Sept, , 

Mantes occupied by the Germans . i Oct. , 

Circular from co\mt Bismarck, disclaiming any 
intention of reducing France to a second- 
rate power I Oct. , 

The American general Burnside visits M. Favre, 

I Oct. , 

Surgeon-major Wyatt writes that Paris is well- 
provisioned, and nearly inexpugnable i Oct. , 

M. Thiers' fruitless visit to Vienna, 23 Sept. ; 
to St. Petersburg, 27 Sept. ; dined with the 
czar ....... 2 Oct. , 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg at Rheims 
appointed governor of the country conquered 
in addition to Alsace and Lorraine . 2 Oct. . 

M. Favre, in the name of the diplomatic body, 
requests count Bismarck to give notice before 
bombarding Paris, and to allow a weekly 
courier; the count declines both requests, 
but permits the passage of open letters: 
reported 3 Oc''- 

Count Bismarck in a circular corrects Favre's 
report of the negotiations, and accuses the 
French government of keeping up the diflr- 
culties opposed to a conclusion of peace ; 
reported 3 Oct- 

Epernon and La Fertg Alais occupied by the 
Germans after an engagement . . 4 Oct. 

The king's head-quarters removed to Versailles ; 
an-ival of the king, Bismarck, Moltke, and 
others 5 Oct. 

The Germans victors in several small engage- 
ments 2-6 Oct. 

General Treskow, in command of a German 
army, to advance into Southern France, 5 Oct. 

Colmar occupied by the Prussians for an hour, 

S Oct. 

Battle at Thoury ; General Reyan, with the ad- 
vanced guard of the army of the Loire under 
general La Motte Rouge, defeated the Germans 
between Chaussy and Thoury, and captured 
some prisoners and cattle . . .5 Oct. 

Fictitious manifesto of the emperor Napoleon III., 
entitled " leg Ideas de VEmpereur," advocating 
peace on moderate terms, dated 26 Sept., 
published in the imperialist journal in Lon- 
don, La Situation, and in Daily News, 4 Oct. ; 
disclaimed by the emperor . . 6 Oct. 

M. Thiers' mission to foreign courts reported to 
be quite abortive .... 6 Oct. 

Part of the army of Lyons, under general Dupr6, 
defeated by the Eadenese under general Von 
Gegenfeld, near St. R^my and Nonpatentize ; 
French loss, about 1500, and 660 prisoners; 
German loss, about 430 ... 6 Oct. 
General Burnside leaves Paris in order to meet 

count Bismarck 7 Oct. 

Great sortie from Metz ; the Germans surprised ; 
40,000 French engaged ; repulsed after severe 
conflicts ; French loss, about 2000 ; German, 
about 600 7 Oct. 

Estimated number of French prisoners in Ger- 
many, 3,577 officers, and 123,700 men, 8 Oct. 
Neu Breisach bombarded . . .8 Oct. 
Breton volunteers oi'ganising by M. Cathelineau ; 
volunteers in the west organising by general 
Charette {from Rome) . . .8 Oct. 



German attack on St. Quentin vigorously re- 
pulsed 8 Oct. 1870 

Long despatch from count Bernstorff to earl 
Granville, complaining of the British supply- 
ing arms to France .... 8 Oct, „ 

M. Thiers again at Vienna . . 8 Oct. „ 

Garibaldi arrives at Tours ; enthusiastically re- 
ceived 9 Oct. ,, 

Garibaldi reviews the national guard at Tours, 

9 Oct. „ 

Reported that the Germans occupy Mulhouse, 

9 Oct. „ 
Direct mediation is declined by Russia, Great 

Britain, and Spain ... 10 Oct. „ 

Prussian circular to tho European powers, re- 
gretting the obstinate resistance of the 
French government to peace, and foretelling 
the consequences — social disorganization and 
much starvation . . . .10 Oct. „ 

Ablis, near Paris, burnt for alleged treachery 
(killing sleeping soldiers) . . 10 Oct. ,, 

M. Gambetta escapes from Paris by a balloon, 
7 Oct. ; in his proclamation at Tours, states 
that Paris possesses 560,000 troops ; that can- 
non are cast daily, and that women are 
making cartridges ; he urges unanimous, 
devoted co-operation in carrying on the war, 

10 Oct. ,, 

Part of the army of the Loire defeated at Arthe- 
nay, near Orleans, by Bavarians \inder Von 
der Tann ; about 2000 prisoners taken, 

10 Oct. ,, 
Prussian attack on Cherizy repulsed . 10 Oct. „ 
French reply to Bismarck's circular on the ne- 
gotiations 10 Oct. ,, 

About 20 villages burnt, and 150 peasants shot 
for illicit warfare . . . up to 11 Oct. ,, 

The French fleet appears off Heligoland, 11 Oct. „ 

3000 national guard mobilised at Eouen, 11 Oct. „ 

Three first shots fired against Paris . 11 Oct. „ 

Orleans captured by gen. Von der Tann after 
nine hours' fighting ; the army of the Loire 
defeated retires behind the Loire . 11 Oct. ,, 

Stenay captured by a sortie from the French 
garrison of Montm^dy ... 11 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Boiu-baki accepts the command at Tours ; 
gen. La Motte Rouge superseded in the com- 
mand of the army of the Loire by gen. 
D'Aurelle de Paladines ... 12 Oct. ,, 

Battalions of Amazons forming in Paris, 12 Oct. ,, 

Favourable intelligence fi'om Paris by balloons 
received 12 Oct. „ 

Garibaldi appointed commander of the French 
irregulars 12 Oct. ,, 

Epinal captured by the Germans . 12 Oct. „ 

M. Arlfes Dufour of Lyons appeals to the people 
of Great Britain for active sympathy in en- 
deavouring to obtain peace . 12 Oct. „ 

Breteuil occupied by the Germans after a sharp 
resistance .... 12 Oct. „ 

Slight engagements (termed victories by the 
French) before Paris ... 13 Oct. „ 

All the Vosges district in arms ; no regular 
army; the defiles occupied by the francs- 
tireurs 13 Oct. „ 

Reported successful sorties ; Neu Breisach com- 
pletely invested .... 13 Oct. „ 

Reported French success at Bagneux, near 
Paris — the Prussians surprised . 13 Oct. „ 

St. Cloud fired on by the French and burnt, 

13, 14 Oct. „ 

Frequent sorties from Metz . about 14 Oct. „ 

Sharp fight at Bcouis ; the French escape from 
being surrounded ... 14 Oct. „ 

Gambetta announces that the Germans are dis- 
lodged from their innermost belt round Paris, 

14 Oct. „ 

M. Thiers arrives at Florence ; Garibaldi at 
Besan?on 14 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Boyer, aide-de-camp to marshal Bazaine, 



FKA 



25 



FRA 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, continued. 

aiTives at Versailles and meets count Bis- 
marck 14 Oct. 1870 

Gen. Trochu's letter to the mayors of Paris, on 
re-organising the national guard and repress- 
ing the ardent desire for immediate action, 

15 Oct. „ 

Soissons surrenders after three weeks' invest- 
ment and four days' bombardment . 16 Oct. ,, 

French successes before Paris denied by the 
Prussians; who hold the same position as on 
19 Sept. 16 Oct. ,, 

M. Gambetta proceeds to the army of the 
Vosges ; gen. Bourbaki appointed commander 
of the army of the north ; gen. Mazifere 
appointed to a command in the army of the 
Loire 17 Oct. „ 

Montdidier attacked by the Germans : 150 
mobile guards captured . . 17 Oct. ,, 

The emperor Napoleon declares that "there can 
be no prospect of peace, near or remote, on 
the basis of ceding to PruHsia a single foot of 
French territory ; and no government in 
France can attach its signature to such a 
treaty and remain in power a single day," 

17 Oct. „ 

4,000 French attacked and defeated near 
Ohateaudun after ten hours' fighting and 
the barricaded town stormed . 18 Oct. ,, 

Circular of Jules Favre, asserting that Prussia 
"coldly and systematically pursues her task 

. of annihilating us. France has now no illu- 
sions left. For her it is now a question of 
existence. . . We prefer our present suffer- 
ings, our perils, and our sacrifices to the con- 
sequences of the inflexible and cruel ambition 
of our enemy. France required, i)erhaps, 
to pass through a supreme ti'ial — she will 
issue from it transfigured" . . 18 Oct. ,, 

Asserted repulse of the Germans at Fort Issy 
before Paris 18 Oct. „ 

Despatch from earl Granville to count Bismarck 
urging the negotiations for peace on terms 
lenient to the French ... 20 Oct. ,, 

Conclusive reply of earl Granville to count 
BemstorS's charge of breach of neutrality, 

21 Oct. ,, 

Vigorous sortie from Mont Val^rien against 
Versailles ; an engagement at Malmaison ; the 
French retire after three hours' fighting, 
losing about 400 killed and wounded and 100 
prisoners : German loss about 230 kiUed and 
wouuded 21 Oct. „ 

Chartres occupied by the Germans under 
Wittich 21 Oct. „ 

Intervention of the British government (sup- 
ported by the neutral powers) to obtain an 
armistice for the election of a national assem- 
bly 21 Oct. „ 

Vesoul occupied by the Germans . 21 Oct. ,, 

Many deserters from Metz . . , 20 — 22 Oct. „ 

Schelestadt bombarded vigorously . 22 Oct. ,, 

Engagement near Evreux . . 22 Oct. „ 

Fighting at Vouray, Cussey, &c. , in the Vosges ; 
French "army of the east " defeated, 22 Oct. „ 

German attack on ChatUlon le Due repulsed by 
gen. Cambriels .... 22 Oct. ,, 

M. de K^ratry assumes command of the army 
in Brittany 23 Oct. „ 

St. Quentin taken by the Germans after half an 
hour's cannonading, 21 Oct. ; evacuated by 
them 23 Oct. „ 

Reported failure of the suggestions concerning 
an armistice, through Prussia demanding 
that France should consent to a cession of 
teiTitory 24 Oct. ,, 

Gambetta informs the mayors of towns that 
" resistance is more than ever the order of the 
day" 24 Oct. ,, 

Reported negotiations for the surrender of 
Metz 24 Oct. „ 



Thiers undertakes the mission to obtain an 

armistice .... about 24 Oct. 1870 
Capitulation of Schelestadt (2400 prisoners and 

120 guns taken) .... 24 Oct. „ 
A giii calling herself a successor of Jeanne d'Arc 

at Tours 24 Oct. ,, 

Marshal Bazaine surrenders Metz and his army, 

" conquered by famine " (see Metz). 27 Oct. ,, 
The French defeated near Gray (Haute Sa6ne) 

by Von Werder .... 27 Oct. ,, 
About 2000 sick and wounded of both nations 

in Versailles . . . . 27 Oct. ,, 

Le Bourget, near Paris, recaptured by the 

French 28 Oct. „ 

A safe-conduct given to M. Thiers to enter Paris 

for negotiation .... 28 Oct. „ 
Despatch from count Bismarck to earl Granville, 

expressing desire for the meeting of a French 

national assembly to consider terms of peace ; 

but stating that overtures must come from 

the French 28 Oct. „ 

Badenese troops defeated near Besangon ; 

Prussian attack on Formerie on the Oise 

repulsed 28 Oct. „ 

Gen. Von Moltke created a count on his 70th 

birthday 28 Oct. „ 

Vigorous proclamation of Bourbaki to the 

French army of the north . . 29 Oct. ,, 
The crown prince and prince Frederick Charles 

created field-marshals . . . 29 Oct. ,, 
Dijon captured after bombardment . 29 Oct. ,, 
The francs-tireurs defeated by the "Wlirtem- 

bergers between Montereau and Nangis, 

29 Oct. „ 
Estimated : 856,000 Germans in France; French 

prisoners in Germany, 223,000 . 29 Oct. ,, 
Le Bourget retaken by the Germans ; heavy 

losses on both sides ; about 1200 French 

prisoners 30 Oct. ,, 

Proclamation of Gambetta,, accusing Bazaine of 

treason ; the war to go on . . 30 Oct. „ 
M. Thiers enters Paris ... 30 Oct. „ 
Garibaldi defending D61e (Jura)with about 7500 

men 31 Oct. „ 

M. Thiers receives powers from the French de- 
fence government to treat for an armistice, 

and has interviews with coimt Bismarck, 

31 Oct. and i Nov. „ 
Gen. Bourbaki attempting to form an army of 

the north, near Lille . . . Oct. — Nov. „ 
Thionville invested . . . . i Nov. „ 
The francs-tireurs dispersed in several slight 

engagements between Colnaar and Belfort, 

2, 3 Nov. „ 
Letter from marshal Bazaine repelling the 

charge of treason .... 2 Nov. „ 
Count Bismarck oflers an armistice of 25 days 

for the election of a French national assembly, 

3 Nov. ,, 
Defeat of an attempted revolution in Paris : see 

France . . . . . . .3 Nov. „ 

M. Favre declares to the national guard that 
the government has sworn not to yield an 
inch of territoi-y, and will remain faithful to 

this engagement 3 Nov. „ 

Proclamation of Garibaldi to the army of the 
Vosges, and appealing to other nations, 

about 3 Nov. „ 
" Campagnede 1870; jjar un Offkier attach^ d L'etat 
major-gdndral" (a pamphlet ascribed to the 
emperor), appears in the Daily Telegraph, 

4 Nov. „ 
Failure of the negotiation, as count Bismwck 

will not permit food to enter Paris during the 

armistice without any military equivalent; 

M. Thiers ordered to break off negotiation, 

6 Nov. „ 
Chateaudun recaptured by the French, 6 Nov. ,, 
The Prussian semi-official journal says, " The 

French government having refused to listen 



FRA 



26 



FRA 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, continued. 

to reason the cannon will be resorted to for 
giving them a lesson " . . . 7 Nov. 1S70 

Bombardment of Thionville . . 7 Nov. „ 

Circulars on the armistice negotiations — of M. 
Favre, 7 Nov. ; of count Bismarck . 8 Nov. ,, 

The king's permission for the election of a 
French national assembly declined by the 
French government . " . 7 Nov. ,, 

Orders that no one shall enter or quit Paris, 

7 Nov. „ 

A Prussian column repulsed in an attack on the 
army of the Loire at Marchenoir 7 Nov. ,, 

Capitulation of Verdun . . . 8 Nov. „ 

Seven persons, captured in balloons from Paris, 
sent to German fortresses to be tried by court 
martial 8 Nov. ,, 

The French fleet oS Heligoland . . 8 Nov. „ 

German corps, under Manteuffel, advancing on 
Amiens and Rouen . . . .8 Nov. ,, 

Firm circular from M. Favre to French diplo- 
matic representatives . . about 8 Nov. „ 

The Germans enter Montbeliard (Doubs), 

9 Nov. ,, 

The Germans under gen. Von der Tann defeated 
between Ooulmiers and Baocon, near Orleans, 
retire to Thoury 9 Nov. ,, 

M. Thiers' report of the unsuccessful negotia- 
tions for an armistice . . dated 9 Nov. „ 

Reported naval victory of the Prussian steamer 
Meteor over the French steamer Bouvet off 
Havannah 9 Nov. ,, 

Continued fighting; Orleans retaken by gen. 
D'Aurelle de Paladines ; French losses, 2000 ; 
Germans about 700, and 2000 prisoners, 

10 Nov. ,, 

Capitulation of Neu Breisach, 5000 prisoners 
and 100 guns taken .... 10 Nov. ,, 

The French repulsed near Montbeliard on the 
Swiss frontier .... 10 Nov. ,, 

Von der Tann's army reinforced by 30,000, now 
70,000, the grand duke of Mecklenburg com- 
mander ; the Loire army about 150,000, but 
only 12,000 regulars . . .12 Nov. „ 

Bankers at Berlin and Frankfort arrested for 
dealing in French war loan, about 12 Nov. „ 

D61e, near Dijon, occupied by the Germans, 

13 Nov. „ 
Calm, truthful proclamation of gen. Trochu, at 

Paris 14 Nov. ,, 

The armies in central France have been placed 
under prince Frederick Charles and the grand 
duke of Mecklenburg . . . 14 Nov. „ 

Eleven French towns, 3653 guns, 155 mitrail- 
leuses, nearly 500,000 chassepots, about 90 
eagles and standards, and nearly 4,ooo,ooot. 
in money, taken by the Germans up to 

14 Nov. ,, 
Montm^dy completely invested . 15 Nov. ,, 
French sorties from Mezieres repulsed, 15 Nov. ; 

from Belfort repulsed . . .16 Nov. „ 
The grand duke of Mecklenburg repulses the 
army of the Loire near Dreux, which is cap- 
tured by Von Treskow ... 17 Nov. „ 
Successful French sortie from M^ziferes, 500 

Germans said to be killed . . 17 Nov. ,, 
Germans victorious in an engagement near 
Chateaudun ; French claim the success, 

18 Nov. „ 
Ricciotti Garibaldi said to have beaten 700 or 

800 men at Chatillon ... 19 Nov. ,, 
The national guard at Evreux repulse a Ger- 
man attack 19 Nov. ,, 

The German army under prince Frederick 
Charles and the grand duke of Mecklenburg 
(135,000) said to be retreating towards Paris, 

19 Nov. „ 
Paris engirdled with a second line of invest- 
ment 20 Nov. ,, 

French attempt to release La Ffere repulsed 
with heavy loss . . . ,20 Nov. ,, 



Several balloons from Paris captured about 

20 Nov. 1870 
French mobile guard defeated at Bretoncelles, 

21 Nov. „ 
Bombardment of Thionville begun, 22 Nov. „ 
Ham occupied by the Prussians . 22 Nov. „ 
Prince Frederick Charles takes up a position 

near Orleans 24 Nov. „ 

Thionville, in flames, capitiilates, with about 

2000 prisoners .... 24 Nov. „ 
The Germans repulsed near Amiens and near 

Stagil 24 Nov. „ 

La Ffere surrenders, after two days' bombard- 
ment, with about 70 gtms and 2000 men, 

27 Nov. „ 
The Garibaldians defeated near Pasques (C6te 

d'Or) by Von Werder ... 27 Nov. „ 

The French army of the north defeated by Man- 
teufiel between Villers Bretonneux and 
Soleur, near Amiens ... 27 Nov. ,, 
Amiens occupied by Von Goeben after a severe 

engagement . . . . .28 Nov. ,, 

Severe engagement near Beaune la RoUande 
(Loiret) between part of the army of the 
Loire under D'Aurelle de Paladines and the 
Germans under Voigts Rhetz ; prince Fre- 
derick Charles arrives and turns the day; 
the French retire ; heavy loss on both sides, 

28 Nov. „ 
M. de K^ratry resigns his command, accusing M. 

Gambetta of misconduct, 28 Nov. ; Bourbaki 
appointed to command an army corps, 

29 Nov. ,, 
Fruitless endeavours of the army in Paris and 

the army of the Loire to meet, 29 Nov. — 4 Dec. „ 

Sorties from various parts of Paris repulsed 
with loss 29 Nov. ,, 

Great sortie of 120,000 under generals Trochu 
and Ducrot, who cross the Marne ; severest 
conflict between Champigny-sur-Marne, Brie- 
sur-Marne, and Villiers-sur-Marne ; the 
French retain the taken possessions, but 
their advance is checked ; great loss on both 
sides (chiefly Saxons and Wiirtembergers 
engaged), 30 Nov. „ 

The contest resumed at Avron; the Germans 
retake Champigny and Brie; the French 
retreat . . ... 2 Dec. „ 

Ducrot bivouacks in the woods of Vincennes, 3 
Dec. : he issues a final order of the day, re- 
ferring to two days' glorious battles, 4 Dec. „ 

The army of the Loire : Chanzy defeated by the 
grand duke of Mecklenburg at Bazoche des 
Hautes, 2 Dec. ; near Chevilly (the French 
report these engagements indecisive), 

3 Dec. „ 

Prince Frederick Charles dislodges an encamp- 
ment in the forest of Orleans . 3 Dec. ,, 

General d'Aurelle de Paladines entrenched 
before Oi'leans ; proposes to retreat ; the 
government opposes him, but yields ; he 
determines to await the attack ; part of 
his army defeated by prince Frederick 
Charles, and the grand duke of Mecklenburg ; 
he retreats with about 100,000 men ; Orleans 
threatened with bombardment ; surrenders 
at midnight .... 4 Dec. ,, 

The Germans said to be in pursuit of d'Aurelle 
de Paladines (superseded) . . 5 Dec. „ 

10,000 prisoners, 77 guns, and 4 gun-boats cap- 
tured at Orleans ... 5 Dec. ,, 

Rouen occupied by Manteuffel . 6 Dec. ,, 

General order of the king of Prussia, "We 
enter on a new phase of the war . . . Every 
attempt to break through the investment or 
relieve Paris has failed " . . .6 Dec. ,, 
The grand duke of Mecklenburg attacks gen. 
Chanzy and the army of the Loire near 
Beaugency ; indecisive, 7 Dec. ; the Germans 
victorious, taking about 1500 prisoners and 



FEA 



27 



GAI 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAISr WAR, continued. 

six guns, and occupying Beaugency (severe 
loss to Germans) . . .8 Dec. 

Gen. Manteuffel's army in two p.arts, one occu- 
pies Evreux, and marching to Cherbourg, and 
the other marching to Havre . . 8 Dec. 

Continued severe engagements between the 

Germans and the army of the Loire ; the 

defeated French retreat {7 battles in 9 days) 

9, 10 Dec. 

Vigorous siege of BcKort ; obstinately defended, 

9 Dec. 

Pamphlet (attributed to the emperor Napoleon) 
published under the name of his friend, the 
marquis de Gi'icourt, throwing the blame of 
the war upon the French nation, early in Dec. 

Fighting along the whole line of the army of 
the Loire, under general Chanzy and others ; 
it retreats, but obstinately resists, 5 — 10 Dec. 

The delegate government transferred fz-om 
Tours to Bordeaux ; Gambetta remains with 
the army of the Loire . . .11 Dec. 

Dieppe occupied by the Germans . 12 Dec. 

La Ffere threatened by Faidherbe, commander 
of the army of the north . . 12 Dec. 

Phalsburg surrenders, subdued by famine ; com- 
mencement of bombardment of Montmedy, 

12 Dec. 
Evreux and Blois occupied by the Germans, 

13 Dec. 
Montmedy surrenders ... 14 Dec. 
Sharp engagement at Frfeteval ; which is taken 

and abandoned by the Germans . 14 Dec. 

Nuits near Dijon captured by the Badenese 

imder Von Werder, after a severe conflict, 

18 Dec. 



1870 



The French government issue a circular against 
the propagation of false news . . 20 Dec. 

Conflict at Monnaie ; about 6000 French gardes 
mobiles driven back to Tours . . 20 Dec. 

Vigorous sortie from Paris repulsed — an artil- 
lery action 21 Dec. 

Tours partially shelled; said to request a Ger- 
man garrison 21 Dec. 

Chanzy and part of the army of the Loire said 
to have reached Le Mans and joined the 
Bretons about 21 Dec. 

Seven hours' battle at Pont a Noyelles between 
ManteufFel and the army of the noi-th under 
Faidherbe : both claim the victory ; Faidherbe 
retreats 23 Dec. 

Six English coUiers, said to have had Prussian 
permits, after dehvering coal at Kouen are 
sunk in the Seine at Duclalr near Havre by 
the Prussians for strategic reasons . 24 Dec. 

Explanation given by Bismarck and compensa- 
tion pronaised .... 26 Dec. 

Chanzy, in a letter to the German commandant 
at Venddme, accuses the Germans of cruelly 
pillaging St. Calais, and denying his defea,t, 
says, " We have fought you and held you in 
check since 4 Dec." .... 26 Dec. 

Trochu said to be making Mont ValSrien a vast 
citadel ...... 27 Dec. 

Mont Avron, an outlying fort near Paris, after a 
day's bombardment abandoned and occupied 
by the Germans .... 29 Dec. 

Alleged defeat of the Germans by detachment 
of Chanzy's army near Montoire . 27 Dec. 

Several small engagments in Normandy — re- 
ported successful to the French 28 — 31 Dec. 



1870 



FRANCONIA, or FRAISTKENLAND (on the Maine), one of the circles of the German 
empire, formerly part of Thuringia, was conquered by Thierry, king of the Franks, 530, and 
colonised. Its count or duke, Conrad I., was elected king of Germany, 912 ; Conrad II. was 
elected emperor 924; and the imperial dignity was held by his family till 1250. Franconia 
was made a distinct circle from Thuringia in 15 12. At its subdivision in 1806 various Ger- 
man princes obtained a part; but in 18 14 the largest part was awarded to Bavaria. 

FRANCS-TIREURS, free-shooters, took an active part in the Franco-Prussian war from 
about 14 Aug. 1870; and more especially after the surrender of MacMahon's army at Sedan, 
2 Sept. Their conduct has been much censured. 

FRAUDS, Statute OF. 29 Charles II., c. 3, 1677. "An act for prevention of frauds 
and perjuryes." 

FREE CHURCH SOCIETY, or National Association for Freedom of Public Worship, 
established in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system and revive the weekly offertory to defray 
the expenses of pubhc worship. 

FREEMASONRY. The new hall, Great Queen-street, London, was consecrated 14 
April, 1869, Earl de Grey was installed grand-master of the English freemasons in room 
of the earl of Zetland, 14 May, 1870. The prince of Wales was installed at Edinburgh as 
patron of the freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. 1870. 

FREE TRADE (p. 320). An agitation for free trade has begun in the United States. A 
reform league was formed at Boston, 20 April, 1869 ; and the movement was active in New 
York, Nov. 1869. 

FRUCTIDOR Constitution ; that promulgated in France on the 5th Fructidor, year 3, 
or 22 Aug. 1 795. See Directory. 



GAIETY THEATRE, Strand, opened 
manager. 



G. 

21 December, 1868, Mr. John Hollingshead, 



GAS 



28 



GLO 



GAS (p. 326). 

Gas successfully tried as fuel for the generation By the London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, 

of steam by Jackson's patent . April, 1868 ordinary gas charged 35. gd. the 1000 cubic 

The central gas company robbed of about feet, after i Jan., 1870. 
7o,oooi. by Benjamin Higgs, a clerk ; dis- 
covered April, 1S69 

GENEVA CONVENTIOISr, for the succour of the wounded in time of active warfare. 
Having been a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of Solferino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri 
Dunant published his experiences, which induced the Societi Genevoise d' JJtilite Puhlique in 
Feb. 1863 to discuss the question whether relief societies might not be formed in time of 
peace to help the wounded in time of war by means of qualified volunteers. At an inter- 
national conference held 26 Oct. 1863, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, France, 
Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Russia, were represented by delegates, and propositions were 
drawn up. These were accepted as an international code by a congress which met at Geneva 
8 Aug. 1864, and on 22 Aug. a convention was signed by twelve of the delegates, and it 
was eventually adopted by all civilized powers except the United States. International 
conferences were held at Paris in 1867 and at Berlin in 1869 for further developing in a 
practical manner the objects of the Geneva conference. The International Society 
(termed "the Red Cross Society"), established in consequence of these proceedings, v^s 
very energetic and effective in relieving the wounded and sick during the Franco-Prussian 
war in 1870, its flag being recognised as neutral. See Aid to Side and Wounded. Abo^e 
13,000 volunteers said to be employed in attending the sick and wounded, Sept. — Dec, 1870. 

GERMANY (p. 333). 

Inauguration of the Luther monument at 

Worms by the king of Prussia . 25 June, 18 
Grerman rifle association meeting at Vienna, 26 

July ; addressed by Von Beust at the close, 

giving as toast, "Peace and Beconciliation," 

6 Aug. , 
After negotiations between Bavaria, Wtlrtem- 

berg, and Baden, July ; a South German 

military commission appointed . . Oct. , 
Wilhelmshaven, at Hippens, bay of Jahde, 

Oldenburg, the first German military port, 

inaugurated by the king of Prussia, 17 June, iS 
Count Arnim, German representative at Rome, 

protests against the doctrine of papal in- 
fallibility May, 18 

Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Hesse Darmstadt, and 

Baden, support Prussia in the war declared 

by France 15 July , 

Munich, Stuttgart, and other cities, declare for 

union with North Germany ; about 6 Sept. , 



Baden and Hesse Darmstadt join the North 
German Confederation by treaty, about 15 
Nov. ; also Wiirtemberg, 25 Nov. ; and Bavaria, 
23 Nov. , retaining certain powers in military 
and diplomatic affairs . . . Nov. 1870 

The North German parhament opened at 
Berlin by Dr. Simson on behalf of the king, 

24 Nov.- ,, 

The parliament vote 100,000,000 thalers to 
continue the war . . . .28 Nov. „ 

The king of Bavaria, in a letter to the king of 
Saxony, proposes the king of Prussia to be 
norainated emperor of Germany, about 4 Dec. „ 

The parliament in an address request tbe king 
to become emperor (votes for, 188 ; against, 6), 

10 Dec. „ 

The address solemnly presented to the king in 
anassembly of princes by Dr. Simson, 18 Dec. ,, 
See Franco-Prussian War. 



_ GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATION.* 
ministry received the seals 9 Dec. 1868. 

First lord of the treasury, W. E. Gladstone. 

£iird chancellor, lord Hatherley. 

Lord president of the council, earl de Grey. 

lord privy seal, earl of Kimberley (succeeded by 
viscount Halifax, July, 1870). 

Chancellor of the exchequer, R. Lowe. 

Secretaries — home, H. A. Bruce ■,—foreipn, earl of 
Clarendon ; died 27 June, 1870, succeeded by earl 
Granville ; — colonies, earl Granville, succeeded by 
the earl of Kimberley, July, 1870 ; — war, B. Card- 
well ;— India, duke of Argyll. 

First lord of admiralty, Hugh C. E. Childers. 

Secretary for Ireland, C. S. Fortescue. 

GLASGOW (p. 337). 
Glasgow and Aberdeen Universities to elect one 
M.P., and Glasgow to elect three instead of 
two M.P.'s, by the Scotch reform act, passed 

13 July, 1868 



Mr. Disraeli resigned 2 Dec, and Mr. Gladstone's 



President of hoard of trade, J. Bright, resigned (an- 
nounced 20 Dec. 1870). 

Postmaster-general, marquis of Hartington. 

President of Poor lain board, G. J. Goschen. 

Mr. W. E. Porster, the vice-president of the co 
mittee of council, was admitted to the cabinet, 
July 1870. 

Changes announced : Board of trade, Mr. C. S. Fortes- 
cue. Cliief secretary for Ireland, the marquis of 
Hartington. Both to be in the cabinet. The new 
postmaster-general ( Wm. Monsell) not to be in the 
cabinet, i Jan. 1871. 



Foundation of the new university buildings 

laid by the prince of Wales . . 8 Oct. 1868 
Foundation of Albert bridge laid . 3 June, 1870 
The new university buildings opened, 7 Nov. ,, 

GLOBE THEATRE, erected on the site of Lyon's inn, Strand ; opened 28 Nov. 1868 ; Mr, 
Sefton Parry, first manager. 

* WiUiam Ewart Gladstone, bom 29 Dec. 1S09 ; master of the mint, Sept. 1841 : president of the board 
of trade, May, 1843 — Feb. 1S45 ; secretary for colonies, Dec. 1845 — July, 1846 ; chancellor of the 
exchequer, Jan. 1853 — Feb. 1855, June, 1859 — June, 1866 ; lord high commissioner extraordinary to the 
Ionian isles, Nov. 1858 ; M.P. for Newark, 1832—46 ; for Oxford, 1847—65 ; South Lancashire, 1865—8 ; for 
Greenwich, Nov, i868. 



GOL 



29 



HOL 



GOLD (p. 340) discovered in the territory of the Transvaal republic, South Africa, Aug. 
1868 ; in Sutherlandshire, N. Scotland, Oct. 1868 ; in Western Australia, reported Sept. 1870. 

GRAVELOTTE, battle of, 18 Aug., 1870. See Metz. 
GEEECE (p. 347). 

Constantine, duke of Sparta, heir to the cro'WTi, 
born 2 Aug. 18 

Eupture between Turkey and Greece in con- 
sequence of Greek ai-med intervention in 
Candia Dec. ,, 

After a conference of representatives of the Wes- 
tern powers at Paris, Jan., their requisitions 
were accepted, and diplomatic relations be- 
tween Turkey and Greece resumed 26 Feb. 18 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Athens, 

ig April, ,, 

Law authorising the cutting the isthmus of 
Corinth passed .... 7 Nov. , 

New ministry under M. Zaimis . . 9 Jan. 18 

Lord and lady Muncaster and a party of Eng- 
lish travellers, seized by brigands at Oropos, 
near Marathon ; Lord Muncaster and the 



ladies sent to treat ; 25,000?. demanded as 
ransom, with free pai'don . . 11 April, 1870 
The brigands retreating, and surrounded by 
troops, kill Mr. Vyner, Mr. Uoyd, Mr. Her- 
bert, and the count de Boyl about 21 April ,, 
Great excitement ; the king shows great liber- 
ality; but many influential persons are 
charged with connivance at brigandage, May, 

June, „ 
Several brigands killed ; seven captured, tried 
and condemned, 23 May ; five executed, 

20 June, ,, 
A new ministry under M. Deligeorges ig July ,, 
Greek college opened at Bayswater, London, W. , 

I Oct. „ 
Decree for suppression of brigandage issued, Oct. „ 
Two gentlemen carried off . . 11 Oct. „ 
A new ministry under M. Comoundoros, 22 Dec. ,, 

GREENWICH HOSPITAL (p. 349). AU the remaining inmates except 31 bed-riddeu 
persons had left the place, i Oct. 1869, and the patients of the Dreadnought seamen's 
hospital were removed here, 13 April, 1870. An act for the application of the revenues was 
passed in 1869. 

GUILDHALL, London (p. 351). The prince consort memorial window unveiled in the 
presence of prince Arthur, 3 Nov. 1870. 

GUN LICENCE ACT, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; annual licence los. 

GUNPOWDER ACT, 23 & 24 Vict., "to amend the law concerning the making, keeping, 
and carriage of gunpowder," &c. was passed, 28 Aug. i860. It has not been quite effectual 
in preventing accidents. See Birmingham, 1870. 



H. 



HACKNEY COACHES (p. 354). By the Metropolitan Carriages Act, passed 12 Aug. 
1869, various restrictions respecting the amount of fare, &c., were removed, commencing 
I Jan. 1870. Further regulations were to be issued by the home secretary. 

HABITUAL CRIMINALS ACT, for the more effectual prevention of crime, giving 
powers for the apprehension of habitual criminals on suspicion, passed 11 Aug. 1869. 

HANDEL COMMEMORATIONS (p. 356), 15, 17, 19 June, 1868, highly successful ; 
about 25,000 persons present on 19 June. 

HAYTI (p. 360). 

Insurrection against Salnave, 10 May ; said to 
be successful, 26 May ; EngUsh consul pro- 
tecting foreigners .... June, i 

Salnave defeats insurgents, and kills his 
prisoners 3 June, 

Salnave proclaims himself emperor, Aug. ; offers 
an amnesty Oct. 

Civil war continued : Saget and Domingu.ez 
proclaimed president by their respective fol- 
lowers Oct. 



Baez suppresses revolts in St. Domingo, June 

—Dec. 1868 
Salnave finally defeated flies to the woods. 
18 Dec. i858; captured, tried, and shot, 15 

Jan. 1870 
Sale of Samana bay to the United States dis- 
cussed Jan. „ 

Gen. Nissage Saget elected president of Hayti 
for four years .... 19 March, „ 



HEREFORD. Bishop Renn D. Hampden, who died 23 April, 1868, was succeeded by 
Dr. James Atlay, consecrated 24 June following. 

HISTORICAL MSS. A commission was appointed 31 Aug. 1869, to examine MSS. in 
the possession of institutions and private famiUes, and pubUsh any considered desirable. 

HOLBORN (p. 366). The Holborn valley viaduct, founded by Mr. F. H. Fry (Mr. 
William Haywood, chief engineer), was opened for foot-passengers, 14 Oct., and inaugurated 
by the queen, 6 Nov. 1869. 



HOL 



30 



IND 



HOLLAND (p. 368). 
The fortifications of Luxemburg rased . May, 1868 
After a long struggle between the ministry and 
the chambers, the ministry resign ; a new 
ministry formed by M. de Thorbecke June, „ 



International exhibition opened at Amsterdam, 
by prince Henry . . . .15 July, 1869 

Meeting of the chambers ; strict neutrality in 
the franco-Prussian war to be maintained, 

19 Sept. 1870 



HOLY SEPULCHEE, KNIGHTS OF. This order was founded by Godfrey of Bouillon, 
1099 ; revived by pope Alexander VI., 1496 ; and reorganised in 1847. 

HONVEDS, the militia of Hungary. They supported the rebellion against the emperor 
in 1849, but on the completion of the changes whereby the independence of Hungary was 
secured, in 1868, they offered a loyal address to the emperor-king. 

HORSE-SHOES. Goodenough's American horse-shoes put on cold (made by machinery) 
patented i860, were used by the London omnibus company, Oct. — Dec. 1868. The 
international horse-shoe company for adopting the patent was established early in 1870. 

HUDSON'S BAY (p. 373). The company's territories (Rupert's Land), on the proposi- 
tion of earl Granville, the colonial secretary (9 March, 1869), were transferred to the dominion 
of Canada for 300,000^., and a right to claim a certain portion of land within fifty years, and 
other privileges. The company consented to this, 9 April, 1869. A portion of the people 
resisted the annexation, and general Louis Riel proclaimed independence and seized the 
company's treasury, Jan. 1870. On 3 March he tried and shot Thomas Scott, a Canadian, 
who had escaped from his custody. Col. Wolseley conducted a Canadian expedition to the 
territories (now named Manitoba), and issued a proclamation to the loyal inhabitants, 
23 July, saying " our mission is one of peace." Riel was unsupported and offered no resistance. 
The governor, Mr. Archibald, arrived 3 Sept. 

HUNGARY (p. 378). 

A Croatian deputation accepts imion with Hun- 
gary 27 May, : 

Prince Napoleon Jerome's visit ; warmly re- 
ceived June, 

Dispute respecting the apportionment of the 
army settled . . . . 5 Dec. 

The diet of 1865 closed with an address from 
tbe emperor . . . ■ . . 10 Dec. 

Congress of Hungarian Jews opened 14 Dec. 

HYDROGENIUM, a hypothetical metal. In a paper read before the Royal Society, 7 
Jan. 1869, Mr. Thomas Graham, Master of the Mint, suggested that a piece of the metal pal- 
ladium, into which hydrogen had been pressed, became an "alloy of the volatile metal 
hydrogenium." 

HYTHE, Kent, a cinque-port. A school of musketry was established here in 1854, imder 
the charge of major -gen. Charles Crawford Hay. He resigned in 1867. 



Powerful counter-addresses from Andrassy 
and Kossuth published .... Jan. : 

Royal Hungarian guard organized . g Feb. 

Chamber of deputies meet . . .22 April, 

Remains of Louis Batthyany (executed and 
privately buried, Oct. 1849,) re-interred 
solemnly in the pubUo cemetery, Pesth, 

9 June, 



I. 

IMPORTS (p. 380) into Great Britain : computed real value in 1866, 295,290,274?. ; in 
1867, 275,183,137?. ; in 1868, 294,693,608?. ; in 1869, 295,428,967?, 

INCOME TAX (p. 381) reduced to 5c?. in the pound, April, 1869; to 40?. April, 1870. 
Gross annual receipts to 31 March, 1868, 6,177,000?.— 1869,8,618,000?. — in 1870, 10,044,000?. 

INFANTICIDE (p. 389). Margaret Waters was convicted of the murder of John Cowen, 
an illegitimate infant, by poison and neglect, 23 Sept. 1870. She had adopted about 40 children, 
receiving a few pounds as premium, in four years. 

INDIA (p. 387). 

War on the N. W. frontier ; the Bazotees, 

fanatical Mahometans, defeated by general 

Wilde; 30 killed and wounded ; all dispersed ; 

villages burnt as punishment for outrages, 

4 Oct. : 
Death of the begum of Bhopal, who helped the 

British during the mutiny . . 30 Oct. 

Arrival of the earl of Mayo, the new viceroy, 

at Calcutta 12 Jan. : 



Sir R. Temple's budget ; deficiency of about 
2,750,000^. ; a I per cent, income tax put on 
(excessively opposed) . . . March, ] 

Meeting of the viceroy and Shere Ali, the 
Afghan sovereign, who receives a subsidy and 
presents 27 March, 

New divorce act in operation . . i April, 

Rise of a body of Indian religious reformers 
(see Deism) Aug. 



IND 



31 



ITA 



INDIA, continued. 

Act for tlie better governing India and defining Railway between Calcutta and Bombay com- 

tbe governor-general's powers passed, pleted April, 1870 

II Aug. 1869 Announced deficiency in the revenue ; increased 

India visited by tlie duke of Edinburgh, Dec. taxation proposed ; much opposition to the 

1869-April, 1870 income tax May, „ 

Grand durbar at Bhurtpore . . 10 Oct. ,, 

INDIANS, North Amekican. In a war provoked by outrages general Sheridan 
defeated the Indians, and they surrendered unconditionally Dec. 1868. Negotiations under- 
taken by the Quakers had no effect, and the war was renewed June, 1869. As a chastisement 
for murders and other outrages major Baker killed 173 Indians, including women and 
children, Jan. 1870. In June following a deputation of eminent chiefs was received by the 
president at Washington, and promises and presents were made to him. On i Oct. 1869 
prince Arthur visited the villages of the Canadian Indians^ and was made a chief of the 
"Six Nations." 

INSURANCE. The duty on fire insurance was totally repealed 24 June, 1869. The 
Albert Assurance Company failed for about 8,ooo,oooZ., causing much depression, Aug. 1869. 
An act amending the law respecting life assurance companies was passed 9 Aug. 1870. 

IRELAND (p. 396). 



Irish archbishops and bishops present address 
to the queen at Windsor, on behalf of the 
Irish Church establishment . . 14 May, 18 

Earl Spencer lord lie\itenant . . . Dec. , 

Visit of prince Arthur . . 5 April et seq. 18 

Many murders : Mr. Anketell, 3 March ; Mr. 
Bradshaw, J. P., 24 April ; Capt. Tarleton, 

28 April, , 

Mayor of Cork, for a speech eulogizing Fenians, 
27 April, compelled to resign . 11 May, , 

Address of archbishop Leahy condemning agra- 
rian murders 16 May, , 

Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 
I March; after much opposition passed, 

26 July, , 

Irish mixed schools denounced by abp. Cullen ; 
support for a Catholic university demanded 
in a circular dated . . . 18 Aug. , 

Great agitation for amnesty to the Fenian con- 
victs Oct. , 

Tenant-right agitation ; a conference at Cork, 



16 Sept. ; county meeting at Kilkenny, 

18 Oct. 1869 
Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa, a Fenian convict, 

elected M. P. for Tipperary . . 25 Nov. ,, 

Many agrarian outrages . . Jan., Feb. 1870 
O'Donovan Rossa's election annulled, 10 Feb. „ 
Irish Church convention met, about 21 Feb. „ 
Irish Land bill, read second time in commons 
(442 against 11), i a.m., 12 March ; read second 
time in the lords .... 17 June, „ 
New "Irish Peace Preservation act" passed, 

4 April, ,, 
Eight counties placed under this act, 29 April, „ 
Reported growth of a "Nationality" party 

among the Protestants . . . July, „ 
Irish Land act passed . . . .1 Aug. „ 
The "Home Government Association," to in- 
clude all parties, meet at Dublin, i Sept. „ 
Aggressive outrages and murders . Nov. „ 

The Fenian convicts released from prison, 

Jan. 1871 



IRISH SOCIETY, The Honourable. The name given to a committee of citizens of 
twelve London companies invited by king James I. to colonize the confiscated lands in the 
north of Ireland, termed the Ulster plantations, including Londonderry and Coleraine, 1613. 
The committee received a charter, which was taken away in 1637, and restored after various 
changes 1670. The affairs of this company and its methods of business were discussed in 
parliament in 1868 and 1869. 

IRON and STEEL INSTITUTE, the duke of Devonshire, president, held its first 
meeting 22 June, 1869, and a first provincial meeting at Merthyr-Tydvil, 6 Sept. 1870. 

IRON CROSS, an order of knighthood established by Frederick WiUiam III. of Prussia, 
10 March, 1 8 13, to honour patriotic bravery in the war against France, was revived by 
William I. in the Franco- Prussian war, and awarded by him to his son for his victory at 
Wissembourg, 4 Aug., 1870. 

ITALY (p. 403). 
Frightful atrocities committed by brigands in 

south Italy .... April, May, i 
Grist tax adopted by the senate . . June, 
An-angement made for debt of the late papal 

provinces 30 July, 

Government tobacco monopoly ordered to be 

formed ; resignation of the ministers, Lanza 

and Sella 8 Aug. 

Long continued rain ; dreadful inundations in 

the Alpine regions .... Sept. 
Meeting of chamber of deputies ; Garibaldi 

withdraws 24 Nov. 

Ministerial victory respecting the grist tax in 

the chambers 26 Jan. i 

Thomas, duke of Genoa, entered a pupil at 

Harrow (see Spain, 1870) . . AprU, 



Circular of Menabrea against the council at 
Rome 5 Oct. 1869 

Victor Emanuel Ferdinand, son of prince Hum- 
bert, born at Naples . . .11 Nov. ,, 

Serious illness and recovery of the king, 

6 — 20 Nov. „ 

Offered resignation of Menabrea, about 19 Nov. ; 
Cialdini and Sella unable to form a ministry, 
10 Dec. ; Lanza and Sella succeed, 13 Dec. „ 

Oecumenical council at Rome (see ijonie) opened, 

8 Dec. „ 

Republican risings in Pavia and other places 
quelled about 24 March, 1870 

Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war kept, 

July — Dec. „ 

Additional armaments ordered . . 4 Aug. „ 



ITA 



32 



JEW 



ITALY, continued. 

Mazzini arrested at Palermo and sent to Gaeta, 

14 Aug. 1870 
Fruitless mission of prince Napoleon to obtain 

help for France .... 21 — 25 Aug. ,, 
Circular note from the government recounting 

the failure of all attempts to conciliate the 

pope since i860 ; and proposing favourable 

terms 29 Aug. „ 

JRespectful letter from the king to the pope, 

8 Sept. „ 
The Italian troops enter the papal territories 

(seeiiom«); occupy Viterbo and other places, 

12 Sept. ,, 
General Bixio marches towards Rome, 

18, 19 Sept. ,, 
After a short resistance, the Italians under 

general Cadorna enter Bome . 20 Sept. ,, 
[For details see Rome.} 
PUbimte in papal territories : for union with the 

kingdom of Italy (out of 167,548 voters) 

133,681 ; against, 1507 ... 2 Oct. „ 
The king at Florence receives the result of the 

plebiscite 8 Oct. „ 

Kome incorporated with Italy by royal decree, 

general La Marmora governor . . 9 Oct. „ 
Arrival of La Marmora at Rome as viceroy ; 



reported agitation in Nice for reunion with 

Italy or autonomy .... Oct. 
Capture and death of Pilone, a great Bourbouist 

brigand chief 14 Oct. 

Mazzini arrives at Florence (appointed to reside 

at Leghorn) . . . . 15 Oct. 

Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 10 

Oct. ; including Mazzini . . 16 Oct. 
Diplomatic circular announcing the occupation 

of Bome as the capital of Italy . 18 Oct. 
Boman provinces united into one, with five 

sub-prefectures . . . . ig Oct. 
Ministerial changes completed . . 30 Oct. 
Ricasoli retires into private life ; about 14 Nov. 
Amadeus, duke of Austa, the king's second son, 

elected king by the Spanish cortes, 

16 Nov. 
Elections favourable to the government : all the 

ministers elected . . about 28 Nov. 

Parliament meets ; the king declares Rome to 

be the capital of Italy . . .5 Dec. 

Bills introduced for the transfer of the capital 

and the preservation of the pope's rights, 

about 10 Dec. 

The Cenis tunnel completed . . 25 Dec. 

The king visits Rome . . . .31 Dec. 



1870 



Trial of Phillips v. Byre (for beating and impri- 
sonment during the rebellion of 1866) ; Byre 
pleaded act of indemnity; verdict for de- 
fendant 29 Jan. 1S69 

Episcopal church disestablished . 31 Dec. ,, 

Appeals in England for its support, July, 1870 



Majority of the mikado proclaimed, Nov. 1868 

His marriage, g Feb. ; another rebellion of the 

tycoon's partizans .... Feb. 1869 

Visit of the duke of Edinburgh, 29 Aug. ; re- 
ceived by the mikado . . . 22 Sept. ,, 
The tycoon submits to the mikado . Dec. ,, 

Progress of internal improvements reported, 

22 Sept. 1S70 



JAMAICA (p. 405). 

A biU of indictment for misdemeanor against 
governor Eyre brought in, 15 May ; dis- 
charged by gi-and jury . . . 2 June, 18 

Chief-justice Cockburn disclaimed agreement 
■with part of justice Blackburn's charge on 
the occasion : an almost unexampled case, 

8 June, , 

JAPAN (p. 406). 

Insurrection of the Daimios; rivalry of the 

mikado and the tycoon . . . Dec. 18 
Japanese outrages on French sailors ; culprits 

executed, 16 March ; further outrages 

punished 23 March, 18 

The mikado's troops defeat the tycoon's, who 

jBies, 26 — 30 Jan. ; the mikado's defeated near 

Jeddo 10 — 17 May, , 

After long war and varying success the rebellion 

ends ; the mikado re-established . July, , 

JARGONIUM, a new metal discovered by professor A. Church in combination with the 
zircon of Ceylon. The spectrum was shown by Mr. H. Sorby 6 March, 1869. 

JERSEY (p. 407) became a place of refuge for MM. Rouher, Baroche, Drouyn de Lhuys, 
and other distinguished French imperialists, Sept. 1870. 

JERUSALEM (p. 408) was visited by the prince of Wales 31 March, 1862; by the 
crown-prince of Prussia 4 Nov. 1869, and by the emperor of Austria 9 Nov. 1869. 

JEWS (p. 411). 

Jews permitted to return to Spain . . Oct. 1868 
Jewish congress at Pesth opened by the minister 

of public worship, Eotvos . . . 14 Dec. ,, 
It closes and presents the new statutes to the 

minister 25 Feb. 1869 

Jewish reform convention at Philadelphia, U.S., 

alterations in rituals, (fee. , resolved on, Oct. ,, 
Alfred Davis, a Jew, a munificent benefactor 

of education, Jewish and Christian, died 7 Jan. 187c 
New central synagogue in Great Portland-st., 

W., founded by baron BothschUd, iS March, 

1869; consecrated . . . 7 April, ,, 

"Hebrew Literature Society" established in 

London . ... 29 June, „ 



Congregation of British Jeios, formed in 1840 and 
1 84 1 by certain famihes of Spanish and Ger- 
man Jews, for uniting two sections of the 
community, diminishing the influence of 
Talmudism, and simpUfying the rituals — re- 
cognising the Mosaic scriptures as the only 
authority for faith and practice, and rejecting 
the oral law, or Talniudic rabbins, as not 
binding on the consciences of reformed Jews. 
Their West London Synagogue in Burton 
street, opened i Jan. 1842 ; removed to Mar- 
garet street. Regent street, 1849 ; superseded 
by a magnificent synagogue, Berkeley street, 
consecrated 22 Sept. 1870 



JOH 33 LIF 

JOHN, Knights of St. [Johanniter Rilter) a Lutheran order of high rank, founded by 
Frederick William III. of Prussia, 23 May, 1812, and reorganised 15 Oct. 1852. 1'hese 
knights co-operated with the knights of St. John of Malta and various other bodies in ren- 
dering energetic assistance to the wounded during the Franco-Prussian war, 1870, and it 
had an office in London ; the duke of Mauchester being a prior of the order. 

JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, and Judge Martial of all the force.?, an ancient 
office, held by patent from the crown. He is the legal adviser of the commander-in-chief in 
military cases, and by his authority all general courts-martial are held. An advocate-general 
accompanied the army to France in 1625, and the office was constituted soon after the restora- 
tion. Dr. Samuel Barrowe was appointed 1666. Sir Colman O'Loghlen, who succeeded 
Mr. John Robert Mowbray, Dec. 1868, resigned Nov. 1870. Mr. John R. Davison, Q.C., was 
appointed Dec. 1870. 

JUPITER'S MOONS were all invisible on 21 Aug. 1867, a very rare occurrence. 

JURIES (p. 413). A new act respecting juries, regulating their payment, &c., was passed 
9 Aug. 1870 ; to come into effect 2 Nov. 

JUS'llOES IN APPEAL, Lords (p. 414). Sir Charles Selwyn died 11 Aug. 1869. Sir 
W. Page- Wood became lord chancellor Dec. 1868. Sir George M. Giffard was appointed 
Dec. 1869, died 13 July, 1870. The present justices are Sir WilUam M. Jamea, appointed 
June, and Sir WilHam Mellish, appointed July, 1870. 



K. 

KHEDIVE, Lord, a title said to signify a position inferior to an absolute sovereign, but 
superior to a mere viceroy, was given to the viceroy of Egypt during the disputes between 
him and the sultan in 1869. 

KNIGHTHOOD, see Holy Sepulchre, John, and Michael. 



L. 

LAKE-DWELLINGS (p. 424). The artificial fortified islands termed " Crannoges " dis- 
covered in some Irish lakes are attributed to the 9th and loth centuries. They have been 
frequently used as places of refuge. 

LANDLORD AND TENANT ACT (Ireland), passed i Aug, 1870. 

LAON (p. 427). This town surrendered to the Germans 9 Sept. 1870. As the last man 
of the garde mobile left the citadel, a French soldier, in contravention of the capitulation, 
blew up the powder magazine, causing great destruction in the town and fortress. Grand- 
duke William of Mecklenburg Schwerin was bruised, and 95 German riflemen and 300 French 
gardes mobiles were either killed or wounded ; general Theremin Du Hame, the commander, 
was wounded. The French attributed the explosion to accident. 

LAW (p. 429). The judicature commission (appointed 1867) recommended the consolida- 
tion of all the superior courts into one supreme court divided into chambers, April, 1869. 
The High Court of Justice Bill introduced into the house of lords i8 March 1870, was 
dropped near the end of the session. 

LECTION ARY, the Romish service-book containing lessons from the Bible : see Common 
Prayer. 

LEONINE CITY {Cittd Leonina or Sorgo), formerly a suburb, now included in the city 
of Rome, was founded by Leo IV., pope 847 — 55, and named Leopolis. It comprehends the 
castle of St. Angelo, the hospital of San ;Spirito, the Vatican palace and gardens, and St. 
Peter's. Its possession was allotted to pope Pius IX. when the Italian royal troops entered 
Rome, 20 Sept. 1870. About 1500 inhabitants of the Leonine city voted for union with 
the kingdom of Italy, 2 Oct. 1870. 

LICENCES (p. 436) for the sale of tea, coffee, chocolate, and pepper were abolished and 
other licences modified by acts passed in 1869 — 70. 

LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES ACT, passed 9 Aug., 1870, requires the companies to 
publish annual returns of receipts, expenditure, dfec. 

D 



LIF 



34 



LYO 



LIFE-BOATS on British Coasts in 1870, 264. See Wrecks. 

LIFE-PEEEAGES. A bill for creating them was read a second time in the lords 
27 April, 1869, but afterwards rejected. 

LIFE SHIPS. To promote the construction and use of these the Hans Busk Life Ship 
Institute was founded, Oct. 1869. 

LIMITATIONS, Statute of, 21 James I. c. 16, 1623. By it actions for trespass or 
debt, or simple contract, must be commenced within six years after the cause of action, and 
actions for assault, menace, or imprisonment within four years. 

LIlSrCOLlSr. Bishop John Jackson, on his translation to London, was succeeded by 
Dr. Christopher Wordsworth, consecrated 24 Feb. 1869. 

LIVERPOOL (p. 442). 

Eeverdy Johnson, the United States' minister, 
warmly i-eceived .... 22 Oct. : 

A Greek church consecrated hy the Greek arch- 
bishop of Syra .... 16 Jan. 

Fire at St. Joseph's Catholic chapel, 15 lives lost, 

23 Jan. 



Stanley park, 100 acres (cost 42,000?.), opened, 

7 May, 
Stanley hospital ; foundation laid by the earl of 

Derby 6 June, 

British Association meets here 3rd time 14 Sept. 
Equestrian statue of the queen unveiled, 3 Nov. 



1870 



Columbia market, Bethnal-green, erected by 

Miss Burdett Coutts ; opened by her, 28 Apl. 18 
Statue of Mr. Peabody uncovered, prince of 

Wales present .... 23 July, , 
Inauguration of the Holborn viaduct and the 

new Blackfriars bridge by the queen, 6 Nov. , 
Inauguration of the Victoria (northern) Thames 

embankment by the prince of Wales, 13 July, 18 
International workmen's exhibition at Islington , 

opened by the prince of Wales . 16 J uly, , 
London ratepayers' school-board association 

established 8 Oct. ,, 

New city library and museum founded near 

Guildhall 27 Oct. „ 

London education board elected . 29 Nov. , 



LIVRET D'OUVRIER, a species of workman's passport, introduced into France by 
Turgot about 1781 ; abolished 23 March, 1869. 

LONDON (p. 448). 

Western approach street, Holborn Valley, 

opened 25 June, 1868 

Part of the Albert (southern) embankment of 

the Thames opened .... 30 July, ,, 
King's Cross market opened . . 7 Aug. ,, 
Midland Counties railway station opened, i Oct. „ 
Great meeting to relieve sufferers by South 

American earthquake ... 13 Oct. ,, 
New meat market, Smithfield, inaugurated by 

the lord mayor, 24 No v. ; opened to the public, 

I Dec. „ 
Mr. Peabody gives another ioo,oooJ. to the poor 

of London 5 Dec. „ 

London Association for prevention of poverty 

and crime founded . . . 17 Dec. ,, 

South London industrial exhibition opened, 

I March, i86g 

LONDON, Bishopric of. Bishop A. C. Tait, translated to Canterbury 1868, succeeded 
by John Jackson, bishop of Lincoln, elected 14 Jan. 1869. 

LONDON UNIVERSITY. The university was enfranchised by the Reform act of 1867, 
and Robert Lowe was elected the first M.P. 17 Nov. 1868. The new buildings in Burlington- 
gardens, erected by Mr. Pennethorne, were inaugurated by the queen 11 May, 1870. 

LORRAINE (p. 451) was nearly all conquered by the Germans in the war of 1870, and 
the acquisition of part of it made a condition of peace by the conquerors. 

LUNATICS (p. 453) in England in charge : i Jan. 1867, 33,123 ; 1868, 33,213 ; 1S69, 
34,681 ; 1870, 35,913. 

LUTHERANISM (p. 455). The Luther memorial at Worms was unveiled in presence 
of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns, 25 June, 1868. 

LUXEMBURG (p. 454. The people protest against absorption into Germany, 21 Oct. 
1870. They are accused of violating neutrality, and the abrogation of the treaty is mooted 
by Prussia early in Dec 1870. The king of Jrlolland, their sovereign, declared that he would 
maintain the treaty 15 Dec, and the government protested against the charge, 19 Dec. 

LYONS (p. 455). After the revolution in Paris, 4 Sept. 1870, a committee of public safety 
was appointed here and the red flag raised. On 28 Sept. M. Saigne, calling himself president, 
gen. Cluseret (expelled from Paris), and other extreme republicans, were defeated in their en- 
deavours to depose M. Challemel Lacour, the prefect of the Rhone, and extraordinary com- 
missioner of the government, who was well supported by the national guard. General 
Mazure, the military commander, accused of treacherous inaction, was arrested. Arnaud, 
commandant of the national guard, was murdered by the mob, after a mock trial, for resisting 
them, 20 Dec. 



MAD 35 MET 



M. 

MADAGASCAR (p. 458). The queen died in March, and her cousin, Ranavalona, a 
Christian, succeeded April, 1868. Paganism is tolerated. Alfred Willis was nominated 
missionary bishop of Madagascar Jan. 1870. 

MADDER, the root of the Jiii,bia tinctoria, highly valued for dyeing properties 
305,758 cwts. (valued at 848,9321!.) were imported into this country in 1868. See Alizarine. 

MAGDALA (p. 459). British loss at the capture, 2 killed, 20 wounded ; Abyssinian 
loss, about 500 killed and wounded, out of about 5000. Magdala was burnt to the ground by 
the British 17 April, 1868. 

MAGIC (p. 460). See Godwin's " Lives of the Necromancers," 1834, and Ennemoser's 
" History of Magic," translated by W. Howitt, 1854. 

MALINS' ACT, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 57, relating to the powers of women in regard to 
property, was passed in 1857. 

MANCHESTER (p. 466). 
False alarm of fire at Lang's music-hall, 23 

killed 31 July, i£ 

Manchester Reciprocity Association founded, 

Sept. iS 
National Education Union meet 3, 4 Nov. , 



Bishop James Prince Lee died, 24 Dec. 1869 ; 

succeeded by James Eraser . . Jan. 1870 

Alexandra park (provided by the corporation) 

opened 6 Aug. ,, 

Owens college new buildings founded, 23 Sept. ,, 



MANOMETER (Greek, manos, thin), an instrument for measuring the rarity of the 
atmosphere, gases, and vapours. One is said to have been made by Otto von Guericke about 
1660, and the "statical barometer" of Robert Boyle was a simple manometer. Various forms 
of the apparatus were devised by Ramsden (about 1773), by Roy (1777), by Cazalet (1789), 
and by Bourdon and others. A manometer was constructed for the investigation respecting 
the elasticity of steam conducted by Prony, Arago, Duloug, and Girard, 1830, 

MARITIME EXHIBITION at Havre opened by representatives of the government 

I June, 1868. 

MARRIAGE (p. 469). A commission appointed to inquire into the working of the 
marriage laws of Scotland, 22 March, 1865, reported strongly in favour of changes being 
made to insure uniformity, simplicity, and certainty^ July, 1868. The Consular Marriage Act, 
enabling acting British consuls abroad to solemnize marriages, was passed 16 July 1868, 
Marriages in England and Wales, 1868, 176,962; in 1869, 175,629, The Married Women's 
property act passed 9 Aug. 1870. The Marriage Law of Ireland was amended by an act 
passed 10 Aug. 1870. 

MARTYRS' MEMORIAL, Smithfield, erected by the Protestant AlUance, was inaugurated 

II March, 1870. 

MASSACRES (p. 472), see CTiina, 1870; Indians, 1870. 

MATHEMATICS (p. 373). The London Mathematical Society founded, 16 Jan. 1865 ; 
professor Augustus de Morgan, president. 

MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (p. 474). By the Irish Church act, passed 26 July, 1869, the 
annual parhamentary grant was to cease after i Jan. 1871. 

MAYORS OF London (p. 475), 1868-9, James Lawrence; 1869-70, Robert Besley ; 
1 8 70- 1, Thomas Dakin. 

"MESSIAH," Handel's greatest oratorio, composed by him in twenty-three days 
(22 Aug.-i4 Sept. 1741), was first performed at Dublin, 13 April, 1742, the receipts being 
given by him to the charities of that city. 

METROPOLITAN BOARD OF WORKS (p. 482). Sir John Thwaites, the chairman, 
died 8 Aug. 1870, aged 55. Much discussion ensued respecting the appointment of his suc- 
cessor; Mr. Bruce, the home secretary, having intimated the probability of the office being 
abolished by parliament, with other changes, 1 1 Aug. Col. James Macnaghten Hogg, a member 
of the board, was elected chairman for one year, 18 Nov. 1870. 

METROPOLITAN DISTRICT ASYLUM BOARD, mstituted by parHament in 1S67, 
proceeded to erect hospitals at Haverstock-hill, Caterham, &c., 1868, causing much discontent 
in several parishes. The asylum for idiots ai Leavesden, near Watford, Herts, inaugurated 
27 Sept., 1870. 

D 2 



MET 



36 



MIC 



METROPOLITAISr MEAT MARKET, Smithfield, erected in accordance with an act 
passed in i860, was inaugui-ated by the lord mayor, James Lawrence, 24 Nov. 1868, and 
opened for business i Dec. 

METROPOLITAN POOR, see Poor. ' 

METROPOLITAN SCHOOL BOARD, instituted by the Elementary Education Act. 
1870, was elected 29 Nov. 1870. It included Lord Lawrence, Lord Sandon, Professor Huxley, 
Miss Garrett, M.D., and Miss Davies. At its first meeting, 15 Dec , Lord Lawrence was elected 
chairman, and Mr. C. Reed, M.P., vice-chairman ; and it was decided that the chairman should 
be unpaid at present. 

METZ, a fortified city in Lorraine, now in the department of the Moselle, N.E. France. 
It was the Roman Divodunum or Meti, capital of the Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish 
tribe, and afterwards of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 6th century. It was made 
a free imperial city 985. It was besieged by Charles VII. of France for seven months in 
1444, and was ransomed for 100,000 florins ; was captured by Henry II. 10 April, 1552, and 
successfully defended by the duke of Guise against the emperor Charles V. with an army 
of 100,000 men 31 Oct. 1552 to 15 Jan. 1553. Metz was ceded to France by the peace of 
Westphalia, 24 Oct. 1648, and was fortified by Vauban and Belleisle. On 28 July, 1870, the 
emperor JS'apoleon III. arrived at Metz and assumed the chief command. After the disastrous 
defeats at Wcerth and Forbach, on 6 Aug. the whole French army (except the corps of 
MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay) was concentrated here, 10, il Aug., and by delay was 
hemmed in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the chief command, 8 Aug. The 
emperor departed with the vanguard, which crossed the Moselle early on 14 Aug. 



. Battle of Pange or Uourcelles, gained by 
the ISC army under "Von Steinmetz, after 
several hours' fighting, with gi-eat German 

loss 14 Aug. : 

Bazaine was censured for not advancing on 

15 Aug. 
, Battle of VionviUe or Mars-la-Tour, gained 

by the 2ud army under prince Frederick 
Charles, after twelve hours' fighting. By 
the unexpected unmabking of a mitrail- 
leuse battery, Henry, prince of Reuss, and 
many German nobles were killed in a 
few moments. The victory was at first 
claimeii by the French. (This battle, the 
most sanguinary ni the war hitherto, in- 
cluded a Balaclava charge of a German 
regiment of cavahy upon a French bat- 
tery, by which it was decimated, but to 
which the victory was greatly due. 
Twice as many Germans were killed as 
at Koniggratz, the killed and wounded 
being estimated at 17,000. The French 
loss was said to have been equally great) 

16 Aug. 
Bazaine masses his troops for a decisive 

conflict 17 Aug. 

, Battle of R^zonville or Gravelotte, gained 
by the combined ist and 2nd armies 
commanded by the king in person, 
after twelve hours' fighting. " The 
most desperate struggle took place on 
the slopes over Gravelotte, which the 
Gei-mans gained by nightfall, after re- 
peated fatal charges ; the fortune of the 
day being long in suspense. But the 
riglit of the French had been outflanked, 
they fell back fighting to the last, and 
retired under cover of Metz. The French 
are said to have lost 19,000 ; and the 
Germans, 25,000." (The king, on the 
igtb, bad not undressed for thirty hours. 
The carnage is considered to have been 
unexampled ; a large number of French 



prisoners were made ; and enormous 
loss was experienced by the imperial 
guard. The German army included 
Saxons and Hessians) . . iS Aug. 1870 

Bazaine repulsed in a sortie at Courcelles, near 
Metz (he claimed a victory) . . 26 Aug. ,, 

His whole army defeated by gen. Manteuffel 
of the army of prince Frederick Charles, in 
a battle lasting from the morning of 31 Aug. 
to noon I Sept. ,, 

Von Steinmetz sent to govern Posen ; prince 
Frederick Charles sole commander before 
Metz 21 Sept. ,, 

Three vigorous but ineffective sallies, 

23, 24, 27 Sept. ,, 

About 100,000 soldiers estimated in Metz, 

30 Sept. „ 

Great sortie; the Germans surprised; about 
40,000 French engaged ; they are repulsed 
after a severe engagement from 3 p.m. till 
dark ; loss about 2000 French and 600 Germans, 

7 Oct. „ 

About 600 oxen and 500 sheep captured during 
a sortie 8 Oct. „ 

General Boyer arrives at Versailles to treat for 
terms of capitulation . . . 14 Oct. ,, 

Metz surrenders with the army, including 
marshals Bazaine, Canrobert and Le Boevif ; 
66 generals ; about 6000 officers ; 173,000 mtn 
including the imperial guard : 400 pieces of 
artillery ; 100 mitrailleuses ; and 53 eagles or 
standards 27 Oct. „ 

The capitulation was signed at Frescati by 
genei-als . I arras and Stiehle on behalf of the 
French and German commanders . 27 Oct. „ 

General order to the army issued by marshal 
Banaine, saying that they were " conquered 
by famine " 27 Oct. ,, 

Order to the army issued by prince Frederick 
Charles, recognising their bravery, great obedi- 
ence, calmness, cheerfulness, and devotion, 

27 Oct. „ 

The Germans enter Metz 



29 Oct. 



MEXICO (p. 484). 

Hasty blockade of Mazatlan by capt. Bridge of 
H.M.S. Chanticleer, 20 June ; raised by adml. 
Hastings July, 18 

MICHAEL, St., and GEORGE, St. This order of knighthood, founded for the Ionian 
Isles and Malta, 27 April, i8i8, was reorganized in March, 1869, in order to admit servants of 



Treaty with United States adopted 
Insurrection at Puebla suppressed 
General Almonte dies at Paris 



Dec. 18 

Feb. 18 
March, , 



MID 37 NAT 

the crown connected •with the colonies. Among the first of the new knights were the earl 
of Derby, earl Russell, and earl Grey. 

MIDLAND RAILWAY STATION, St. Pancras, N. London, possessing the largest 
known roof in the world (245 feet 6 inches wide, and 698 feet long), was opened for traffic 
I Oct. 1868. The engineer was Mr. H. VV. Barlow. 

MINES (p. 487). Estimated value of coal and metals produced in the United Kingdom : in 
1866, 40,345,945/. ; in 1868, 41,521, 705/. 

MINT (p. 488). Professor Thomas Graham, the master of the mint, died 16 Sept. 1869. 
By the Coinage Act, passed 4 April, 1870, the office was combined with that of the chancellor 
of the exchequer, the duties being transferred to the deputy-master (Mr. T. Fremantlej. 

MITRAILLEUSE, or Miteailleitr, a machine-gun in which 37 or more large-bored 
rifles are combined with breech-action, by means of which a shower of bullets may be rapidly 
projected by one man. It was invented in Belgium, and adopted by the French emperor soon 
after the Prusso- Austrian war in 1866, and was much used in the Franco -Prussian war in 
1870. Its peculiar " dry. shrieking, terrible sound " was described in the bombardment of 
Saarbriick, 2 Aug. 1870. Modifications of the mitrailleuse have been made by Montigny and 
others. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was tried and approved at Shoeburyness 11 Aug. 1870. It 
is mentioned in Grose's Military Antiquities (1801) that in England, in 1625, a patent was 
granted to William Drummond for a machine composed of a number of muskets joined 
together, by the help of which two soldiers can oppose a hundred, and named, on account of 
its efiect, "thunder carriage," or more usually, " fire carriage." 

MOABITES, descendants of Lot, a people living to the south-east of Judsea. They were 
frequently at war with the Israelites, and were subdued with divine help by Ehud about 
1336, by David about 1040, and by Jehoshaphat 895 B.C., but often harassed the Jews in the 
decay of their monarchy. The discovery of a stone with inscription in Phoenician characters, 
said to relate to Mesha, king of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii., was announced in Jan. 
1870, and impressions were exhibited soon after, which caused much discussion among 
orientalists. 

MONITEUR UNIVERSEL, a French newspaper, was established in Paris by C. J. 
Panckoucke, 24 Nov. 1789 ; and became the organ of the government in 1799. It was super- 
seded by the Journal OJiciel, i Jan. 1869 ; but resumed its official position about 23 Sept. 1S70. 

MUSKETRY SCHOOLS (p. 498) at Hythe and Fleetwood were established in 1854 under 
the superintendance of major-general C. C. Hay. He resigned in 1867. The school at Fleet- 
wood was closed the same year. 

N. 

NANCY (p. 500), on the retreat of MacMahon's army, and expecting the German army, 
surrendered to four Uhlans, 12 Aug. 1870. 

NATAL (p. 503). Attempts to depose bishop Colenso for unsound doctrine having failed, 
the Rev. W. R. Macrorie was sent out as bishop of Maritzburg, to act with the clergy 
opposed to their bishop, Dec. 1868. 

NATIONAL DEBT (p. 504), 31 March, 1867 : Funded debt, 769,541,004?. ; 1868, 
741,190,328/. : 1869, 740,418,032/.; 1870, 740,789,548/. Unfunded debt, 31 March, 1867, 
7,956,800/. ; 1868, 7,911,100/. ; 1869,8,896,100/.; 1870,6,761,500/. The National Debt Act, 
passed 9 Aug. 1870, consolidates the law relating to the debt. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBITIONS (p. 505). The third exhibition opened 
13 April, closed 22 Aug. 1868. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY (p. 505). The collection was removed from Great 
George-street, Westminster, to South Kensington Dec. 1869, and re-opened 28 March, 1870. 

NATIONAL SOCIETY for promoting the Education of the Poor in the principles of the 
established church of England, founded iSil. incorporated 1817. About 1 3,000 schools and 
a million scholars are connected with it. Office : Sanctuary, Westminster. 

NATIONAL UNION was formed in 1869 to combine a number of associations supporting 
the Conservative party. Lecturers were employed and pamphlets circulated. 

NATURALIZATION of FOREIGNERS. A new act for this purpose was passed 
12 May, 1870. 



NAV 



38 



NIC 



NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. A scientific committee of fifteen appointed to consider the 
present state of naval ari;hitecture, and tlie lequirements of naval warfare; 6 naval officers, 
9 scientific men; lord Dufi'erin chairman; about 19 Dec. 1870. 



NAVY OF ENGLAND (p. 510). Sums voted for it : 1867, 10,676,101?.; i^ 
1869, 11,366.545?. ; 1870, 9,757,690?. 



3, 11,168,949?., 



The Monarch, our first armour-clad turret ship, 

lauuchpcl at Chatham . . -25 May, 18 
47 armoured vessels afloat, with 598 guns ; 65 

efficiHut unamioured vessels ; and a large 

number of vessels of the old type, constitute 

present navy April, iS 

Satisfactory trial trip of the Navy Reserve 

squadron July, , 

Explosion of the boiler of the Thistle gun-boat, 

on trial trip ; 10 killed . . .3 Nov. , 

Devntntion, iron turret ship, keel laid by Mr. 

Childers at Portsmouth . . .12 Nov. , 
Eesignation of Mr. B. J. Ueed, chief constructor, 

July, 18 
Adm. sir T. M. C. Symonds reports in favour of 

the Monarch and the Captain turret ships, 

Aug. , 
H. M. S. iron-clad frigate. Triumph, launched at 

Jarrow 27 Sept. ,, 

The Captain founders near Finisterre about 

12.1SA.M 7 Sept. , 



472 lives were lost, including the captain, Hugh 
Bin-goyne, Capt. Cowper Coles, the designer of 
the ship, Mr. Childers (a son of the first lord), and 
other officers, the ^lite of the service ; 18 men of the 
crew were saved. " She capsized in a heavy squall 
shortly after midnight, and went down in three 
minutes." — G«'jm«-'4- report. Her destruction was 
attributed to too low free-board, heavy top- weight, 
masts, and hurricane deck. She cost 440,000^. 
She was built by Messrs. Lnird at Birkenhead. 

A court-martial for the nominal trial of James 
May, the gunner, and 17 other survivors, was 
held 27 Sept. to 4 Oct. ; Mr. B. J. Reed and 
other eminent authorities were examined ; 
the verdict was, that the loss of the ship was 
due to instability from faulty construction ; 
" a grave departure from her original 
design having been committed " . 8 Oct. 1870 

Report on the Monarch that her reserve of 
energy to prevent upsetting by a squall, is 16 
to I of that of the Captain. — Times. 10 Nov. ,, 



NEPHOSCOPE {nephos, Greek, a cloud). An apparatus for measuring the velocity of 
clouds, invented by Karl Braun, and reported to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, 27 July, 



NEUTRALITY LAWS. A commission, in a report issued in May, 1868, recommended 
changes. An act to make better provision for the preservation of neutrality was passed 
9 Aug. 1S70. John P. McDiarmid, apprehended for breach of neutrality laws, at Bow-street, 
28 Oct. 1870. 

NEW GRENADA (p. 515). Mosquera, the ex-president, was exiled i Nov. 1867, 
General Santos Gutierrez Vergara, the president, was deposed and imprisoned, and general 
Ponce made provisional president July, 1868. He was compelled to abdicate, and was suc- 
ceeded by Correoso, 29 Aug., who defeated his opponents 12 Nov. 1868. 

NEW SOUTH WALES (p. 516). The Intercolonial Exhibition opened at Sydney, by the 
governor-general lord Belmore, 30 Aug. 1870. It consisted of two departments, agricultural 
and non-agricultural. 

NEWSPAPERS (p. 517). The stamp duty on them was imposed in June, 171 2, to check 
seditious papers. In 1 724, a penny was charged for every sheet, and a halfpenny for every 
half sheet ; in 1761, the duty was made id. or 4?. is. Sd. the 1000. The duty was raised to 
ikd. in 1776; to 2c?. in 1 789 ; to 24c?. in 1794 ; to 3ic?. in 1797; to 4c?. in 1815. It was 
reduced to id!., and ^d. for a supplement, in 1836, and was abolished in 1855 ; the com- 
pulsory stamp being retained only for postal purposes. This also ceased on 30 Sept. 1 8 70. 
On I Oct. they were first sent with a ^d. stamp affixed to the cover. 

NEW ZEALAND (p. 519). 

Act relating to the government of New Zealand 
passed in the British parhament . . . : 

Te Kooti, a chief, and about 150 Maori convicts 
escape from Chatham island to the main- 
land, 4 July, they repulse troops sent against 
them, 7 Sept. ; massacre the whites at Poverty 
Bay 10 Nov. 

Te Kooti and the rebels defeated by col. Whit- 
more ; 130 Maoris killed . . 5 Jan. ; 

Massacre of settlers at Taranaki . 12 Feb. 

Change of ministry : hon. Mr. Fox's proposal to 
pay for British troops declined by the home 
government Sept. 

Te Kooti, thrice defeated by the colonists and 
friendly natives, a fugitive . . . Oct. 

Despatch from earl GranvUle, insisting on the 



withdrawal of the British troops (i8th regi- 
ment) causes much dissatisfaction 7 Oct. 

Friendly interview between Mr. McLean and 
the Maori king's minister . . 8 Nov. 

Increased demand for the New Zealand fibrous 
plant, phorriiium tenax .... i8( 

Departure of the last British troops 22 Jan. 

Te Kooti, refusing to surrender at discretion, 
24 Jan., narrowly escapes . . 5 Feb. 

Te Kooti's party attacked and dispersed ; his 
speedy capture anticipated . .31 July 

The Duke of Edinburgh, in the Galatea, at 
"Wellington 27 Aug. 

Increase of prosperity reported; loan of 
4,000,000^ proposed .... Aug. 

Political union of the islands effected . Aug. 



39-70 
1870 



NICOBAR ISLES, Indian Ocean, S. of Bay of Bengal, given up by Denmark and occupied 
by Great Britain to suppress piracy : announced June, 1869. 



NIT 39 OKL 

ISriTEO-GLYCERIlSrE (p. 522). Mr. Alfred Nobel's nitro-glycerine manufactory, near 
Stockholm, blown up ; 15 persons killed, many injured, 10 June, 1868. An act prohibiting 
its importation for a time, and regulating its transmission, was passed in 1869. 

JSTITROITS OXIDE (laughing gas) was discovered by Dr. Joseph Priestley in 1776. Ita 
use as an ansesthetic began in North America in 1864, in Paris 1866, in London March, 1868. 

NORTH-EAST and WEST PASSAGES (p. 524). 

Captain Biichan's and lieut. Franklin's expe- | 1S47-8." Lady Franklin received a medal from 

dition, 1818 ; Franklin's second expedition, ! the Royal Geographioul Society.] 

1819-22 A German arctic expedition (the Germania and 

[The north-west passage was discovered by sir John the Hansa) sailed, 15 June ; arrived at Pendu- 
Franklin and his companions, who sailed down' lum bay, Greenland, 18 July, 1869 ; the vessels 
Peel and Victoria Straits, since named Franklin parted; the Germania arrived at Bremen, 
Straits. On the monument in Waterloo-place is : n Sept. 1870 ; the //(t»'«a was frozen and sank, 
inscribed, — "To Franklin and his brave com-! Oct. 1869 ; the crew escaped with provisions, 
panions, who sacrificed their Uves in completinsf and reached Copenhagen . . i Sept. 1870 
the discovery of the north-west passage, a.d. I 

NORWICH (p. 526). 

Mutilated remains of a human body discovered was tried and condemned, and executed, 

near Norwich, 21-25 Jime, 1851 ; William 20 April, 1869 

Bherward, a publican of the place, confessed National crown bank stopped ; much distress 

that they were the remains of his wife mur- ; occasioned ; Sir Robert H. J. Harvey, the 

dered by him, 1 Jan. 1869 ; he recanted, but chief partner, commits suicide : died 19 July, 1S70 

NOVA SCOTIA (p. 527). On the agitation for secession Mr. John Bright presented a 
petition in the commons 15 May ; his motion for a royal commission of inquiry negatived 
16 June, 1868. The agitation soon subsided. 

NUITS. A small fortified tovra, near Dijon, in Burgundy, N.E. France, chartered in 
1212; frequently captured and ravaged, specially in 1569, 1576, and 1636. It was taken by 
the Badenese under Von Werder, 18 Dec. 1870, after five hours' conflict, in which above 1000 
French are said to have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners taken. The German loss 
was also heavy. A depot of arms and ammunition was gained by the victors. 



0. 

OATH (p. 528). New oath of allegiance provided by the 31st and 32nd Vict. c. 72 (1868), 
to be taken by the members of the new parliament : — " I do swear that I will be faithful and 
bear true allegiance to her majesty queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, according to 
law, so help me God." 

OCEANA, an imaginary republic, described in a book written by James Harrington, 
dedicated to Oliver Cromwell, and published in 1656. 

OMNIMETER, a new surveying apparatus (combining the theodolite and level, and com- 
prising a telescope and microscope), invented by Eckhold, a German engineer, to supersede 
chain measuring : announced Sept. 1 869. 

OPERA COMIQUE, a new theatre, 299 Strand, opened 29 Oct. 1870, by Mdlle. Dejazet 
and a French company. 

ORDNANCE SURVEY (p. 534), by the Survey Act, passed 12 May, 1870, was trans- 
ferred to the board of works. 

ORLEANS (p. 536). The princes' demand for permission to return to France, 19 June, 
was refused by the legislative assembly 2 July, 1870. Their requests to serve in the army 
after the disastrous defeats and the fall of the empire, 4 Sept., were also declined. — After 
nine hours' severe fighting, the city of Orleans was captured by the Germans, under general 
Von der Tann, 11 Oct. 1870. More than 4000 prisoners were taken. The loss on both sides 
was heavy. About 35,000 on each side were engaged. The city was made to pay a war 
contribution of 60,000^. On 9, 10 Nov. following. Von der Tann and the Bavarians were 
defeated by generals D'Aurelle de I'aladines and Pallieres, and Orleans was re-taken. The 
Germans acknowledged the loss of about 700 men and looo prisoners, chiefly wounded. The 
French asserted the numbers of both to be higher, and were much cheered with their victory. 
The French loss was heavy. The chief conflict took place between Coulmiers and Bacon or 
Baccon. Orleans was again occupied by the Germans at 3 am. 5 Dec, after severe conflicts 
on 2, 3, 4 Dec. at Bazoche and Chevilly, near Orleans, between a part of the army of the Loire 
and prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke of Mecklenburg. On 4 Dec. a battle took 



ORP 40 PAT 

place, during which the suburbs were stormed; and about 10,000 un wounded prisoners, 77 guna 
and 4 gunboats taken. The galknt due de Luynes was killed, 2 Dec, and Charrette, com- 
mander_ of the Pontifical zouaves, was struck down. The French assert that their army- 
retired in good order. 

ORPHAN-HOUSES (p. 536). 

The Orphanotropheou at Halle, established by 
August Francke 169S 

British Orphan Asylum, Clapham-rise, esta- 
blished 1827, removed to Slough, Bucks ; re- 
opened 25 June, ig 

Orphan-houses, Ashley-down, Bristol, founded 
by George Miiller, a Prussian, supported en- 



tirely by -voluntary contributions. (He began 
in a house in Bristol, 11 April, 1836.) 1616 

orphans were maintained 1868 

Erdington orphanage and almshouses, near 
Birmingham, erected and endowed (with 
250,000?.) by Josiah Mason, a manufacturer of 
Birmingham 1860-69 



OWElSrS COLLEGE, Manchester, founded by means of a bequest of ioo,oooL by John 
Owens, merchant, who died in 1846. A new constitution was obtained in 1870, and the duke 
of Devonshire, president, laid the first stone of the new building 23 Sept. 1870. 

OXFORD (p. 539). Bishop Samuel Wilberforce, translated to Winchester Nov. 1869, was 
succeeded by Dr. John Fielder Mackarness. 

OZONE (p. 266). Generated by a current produced by Wilde's magneto-electric machine 
employed to bleach sugar, by Edward Beane's patent, Aug. 1868. 



P. 

PACIFIC RAILWAY, North America, from Omaha city, Missouri, to Sacramento, 
California, 1700 miles, opened 12 May, 1869. By a collision near San Francisco, about 
15 persons were killed, 14 Nov. 1869. 

PANAMA (p. 544). A treaty for the construction of a ship canal through the isthmus 
by the United States was signed by representatives of that government and that of Colombia 
26 Jan. 1870. 

PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. This dogma, maintained by one party in the Roman church, 
tolerated by another, and utterly rejected by a third, was adopted and promulgated at the 
general council at Rome 18 July, 1870, a great many bishops having withdrawn. The dogma 
was inculcated by the false decretals of Isidore and others, but not adopted by the council of 
Trent. See Councils XXI. 

PARAGUAY (p. 547), see Brazil. A provisional government was installed, Lopez being 
then proclaimed an outlaw, 17 Aug. 1869. He was kiUed near the Aquidaban, i March, 
1870; see Brazil. 

PARIS (p. 548). M. Haussmann, the prefect of the Seine, reported the budget of 
the city to exceed 9,200,000^. He resigned Jan. 1870. For recent events, see France and 
Franco-German War. 

PARKS. An act for the establishment of public parks in England was passed 12 Julv, 
1869. 

PARLIAMENT (p. 550). 

Reform acts for Scotland and Ireland, and Par- 
liamentary Boundaries act passed, 13 July, 1868 

Parliamentary Elections act passed, 31 July, ,, 

Parliament dissolved . , . n Nov. 

New parliament met . . . .10 Dec. ", 

Eeporters excluded from the commons during 
debates on the Contagious Diseases act, 

24 May and 20 July, 1870 



The commons sat from 2 p.m. 15 July, to 5.30 
A.M 16 July, 1870 

Meeting of parliament, in six days after procla- 
mation, legalised by act passed . 9 Aug. „ 

Death of the earl of Onslow, father of the house 
of lords, aged 93 .... 24 Oct. ,, 



PARTITION ACT, relative to the division of property sold by direction of the court of 
chancery, passed 25 June, 1868. 

PASSIONISTS, a congregation of clerks of the holy cross, founded by St. Paul of the 
Cross, who died 1775, and was canonized by the pope 1867. A home was set up in England 
in 1 841, and others since. 

PATRONAGE of Li-vings by laymen in Scotland was opposed by the books of discipline 
1560 and 1578, abolished 1649, restored 1660. The system led to the disruption of the 
established church, and the foundation of the free church, 18 May, 1843. The abolition of 
lay patronage was earnestly advocated by the authorities of the established church in March, 



PAU 41 POO 

1 870, and the duke of Argyll volunteered to resign his patronage in May. Of 1 109 livings 
319 belong to the crown, and about 600 to private persons. 

PAUL'S, St. (p. 553). A great meeting was held at the Mansion-house to complete 
the interior of the cathedral according to Wren's design, 13 July, 1870. About 32,000^. had 
been collected 27 Aug. ; and 33,649^. 28 Sept. ; 34,708^!. 4 Nov. following. 

PEABODY FUND. Mr. George Peabody, an American merchant (born 18 Feb. 1795, 
died 4 Nov. 1869), who had made his fortune in London, gave on 12 March, 1862, 150,000/., 
on 21 Jan. 1866, 100,000/!., on 5 Dec. 1868, 100,000/., and by his will directed his trustees 
to pay 150,000/. — in all 500,000/. — to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. 



An autogTaph letter, promising her portrait in 
miniature, was sent him by the queen, 

28 March, 1866 

[Inscription on the miniatm-e sent: — "V.R. Pre- 
sented by the Queen to G. Peabody, Esq., the 
benefactor of the poor of London."] 

The fii'st block of buildings for working classes, 
termed " Peabody dwellings," in Commercial- 
street, Spitalfields. was opened 29 Feb. 1864 ; and 
others since, in Islington, Shadwell, Chelsea, and 



Bermoudsey ; they have been found to be self 

suppoi-ting. 
Mr. Peabody's statue, at the east end of the 

Royal Exchange, was inaugurated by the 

prince of Wales .... 23 July, 1869 
Puntral service at Westminster abbey, 12 Nov. ,, 
Funeral at Portland, U. S., Prince Arthur 

present 8 Feb. 1870 

He also gave larHe sums, for educational purposes, 

in the United States. . 



PEACE PRESERVATION ACT (Ireland), passed 4 April, 1870. 
PENSIONS (p. 558). Pohtieal Offices Pensions Act, passed 9 Aug. 1869. 

PERU (p. 561). President Prado resigned in consequence of an insurrection 7 Jan., and 
was succeeded by general La Puerta, who con6rmed Pezet's treaty, 13 Jan. 1868. Colonel 
J. Balta became president i Aug. 1868. Peru suffered much by the earthquakes 13-15 Aug. 
1868. 

PETERBOROUGH. Bishop Francis Jeune died 20 Aug. 1868, and was succeeded by 
Dr. William Connor Magee, elected 31 Oct. 

PHALSBOURG (Pfalzburg, Palatine city), a strong town of Alsace, department of 
La Meurthe, N. E. France, was founded in 1570, by the elector palatine George John. Ifc 
was ceded to France in 1661, and its fortress erected by Vauban, 1679. It checked the 
progress of the victorious armies of the allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the 
Germans from 16 Aug. to 12 Dec. 1870, when it capitulated unconditionally. 

PHARMACY ACT of 1868 (amended in 1869) required all sellers of poisons 'to be 
registered after 31 Dec. 1868. 

PHENOPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for investigating the movements of the eye- 
ball, invented by Donders, of Utrecht, and announced in 1870. 

PLANETS. Nos. 98 to in of the small planets discovered between 18 April, 1868 and 
15 Aug. 1870. 

PLEADINGS were ordered to be in EngUsh by 36 Edward III. 1362, and Cromwell 
extended the rule to all legal proceedings 1650. 

PLEBISCITES : see France, 8 May and 3 Nov, 1870; Rome, 2 Oct. 1870. 

POLICE, Metropolitan (p. 578). Colonel Henderson appointed commissioner in room 
of Sir R. Mayne, Feb. 1869. 



The detective police, only 15 men in June, 1S69, has 
been since raised to 266 men and a superintendent, 
with good effect, Oct. 1870. 



The first annual report of the commissioner issued, 

1870 : 
State : Dee. 1869, 8883 police constables for a radius 

of 15 miles from Charing Cross (exclusive of the 

city of London), including 3,563,410 inhabitants. 

PONT A NO YELLES. At this place, near Amiens, took place a fierce indecisive conflict 
lasting from 1 1 a.m. to 6 p.m. between the Germans under Manteuffel and the Fi-ench army 
of the north under Faidherbe, 23 Dec. 1870. Both sides claimed a victory; the French 
general asserted that he remained master of the field. 

POOR (p. 581). 



Poor Law Amendment act passed . 31 July, 18 
Presidtnts of the Poor law board : Gathome 
Hardy, 9 July, 1866; earl of Devon, May, 
1867 ; G. J. Goschen ... 9 Dec. , 

Minute of the poor law board defining liroits 
of relief, and recommending organization of 
metropolitan charitable institutions, 20 Nov., 
which is adopted by several parishes, Dec. 18 



Charity Organization Society established . 1870 

The act for more equal distribution of chai-ge 
for relief of in-door poor (passed 20 June) 
came into operation . . -29 Sept. ,, 

Circular of poor law board respecting farming 
out pauper children ... 25 Nov. ,, 

Received, for relief of the poor, in 1869, in Eng- 
land and Wales, 11,776,153;.; in Scotland, 



POO 



42 



PRU 



POOE, continued. 

892,712?. ; in Ireland, 927,046?. : total, land, 128,339 ; Ireland, 73,921 : total, 

13,595,911^. 1,281,681. 

Estimated number of paupers in relief, i Jan., Paupers in the metropolis receiving relief : — 

1870: — England and Wales, 1,079,391; Soot- Dec., 1869, 152,557; Dec, 1870, about 145,000. 

POPLIN (or Tabinet), an elegant rich fabric composed of silk and worsted, introduced 
by the Huguenot refugees from France about 1693; first manufactured in Dublin. Irish 
poplins are still deservedly esteemed. 

POPULATION (p. 585). Estimated population of the world in 1869, 1,238,000,000 ; 
of England and Wales, June, 1865, 20.990,946; June, 1869, 21,869.607; June, 1870, 
22,090,163 ; — of Scotland, 1866, 3,153,413 ; June, 1869, 3,205,481 ; June, 1870, 3,222,837 ; — of 
Ireland, 1866, 5,582,625 ; in 1869, 5,546,343 ; June, 1870, 5,525,210; of Great Britain, June, 
1870, 30,838,210. The next census to be taken on 3 April, 1871. 

POETE, OR Sublime Pokte, official name of the court of the sultan of Turkey. 
Mostasem, the last of the Abbasside caliphs (1243-58) fixed in the threshold of the principal 
entrance to his palace at Bagdad a piece of the black stone adored at Mecca, and thus this 
entrance became the '' porte " by eminence, and the title of his court. The sultans, successors 
of the caliphs, assumed the title. Bouillet. 

POETUGAL (p. 590). 

King and queen at the Paris exhibition, 

July — Aug. 18 

New ministry, under S5 da Bandeira, 21 July, 18 

under the duke de Saldanha . . 7 Jan. ,, 

under the duke de Louie . . .11 Aug. 18 

Violent opposition of Saldanha ; ordered back; 

to Paris as ambassador there, he resigns, 

Dec. , 
Cortes dissolved Jan. 18 

POST-OFFICE (p. 592). 
Postmaster empowered to purchase the electric 
telegraphs by act passed 31 July, 1868 ; work 

begun 5 Feb. 18 

Post-office money order system applied to 
France by virtue of a convention signed, 

5 Aug. 18 
Halfpenny stamped cards issued to the pubUc, 

I Oct. , 



Saldanha heads a military insurrection ; seizes 
the royal palace ; forms a new ministry, 

19 May, 1870 
Neutrality in the French war proclaimed, July, ,, 
Manifestation against Saldanha in Lisbon and 

Oporto 2 Aug. „ 

The French republic recognized . Sept. ,, 

New ministry under the bishop of Vizeu, 

30 Oct. „ 



By the Post-office act (passed 9 Aug. 1870) the 
newspaper stamp for posting was abolished ; 
registered newspapers and pamphlets or pat- 
terns under 2 oz. to be sent for \d. on and 
after ....... i Oct. 1870 

Postmaster : Spencer, marquis of Hartington, 
succeeded the marquis of Montrose, 9 Dec. 1868 

Wm. Monsell appointed . . . Jan. 187 1 



PEAIEIAL INSUREECTION at Paris, On i, 2, 3 Prairial, year 3 (20, 21, 22 April, 
1795) the Faubourgs rose against the directory, and were quelled by the military. 

PEEHISTOEIC ARCHJ];OLOGY. An international congress for treating prehistorical 
subjects met at Neuchatel in 1866, and at Paris in 1867. At the third meeting at Norwich, 
Aug. 1868, it asstimed the name of " International Congress for Prehistoric Archgeology," and 
published its transactions in 1869. See Barrows. 

PEUSSIA (p. 605). 

21 Hanoverians convicted of incipient treason 
against Prussia . . . .20 May, 1868 

Count von Bismarck's temporary retirement 
through ill-health .... June, ,, 

North German parliament closed by the king, 

20 June, „ 

Workmen's congress at Berlin, to promote cen- 
tralisation .... 26 — 29 Sept. ,, 

Prussian chamber opened with a pacific speech 
from the king 4 Nov. ,, 

Opposition in the chambers ; violent speech of 
the minister, Leonhardt . . . i Dec. ,, 

Bismarck, recovered, returns to Berlin, 8 Dec. „ 

The property of the king of Hanover seques- 
trated for his opposition . . 15 Feb. 1869 

The parliament closed . . .6 March, ,, 

The Prussian army exercised in manoeuvring 
at Stettin, Konigsberg, (fee, in presence of 
the king Sept. ,, 

The parliament meet .... 6 Oct. ,, 

It rejects the proposal for disarmament, 

21 Oct. ,, 

The crown prince visits Vienna . 7 Oct. „ 

Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen, 



consents to become candidate for the throne 

of Spain .... about 5 July, 1870 

In consequence of the virulent opposition of the 
French guvernment he, with the king's con- 
sent, relinquishes the candidature 12 July, ,, 

The French government requiring guarantees 
from the king against the future, the king re- 
pulses and declines to receive the French 
minister, Benedetti, 13 July ; and issues a 
circular to his representatives at foreign 
courts 15 July, ,, 

The emperor of the French declares for war, 

15 July, „ 

The north German parUament meet, and vote 
to support Pru.'^sia . . . .19 July, ,, 

Proclamation of the king, granting " am nei;ty 
for political offences," and " accepting the 
battle for the defence of the fatherland," 31 
July ; and to the army, undertaking the com- 
mand of the whole army . . 3 Aug. ,, 

For the events of the war, see Franco-Prussian 
War. 

Order of the " Iron Crown" (distributed in the 
war of 1 813) revived ; given to the crown 



PRU 



43 



RAI 



PRUSSIA, continued. 

prince for liis victory at 'Wissembourg, on 

4 Aug. 1870 
Prussian bishops protest against infallibility of 

the pope .... end of Aua:. „ 

Great rejoicing at Berlin, &c., at the suiTender 

of the emperor Napoleon . . .3 Sept. ,, 
Municli, Stuttgardt, and other southern cities, 

demand union with north Germany 6 Sept. ,, 
M. Jaooby arrested at Konigsberg by Von Palck- 

enstein for speaking- against the annexation 

of Alsace and Lorraine . early in Sept. ,, 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT, 1868, amended by an act passed 9 Axig. 1870. 

Q. 

QUADRUPLE TREATY, concluded in London 22 April, 1834, by the representatives of 
Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, guaranteed the possession of her throne to 
Isabella II., the young queen of Spain. 



Restriction on democratic meetings rescinded 
by gen. Von Falckenstein . . 7 Oct. 1870 

Herr Twesten, the liberal opponent of govern- 
ment in the chamber dies . . 14 Oct. „ 

Jacoby and other liberals released by royal 
decree about 26 Oct. ,, 

Election of new parliament, Nov. ; opened with 
speech promising internal reforms, 14 Dec. ; 
aristocratic address from the peers congratu- 
lating the king as emperor . . 21 Dec. „ 



El. 



RACES (p. 612). 

The Jockey club, which now chiefly regulates 
races and the betting connected with them, 
was founded in 1750. Its gradually accumu- 
lating rules were modified in 1828 and revised 
in 1857. Alterations recommended by a com- 
mittee appointed in April 1S70, were adopted 
by the club 16 July following. 

RAILWAYS (p. 615). 

Southern Eailways Amalgamation bill ; op- 
posed in the lords ; withdrawn . June, 1868 

Mont Cenis railway opened for traffic 15 June, ,, 

New act to amend the laws relating to railways, 
30 (fe 31 Vict. c. iig ; (it orders smoking 
compartments, and communication between 
passengers and railway servants in certain 
trains ; and prohibits trains for prize-fights, 
(fee.) passed 31 July, ,, 

Midland railway station, St. Pancras, opened, 

I Oct. „ 

New route to Liverpool (by a viaduct over the 
Mersey at Runcorn), opened . i Api'il, 1869 

Pacific railway: from the Atlantic to the Pa- 
cific ; opened .... 12 May ,, 

"Abandonment of Railways act" passed, 

II Aug. ,, 

Railway Companies' Powers act (1864) and Con- 
struction Facilities act (1864) amended by 
act passed 20 June, 1870 

" Raiiioay Association" established : (it consists 
of directors and representatives of share- 
holders, to watch legislation, &c.,) inaugural 
dinner ... . . 21 July, ,, 

Railway Accidents. — Abergele, N. Wales, 
(London and North-western,) collision be- 
tween Irish mail train and luggage train ; 
barrels of petroleum ignited ; 33 persons 
burnt to deatii . . . 20 Aug. 1868 

Near BirUngbury station (Rugby and Leaming- 
ton) : carriages went over Draycot embank- 
ment ; 2 persons killed . . . i Oct. ,, 

Near Bull's Pill, S. Wales (Great Western) : mail 
train ran into a cattle train ; i person and 
much cattle killed . . . .6 Nov. „ 

Near Copenhagen tunnel, HoUoway (Great 
Northern): coal train ran off the line; 2 
killed 1 3 Jan. 1869 

Near Khandalla, Bombay (Great Indian Penin- 
sula) : train ran off the line ; about 18 kUled, 

26 Jan. ,, 



Race-horses. — The comte de la Grange's stud (in 
consequence of the war,) was sold for 23, 730 J. 
GladiaUur fetched 5800Z. 

The Derby in 1869 was won by Pretender (26 
May) ; in 1870 by Kingcraft (i June). 



Arch fell in at Bethnal Green (Great Eastern) : 
coal train passing ; 5 killed . 25 Feb. i86g 

Eureka, St. Louis, Missouri, U. S. : collision ; 
19 killed 12 May, 1870 

Near Newark (Great Northern): collision; a 
waggon of a goods train, through the 
breaking of an old axle, went off the rails and 
met an excursion train ; 19 deaths ; i '30 a.m., 

21 June, „ 

Newcross (London and Brighton) ; collision ; 2 
killed, many injured ; great loss to the com- 
pany by compensation . . 23 June, ,, 

Near Carlisle (North Eastern): collision with 
goods train ; through reckless driving and 
bad signalling ; 5 deaths, about 20 injured; 
about I a.m 10 July, „ 

Near Barnet( Great Northern): collision; i man 
burnt to death 16 Aug. „ 

Tamworth (Loudon and North Western) : Irish 
mail (late), sent into a siding ; broke down a 
buttress and ran into the river Anker (error 
of a pointsman) ; 3 deaths 47 a.m. 14 Sept. „ 

Plessis near Tours : collision ; between two 
trains ; several killed . 4 a.m. 20 Sept. ,, 

Whitmore, near Crewe (London and North- 
western), coUision ; many injured, 4 Oct. „ 

Long- Katon Junction (Midland) ; coUision ; 7 
killed 9 Oct. „ 

Near Welwyn (Great Northern) : coUision ; 3 
killed 21 Oct. ,, 

Harrow (London and North- Western) : coUi'^ion 
with coal waggons, 7 killed . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Brockley Whins (,\'orth-Eastem)_, collision 
through mistake of Hedley, a pointsman ; 5 
killed; many injured .... 6 Dec. „ 

Cradley (Great Western) : collision ; i killed, 

8 Dec. „ 

Bamsley (Manchester, ShefBf-ld, and Lincoln- 
shire railway) : collision ; goods trucks broke 
loose ; 14 killed ; many injured . 12 Dec. „ 

Bell-bar, near Hatfield (Great Noi-thern), tire of 
wheel broke ; break and carriages overturned ; 
8 kiUed 26 Dec. „ 



EEC U KOM 

RECIPROCITY ASSOCIATION, founded at Manchester Sept. 1869. in consequence 
of the restrictions on the importation of British manufactures into their territories imposed 
by foreign governments. 

RECREATIVE RELIGIONISTS, a name given to an association of gentlemen for 
diffusing a knowledge of natural religion bj^ tbe aid of science, formed in Dec. 1866. In Jan. 
1867 lectures were given on Sunday evenings at St. Martin's Hall, London, by professor 
Huxley, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, and others, sacred music being performed at intervals during 
the evening. This was decided not to be au infraction of the Sunday act, 21 Geo. III. c. 49, 
in the trial, Baxter r. Baxter Langley, 19 ISov. 1868. See Stindai/ Lecture Society. 

REFORM IN RARLIAMENT (p. 620). The Scotch and Irish Reform acts were passed 
13 July, 1868. The Reform League was dissolved 13 Slarch, 1869. 

REFUGEES BENEVOLENT FUND instituted in consequence of the war, at a great 
meeting held at the Mansion-house, London, 21 Oct. 1S70. 

REGIUM DONUM (p. 622). By the Irish Church act, passed 26 July, 1869, the pay- 
ment of the Regium Donum was ordered to cease, and compensation to be made. 

REPORTING. By the verdict for the defendant in the case of Wason v. The Times (for 
libel) reports of parliamentary debates were decided to be privileged, Nov. 1868. 

REVENUE. The weekly instead of the quarterly publication of the public revenue and 
expenditure was begun by Mr. Robert Lowe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 16 Feb. 1870. 
By an act passed 31 July, 1868, revenue officers are permitted to vote for the election of 
members of parliament. Above 100 statutes relating to inland revenue fall into disuse 
I Jan. 1871. 



Gross annual Revenue to 31 March : — 1S68, 
69,600,218?.; — 1S69, 72,591,992?. J — 1870, 
75.434.252^- 



Gross annual Expenditure to 31 March :— 1S68, 
66,346,132?.; — 1869, 69,944,607?. ; — 1870, 
63,924,043?. 



EEZONVILLE, battle of, 18 Aug. 1870, see 3Ictz. 

RHINE (Latin, JRhcnus; German, likehi ; French, li7un), a river, about 760 miles long, 
rising in Switzerland, receiving the Moselle, Marne, Necker, and other rivers, terminating in 
many arms in Holland, and falling into the German ocean. On its banks are Constance, 
Basel, Strasburg, Spires, Mannheim, Cologne, Dusseldorf, Utrecht, and Leyden. The pos- 
session of the banks of the Rhine has been the cause of many wars, and it has been crossed 
by the French above twenty times in a century. In the beginning of the revolutionary war, 
Custine invaded Germany by crossing it in 1792, and at the close of the war in 181 5, France 
retained the left bank, which she will probably lose in consequence of the war declared 15 
July, 1870. A navigation treaty with other powers was signed by Fi-ance, 17 Oct. i868. 

RICHJIOND, Virginia, U.S. (p. 626). By the fall of the fiooi'ing in the state capital 
building, about 60 persons were killed, 27 Api'il, 1870. 

RIOTS (p. 628). 

Fierce riots against a colliery manager at Mold, Sheffield: quelled by intervention of lord 

Flintshire, put down by the military ; 4 Wharucliffe and others . . 21 Jan. 1870 

deaths 2 June, 1869 Rioting at Amiathwaite, near Carlisle, be- 

Violent rioting at a colliery at Thomcliffe, near tween English and Irish navvies, 15, 16 Oct. ,, 

RITLTALISTS (p. 62S). At a general convocation of the American episcopal church at 
Philadelphia, 27, 28 Oct. 1868, after a warm discussion on rituahsm, the discussion was 
adjourned to 1S71. 

ROAD STEAMERS. Mr. R. W. Thomson, of Edmburgh, in 1868, by adding india- 
rubber to the tires of the wheels of locomotives is considered to have solved the question 
of steam traction on common roads. Road-steamers have been successfully employed in Edin- 
burgh and Leith for drawing heavy waggons up inclined planes, and are adaptable to any 
di-aught work. They were tried at ^^'ooIwich, i Oct. 1870, and reported successful by 
eminent authorities. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS. A proposal of the Derby government to endow a catholic 
university for Ireland, Oct. 1867, failed through the Catholic bishops claiming the entire 
practical control, 31 March, 1868. Mr. Justice Thomas (now lord) O'Hagan, appointed lord 
chancellor of Ireland Dec. 1 868, is the first Roman Catholic who has held that office since the 
revolution of 1688-9. 



KOM 



45 



KUS 



EOME (p. 634). 

Sudden death of cardinal Andrea . 15 May, 1868 

The pope, in his aliocution, censures the 
Austrian new civil marriage law 22 June, ,, 

Arrangement respecting the papal debt made 
with Italy 30 July, ,, 

Encyclical letter of the pope, summoning an 
cecumenical council at Rome on 8 Dec, 1S69, 
and inviting ministers of the Greek and other 
churches 13 Sejit. ,, 

The patriarch of the Greek church declined to 
attend about 3 Oct. „ 

Monti and Tognetti (for complicity in tha ex- 
islosion of the Zouave barracks, 22 Oct. 1867), 
executed 24 Nov. ,, 

The pope celebrates a jubilee . 11 April, 1869 

In h;s allocution he deplores the opposition to 
the church in Austria and Spain 25 June, ,, 

He declares, in a letter to archbishop Manning, 
that no discu.ssions on disputed points can 
take place at the council . . 4 Sept ,, 

The council opened, .see Councils XXI. 8 Dec. ,, 

An exhibition of objects of Christian art opened 
by the popo 7 Feb. 1870 

British and American bishops protest ag tinst 
discussing the dogma of papal infallibility in 
the council, 11 April; the discussion begins, 

14 May, ,, 

Count Araim, on behalf of the north German 
confederation, protests against the dogma. 

May, ,, 

Papal infallibility adopted by the council and 
promulgated (533 for ; 2 against ; many retire) ; 
the council adjourns to 11 Nov. . 18 July ,, 

Rome completely evacuated by French troops 
in consequence of the war ; 8 mortars and 
15,000 shells said to be ceded to the pope, 
8 Aug. ; the troops sent from Civita Veochia, 

21 Aug. ,, 

Conciliatory letter from Victor Emmanuel to 
the pope 8 Sept. ,, 

Agitation in the papal provinces ; the Italian 
troops invited to enter . about 10 Sept. ,, 

The pope refuses terms offered him by the king 
of Italy (sovereignty of the Leonine city and 
retention of his income), . about 12 Sept. „ 

Gen. Cadorna crosses the Tiber at Casale ; sends 
flags of truce to gen. Kanzler, commander of 
the Zouaves, who refuses to surrender ; baron 
Arniui in vain negotiates between them 

17 Sept. ,, 

Skirmish with papal Zouaves ; several killed, 

14 Sept. ,, 

The Italians occupy Civita Vecchia without re- 
sistance .... about 15 Sept. „ 

Letter from the pope to gen. Kanzler, directing 
that a merely formal defence be made at 
Rome, and that bloodshed be avoided, 

19 Sept. ,, 



Cardinal Antonelli issues a diplomatic protest 
against the Italian occupation of Rome, 

20 Sept. 1870 

After a brief resistance from the foreign papal 
troops, stopped by order ot the pope, the 
Italian troops under Cadorna make a breach 
and enter Rwme amid enthusiastic acclama- 
tions of the people . . . .20 Sept. „ 

[Reported Italian loss, about 22 killed, 117 
wounded ; papal troops, 55 killed and 
wounded] 

The papal troops surrender arms ; about 8500 
foreigners march out with honours of war ; 
they insult the Itahans ; the native troops 
retained 22 Sept. ,, 

About 10,000 persons assemble in the Coliseum, 
choose 44 names for a provisional govern- 
ment igiv.iita) 22 Sept. „ 

Castle of St. Angelo occupied by Italian troops 
at the pope's request ... 28 Sept. ,, 

Circular letter from the pope to the cardinals 
complaining of the invasion and of his loss of 
Uberty, and interference with his private post 
bag 29 Sept. „ 

A giunta of 14 (the duke Gaetani chief) selected 
from the 44 names chosen ; approved by 
Cadorna 30 Sept. ,, 

General Masi in. command of Rome and the 
provinces; S.P.Q.R. appears on the pro- 
clamations 30 Sept. ,, 

Plebiscite : out of 167,548 votes, 133,681 for 
union with the kingdom of Italy ; 1507 against; 
the i-emainder did not vote . . 2 Oct. „ 

Cardinal Antonelli issues a protest ; published, 

4 Oct. „ 

The pope said to have accepted 50,000 crowns 
(his monthly civil list) from the Italian go- 
vernment 4 Oct. „ 

The result of the pl(5biscite sent to the king, 8 
Oct. ; Rome and its provinces incorporated 
with the kingdom by royal decree, 9 Oct. „ 

General La Marmora enters Rome as viceroy ; 
he proclaims that the pope shall be guaranteed 
in his sovereign powers as head of the church, 

II Oct. „ 

The Roman provinces united into one by decree, 

19 Oct. „ 

The pope issues an encyclical letter suspending 
the meeting of the council . 20 Oct. ,, 

Antonelli protests against the occupation of 
the Quirinal by the king . . 10 Nov. „ 

Bill introduced into the Italian parliament re- 
specting the transfer of the seat of govern- 
ment to Rome in about six months, and the 
preservation of the spiritual and temporal 
sovereignty of the pope . about 12 Dec. ,, 

Sudden arrival of the king at Rome; the city 
illuminated 31 Dec. „ 



KOUEN' (p. 637), after slight conflicts, 4, 5 Dec. 1870, surrendered to General Von 
Gbben, 6 Dec. It was ordered to pay a contribution of 17,000,000 francs. 

ROYAL ACADEMY (p. 637) held its first exhibition in the new building 3 May, 1869. 
An exhibition of pictures by the old masters, with some British, was opened 3 Jan. 1870, and 
2 Jan. 1871. 

RUPERT'S 'LKED, see Hudson's Bay, and Canada. 

RUSSIA (p. 643). 
Decree for the use of the Russian language in 

the Baltic provinces ... 7 July, 1867 

A Romanist college, to replace the authority of 

the pope, established at St. Petersburg, 

2 Aug. ,, 
The separate interior government in Poland 

suppressed 29 Feb. 1868 

Samarcand taken by Kaufmann . 26 May, ,, 

Amnesty for political offences granted, 6 Juno, ,, 
Polish language interdicted in pubUc places in 

Poland July, ,, 



The Government Messenger, oflBcial journal pub- 
lished at St. Petersburg . . 1 3th Jan. 

Socialist conspiracy among the students sup- 
pressed; the informer assassinated, Jan. 

Russia neutral in the Franco-Prussian war,Aug. 

Said to be arming, 20 Sept. ; contradicted 

27 Sept. 

Burlingame, Chinese envoy, arrives, 2 Feb. 

Dies at St. Petersburg ... 22 Feb. 

Fruitless visit of M. Thiers at St. Petersburg on 
behalf of the French government, 27 Sept. 



1870 



R[JS 



46 



SCR 



RUSSIA, continued. 

Diplomatic circular of prince Gortscliakofr, 
foreign minister, repudiating the clauses of 
the treaty of 30 March, 1856, respecting the 
Black Sea, 31 Oct. ; received by earl Gran- 
ville, 9 Nov., v7ho replies, maintaining the 
force of the treaty . . . 10 Nov. 1870 

Vigorous protest of British and Austrian go- 
vernments 16 Nov. ,, 

Decree for forming military reserves; 

about 16 Nov. „ 

Conciliatory despatch from prince Gortsohakoff 



to earl Granville, agreeing to a conference 
for revision of the treaty of 1856 . 20 Nov. 18 

Prus.'^ian government expresses surprise at 
Gortschakoff's circular, and proposes a con- 
ference .... about 26 Nov. ,, 

Firm courteous despatch from earl Granville, 
consenting to a conference which shall " as- 
semble without any foregone conclusion," 

28 Nov. „ 

The other powers agree to a conference in 
London Dec. ,, 



s. 

SAARBRUCK, the Roman Augusti Muri or Sarce pons, an open town on the left bank of 
the Saar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the tenth century, long subject to the bishops of 
Metz, afterwards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the house of Nassau about 1380. 
It was captured by the French and retaken by the Germans 1676, reunited to France 1794- 
18 14, and ceded to Prussia 18 15. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by the French under 
Frossard (between 11 and i in the daytime), and the Prussians in small force were dislodged, 
and the town occupied by the French general Bataille. The mitrailleuses were said to 
be very effective. The emperor Napoleon, who was present with his son, said in a telegram 
to the empress, " Louis has gone through his baptism of fire. He has not been in the least 
startled. We stood in the foremost rank, and the rifle balls were dropping at our feet, and 
Louis picked up one that fell near him. His bearing was such as to draw tears from the 
soldiers' eyes." On the 6 Aug. the Prussian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with the 
first army, recaptured Saarbriick, after a sanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. The 
heights taken by the French on the 2nd are in Germany, those taken by the Germans on the 
6th are in France, and both battles were fought between Saarbriick and the town of Forbach, 
which was captured and has given a name to the second conflict. The loss was great on 
both sides. The French general Franjois was killed, and the 2nd corps under Frossard 
nearly destroyed. The French retreated to Metz. They were greatly superior in numbers 
at the beginning of the fight, but were badly commanded. 



SALISBURY. 
9 Sept. 1869. 



Bishop W. K. F. Hamilton was succeeded by Dr. George Moberley, elected 



SALMON (p. 232). The Salmon Acts Amendment act passed, i Aug. 1870. 
SAMARCAND (p. 649) was occupied by the Russians under Kaufmann 26 May, 1868, 



after a conflict on the previous day. 
Kaufmann, 13-20 June, if " 



The garrison left resisted a fierce siege till relieved by 



SANITARY LEGISLATION (p. 650). The acts of 1866 amended by act 9 Aug. 1870. 

SATIRE MENIPPEE, a celebrated satirical pamphlet, partly in verse and partly in prose, 
attacking the policy of the court of Spain and the league, written in the style of the biting 
satires of the cynic philosopher Meuippus. The first part, " Catholicon d'Espagne," by Leroy, 
appeared in 1593; the second, " Abr^g^ des Etats de la Ligue," by Gillot, Pithou, Rapin, and 
Passerat, appeared in 1594. — Bouillet. 



SAVINGS' BANKS (p. 654) at the end of i^ 
United Kingdom, 37>5S4>S57^- 
SCOTLAND (p. 658). 

Scottish hospital, London, incorporated . 
Salmon Fisheries act passed . . July, i 
Scotch Reform act passed . . 13 July, i 
Land Registers and Titles to Land act passed, 

July, 



in England held 30,574,473?.; in the 



1665 



Commission appointed to inquire into the ad- 
ministration of justice .... Oct. 1868 
Municipal elections amendment act passed 

9 Aug. 1S70 
Act to unite counties for sheriffs' duties passed 

9 Aug „ 

SCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE INSTITUTION, Bristol, founded by George Muller, a 
Prussian (born 1805), minister of the "Brethren," on 5 March, 1834. The objects are: 
I. Assistance of schools giving instruction on scriptural principles ; 2. Circulation of the 
scriptures; 3. Assistance to missions; 4. Circulation of tracts; 5. Provision for destitute 
orphans, see Orphan-houses. It is entirely supported by unsolicited voluntary contributions. 
430,000?. had been received up to 1868. 



SEA 47 SOI 

SEA-BIRDS PRESERVATION ACT, passed 24 June, 1869. 

SEDAN (p. 662), a fortified city in the valley of the Meuse, N".E. France. Around thia 
place a series of desperate conflicts on 29. 30, and 3 1 Aug. between the French army of the 
north, under Marshal MacMahon (about 150,000 men), and the greater part of the three 
German armies under the king and crown-prince of Prussia and the crown-prince of Saxony, 
(about 250,000 men), was brought to a close on i Sept. The battle began with attacks on the 
French right and left about 5 a.m., and was very severe at 2 p.m. At 4 p.m. the Germans 
remained masters of the field, and the crown-priuce of Prussia announced a complete victory, 
the chief part of the French army retreating into Sedan. The emperor Napoleon was present 
during the battle, and, it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for four hours to the 
German grenades. The impo.ssibility of further resistance was then evident. The Germans had 
contracted their circle close round i^edan ; their formidable artillery held all the heights, from 
which they could at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the army, and only 2000 men were 
in a condition to respond to their commander's call, and to make a supreme effort to break 
through the enemy with the emperor and escape to Montmedy. At first general De Wimpflfeu 
(called to the command when MacMahon waswounded,) indignantly rejected the terms offered 
by the victor, and the emperor had a fruitless interview with count Bismarck to endeavour to 
mitigate them. On 2 Sept. the emperor wrote in autograph to the king of Prussia, "i\lon frfere, 
n'ayant pu mourir a la tete de mes troupes, je depose mon epee au pied de votre majesty. 
Napoleon." A capitulation of Sedan and the whole army therein was signed by generals 
von Moltke and De Wimpfl'en at the chateau of Bellevue, near Frenois, at 11*30 a.m., and at 
2 p.m. an interview took place between the king and the emperor, who was downcast but 
dignified. The conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, in which (according to the 
emperor) the Germans had the advantage, not only in number (600 to 500), but also in weight, 
range, and precision. The carn;ige was awful, and the field the next day was a mass of 
shattered bones, torn flesh, and coloured rags. About 25,000 French pi-isoners were taken in 
the battle, and 83.000 surrendered the next day, together with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field- 
pieces, and 150 fortress guns. About 14,000 French wounded were found lying in the 
neighbourhood, and about 3000 escaped into Belgium and laid down their arms. The great 
army of the north had ceased to exist. Among the killed was lieut.col. Pemberton, a 
correspondent of the Times, who had approached too near the conflict. The French emperor 
and his suite arrived at Wilhelrashohe, a castle near Cassel appointed for his residence, 
(formerly inhabited by his uncle Jerome, when king of Westphalia), in the evening of 5 Sept. 
— On I Sept. the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the Bavarians and burnt, it was said, 
because the inhabitants fired on the ambulances ; many women and children perished. The 
French denied the provocation. The place had been previously twice bombarded and stormed 
by the maddened combatants. 

SEEDS. An act was passed to prevent the adulteration of seeds (a common practice), 
II Aug. 1869. 

SERVIA (p. 664). Milan, nephew of the prince Michael (assassinated, 10 June, 1868), 
was chosen his successor, 22 June ; 14 of the murderers were executed, 28 July following. 

SHIPPING, British (p. 668). In 1869: 24,187 registered sailing vessels (tonnage, 
4,765,304 tons) ; 2,972 steam vessels (948,367 tons). 

SILKWORM DISEASE. In 1853 the annual produce of sericulture in South France 
was estimated at about 4.680,000?. Soon after a disease broke out in the worms, which re- 
duced the value of the silk crop to about one-third that amount. In 1858 a commission was 
appointed to inquire into the nature of the disease, then termed pebrine; and M. Quatrefages, 
in 1869, proved that it is hereditary, contagious, and infectious. M. Filippi discovered in the 
blood of the diseased worms a multitude of cylindrical corpuscles, since na,med pankisto- 
IJhyton, which Pasteur, who took up the study in 1865, has demonstrated to be parasitical, and 
the cause of the disease. He has since devised a way by which the organic'germs may be 
got rid of, and the disease extirpated. 

SIMONY (p. 674). By the statute of Anne, stat. 2, c. 12 (1713) the Rev. James John 
Merest was convicted of simony 26-29 Nov. 1869, and deprived. 

SMITHFIELD (p. 678). The new metropolitan meat-market was inaugurated by the 
lord mayor James Lawrence 24 Nov., and opened for trade i Dec. 1868. 

SOCIAL SCIENCE (p. 679). The National Association met at Birmingham 30 Sept. 
1868 ,■ at Bristol 29 Sept. 1869 ; at Newcastle-on Tyne 21 Sept. 1870. 

SOISSONS (p. 680). This ancient city, after three weeks' investment and four days' 



SOL 



48 



SPA 



bombardment, surrendered to the Germans under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, i6 Oct., 
1870. 99 officers, 4633 men, 128 guns, &c., were said to be taken. The Germans also ob- 
tained a second line of railway from Chalons to Paris. 

SOLFEPJNO (p. 681). On 24 June, 1870, on the site of the battle, three ossuaries, 
containing the bones of thousands of the slain, were solemnly consecrated in the presence of 
representatives of Austria, France, and Italy. 

SOLICITOR-GENERAL (p. 681). On sir William Brett being made a judge, sir Richard 
Baggallay became his successor, 14 Sept. 1868. At the resignation of the Disraeli ministry 
sir John Duke Coleridge became solicitor-general, 12 Dec. 1868. 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA (p. 683). Sir James Fergusson became governor Dec. 1868. 

SPAIN (p. 688). 



Law enacted abolisMng normal schools, and 
subjectiiig education to the priests, 2 June, 18 

Duke and duchess of Montpensier arrested and 
exiled 6 July ,, 

Marshal Serrano, general Dolce, and others, 
exiled about 10 July, ,, 

Insurrection begins in the fleet, 18 Sept. ; joined 
by the garrison and city of Cadiz, 19 Sept. ; 
accepted by nearly all Spain, 19 — 30 Sept. „ 

Prim arrives at Cadiz, 17 Sept. ; announces 
a provisional government . • 19 Sept. ,, 

The ministers resign, 19, 20 Sept. ; Josd Concha 
becomes president of the council, 22 Sept. ; 
Bravo Murillo and his colleagues flee to 

Bayonne 23 Sept. ,, 

Royalist leaders : Jos6 Concha, marquis de 
Havana, Manuel Concha, marquis de Duero, 
at Madrid ; the marquis de Pezuela at Barce- 
lona ; Eusebio de Calonge in the north ; Pa via 
y Lacy, marquis de Novaliches in Andalusia.] 

Novaliches, the royalist general, defeated at 
Alcolea by Serrano, 27 Sept. ; surrenders, 

28 Sept. ,, 
The queen flies to Bayonne and thence to Pau, 

and protests .... 29, 30 Sept. ,, 
The deposition of the queen declared at Madrid, 

29 Sept. ,, 
A national guard organised . . 30 Sept. ,, 
Don Juan, son of don Carlos, renounces his 

hereditary rights in favour of his son, Carlos, 

3 Oct. „ 

Serrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct. ; Serrano, Prim, 
and Olozaga constitute a provisional govern- 
ment 5 Oct. ,, 

Prim enthusiastically received at Madrid, 

7 Oct. ,, 

The education law of 2 June annulled ; the 
Jesuits and other religious orders suppressed ; 
the laws expelling the Jews abrogated ; free- 
dom of rehgious worship decreed, 

about 12, 13 Oct. „ 

All the local juntas dissolved by manifesto of 
the provisional government . . 20 Oct. ,, 

The provisional government recognised by the 
United States, 13 Oct. ; by England, Prance, 
and Prussia, 25 Oct. ; by Austria, Sweden, 
and Belgium .... about 31 Oct. ,, 

Manifesto of the government declaring for uni- 
versal suffrage, and free press and education, 

26 Oct. ,, 

Prim created a marshal . . about 6 Nov. ,, 

The queen arrives at Paris ... 6 Nov. ,, 

The joint electoral committee at Madrid declare 
in favour of a limited monarchy 14 Nov. ,, 

Decree for formation of a citizen force of the 
Volunteers of Freedom . . . 18 Nov. „ 

Loan of 20,000,000^. proposed by Figueroa, 
minister ot finance ; 4,000,000?. said to be un- 
dertaken by Rothschilds ; about 2,ooo,oooJ. 
subscribed fi'om Spain . about 25 Nov. ,, 

Insurrection against the provisional govern- 
ment breaks out at Cadiz, 5 Dec. ; murderous 
conflicts, 6 Dec. ; the city invested ; sur- 
renders ; entry of general Caballero de Roda, 
general of the army of Andalusia 12 Dec. ,, 



Peaceful elections for constituent cortes, 

19, 20 Dec. 1868 

Manifesto of the due de Montpensier, justifying 
his recent entry into Spain dated 19 Dec. ,, 

Violent insurrection at Malaga suppressed with 
much slaughter .... 31 Dec. ,, 

Election of members for the cortes 17 Jan. 1869 

The Spanish envoy at Rome not received, 

23 Jan. ,, 

Gutierez de Castro, civil governor of Burgos, 
murdered in tiie presence of priests while 
taking an inventory of the artistic treasures 
of the cathedral .... 24 Jan. ,, 

Insurrection in Cuba increasing . . Feb. ,, 

Meeting of the cortes, 11 Feb. ; Rivero elected 
president 13 Feb. ,, 

The provisional government resign ; Serrano 
re-appointed head of the government with 
same ministry . . . . 25, 26 Feb. ,, 

Riots at Xeres on account of conscription 

16 March ,, 

Spanish Protestant rehgious service at Madrid, 

28 March, ,, 

Insurrection in Cuba fomented by Americans, 

April, „ 

6ist anniversary of the Madrid revolution and 
massacre of the French (1808) . 2 May, ,, 

The cortes vote for a monarchy (214 to 71), 

21 May, „ 

The new constitution promulgated . 6 June, ,, 

Marshal Serrano elected regent by the cortes, 
15 June ; sworn . . . .18 June. ,, 

New ministry under Prim, about . 18 June, ,, 

Carlist risings m La Mancha and at Ciudad 
Real, suppressed about . . July — Aug. ,, 

United States' overtures respecting Cuba indig- 
nantly rejected . . . about 18 Sept. „ 

Candidature of the duke of Genoa discussed 

Sept.— Oct. „ 

Republican risings at Tarragona, Barcelona, 
and other places, suppressed with bloodshed, 
Sept. ; republicans defeated near Reus, 4 Oct. ; 
Saragossa cannonaded, 8 Oct.; Valencia sur- 
rendered, 16 Oct. ; tranquilUty generally res- 
tored 20 Oct. „ 

Warm discussions respecting the election of a 
king ; Topete, minister of marnie, resigns, 

2 Nov. „ 

General Dulce dies .... 23' Nov. „ 

Powerful repubUcan speech of Castelar in the 
cortes about 18 Dec. ,, 

Resignation of Prim and the ministry on the 
Italian government opposing the nomination 
of the duke of Genoa as king of Spain, 4 Jan, 1870 

Prim resumes office with Topete and Rivero, 

10 Jan. „ 

Majority in the assembly for Prim against the 
combined unionists and liberals 3 April, ,, 

Conscription riots at Barcelona ; soon sup- 
pressed 7, 8 April, ,, 

The due de Montpensier, after great provocation, 
kills don Enrique de Borbun, brother of the 
ex-king, in a duel, 12 March ; tried, con- 
demned, and fined . . .12 April, ,, 

The ofltered crown declined by Espartero, May, ,, 



SPA 



49 



SUE 



SPAIN, continued. 

Bill for gradual abolition of slavery in the 
colonies presented to the cortes . 28 May, 1 

Two Englishmen of Gibraltar seized by bri- 
gands ; ransomed for 5200!. ; brigands after- 
wards attacked by the Spanish civil guard ; 
several of them killed, and part of the ran- 
som recovered . ... June, 

Rojo Alias carries a resolution requiring an 
absolute majoritj' in the cortes for any jiro- 
posed sovereign (179 out of 356); this ex- 
cludes all present candidates . . June, 

Isabella II. abdicates in favour of her son 
Alfonso 25 June, 

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollem Sigmariugen 
nominated king, accepted by the regent and 
ministry, 6 July ; this justified by tbe govern- 
ment in a circular, 7 July ; on the strong oppo- 
sition of Prance he resigns . . 12 July, 

Renewed agitation for a republic, abo\it 9 Aug. 

Amnesty for all iJolitical oSences since 29 Sept. 
1868, published .... 10 Aug. 

Irruption of Carlists into Navarre, 27 Aug ; 
defeated 28 Aug. 

The Basque provinces put into a state of siege, 

28 Aug. 

The French republic warmly recognised Sept. 

Ministerial crisis 15 Sept. 



Claret, the ex-queen's confessor, dies, 4 Oct. 

Amadous, duke of Ao.sta (born 30 May, 1845), 
accepts the candidature for the crown, 2o(tet. 

Elected by the cortes by 191 votes : (63 for a 
republic ; 27 for the due de Montiaensier) 

16 Nov. 

Proclaimed king 17 Nov. 

The ex-queen, on behalf of her son Alfonso, 
protests against the election . . 21 Nov. 

The duke accepts the crown from a deputation 
of the cortes at Florence, and says " that his 
honesty should rise above the struggle of 
parties, and that he had no other object but 
the peace and prosperity of the nation." 

4 Dec. 

Stormy session in the cortes respecting arrange- 
ments for the new king, 19 Dec ; Rivero, the 
president, resigns . . . .25 Dec. 

Prim fired at and wounded in his carriage 
by six men who escaped ; great indignation 
at Madrid ; Topete rejoins the ministry ; 
vote of confidence in it . . .28 Dec. 

Prim dies in the evening ; the king received by 
Topete at Cartagena . . . .30 Dec. 

Funeral of Pi'im 31 Deo. 

The king enters Madrid, visits the body of Prim, 
and takes the oath .... 2 Jan. 



1871 



SPANISH EEFORMED CHURCH, constituted at Gibraltar 25 April, 1868. By per- 
mission of general Prim its missionaries entered Spain soon after the revolution, in Sept. 
following. 

SPICHEREN, see Saarbruck. 

STAMPS (p. 693). By the Stamp Acts, 10 Aug. 1870, newspaper stamps were abolished 
after i Oct. 1870. The new stamp duties imposed came into effect i Jan. 187 1. Aunual 
revenue received from stamps 31 March, 1868, 9,475,177^.; 1869, 9,241,450?.; 1870, 
2,288,553?. 

STOCKS (p. 700). Average price of 3 per cent, consols in 1866, 88; in 1867, 93 ; in 
1868, 93I; in 1869, 92I ; on 10 Oct , 1870, 92f. " During the greatest crisis ever developed 
in the history of the world, the funds remain day after day without a fractional movement." 
— Times, II Oct. 1870. 

STRASBURG (p. 702). The cathedral, an epitome of Gothic art, was founded by Clovis, 
and reconstructed by Pepin and Charlemagne. After destruction by lightning 1007, it was 
principally rebuilt by Erwin de Steinbach and his son in the 14th century. The lofty tower 
was completed in 1439. The celebrated astronomical clock, after a long stoppage, was repaired 
by M. Schwilgue, and inaugurated i Jan. 1843. Strasburg was invested by the Germans, 
principally from Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war, 10 Aug. 1870. Gen. Von 
Werder assumed the command of the besiegers, and the bombardment began 14 Aug. and 
a vigorous sally was repulsed 16 Aug. Gen. Uhrich, the commander, declared that he would 
not surrender except upon a heap of ashes. After a heroic resistance, and when a breach 
had been made and an assault was impending, notice was given, 27 Sept. and the place 
surrendered at 2 a.m. 28 Sept.; at 8 A..M. 17,15° nien and 400 officers laid down their arms. 
The German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 43 were officers. The Germans en- 
tered Strasburg 30 Sept., the anniversary of its surrender to the French in 1 68 1 by a 
surprise. Uhrich received the grand cross of the legion of honour, Oct. 1870. The 
invaluable library was destroyed and the cathedral much injured. About 400 houses were 
destroyed, and 8000 persons rendered homeless. 

STREET RAILWAYS, see Tramroads. 

SUEZ CANAL (p. 704). 
French and EngUsh vessels enter the canal, 

Nov. : 
Mr. John Fowler, the engineer, reported the 
canal as suitable for steamers and mail 
traffic, but not for vessels requiring tugs, 

5 Feb. : 
Water of the Mediterranean admitted to the 
salt lakes 18 Mar. 



The works visited by the prince and princess 
of Wales 23 Mar. 1869 

The canal successfully opened in the presence 
of the emperor of Austria, the empress of 
the French, the viceroy of Egypt, and others, 

17 Nov. ,, 

M. dc Lesseps entertained in London 4 Jaly. 1870 



minister at Washington, formerly a corres- 
pondent for the Times ... 19 July 1870 

Mr. Robert K. Buwley, 14 years manager of 
the Crystal palace ci'inpany . 25 Aug. „ 

Dr. Augustus Malthies'Sfn, eminent chemist, 
professor at St. Bartholomew's hospital, 6 Oct. „ 



SUG 50 THI 

SUGAR (p. 704). The duty was considerably reduced by the customs act, i Aug., 1870. 
Quantity of raw sugar imported into the united kingdom in 1867, 10,545,315 cwt. ; in 1868, 
11,796,161 cwt. ; in 1869, 11,033,653 cwt. 

SUICIDES in England and Wales in 1867, 987 males, 371 females; in 1868, 1138 males, 
408 females ; in 1869, 1165 males, 397 females. 

Mr. Stephenson, better on races; the "levia- 
than book-m^ker " . . . -9 feb. 1869 

G. H. Townsend, historical scholar 25 Feb. ,, 

Lord Cloncurry .... 3 April, ,, 

Sir Robert H. J. Harvey, Norwich banker, 
IS July ; died . . . .19 July, 1870 

M. Pr^vost-Paradol, the accomplished Freuch 

SUNDAY LECTURE SOCIETY was founded 25 Nov. 1869. It began its proceedings 
by a lecture delivered by Dr. W. B. Carpenter at St. Geoi'ge's hall, Regent-street, 16 
Jan. 1870. Its success was reported at the first annual meeting, 7 July, 1870. See 
Jiecreative Religionists. 

SURVEY ACT, passed 12 May, 1870. See Ordnance Survey. 

SUSPENSORY BILL, relating to the Irish church (p. 708), rejected by the house of 
lords 30 June, 1868. 

SWEDEN (p. 710). Princess Louisa was married to Frederic, crown-prince of Sweden, 
28 July, 1869. Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war was proclaimed 4 Aug. 1870. Prince 
b'<rn 27 Sept. 1870. 

SYLLABUS OF ERRORS in modern times; 80 paragraphs divided into 10 chapters, 
issue I by pi>pe Pius IX , with an encyclical letter, 8 Dec 1864. It condemned heresy, 
modern philosophy, and liberalism in politics ; was forbidden to be read in French churches, 
and was generally opposed, but was adopted by the council at Rome 1870. 



T. 



TABINET, see Poplin. 

TALKING MACHINE, see Antomafons. 

TAXES (p. 717). Gross amount of assessed taxes for year ending 31 March, 1868, 
3,509,000^. — 1869, 3,494,000^.-1870, 4,500,000^. 

TEA (p 717) imported in 1867, I28,028,7261bs. ; in 1868, 1 54,845,863 lbs. ; in 1869, 
139.223,298 lbs. 

TELO-DYNAMIC TRANSMITTER, invented by M. Hirn, is an arrangement of water- 
wheels, endless wires, and pulleys, for conveying and using the power of water-falls at a 
distance, and has been much used since 1850. The apparatus was shown at Paris in 1862. 

TENANT-RIGH'L' Hills to amend the position of Irish tenants in relation to their 
landlords were brought into parliament by Mr. iSharman Crawford, 1835, Sir Joseph Napier, 
1852, Mr. Cardwell. i860, Mr. Chichester Fortescue, 1866, Lord ISaas, 1867. The Irish 
laud bill setthug the question passed 8 July, 1870. See Ulster. 

THAMES (p. 721). 



The Thames embankment — Victoria or northern 
side : the footway was opened to the public, 
30 July, 1868 ; the roadway was opened by 
the prmce of VVales .... 13 July, 1870 

The proposal to build public oflSces upon the 
reclaimed land negatived by the house of 
commons July, „ 



New bye-lavrs to protect the fish in the Upper 

Thames passed by tlie Conservators, 14 June iS 
^he Thames tunnel, transferred to the East 

London railway company, was closed 21 July, ,, 
The Towtr nibway, an iron tube tunnel beneath 

the Thames, constructed by Messrs. Barlow, 

was begun 16 Feb. 1869, and privately opened, 

April, 1870. It was said to have cost only 

16,000?. 

THEATRES (p. 724). New ones opened ; the Globe, Strand, 28 Nov. 1868 ; the Gaiety, 
Strand, 21 Dec, 1868; Charing Cross, 19 June, 1869; Vaudeville, 16 April, 1870. Opera 
Comique, 299, Strand, opened 29 Oct. 1870, for Mile. Dejazet. 

THIONVILLE, the ancient Theodonis villa, a fortified city on the Moselle, N.E. France. 
It was the occasional residence of Charlemagne and his successors, and on the extinction of 
hi.s race, it was successively held by private lords, the counts of Luxemburg, the dukes of 
Burgundy, the house of Austria, and the kings of Spain. It was taken by the dake of Guise, 



TOU 



51 



TRI 



23 June, 1558, after an obstinate defence, and returned to Philip II. by the peace of Gateau 
Cambresis. It successfully resisted the marquis de Feuqui^res in 1637, but was taken after 
four months' siege by the due d'l'highien. 10 Aug. 1643, and remained with Fratice It suc- 
cessfully resisted the Austrians in 1792, and the Prussians in 1814. It was invested by the 
Germans in Aug. 1870, and after bombardment, being in flames, surrendered 24 Nov. 
following. 

TOUL, the Roman Tulli Leucorum, a fortified town on the Moselle, K.R. France, one of 
the most ancient in the empire. The city and diocese acquired great privileges from Charles 
the yimple, 925, when it was united with the German empire It was reunited wiih h>ance, 
1552. The fortifications, begun in 1238, were rebuilt and enlarged in 1700, according to the 
plans of Vauban. After a vigorous resistance to the Germans, commencing 14 Aug. 1S70, 
Toul surrendered with its garrison of 3000 men, 23 Sept., when the town was burning in 
twenty-three places. The Germans thus acquired an uninterrupted railway communication 
to Paris. 

TOURNAMENTS (p. 734), introduced into England early in the 12th century, were 
prohibited by Henry II., but revived by Richard I., his son. Solemn tournaments were 
held by Edward Hi., 25 Sept. 1329, in London; and 19 .Jan. 1344, at "Windsor ; and by 
Richard II. in Smithfield, London, 10 Oct. 1319; and also by Henry Vlll., in May, 1513. 

TOURS (p. 735). When Paris was invested by the Germans, M. Cremieux and several 
of the members of the French government of defence went to Tours, together with the 
representatives of foreign powers, 18 Sep. On 9 Oct. these were joined by Gambetta, then 
minister of the interior and now of war (who escaped from I'aris by a balloon), 7 Oct. In 
consequence of the defeat of the army of the Loire near Orleans, the government removed to 
Bordeaux, II Dec. 

TRACTION ENGINES, see Eoad Steamers. 

TRAMWAYS (p. 736). Street railways or tramways for omnibuses drawn by horses, 
previously established by Mr. Train in New York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, 
Cheshire, 30 Aug. i860, and at Bayswater, London, 23 March, 1861. (See Ireland, 1868.) A 
street railway bill was rejected by the house of commons in April, '861. Several of these 
railways existed for a time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but were all taken up 
in 1862. An act to facilitate the construction of tramways passed 9 Aug. 1870. Tramways 
from Brixton to Kennington, and from W^hitechapel to Bow, were opened 9 May, 1870; and 
others since. 

TREASURY. A third lord of the treasury was appointed Dec. 1868, being Mr. Stansfeld, 
who was succeeded by Mr. W. H. Gladstone, Dec. 1869. 

TRIALS (p. 748). 

Esmonde will case, Dublin ; Lady Esmonde 
bequeathed property to support protestant- 
ism in Ireland, by endowing a college, <fec. : 
will disputed by her family : no verdict by 

jury 3 — 13 June, : 

[New trial, will affirmed, Aug. 1869.] 

Thomas Edgeley, convicted of fraud against 
Leeds Banking Company . 11 — 13 -/une. 

Risk .-\llali V. Whitehurst (for Daily Telegraph) : 
libel case ; damages for plaintiff, 960^, 

19 June, 

Attorney-general v. Dakin : appeal case ; de- 
cision that privilege of exemption from e.-ce- 
cution of legal process does not extend to 
Hampton Court palace . . . 20 .1 une, 

Madame Sirah Rachel Leverson convicted of 
cou.'<piriicy .... 25 Sept. 

[Writ of error : new trial refused, 11 May, i86c 

Fi-ed. Aug. Farrar convicted of forgery again.st 
lord Dudley .... 30 Oct. 

Chomford v. Lingo : female suffrage declared 
illegal 7 — 9 Nov. 

Baxter v. Langley : Sunday evening lectures 
declared not illegal . . . 19 Nov. 

Martin v. Mackonochie : see Church of England, 

23 Dec. 

Phillips V. Eyre : verdict for defendant ; see 
Jamaica ...... 29 Jan. : 

Saurin v. Star and another (convent case) ; ver- 
dict for plaintiff, damages 500?. , 3 — 26 Feb. 
[Case compromised, April, 1870.] 

James Thos. Gambler, admiralty clerk, and 



Vm. Rumble, engineer, convicted of fraud 
aud seeking bribes from contractors, 9 April, 1869 

Cooper V. Gordon : verdict for plaintiff ; the 
vice-chancellor decides that a congregation 
of dissenters may dismiss their minister for 
unsound doctrine ... 28 May, ,, 

Major Frederick Beswick, constable of Birken- 
head, convicted of forgery . . 10 June, ,, 

Farrer (president of the Amalgamated Car- 
pentei-s Societj') v Close (the secretary), tor 
niisappropriation cf money In 1867 the jus- 
tices dismis-ied the charge because the society 
had illegal rules At the trial at the Queen's 
be.ich the coui't was eijitally divided, and no 
verdict uiven 3 July, ,, 

Fanny F. M. Uliver convicted of murder of her 
husband 20 July, ,, 

Lyons v. Rev. N. Thomas and others, for abduc- 
tion of Esther Lyons, a Jewish girl, a pro- 
selj'te ; damages 50^, ... 31 •hil}'-, ,, 

Frederick Hinson, convicted of murder of his 
paramour, Maria Death, and Wm. Douglas 
Boyd 24 Nov „ 

Rev. James John Merest, convicted of simony ; 
depiived 26, 29 Nov. ,, 

Martin it. Mackonochie : before judicial com- 
mittee of privy council, defendant censured 
for evading ver lict, and condemned in co.sts, 

4 Dec. „ 

Mrs. Kelly v. Rev. J. Kelly ; judicial separation 
for ill usage (not violence) decreed, 7 Dec. „ 



TRI 



52 



UNI 



TRIALS, continued. 

Messrs. Gurney and others, for conspiracy to 
defraud; acquitted . . . 13-23 Dec. iS 

Smith V. earl Brownlow : after long litigation 
■ decision against tlie enclosure of the common 
at Berkhampstead by lord of the manor, 

14 Jan. 18 

James Clifford, a retired artilleryman, convicted 
of " sweating " sovereigns by the voltaic bat- 
tery I Feb. ,. 

Jacob Spinass, a Swiss, convicted of murder of 
Cecilia Aldridge, an unfortunate, 3 March, , 

Dr. Kinglake convicted of bribery on behalf of 
his brother at Bridgewater . . 26 March, , 

"Wicklow peerage case : claim for an infant de- 
clared to be unfounded ly IT juse of Lords 
(remarkable evidence) . . 31 March, , 

Demetrius Pappa, a bank manager, sentenced 
to s years' penal servitude for embezzlement, 

6 May, , 

Sir Charles Mordaunt v. lady Mordaunt, and 
others, for divorce : preliminary trial of her 
sanity fdeclared insane on 30 April, 1869), 
16-25 Feb. 1870 ; appeal, 27 April, 1870; judg- 
ment affirmed by full court . 2 June. , 

Bishop Goss (R.C.) ij. Hill and Whittaker : will 
case ; Mr. Moreton's will, bequeathing the 
chief of his property to the bishop, set aside, 

16 June, ,, 

Phillips V. Ejrre, for imprisonment during Ja- 



maica rebellion; verdict for defendant, 

23 June, 1870 

Chelsea Murders : Walter Miller convicted of 
murder of Bev. Elias Huelin and Anne Boss, 
his housekeeper (8 or 9 May, 1870) 

13, 14 July, „ 

Michael Davitt and John Wilson, treason fe- 
lony ; see Fenians . . . .18 July, ,, 

John Jones or Owen, convicted of murder of 
Emanuel Marshall and famUy (7 persons, 
early 22 May, 1870), at Denhani, near Us- 
bridge 22 July, ,, 

Shepherd v. Bennett (Arches) ; decision that de- 
fendant had retracted heresy ; appeal to privy 
council .... .23 July, ,, 

Margaret Waters convicted of murder of John 
Cowen, infant ; her sister and accomplice, 
Sarah Ellis, was convicted of fraud, 22 Sept. . 
(baby farming case ; see Infanticide), 

21 — 23 Sept. „ 

Bev. 0. Voysey v. Noble : appeal to privy coun- 
cil judicial committee against condemnation 
for heresy 10 Nov. ,, 

Ebdy V. McGowan : verdict against an architect 
- for refusing to give up the plans of a building 
he was about to erect . . .16 Nov. „ 

Catch V. Shaen : for libel on master of Lam- 
beth workhouse : verdict for plaintiff, 600?. 
damages ; execution stayed . . 15 Dec. „ 



TRUCK SYSTEM (p. 751). A commission to inquire into its alleged prevalence ap- 
pointed by act passed 10 Aug. 1870. 

TURKEY (p. 755). 

Arrival of prince Napoleon Jerome at Constan- 
tinople 26 June, 1868 Modification of the "capitulations" . April. 1870 

Arrests on account of a supposed plot against 
the sultan 30 Sept. 

Dispute with Greece for intervention in the 
Cretan insiirrection ; see Greece . Deo. 

The prince and princess of Wales's visit, April, : 

Memorial of the porte to the European powers 
desiring the abolition of the consular jurisdic- 
tions termed " capitulations " . . June, 

The khedive or viceroy of Egypt censured for 
assuming sovereign powers encroaching on 
those of the sultan .... Aug. 

System of compulsory education promulgated, 

Oct. 

Arrival of the empress of the French at Con- 
stantinople . . . . -15 Oct. 

Inauguration of the Suez canal . .17 Nov. 



The khedive submits to the sultan . Dec. 

Modification of the "capitulations" . April. 

Great fire at Pera ; British embassy and about 

7900 houses destroyed ; great loss of life, 

5 June, 
Another fire at Constantinople ; about 1500 

houses burnt 11 July, 

Change in the cabinet : Mustapha Fazyl finance 

minister 14 Aug. 

Beported treaty between Turkey and Greece 
to resist European aggression in the East, 

21 Oct. 
Bussia repudiates the treaty of Paris, 1856, 

31 Oct. 
A note delivered to the porte (see Russia), 

15 Nov. 

The sultan agrees to a conference on the Black 

Sea question alone . . . about 3 Dec. 



U. 

UHLAlSrS, the German lancers, very effective in the war in 1870. 

ULSTER (p. 758). By the ancient "Ulster tenant-right," the outgoing tenant of a farm 
received from his successor a sum of money for the privilege of occupancy. A modified form 
of this right was adopted in the Irish land act, passed 8 July, 1870. 

UNIONISTS. A Spanish political party, long headed by marshal Serrano. In 1869 they 
advocated the election of the due de Montpensier as king. See Progresistas and Spain. 



UNITED STATES (p. 770). 

Death of the ex-president James Buchanan, 

I June, : 

Chinese embassy received by the president, 

5 June, 

Bill for re-admitting North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, to 
representation in congress, passed by the 
senate . . . . . .11 June, 

Mr. Reverdy Johnson nominated ambassador 
to Great Britain , . . . 12 June, 



Arkansas re-admitted over the president's veto, 

20 Jime, iS 
The democratic convention nominate Horatio 
Seymour for president, and Francis P. Blair for 
vice-president .... 4 — 7 July ,. 

Thaddeus Stevens dies ... 12 Aug. ,, 

Total debt declared, 2,641,002,572 dollars, iNov. ,, 
General Grant elected president . 3 Nov. , 

Any repudiation of debt renounced by the 
house of representatives (154 to 6), 14 Dec. , 



UNI 



53 



VEL 



UNITED STATES, continued. 

General pardon issued . . -25 Dec. 1868 

Convention respecting Alabama claims signed, 

14 Jan., 1S69 

Prosecution of Jefferson Davis di'opped ; a nolle 
prosequi entered - . . . . .6 Feb. ,, 

Indian war reported over . . . Feb. ,, 

.<4io6a»itt treaty rejected by committee of senate, 

18 Feb. „ 

Suffrage bill, abolishing all distinctions of race, 
colour, and property, passed . . 21 Feb. ,, 

General Schenk's bill, declaring that all na- 
tional obligations shall be paid in coin, passed, 

3 ilarch, „ 

Adjournment of 40th congress ; meeting of 41st 
congress ; gen. Grant assumes office, 4 March, ,, 

Schenck's bill for cash payments passed by 
senate 15 March, ,, 

Convention respecting ^Za&a))ia claim rejected 
by the senate . . . -13 April, ,, 

John Lothrop Motley appointed minister at 
London April, „ 

Naturalisation treaty with Great Britain rati- 
fied by senate . . . . 15 April, ,, 

Great peace jubilee heldat Boston; colossal con- 
cert (10, 371 voices, 1094 instruments, with an- 
vils, bells, &c.) began . . . 15 June, ,, 

Wm. Pitt Fessenden, financier, died, 8 Sept. „ 

Steam-boat, Stonewal i,hnrD.t on the Mississippi ; 
about 200 persons peri.sh . . .27 Oct. „ 

Free-ti-ade agitation prevalent . Oct. — Dec. ,, 

Adm. Charles Stewai-t, "old iron-side," aged 92, 
died 6 Nov. „ 

Coi-respondence respecting ^Zrt6fW«a claims, &c., 
between lord Clarendon and Mr. Hamilton 
Fifih (June— Oct. 1869), published . . Dec. ,, 

Renewal of the reciprocity treaty with Canada 
rejected by congress . . .13 Dec. ,, 

U. S. corvette Oneida sunk by collision with 
British P. & O. steamer .BoMiSa?^ ; 112 lives lost, 

24 Jan. „ 

Darien canal scheme approved by congress, 
Jan. ; treaty signed .... 26 Jan. 1870 

Prince Arthur presented to president Grant, 
24 Jan.; attended Mr. Peabody's funeral, 8 Feb. ,, 

Virginia (15 Jan.) and Mississippi re-admitted to 
congress 3 Feb. ,, 

[Capt. Eyre, of the Bombay, severely censured 
for not waiting to give succour.] 

Bill for purchase of St. Thomas's isle rejected 
by senate 23 March „ 



Texas (15 Mar.) and Georgia re-admitted to 
congress . .... 20 April 1870 

By amendments of the con.stitution, negroes 
admitted to equal rights with whites, April, „ 

The tariff bill opposed by freetraders May, „ 

Non-recognition of Cuba affirmed . . June, „ 

Lincoln state (out of New Mexico) constituted, 

June, ,, 

Admu-al J. A. Dahlgi-en died 12 or 13 July, „ 

Strong opposition to Chinese immigration ; citi- 
zenship refused July, ,, 

Session of congress closed . . .15 J'uly, ,, 

J. L. Motley, minister to Great Britain, re- 
called July, ), 

New tariff bill passed (new rates take effect, 
I Jan. 1871) „ 

Admiral David Farragut died, aged 70, 14 Aug. „ 

Strict neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war . 
IJroclaimed Aug. „ 

Senator Oliver P. Morton accepts the embassy 
to Great Britain . . . .23 Sept. „ 

Great loss of life and property through floods 
in Virginia and Maryland, end of 

Sept.— 2 Oct. ,, 

Total debt, 2,346,913,645 dollars . i Oct. „ 

Total public debt, the principal and interest, 
2,346,913,652 dollars . . . . i Oct. „ 

Great reduction of the heavy internal taxation 
begins . . . . . i Oct. „ 

Movement against the Mormons on account 
of their polygamy. .... Oct. „ 

Meeting of the southern convention at Cincin- 
nati for political and commercial affairs, 

4 Oct. „ 

General Robei-t Lee dies, aged 62 . 12 Oct. „ 

President Grant issues a proclamation against 
Fenianism 13 Oct. „ 

Mr. Morton dechnes the embassy to Britain for 
party reasons . . . about 25 Oct. ,, 

The republican maj ority in the congress greatly 
reduced by the "fall" election (the first in 
which all races are duly represented) Nov. ,, 

Gen. Cox, secretaiyof interioi', dismissed; quar- 
rel between him and the president . Nov. „ 

Total debt, 2,334,308,494 dollars . . i Dec. ,, 

Annual message of tbe president; he regrets 
failure of proposal for annexing St. Domingo ; 
and of the non-settlement of the Alabama 
claims; and complains of Canadian aggres- 
sion 5 Dec. „ 



UNIVERSITY BOAT-RACE (p. 771). Oxford won, 17 March, 1869 (ninth time in 
succession) ; Cambridge won, 6 April, 1870. In the international boat-race between the 
universities of Oxford and Harvard, Massachusetts, U.S.; Oxford won, 27 Aug. 1869. 

UNIVERSITY TESTS. A bill for their abolition was rejected by the lords, 19 July, 
1869, and 14 July, 1870. 

UTILITARIANISM, termed the "greatest happiness principle," the philosophy which 
proposes the attainment of the greatest happiness of the greatest number. The doctrine is 
found in the writings of Locke, Hartley, Hume, and Paley ; but has been chiefly propounded 
by Jeremy Bentham in his " Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation," 
1780—89. 



V. 

VALUATION OF PROPERTY ACT— to provide for the uniform assessment of rateable 
property in the metropohs, was passed 9 Aug. 1869. 

VELOCIPEDE. A machine of this kind was invented by Blanchard the 'aeronaut, and 
described in the Journal dc Paris, 27 July, 1779; and one was constructed by Nicephore 
Niepce in 1818. The "dandy-horse" or " Draisena, a machine called a velocipede," was 
patented for the baron von Drais, in Paris and London in 1 81 8, and described in " Acker- 
mann's Repository," Feb. 1819. These machines came again into use in i86i ; and since 



VEL 



54 



WAL 



1867 have been very common under various forms, termed bicycles and tricycles. Velocipede 
races took place at the Crystal palace, 26 May, 1869, and frequently since. 

VELVET. The manufacture, long confined to Genoa, Lucca, and other places in Italy, 
was carried to France, and thence to England, about 1685. Velvet is mentioned by Join- 
ville in 1272; and our king Richard II., in his will, directed his body to be clothed "in 
velveto," 1399. 

VENEZUELA (p. 776). A revolution broke out in Caraccas, and president Falcon fled, 
22 — 26 June, 1868. The president Monagas died, 18 Nov., and Pulgar became provisional 
president, Dec. 1868. Caraccas was captured by revolutionists, April, 1870. 

VERDUN (the ancient Verodunum), a first-class fortress on the Meuse, N.E. France, made 
a magazine for his legions by Julius Csesar. It was acquired by the Franks in the sixth cen- 
tury, and formed part of the dominions of Lothaire by the treaty of Verdun, 543, when the 
empire was divided between the sons of Louis I. It was taken and annexed to the empire by 
Otho I. about 939. It surrendered to France in 1552 ; and was formally ceded in 1648. It was 
taken and held by the Prussians 43 days, Sept. — Oct. 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, the com- 
mandant, committed suicide before the surrender, and 14 ladies were executed in 1794, for 
going to the king of Prussia to solicit his clemency for the town. Verdun surrendered to 
the Germans 8 Nov. 1870, after a brave defence ; two vigorous sallies being made 28 
Oct. Above 4000 men were captured, and much arms and ammunition. 

VERSAILLES (p. 777)- with the troops there, surrendered to the Germans 19 Sept. 
1870, and the crown prince of Prussia entered the next day. On 26 Sept. he awarded 
the iron cross to above 30 soldiers at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace 
was converted into an hospital. The royal head-quarters were removed here from Ferrieres 
5 Oct. 

VICTORIA, AtJSTEALiA (p. 779). 
First woollen and paper manufactories estab- 
lished May, 1868 

The M'Cullooh ministry arrange the Darling 

affair July ,, 

The M'Pherson ministry announced, Oct. 1869 

Mr. M'Cullooh forms a ministry including Mr. 

M'Pherson, April ; is knighted . May, 1870 

VIKINGS. Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, Danes, and Norsemen, who in the 4th century 
migrated — eastward, to the countries beyond the Baltic ; westward and southward, chiefly 
to the British isles. 

VILLETA (Paraguay, South America). Here Lopez and the Paraguayans were totally 
defeated by the Brazilians and their allies, 11 Dec. 1868. Lopez and 200 men fled; 3000 
prisoners were made ; and the war was considered to be ended. 

VOLUNTEERS (p. 785). 

Review of regulars and volunteers at Edinburgh, 

4 July 18 

Ninth meeting at Wimbledon, 13 July ; the 
queen's prize gained by lieut. Carslake, of 
the 5th Somerset . . . -25 July, , 

Lord Elcho re-elected president of the National 
association (earl Spencer resigned) . Feb. 18 

Memorial to government respecting the capita- 
tion grant ; signed by noblemen and gentle- 
men 19 Feb. , 

Volunteers reported to number 170,000 . . , 

Review of volunteers of southern and western 
counties at Portsmouth . . 26 April , 

Tenth meeting at Wimbledon, 3 July ; queen's 
prize gained by corporal Angus Cameron of 
Inverness rifles (2nd time), 13 July; grand 
review 24 July, , 



The federation of the Australian colonies, pro- 
posed by Mr. Duffy in 1857, revived by him 
and discussed in the legislative assembly, 

June, 1870 

IndustrialMuseum at Melbourne opened 8 Sept. „ 



Volunteers' act, 1863, amended . 9 Aug. 1869 

"Army service corps" to be composed of 
volunteers ; established by royal warrant, 

12 Nov. „ 
Eleventh meeting at Wimbledon, 11 July; 
queen's prize won by corporal Humphries, 
6th Surrey 19 July, 1870 



Easter Monday Reviews : 
bad weather) 29 March, i: 



Dover (very 
at Brighton, 
18 April, ; 
Letter from the lord mayor recommending the 
enlargement of the volunteer system, and its 
greater efficiency .... 22 Sept. 
Establishment of an extensive rifle range, drill 
ground, armoury, &c., for the London volun- 
teers resolved on 3 Oct. 

Distribution of breech-loaders commenced Nov. 



W. 



WALLACE MONUMENT at Abbey Craig, near Stirling, was inaugurated 27 Aug. 1869, 
and soon after given into the charge of the magistrates of Stirling. It cost about 13,000/. 
The telescope there was presented by the Scotch inhabitants of Ipswich 24 June, 1865. 



WAR 55 WOO 

WAR-OFFICE ACT, passed 20 June, 1870, appoints a financial secretary, who may sit 
in parliameut, and other officers. 

WATERING STREETS. Mr. Cooper's plan for using solutions of chloride of lime or of 
sodium (which dry slowly and attract moisture and ammonia and other gases, and combine 
them with the material of the road) was partially used in the parish of St. Mary-le-bone in 
1 868, and also in Liverpool, Boston, and other towns. The plan was ordered to be tried in 
Westminster in July, 1870. 

WELLINGTON MONUMENT (p. 797), entrusted to Mr. A. Stevens, the sculptor, was 
very far from completion in Aug. 1870. Parliament had granted 20,oooZ. for the purpose, 
and it was stated that 15,000^ more would be required. 

WHEAT (p. 800). Value imported into the united kingdom in 1868, 22,069.353?. >' 
in 1869, 19,515,758?. 

WINE (p. 806) imported into the united kingdom in 1867, 15,442,581 gallons; in 1868, 
16,953,429 gallons; in 1869, 17,184,307 gallons. 

WISSEMBOURG, obWeissenbtjrg, N.E. France, in the department of the Lower Rhine, 
situate on the right bank of the river Lauter, the boundary of France and the Palatinate. It 
was formerly an imperial city of Alsace, and was seized by Louis XIV. in 1673, and annexed 
to France by the treaty of Ryswick 1697. The " lines " of Wissembourg, erected by Villars 
1705, were taken by the Austrians and retaken by the French, 1793, after Hoche's victory at 
Geisberg. On 4 Aug. 1870, the crown-prince of Prussia crossed the Lauter and gained a 
brilliant but bloody victory over the French (a part of MacMahon's division), storming the 
lines, and the Geisberg. General Abel Douay was mortally wounded, and about 500 prisoners 
were made. The killed and wounded on both sides appear to have been nearly equal. The 
German army, composed of Prussians, Bavarians, and Whrtembergers, were, it is said, about 
40,000, against about 10,000 French, who fought with desperate bravery. 

WIVES (p. 807). An act to amend the law relating to the property of married women 
was passed 9 Aug. 1870. By it the separate earnings of a wife were secured to her own use, 
as well as personal and freehold property bequeathed to her. She may maintain an action at 
law, and acquires other rights. The husband is declared not liable for debts contracted by 
his wife prior to marriage, and she may be sued for them. 

WCERTH SUE Sauer, a town in the department of the Lower Rhine, N.E. France. After 
storming Wissembourg {ivhich see) on 4 Aug. 1 870, the crown-prince of Prussia with the 3rd 
army (about 1 20,000) marched rapidly forward and surprised part of the French army under 
Marshal MacMahon, including the corps of Canrobert and Failly (about 47,000), and defeated 
it in a long, desperate, and sanguinary engagement near this place 6 Aug. The battle lasted 
from 7 a.m. till 4 p.m. The chief struggles occurred in the country round Reichshoffen and 
in the village of Frceschweiller ; the French are said to have charged the German line eleven 
times, each time breaking it, but always finding a fresh mass behind. The ridge on which 
Woerth stands was not captured \mtil the French were taken in flank by the Bavarians 
and Wiirtembergers. Nearly all MacMahon's staff were killed, and the marshal himself, 
unhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which he was rescued by a soldier. He then, on 
foot, directed the retreat towards Saverne, to cover the passes of the Vosges. The victory is 
attributed to the very great numerical superiority of the Germans (about 130,000) as well as 
to their excellent strategy. The French loss has been estimated at 20,000 killed and wounded, 
and about 6000 prisoners, 2 eagles, 6 mitrailleuses, 30 cannon, and much baggage. The 
Germans are stated to have had above 8000 men put Jiors cle combat. It was admitted that 
MacMahon had acted as an able and brave commander. 



Women's Disabilities bill, rejected by the com- 
mons (220 to 94) . . . . 12 May, 1870 

Miss Garrett and Miss Davies elected mem.bers 
of the metropolitan school-board 29 Nov. ,, 



WOMEN (p. 807). 

First annual meeting of the Manchester na- 
tional society for women's suffrage 30 Oct. 18 

Female suffrage decided to be illegal, by the 
court of common pleas . .7,9 Nov. , 

Women's Club and Institute, Newman-street, 
London, W., opened . . . Jan. 18 

WOOL (p. 808) imported into the united kingdom in 18672, 83,703,i84lbs. ; in 1868, 
252,744,155 lbs. ; in 1869, 258,46i,689lbs. ; from Australia in 1869, i58,477,46olbs. Value 
of Woollen Manufactured goods exported in 1864, 18,533,497?.; in 1866, 21,796,217?.; in 
1869, 19,536,073^. 



WOE 



56 



YAC 



WOEKING MEN (p. 809). 

Worhnen's International Exhibition proposed by 
the duke of Argyll, lord Klcho, and others, 
March, 1868 ; meeting for arrangements, 10 
Jan. 1870, held in the Agricultural Hall, 



Islington (16 classes and a fine arts depart- 
ment) ; opened by the prince of Wales, 
16 July, closed by Mr. Gladstone . 31 Oct. 1870 
Trades congress meet at Birmingham, Aug. 1869 



WOUlSrDED I]Sr battle, see Geneva Convention, and Aid to Sick and Wounded. 
WEECKS (p. 817). 



Hibernia screw steamer: the shaft of screw pro- 
peller broke, 600 miles off coast of Ireland; 
many hves lost . 24 or 25 Oct, or Nov. 18 

Many wrecks on the Cornish coast during a 
gale 19 — 20 March,. iS 

Italian, merchant steamer, struck on a rock 
near Finisturre ; about 30 hves lost, 

about 20 June, , 

Carnatic, Peninsiolar and Oriental steamei-, 
wrecked off Shadwan, in the gulf of Suez ; 
about 25 lives lost ... 13 Sept. , 

City of Boston; Inman steamer from America, 
long missing; a board stating that she was 
sinking (April), found in Cornwall 11 Feb. 18; 



Normandy, S. W. company's steamer : by col- 
lision with the steamer Mary, off the Isle of 
Wight, sunk ; the captain, C. B. Harvey, and 
33 others perish . . . -17 March, 1870 

H. M. S. Sluney, wrecked by a typhoon near 
Hong Kong ; about 42 lives lost 9 May, ,, 

n. M. S. Captain, iron-clad, sank in a squall off 
Finisterre ; see Navy of England, 7 Sept. ,, 

Cambria, iron screw steamer ; lost in a storm 
off Inishtrahul island, N.W. Ii'eland ; about 

170 lives lost 19 Oct. „ 

Wrecks in 1869 : total, 606 ; 461 colUsions ; 1047 

damaged ; in all, 2114. 933 lives lost in 211 vessels ; 

S121 hves saved by life-boats. 



Y. 

YACHT (from the Dutch jaght) ; a hght vessel for pleasure or races. 



Yacht .Eaces. — The Anierica, an American 
yacht schooner, built on the wave principle, 
171 tons ; at Cowes regatta, in a match round 
the Isle of Wight, open to all comers, came in 
first by 8 miles, gaining a cwp worth looi. 

22 Aug. 1851 

Three American yachts, the Henrietta, Vesta, and 
FteetioMig, sailed from New York 11 Dec. 1866, at 
I P.M. The Henrietta arrived at Cowes at 5.40 on 
25 Dec, the quickest voyage ever made in a sail- 
ing vessel. Her rivals were only a few hours after 
her. 



In a contest off the Isle of Wight, between the 
American vessel Sappho and the English cut- 
ters Aline, Cambria, Oimara, and Condor, the 
Oimara won 25 Aug. 1868 

.In a triangular race between Sappho and Cam- 
bria, Sappho won, 10 May; no race 14 May; 
won 17 May, 1870 

In a yacht race off Staten island, New York, for 
the squadron or queen's cup, the Magic won, 
Cambria being the 8th in 16. . . Aug. ,, 



DICTIONAEY OF DATES. 



AAR ABD 

AxARGAU (Switzerland,) formerly included in Berne, was made an independent canton 
in 1803, and settled as such, in 1S15. It was much disturbed by religious dissensions in 
1 84 1 and 1844. 

ABACUS, the tile on the capital of a column. That on the Corinthian column is 
ascribed to Callimachus, about 540 B.C. — This name is also given to a frame traversed by 
stiff wires, on which beads were strung, used by the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. M. 
Lalanne published an abacus at Paris in 1845. — The multiplication table has been called 
the Pythagorean abacus. 

ABAISrCAY, a river in Peru, on the banks of which the Spanish marshal Almagro 
defeated and took prisoner Alvarado, a partisan of Pizarro, 12 July, 1537. 

ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 1810 Napoleon decreed that five should 
be erected near Paris, which were opened in 18 18. One was erected at Edinburgh in 1851 ; 
and they form part of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, opened on 13 June, 
1855- 

ABBASSIDES, descendants of Mahomet's uncle, Abbas-Ben- Abdul-Motalleb. Merwan 
II., the last of the Ommiades, was defeated and slain by Abul Abbas in 750, and became 
caliph. Thirty-seven Abbasside caliphs reigned from 750 to 1258. Their colour was 
black ; that of the Fatimites being green, and of the Ommiades white. 

ABB AYE, a military prison near St. Germain des Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were 
murdered by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, 2 and 3 Sept. 1 792. 

ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women ; see MonacMsm and Convents. The first 
abbey founded in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at Poitiers, about 360 ; in 
Ireland in the fifth century ; in Scotland in the sixth century, no monasteries and priories 
were suppressed in England, 2 Henry Y. 1414. Salmon. The gross disorders in these 
establishments occasioned their destruction in IBritain. After visitations of enquiry, king 
Henry YIII. commenced the supjjression of small monasteries to raise revenues for Wolsey's 
colleges at Oxford and Ipswich, on 7 June, 1525 ; and all religious houses (containing then 
about 47,721 persons) were suppressed throughout the realm by parliament, 1539.* Abbeys 
were suppressed in France in 1790, in Spain in 1837, and in Italy in 1866. 

ABBOT (from Ab, father), the head of an abbey. In England, mitred abbots were lords 
of parliament ; twenty-seven abbots and two priors tlins distinguished 1329 ; the number 
reduced to twenty-five, 1396. Coko. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, and St. John's, 
Colchestei', were executed as traitors for denying the king's supremacy, and not surrendering 
their abbeys, 1539 ; see Glastonbury. 

ABC CLUB, a name adopted by certain republican enthusiasts in Paris, professing to 
relieve the abaisses or depressed. Their insurrection 5 June, 1832, was suppressed with 
bloodshed, 6 June. These events are described by Victor Hugo in "Zcs Miserables" (1862). 

ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary and compulsory, have been numerous : — 

Sj'lla, Boman dictator e.c. 79 1 Albert, the Bear of Bran- I Uladislaus III. of Poland . . 1206 

Diocletian, „ emperor a. d. 305! denburg 1 142 John Balliol, of Scotland . 1306 

Stephen II., of Hungary . 1 131 1 Lescov V. of Poland . . 1200 I Otho(of Bavaria), of Hungary 1309 



Viz. 186 large monasteries (revenue 104,919'. 13.?. yl), 374 less monasteries (revenue 33,479?. 13s. 7^(1.), 
and 48 houses of the knights hospitallers (revenue 2385i. 12s. 8d.); total, houses, 608 ; revenue, 

R/i?_ TO."?. fi3/7. Ttintifir. 



140,784?. iga. 6%d. Tanner. 



ABD 



ABE 



ABDICATIONS, continued. 

Eric IX. , of Denmark, &c. . 

Pope Felix V 

Charles V., as emperor, 25 

Oct 

,, as king of Spain, . 

16 June, . . . . 

Christina, of Sweden, 16 . 

June, 



1439 
1449 



ISS5 
1556 



. 1654 

John Casimir, of Poland . 1669 
James II., of England . . 1688 
Frederick Augustus II., of 

Poland 1704 

Philip v., of Spain (resumed) 1724 
Victor Amadeiis, of Sardinia 1730 
Charles, of Naples . . 1759 
Stanislaus, of Poland . . 1795 
Charles Emmanuel II , of 

Sardmia . . 4 June, 1802 



Francis II,, of Germany, 
■who became emperor of 
Austria . . 11 Aug. 

Charles IV., of Spain, in 
favour of his son, March 19 ; 
in favour of Bonaparte. ; 
see Spain . . i May, 

Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples 
(for Spain) . i June, 

Gustavus IV., of Sweden 

Louis, of Holland . 1 July, iSio 

Jerome, of Westphalia, 

20 Oct. 

Napoleon, of France, 5 Aj^ril, 

Victor Emmanuel, of Sar- 
dinia . . 13 March, 1821 

Pedro IV., of Portugal, 

2 May, 1826 



1009 



1813 
1814 



Charles X., of France, 

2 Aug. 1830 
Pedro I., of Brazil . 7 April, 1831 
Dum Miguel, of Portugal 

(by leaving it) . 26 May, 1834 
William I., of Holland, 8 Oct. 1840 
Louis-Philippe, of Prance, 

24 Feb. 1848 
Louis Charles, of Bavaria, 

21 March, 1848 
Ferdinand of Austria, 2 Dec. 1848 
Charles Albert, of Sardinia, 

23 March, 1849 
Leopold II., of Tuscany, 

July, 1859 
Bernhard, of Saxe-Meinin- 
gen . . .20 Sept. 1866 



ABECEDARIANS, followers of Stork, an Antibaptist in the sixteenth century, derive 
their name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, even of the alphabet. 

ABELARD, a celebrated teacher of theology and logic, in 11 18 fell in love with Heloise, 
the niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, became her tutor and seduced her. After a 
compulsory marriage, he placed her temporarily in a convent. Having been cruelly 
mutilated at the instigation of her relatives, he entered the abbey of St. Denis, from which 
he was compelled to depart, accused of heresy, on accoiuit of his censuring the dissoluteness 
of the monks. He then built and lectured at the oratory of the Paraclete (or comforter) 
which eventually he made a convent, with Heloise for the abbess. He died under the charge 
of heresy, 21 April, 1142, and was buried in the Paraclete, where also Heloise was laid in 
II 63. Their ashes were removed to the garden of the Museum rran9ais in 1800, and to the 
cemetery of Pere la Chaise in 1817. Their epistles and works were published in 1616. 

ABENCERRAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe of Granada, opposed to the Zegris. From 
1480 to 1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and hastened the fall of the 
kingdom. They were exterminated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last king, who was 
dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492 ; his dominions were annexed to Castile. 

ABENSBERG, Bavaria. The Austrians were here defeated by Napoleon 20 April, 1809. 

ABEOKUTA, see Dahomey. 

ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been founded in the third century after Christ- 
Gregory the Great conferred peculiar privileges on Aberdeen in 893. Old Aberdeen was 
made a royal burgh in 1154 ; it was burnt by the English in 1336 ; and soon after New 
Aberdeen was built. The university was founded by Bishop William Elphinstone, who had 
a bull from the pope Alexander VI. in 1494. King's college was erected in 1500-6. 
Marischal college was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scotland, in 1593 ; rebuilt 
in 1837. In 1858 the univer.sity and colleges were united. — A statue of the prince consort 
was inaugui-ated by the queen 13 Oct. 1863 ; and one of Queen Victoria by the prince of 
Wales, 20 Sept. 1866. — Malcolm III. having gained a great victory over the Danes in the 
year loio, resolved to foinid a ncAV bishopric, in token of his gratitude for his success, and 
pitched upon Mortlach in Banffshire, where St. Beanus was first bishop, 1015. The see, 
removed to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, was discontinued at the revolution, 1689, 
and is now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721 ; see Bishops. 

ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called the Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, 
Radicals, and followers of sir R. Peel. Formed in consequence of the resignation of the 
first Derby administration ; sworn in 28 Dec. 1852 ; resigned 30 Jan. 1855 ; succeeded by 
the Palmerston administration, which see. 



Earl of Aberdeen,* j^c.ii lord of the trea%iwy. 

Lord Cranworth, lord choMcellor. 

Earl Granville, 'president of the council. 

Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. 

Lord John Bussell,t /«««?".. 

Viscount Palmerston, home secretary. 

Duke of Newcastle,! colonial and war secretary. 

William Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. 



Sir James Graham, first lord of the admiralty. 
Sir Charles Wood, president of the India hoard. 
Edward Card well, president of hoard of trade. 
Hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. 
Sir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of works. 
Marquess of Lansdowne (without office). 
Viscount Canning, Lord Stanley of Alderley, right 
hon. Edward Strutt, &c. 



* Born in 1784 ; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 ; became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828 ; joined the 
party of sir B. Peel, 1846 ; died, 14 Dec. i860. 

t Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secretary by the earl of Clarendon (Feb. 1853), but 
continued a member of the cabinet, without office ; he afterwards became president of the council, in the 
room of earl Granville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster (June, 1854). 

X In June, 1854, the offices were separated; the duke of Newcastle remained secretary of war, and sir 
George Grey was made colonial secretary. 



ABH 3 ABY 

ABHOEEERS, in the reign of Charles II. tlie court-party in England, the opponents 
of the Addressers (afterwards WJiigs), so called from their address to the king praying for 
the immediate assembly of the parliament M'hich was delayed on account of its being adverse 
to the court. The former (afterwards Tories) expressed their abhorrence of those who 
endeavoured to encroach on the royal prerogative, 1680.* Hume. 

ABINGDON" LAW. In 1645, lord Essex and Waller held Abingdon, in Berks, against 
Charles I. The town was unsuccessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and by 
prince Eupert in 1645. On these occasions the defenders put every Irish prisoner to death, 
without trial ; hence the term " Abingdon law." 

ABJUEATION of certain doctrines of the church of Eome was enjoined by stat. 25 
Char. II. 1672. The oath of abjuration of the pope and the pretender was first administered 
by stat. 13 Will. III. 1702 ; the form was changed in after reigns. B}"- 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 
(1858) an alteration in the oath was authorised ; see OatJis. 

ABKASIA, a province of the Caucasus, annexed by Eussia, tlie last prince Michael 
Shervashiji being deposed : an insurrection against the Eussian authorities, 8 Aug. 1866, 
was quelled with much bloodshed. 

ABO, a port of Eussia, founded prior to 1157, was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland. 
It has suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; was seized by the Russians in 
Feb. 1808 ; ceded to them in 1809 ; and rebuilt by them after the great fire in 1827. The 
university erected by Gustavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640, et scq., was removed to 
Helsingfors, 1827. The peace of Abo, by Avhich Sweden ceded part of Finland to Russia, 
was signed 18 Aug. 1743. 

ABOEIGINES (without origin), a name given to the earliest known inhabitants of Italy 
(whence came the Latini) ; now applied to the original inhabitants of any country. — The 
Aborigines Protection Society was established in 1838. Eeports on the condition of the 
aborigines in the British colonies were presented to parliament in 1834 and 1837. 

ABOUKIR (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. In the bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, 
I Aug. 1798 ; see Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was defeated here by 5000 French 
under Bonaparte, 25 July, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under general sir Ealpli 
Abercromby landed here, and Aboukir surrendered to them after an obstinate and sanguinary 
conflict with the French, 8 March, 1801 ; see Alexandria. 

ABRAHAM, EuA of, used by Eusebiiis ; so called from the patriarch Abraham, who died 
1822 B.C. It began i Oct. 2016 B.C. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtiact 
2015 years and three months. 

ABRAHAM, Heights of, near Quebec, Lower Canada. The French were defeated here 
by general Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, 13 Sept. 1759 ; see Quebec. 

ABRAHAMITES, a sect holding the eiTors of Paulus, was suppressed by CjTiacus, the 
patriarch of Antioch, early in the ninth century. A sect of this name was banished from 
Bohemia by Joseph II. in 1783. 

ABSALOM'S REBELLION and death (1024—23 B.C.) is described 2 Sam. xv. — xix. 

ABSENTEE TAX (four shillings in the pound), levied in Ireland in 1715 on the incomes 
and pensions of absentees, ceased in 1753. A tax of 2s. in the pound was vainly proposed 
by Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyneux in 1783. 

ABSOLUTION. Till the 3rd century, the consent of the congregation was necessary 
to absolution ; but soon after the power was reserved to the bishop ; and in tlie 12th 
century the form " / absolve thee " had become general. 

ABSTINENCE. It is said that St. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces of 
bread and water daily, and James the hermit to the age of 104. St. Epiphauius lived thus 
to 115 ; Simeon the Stylite to 112 ; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo, to 185 
years of age. Spottiswood. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutburjr, Staflbrdshire, was 
said to have lived twenty months without food ; but her imposture was detected by Dr. A. 
Henderson, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to 
have lived two years without meat or drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was discovered in 
England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841 ; see Fasts, Teetotallers. — 
Abstinents, ascetics that wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage, appeared in France 
and Spain in the 3rd century. 

ABYDOS, see Hellespont. 

* The commons expelled several members for being Abhorrers, among tbem sir Francis Withens 
(whom they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty to remove others from phices of trust. They also 
resolved, " that it is the undoubted right of the subject to petition for the calling of a parliament, and 
that to tradiTce such petitions as tumultuous and seditious, is to contribute to the design of altering the 
constitution." Oct. 1680. Salmon. 

E 2 



ABY 



ACA 



ABYSSIlSriA, the country of the Habese, IST. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very 
uncertain. The kingdom of Auxumitfe (from its chief town Auxume) flourished in the ist 
and 2nd centuries after Christ. The religion of the Abyssinians is a corrupt form of the 
Christianity introduced about 329 by Frumentius. About 960, Judith, a Jewish princess, 
murdered a great j)art of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The young king escaped : 
and the royal liouse was restored in 1 268 in the person of his descendant Icon Amlac. In 
the middle ages it was said to be ruled by Prester John or Prete Janni. The Portuguese 
missionaries, commenced in the 15th century, after much intrigue and altercation, were 
expelled about 1632. The encroachments of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after 
broke up the empire into petty goveniments. From the visits of James Bruce, 1769-72 ; 
Henry Salt, 1809-10 ; Edward Eiippell, 1834-7 ; Major Harris, 1841 ; Mansfield Parkyns, 
1844-7, inuch information respecting Abyssinia has been gained. Several expeditions into 
Abj'ssinia have been organised by the French Government. The brothers Antoine and 
Arnauld Abbadie visited the country 1837-45. Abyssinia is now divided into four provinces. 
In 1847 Eas Ali was ruler of Amhara ; Kas Ubie of Tigr^ and Samien; and Sahela Selassie 
of Shoa. 

They write that they are well-treated, i8 April; 

all seized and imprisoned, about i July, 1866. 
Mr. Flad sent to England by Theodore to obtain 

British workmen, April ; arrives, July ; intro- 
duced to queen Victoria, and receives from her an 

autograph letter, dated 4 Oct. 1866. 
Mr. Flad returned without workmen to Massowab, 

29 Oct. ; Theodore received the queen's letter 

about 19 Dec. 1866. 
Lord Stanley's ultimatum to Theodorus, demanding 

release of the captives in three months, sent 

16 April, 1867. 
Mr. Flad received by the king ; and made to join 

his family in prison, May, 1867 
Preparations for war ; sir Robert Napier appointed 

commander of an expedition ; pioneer force sails 

from Bombay, 14 Sept. 1867. 
A formal letter from the British government sent to 

Theodore, 9 Sept. 1867. 
The king 30 miles from Debra Tabor, encumbered 

with baggage, and checked by rebels ; Mr. Flad 

and other Europeans with him, it Oct. 1867. 
Advanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay, 7, 8 Oct. ; 

land at Zoulla, 21 Oct. 1867. 
Napier's proclamation issued in Abyssinia, 6 Nov. 

1867. 
Captives at Magdala reported well, 11 Nov. 1867. 
Report that the Gallas have joined the revolt against 

Theodore, 25 Nov. 1867. 
The British parliament meets ; the queen's speech 

announces the war, 19 Nov. ; 2,ooo,oooL voted, 

26, 27 Nov. 1867. 
Arrival of sir R. Napier at Annesley bay, 4 Jan. 1868. 
Telegram : the aiTay reported well ; Theodore 

hemmed in by rebels, 8 Jan. 1868. 

(See Addenda at the end of the volume.) 

ABYSSINIAN ERA is reckoned from the creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 
5493rd year B.C., on 29 Aug. old style ; their dates consequently exceed ours by 5492 years, 
125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian yeai-, subtract 5492 years, 125 days. 

ACADEMIES. Academia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to 
Academus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers 
took the title of Academics, 378 B.C. Stanley. — Rome had no academies. — Ptolemy Soter is 
said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 314 B.C. Abderahman I., caliph of 
Spain, founded academies about A.D. 773. Theodosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and 
Alfred are also named as founders of academies. Italy is celebrated for its academies ; and 
Jarckius mentious 550, of which 25 were in Milan. 

PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES. 



Treaty of Commerce with the king of Shoa con- 
cluded by captain Harris, i5 Nov. 1841. 

Mr. Plowden (made British consul at Massowah, 
1848,) concludes treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of Am- 
hara, 2 Nov. 1849. 

Ras Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who is 
crowned, 11 Feb. 1855. 

Protestant missionaries received, replacing Roman 
catholics, 1855. 

Mr. Plowden ("who had joined tbe party of Theodore) 
killed by rebels, Feb. ; his friend Bell killed soon 
after, when revenging him ; Theodore overcomes 
the rebels and massacres about 150 prisoners as a 
sacrifice to their manes, i860. 

Theodore sends a letter to the queen of England 
desiring alliance, wbioh arrived Feb. 1863. 

Stern and Rosenthal, missionaries, beaten and 
imprisoned for censuring Theodore in letters 
intercepted, before Sept. 1863. 

Theodore imprisons consul Cameron (on suspicion 
of his intriguing with the Turks?) and others, 
about 22 Nov. 1863. 

News of the imprisonment arrives in London, May, 
1864. 

Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, an Arab Christian, assistant 
to col. Merewether, British political resident at 
Aden, sent on mission to Abyssinia, arrives at 
Massowah 20 Aug. 1864. 

Prisoners conveyed to fortress of Magdala, June, 
1865. 

Mr. Eassam, having negotiated without result, 
recalled, goes to Suez, Aug. 1865. 

Mr. Eassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blanc arrive 
at Matemma from Massowah, 27 Nov. 1865. 

Invited by Theodore to come to him, December 



American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. 

Ancona, of the Coglinosi, 1642. 

Basil, 1460. 

Bez-lin, Eoyal, 1700 ; of Princes, 1703 ; Architecture, 

1799. 
Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; 

Sciences and Arts, 1712. 
Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. 
Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 
Brussels, Uelks letlres, 1773. 



Caen, Belles Lettres, 1705. 

Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 

Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 

Dublin, Arts, 1742 ; Painting, Sculpture, <fec., 1S23. 

Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 

Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612. 

Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Sella Crusca (now 
united with the Florentine, and merged under 
that name), 1582 ; Del Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal 
de' Medici) ; Ajitiquities, 1807. 



ACA 



AGO 



1648 ; Inscnptions et Belles Zettres (by Colbert), 
1663 ; Sciences (by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 

1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Military, 1751 ; Natural 

Philosophy, 1796. 
Parma, the Innominaii, 1550. 
Perousa, Tnsensati, 1561 ; Filigirli, 1574. 
Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 
Portsraouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 
Kome, Umoristi, 161 1 ; Fantascici, 1625 ; Infecondi, 

1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690 ; BngUsh, 

1752 ; Zincei, about 1600; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. 
St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; the 

School of Arts, 1764. 
Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Zettres, 1753. 

Agriculture, 1781 ; Roj^al Swedish, 1786. 
Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Turin, Sciences, about 1759 ; Fine Arts, 177S. 
Turkey, Mihtary School, 1775. 
Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
Venice, Medical, &c., 1701. 
Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 17S0. 
Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705; Surgery, 

1783 ; Oriental, 1810. 
Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. 
Washington, United States, America, 1S63. 
Woolwich, Military, 1741. 



ACADEMIES, continued. 

Geneva, Medical, 1715. 

Genoa, Painting, <&c., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 

Germany, Natures Curiosi, now Zeopoldiiie, 1662. 

Gottingen, 1750. 

Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. 

Irish Academj', Royal, Dublin, 17S2. 

Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. 

London ; see Socielks. Royal Academy of Pine 

Ai'ts, 1768 ; of Music, 1734-43 ; and 1822. 
Lyons, Sciences, 1710 ; Physic and Mathematics 

added, 1758. 
Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730 ; 

Painting and the Arts, 1753. 
Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. 
Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 
Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 
Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. 
Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719. 
Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 
Naples, Rossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; Sciences, 

169s ; Herculaneum, 1755. 
New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1S14. 
Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 
Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 
Palermo, Medical, 1645. 
Paris, Sorbonne, 1253 ; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 

and 1672 ; French ^by Richelieu), 1635 ; Fine Arts, ( 

ACADIA, see Nova Scotia. 

ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to 
Callimachus, about 540 B.C. 

ACAPULCO, a Spanish galleon, fi-om Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares 
(estimated at above i,ooo,oooZ. sterling), taken by lord Anson, who had previously acquired 
booty in his voyage amounting to 600,000/!. He arrived at Spithead in the Centurion, after 
having cii'cumnavigated the globe, 15 June, 1744. 

ACAKISTAKIA, N. Greece. The people became prominent in the Peloponnesian war, 
having invited the help of the Athenians against the Ambracians, 432 e. c. The Acarnanians 
were subdued by the Lacedeemonians in 390 ; they took part with Macedon against the Romans 
in 200, by whom they were subjugated in 197 ; finally, in 145. 

ACCENTS were first introduced in the Greek language by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 
a grammarian and critic who taught at Alexandria about 264 B. c. Accents were first used 
by the French in the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610). 

ACCESSION, The, i.e. that of the house of Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, in 
the person of George I., elector of Hanover, son of Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter 
of James I. He succeeded, i Aug. 17 14, by virtue of the act of settlement passed in the 
reign of William III., 12 June, 1701, which limited the succession to his mother (as a pro- 
testant) in the event of queen Anne dying without issue. 

ACCESSORIES to Crimes. The lawresj)ecting them consolidated and amended in 1861. 

ACCIDENTS, see Coal, Fires, Eailways, &c. For compensation for accidents, see 
CamiihelVs Act and Passengers. In 1865, it was computed that in one year, about 250 
persons were killed, and 1200 injured, in the streets of London. 

ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This has been prosecuted with gi-eat vigour since the 
establishment of the Zoological society of London iu 1829, and of the Societe d'Acclimata- 
tion in Paris. Numbers of European animals have been naturalised in Australia ; the camel 
has been conveyed to Brazil (1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in Italy 
(1859). On 6 Oct. i860, the Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, was opened as a zoological 
garden, containing only acclimatised animals. An English acclimatisation society was 
founded 10 June, i860, byhon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. Bucldand, &c., 
and the prince of Wales became president in April, 1865. An acclimatising garden was 
established at Melbourne, Australia, in Feb. 1861, and efforts are being made to naturalise 
English birds, fishes, &c. 

ACCORDION, a small wind-instrument with keys, introduced into England from Germany 
about 1828. 

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL in Chancery, an office instituted in 1726. In 1841, the 
office of accountant-general of the court of exchequer was abolished, and the duties trans- 
ferred to the accountant in chancery. 



ACC 



AGO 



ACCUSERS. By occult writers, sucli as Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, 
whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In Revelation, ch. xii. lo, the devil is called " the 
accuser of the brethren." — False accusers were to he hanged, by 24 Henry VI. 1446 ; and 
burnt in the face with an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. 

ACELDAMA, a field said to have been the onebought with the thirty pieces of silver given 
to Judas Iscariot for betraying Christ, is still shown to travellers. Matthew xxvii. 8 ; Acts 
i. 19. — This name was given to an estate purchased by Judge Jeffreys after the "bloody 
assizes" in 1685. 

ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot, 
and made known in 1862. 

ACHAIA (N. Peloponnesiis), Greece, said to have been settled by Achseus, the son of 
Xuthus, about 1330 B.C. (?) The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the -ffitolians 
until about 284 B.C. The Achsei, descendants of Acheeus, originally inhabitedfthe neigh- 
bourhood of Argos ; but when the Heraclidse drove them thence, they retired among the 
lonians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Pellene, iEgira, .ffigium, 
Bura, Tritsea, Leontiura, Ehypes, Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patrse, Dyme and Pharse, form- 
inff the AcHiEAN League. 



Achaia invaded by Epaminondas . . B.C. 366 
The AcHiEAN LEAGDE revived by four cities 

about 280, and by others .... 275, 274 

Aratus made prsetor 245 

The league joined by Corinth, Megara, <fcc. 243 — 228 

Supported by Athens and Antigonus Doson . 229 
The Achseans defeated at Ladooea, by the Spar- 
tans xmder Cleomenes III., 226; totally defeat 

them at Sellasia 221 

The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyse, in 

Arcadia ; Aratus defeated .... 220 

The Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEtolians . . 219 

Peace of Naupactus 217 

Aratus poisoned at iEgium 213 

Philopoemen, leader of the league, defeats the 

Spartan tyrant Machanidas .... 208 

Alliance of the league with the Romans . . 198 
Philopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval 

battle 194 

The Peloponnesus joins the league . . . 191 
War with Messene : Philopoemen made pri- 
soner and slain 183 

The Achajans overrun Messeniawith fire &, sword 182 



16s 

147 



146 



The Romans enter Achaia, and carry oil num- 
bers, including Polybius, the historian . . 

Metellus enters Greece 

The Achseans defeated by Mummius at Leuco- 
petra ; the league dissolved ; Corinth taken ; 
Greece subjected to Rome, and named the 
province of Achaia 

Achaia made a Latin principality byWiUiam of 
Champlitte a.d. 1205 

Obtained by Geoffrey Villehardouin, 1210; by 
Geoffrey II 1218 

By his brother 'William, 1246 ; who conquers 
the Moors. 1248 ; makes war with the em- 
peror Michael, 1259; and gains three for- 
tresses 1262 

Succeeded by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries 
Florenz of Hainault ...... 1291 

Their daughter Maud, princess, 1311 ; thrice 
married ; forcibly married to John de Gravina, 
and dies in prison; Achaia subject to the 
kings of Naples 1324 

Conquered by the Turks . . . about 1540 



ACHONRY, Sligo (N. Ireland) ; a bishopric founded by St. Finian, who erected the 
church of Achad, or Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on his disciple Nathy (Dathy, or 
David), the first bishop. The see, held with KQlala since 1612, was united with Tuam in 
1834. 

ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES,' in which colour is got rid of, were invented by John 
Dollond, and described in Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society, London, 1753-8, 

ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are generally soluble in water, redden organic 
blues, decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of alkalies, forming alkaline salts. 
The number was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th century) knew nitric acid and 
sulphuric acid. Theories of the constitution of acids were j)ut forth by Becher (1669), 
Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). After the discovery of oxygen by Priestley, i Aug. 1774, 
Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxygen was a constituent of all acids ; but about 1810 Davy, 
Gay-Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong 
proposed the binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 Liebig applied the theories of 
Davy and Dulong to explain the constitution of several organic acids. Oxygen acids are 
now termed anhydrides. An innumerable number of acids have been discovered through 
the advance of organic chemistry. Watts. 

ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the Latin church, unknown to the Greek 
church for four hundred years after Christ. 

ACOUSTICS (from akouo, Greek, I hear), the science of sound, so named by Sauveur in 
the 1 7th century. The formation of sound in the air by the vibrations of the atmosphere, 
strings, &c., was explained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by Aristotle, 330 b.c. 

Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the 

striking of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. 
Sauveur determined the number of vibrations be- 



The speaking trumpet said to have been used by 
Alexander the Great, 335 B.C. 

Galileo's discoveries, about a.d. 1600. 

His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated 
by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected 
by D'Alembert, Euler, Bemouilli, and La Grange, 
at various periods of the eighteenth century. 



longing to a given note, about 1700. 
Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, 
by Gassendi ; 11 72 feet by Cassini, Riimer and 
others ; 968 by Newton, about 1700, 



AGO 



ACT 



ACOUSTICS, continued. 

Chladni (who raised acoustics to an indeijendent 
science) publislaed his important discoveries on 
the figures produced in layers of sand by harmonic 
chords, &c., in 1787, and since. 



Cag-aiard-Latour invented the -lirene (which see), iSig. 

Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, 
Tyndall, and others in the present century have 
greatly increased our Icnowledge of acoustics. 



ACRE, a land measure, formerly of uncertain quantity, and difiering in various parts of 
the country, was reduced to a standard by Edward I., probably about 1303. In 1824 the 
standard acre was ordered by statute to contain 4840 square j'ards. 

ACRE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was taken by the Saracens in 638 ; by the 
crusaders under Baldwin I. in 1104; by Saladin in 1187 ; and again by Richard I. and 
other crusaders, 12 July, 1191, after a siege of two years, with a loss of 6 archbishops, 12 
bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d' Acre. 
It was retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 Cliristians perished. The nuns, who 
had mangled their faces to preserve their chastity, were put to death. Acre was gallantly 
defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bonaparte in July, 1798, till relieved by Sir Sidney 
Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, between 16 March and 20 May, 1799, 
when Bonaparte retreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized 27 May, 1832, by 
Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. On 3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the British fleet 
under sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a fev;- hours, the Egyptians 
losing upwards of 2000 in killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners, while the British had 
but twelve killed and 42 wounded ; see Syria and Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS, the ancient citadel of Athens, built on a rock. Near it stood the temple 
of Minerva, the Parthenon, which see. 

ACROSTIC, a poem in which the first or last letters of each line, read dowaiwards, form 
a word, said to have been invented by Porphyrins Optalianus in the 4th century. Double 
acrostics have been very popular lately (1867). 

ACS (Hungary). The Hungarians under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians 
and Russians, on 2 and 10 July, 1849. 

ACT OF Settlement, &c. ; see Accession, Succession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. 

ACTA SANCTORUM ("acts of the saints"), a Avork begun by the Jesuits. The first 
volume appeared in 1643 ; the publication was interrupted in 1734, when the fifty-third 
volume was published, but was resumed in 1846, and has advanced in the order of months 
as far as October. The writers have been named Bollandists, from John Bolland, who 
published the first two volumes. 

ACTINOMETER, an instrument to measure the power of the solar rays, invented by 
sir J. F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825. See Sun. 

ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnauia, W. Greece, near which was fought, 2 Sept. 31 B.C. 
the battle between the fleet of Octavius Ctesar, and that of Marc Antony and Cleopatra, 
which decided the fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over to Cresar. This victory 
made Octavius master of the world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated i Jan. 30 B.C. 
(tlie Actian Era). The conqueror built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted the 
Actian games. 

ACTRESSES appear to have been unknown to the ancients ; men or eunuchs performing 
the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public appearance of 
women on the stage in England, in 1662 ; but Anne, queen of James I., had previously 
performed in a theatre at court. Theat. Biog. Mrs. Colman was the first actress on the 
stage ; she performed the part oi Icvnthe in Davenant's "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656. Victor. 

ACTS OF Parliament, or Statutes, see Parlictment. The following are among 
the most celebrated early statutes : — 



Statutes of Clarendon, to restrain the power of the 

clergy, enacted in 10 Hen. II. 1164. 
Provisions of Merton, 1235-6. 
Statute of Marlborough, 1267. 
Of Bigamy, 1275-6. 
Of Gloucester, the earliest statute of which any 

record exists, 6 Edw. I. 1278. 
Of Mortmain, 1279. 
Quo Warranto, Oct. 1280. 
Statutes of Wales, 1284. 
Of Winchester, Oct. 1284. 
Of Westminster, 1275, 1285, 1290. 
Statute forbidding the levying of taxes without the 

consent of parliament, 1297. 
Magna Charta, 1297. 
Of Prsemunire, 1306. 



Statutes fii-st printed in the reign of Kichard III. 
14S3. 

Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to 
George I., printed from the oiigiual records and 
MSS. in 12 vols, folio, under the direction of com- 
missioners appointed in iSoi, 1811 — 28. 

The statutes passed during each session are now 
printed annually in 4to. and Svo. Abstracts are 
given in the Cabinet Lawyer. 

Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly re- 
pealed, and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising 
out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. (aftei-- 
wards sir Robert) Peel ; of these acts, 1344 related 
to the kingdom at large, and 225 to Ireland solely; 
and in 1856 many obsolete statutes (enacted be- 
tween 1285 and 1777) were repealed. 



ACT 



ADM 



ACTS OF Parliament, or Statutes, continued. 



By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts 
were wholly repealed, and a great many partially. 
By the similar Act of 1863, a great number of 
enactments were repealed, commencing with the 
Provisions of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1236^, and 
ending with i James II. (1685). 

The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 
since 1800, was 570, in 1846 (the railway year) ; 
402 were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 
public acts. In 1841, only 13 were passed (the 
lowest number), of which two wore private. In 
three instances only, the annual number was 



under a hundred. The average number of the first 
ten years of the present century was 132 public 
acts. In the ten yeai-s ending 1850, the average 
number of acts, of p\iblio interest, was 112. 

The number of 'pvblic general acts passed in 1851 
was 106 ; in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; 
in 1855, 134 ; in 1856, 120 ; in 1857, 86 ; in 1858, 
109 ; in 1859, i°i > ill i85o, 154 ; in 1S61, 134 ; in 
1862, 114 ; in 1863, 12.'; ; in 1S64, 121 ; in 1865, 127 ; 
in 1866, 122 ; in 1867, 146. 

In 1850, 13 Vict. c. 13, was passed to curtail Repeti- 
tions in statutes. 



ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by 
Horace (Art of Poetry) as the rule (about 8 B.C.). 

ACTUARY, AcTTTARitrs, the Roman accountant. The Institute of Actuaries founded in 
1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance Magazine." 

ADAM AKi) EVE, Era of, in the English Bible, 4004 B.C. ; see Creation. 

ADAMITES, a sect said to have existed about 130, and to have been quite naked in 
their religious assemblies, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there would have been no 
marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and 
said it was not necessary to confess Christ. Uusebius. A sect with this name arose at 
Antwerp in the 12th century, under Tandemus, or Tanchelin, whose followers, 3000 soldiers 
and others, committed many crimes. It beca,me extinct soon after the death of its chief ; 
but another of the same kind, named Turlupins, appeared shortly after in Savoy and 
Dauphiny. A Fleming named Picard, revived this sect in Bohemia, about 141 5 ; it was 
suppressed by Ziska. 

ADDA, a river IST. Italy, passed by Suwarrow after defeating the French, 27 April, 1799. 

ADDINGTOlSr ADMIjSTISTRATIOIT. Mr. Pitt, having engaged to procure Roman 
Catholic emancipation to secure the union with Ireland, and being imable to do so as a 
oninistcr, resigned 3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. Addington, March 
1801 ; after various changes it terminated 11 May, 1804. 



Henry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and 

chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord Bldon, lord, chancellor. 
Duke of Portland, lord president. 
Earl of Westmoreland, lord privn seal. 
Lord Pelham, home secretary. 



Mr. R. B. Jenkinson (lord Hawkesbury, 1S03; an 

earl of Liverpool, 1808), foreign secretary. 
Lord Hobart, colonial secretary. 
Earl St. Vincent, adw.iraliy. 
Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 
Charles Yorke, secretary-at-war. 
Viscount Lewisham, Lord Auckland, &c. 



ADDISCGMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, Surrey, established by the East India 
company, in 1809, for the education of candidates for the scientific branches of the Indian 
army, was closed in 1861. 

ADDLED PARLIAMENT, see Parliament. ADDRESSERS, see Alhorrers. 

ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, was founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 
inhabitants in 1850, and 18,259 in 1855. Itwas made a bishopric in 1847. 

ADELPHI (Greek for brothers), several streets on the south side of the Strand, London, 
erected about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, and William Adam, after whom 
the streets are named. Adelphi Theatre, see under Theatres. 

ADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of Arabia, where in 1837 a British ship was 
wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised compensation, and agreed to cede the place 
to the English. The sultan's son refusing to fulfil tliis agreement to captain Haynes, a 
naval and military force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was dispatched to Aden, 
which captured it, 19 Jan. 1839. It is now a coal depot for Indian steamers, &c. 

ADIGE, a river in IST. Italy, near which the Austriaus defeated the French on 26, 30 
March, and 5 April, 1 799. 

ADMINISTRATIONS of England, and of Great Britain. t Until the Restoration, 
there was not in fact any Cabinet. The sovereign was aided by privy councillors, varying 

* Born 1757 ; became viscount Sidmouth in 1805; held various offices afterwards, and died in 1844. 
His circular to the lords lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing them to adopt severe measures against 
the authors of blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly censured, and not carried into effect. 

t Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the following twelve members : — First lord of the 
treasury ; lord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chancellor of the exchequer ; lord privy seal ; 
home, foreign, and coloni.al secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; president of the board of trade ; 
president of the board of control ; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1850, the number vi&b fifteen, 



ADM 



ADII 



1635 



iu number, the men and offices being frequently changed. The separation of the Cabinet 
from the privy council became greater during the reign of William III., and the control of 
the chief, now termed the "premier^' was established in the reign of Anne. " The era of 
ministries may most properly be reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parliament 
after the general election of 169S. " — Macaulaij.\ For a fuller account of each, since 1700, 
see separate articles headed with the name of the Premier, given in italics. 

Henky VIII. — Abp. "Warham ; bps. Fisher and 
Pox ; earl of Surrey, &c. . . . a.d. 1509 

Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, &o. . . . . 1514 

Eai-1 of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, <fec. 1523 

Sir Thos. More ; bps. Tunstall and Gardiner, 
and Cranmer (afterwards abp. of Canterbury) 1529 

Abp. Cranmer ; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of 
Kssex; Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, ifeo. . 1532 

Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of 
Surrey ; Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardi- 
ner ; su- Kalph Sadler, Ac 1540 

Lord Wriothe.sley; Thomas, dukeof Norfolk;lord 
Lisle; sir William Petre; sir William Paget, (fee. 1544 

Edward YI. — Lord Wriothesley, now earl of 
Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; 
Edward, earl of Hertford, lord protector, 
created duke of Somerset ; John, lord Rus- 
sell ; Henry, earl of Ai-undel ; Thomas, lord 
Seymour ; sir Wm. Paget ; sir Wm. Petre, <fec. 1547 

John Dudley, late lord Lisle and eai-1 of War- 
wick, created duke of Northumberland ; 
John, earl of Bedford ; bishop Goodrich, sir 
Wiliam Cecil, ifcc. 1551 

Mary. — Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; 
Edmund Uonuer, bp. of London ; William, 
marq. of Winchester; su- Edwd. Hastings, <fec. 1554 

Elizabeth. — Sir Nicholas Bacon; Edward, lord 
Clinton ; sir Robert Dudley, aftds. earl of 
Leicester; sir Wm. Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh. 155S 

Lord Bui-leigh (minister during nearly all the 
reign) ; sir N. Bacon, &c. .... 1572 

William, lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; 
Robert Devereux, earl of Essex (a favourite) ; 
earl of Leicester ; earl of Lincoln ; sir Walter 
Mildmay ; sir Francis Walsingham, (fee. . . 1579 

Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sii- 
Christopher Hatton, (fee. .... 1587 

Thomas Sackville, lord Buckhurst, afterwards 
eaii of Dorset ; .sir Thomas Egerton, after- 
wards lord EUesmere and viscount Brackley ; 
sir Robert Cecil, (fee. 1599 

James I. — Thomas, earl of Dorset; Thomas, 
lord EUesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; 
Thomas, earl of Suffolk; Edward, earl of 
Worcester ; Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of 
Salisbury, (fee. 1603 

Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord 
EUesmere ; Henrj', earl of Northampton ; 
Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of 
Suffolk, (fee. 1609 

Henry, eaii of Northampton ; Thomas, lord 
EUesmere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir 
Ralph Winwood ; Charles, eail of Notting- 
ham ; Robert, viscount Rochester, afterwards 
earl of Somerset, (fee 1612 

Thomas, lord EUesmere ; Thomas, earl of 
Suffolk ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; sir 
George Villiurs (a favourite), afterwards vis- 
count Vifliers, and successively earl, mar- 
quess, and duke of Buckingham . . . 1615 

Sir Henry Jlontagu, afterwards viscount Man- 
deville and earl of Manchester . . . 1620 

Lionel, lord Cranfield, afterwards earl of Middle- 
sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, eai'l 
of Bristol ; John WiUiams, dean of SVest- 



minster; George ViJliers, now marquess of 
Buckingham ; sir Edward C(mway, (fee. a.d. 1621 

CHARf.ES I. — Richard, lord Weston, afterwards 
earl of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, after- 
wards lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Man- 
chester (succeeded by James, earl of Marl- 
borough, who, in turn, gave place to Edward, 
lord, afterwards viscount, Conway) ; William 
Lau(ii, bp. of London ; sir Albert Jvlorton, (fee. 1628 

William Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury ; 
Francis, lord Cottington ; James, marqiiess 
of Hamilton ; Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir 
John Coke ; sir Francis Windebank, (fee. 

William Juxon, bishop of London ; sir John 
Finch, afterwards lord Finch ; Francis, lord 
Cottington ; Wentworth, earl of Strafford ; 
Algernon, earl of Northumberland ; James, 
marquess of Hamilton ; Laud, archbishop of 
Canterbury ; sir Francis Windebank ; sir 

Henry Vane, (fee. 1640 

[The king beheaded, 30 Jan. 1649.] 

Commonwealth. — OUver Cromwell, protector, 
named a council, the number not to exceed 
21 members, or be less than 13. . . . 1653 

Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on 
the death of the latter. A council of officers 
ruled at Wallingford house . . . . 1658 

Charles II. — Sir lildward Hyde, afterwards earl 
, of Clarendon ; George Mouk, created duke of 
Albemarle ; Edward Montai;u, created earl of 
Sandwich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Man- 
chester ; lord Seymour ; sir Robert Long, (fee. 

George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first 
commissioner of the treasury, (fee. 

^' Cabal" Ministry: Clifford, Ashley, Bucking- 
ham, ArUngton, Lauderdale (see Cabal) 

Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftes- 
bury ; Henry, eai-1 of Arlington ; Arthur, 
earl of Anglesey ; sir Thomas Osborne, created 
viscount Latimer ; Henry Coventry ; sir 
George Carteret ; Edward Seymour, (fee. 

Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of 
Danby, made lord high treasurer 26 June, 1673 

Arthur, earl of Essex (succeeded by Lawrence 
Hyde, aft. eai-1 of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of 
Sundei-land, (fee 

[The king nominated a new council on 21 April, 
consisting of thirty members only, of whom 
the principal were the great officers of state 
and gi-eat officers of the household.] 

Sidney, Lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of 
Rochester ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham ; 
Robert, earl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas 
Chicheley; George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, 
earl of Clarendon ; earls of Bath and Radnor. 

James II, — Lawrence, earl of Rochester; George, 
marquess of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, 
afterwards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Cla- 
rendon ; sir John Ernley ; visct. Preston, (fee. 

The earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, 
lord Belasyse, made first commissioner of 
the treasury in his room. 4 Jan. ; the earl of 
Sunderland made president of the council ; 
viscount Preston, secretary of state, (fee. 16S7-8 

[The king left WhitehaU in the night of 1 7 Dec. , 



1660 



1667 
1670 



1672 



1679 



168s 



and included the secretary-at-war, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretary for Ireland. In the 
Palmerston-RusseU cabinet (which ste), the president of the poor-law-board replaced the secretary for 
Ireland. The average duration of a ministry has been set down at four, five, and six years ; but instances 
have occurred of the duration of a ministry for much longer periods : sir Robert Walpole was minister 
from 1721 to 1742 (21 years); Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (iS years); and lord Liverpool, 1812 to 1827 (15 years). 
Several ministries have not endured beyond a few months, as the Coalition Ministry iu 1783, and the 
" Talents" Ministry in 1806. The " Short-lived" Administration la-sted 10 to 12 Feb. 1746. 



ADM 



10 



ADM 



ADMINISTRATIONS of Gkeat Britain, continual. 



and quitting the liingdom, landed at Amble- 
teiise, in France, on the 23 Dec. 1688.] 

William III. and Mary. — Cliarles, viscount 
Mordaunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, 
created marquess of Carmarthen, afterwards 
duke of Leeds ; George, marquess of Halifax ; 
Arthur Herbert, afterwards lord Torrington ; 
earls of Shrewsbury, Nottingham, and Sun- 
derland ; earl of Dorset and Middlesex ; 
"William, earl (afterwards duke) of Devon- 
shire ; lord Godolphin ; lord Montagu ; lord 
De la Mere, &c 1689 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of 
Danby ; Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of 
Pembroke ; Henry, viscount Sydney ; Daniel, 
earl of Nottingham, <&c 1690 

Sir John Sonaers became lord Somers in 1697, 
and lord chancellor ; Charles Montagu, after- 
wards lord Halifax, was made first commis- 
sioner of the treasury, i May, 1698, succeeded 
by Ford, earl of Tankerville, in 1699. 

Anne. — Sidney, lord (aftei-wards earl of) Godol- 
phin; Thomas, earl of Pembroke, &c. May, 1702 

Robert Harley, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon Har- 
court, &c June i, 1711 

Charles, duke of Shrevshurij, made lord trea- 
sui-er three days before the queen's death, 
(fee July 30, 1714 

George I. — Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded 
on his death by the earl of Carlisle), &c. . 1714 

Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury and 
chancellor of the exchequer, &c. . . . 1715 

James (afterwards eurl) Stanhoi^e : William, lord 
Cowper, (fee 1717 

Charles, earl of Su7iderland, &c. . . . . 1718 

Robert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, 
and earl of Orford, &c 1721 

George II. — Robert Walpole, continued . . 1727 
[Sir Robert remained prime minister 
twenty-one years ; numerous changes occur- 
ring in the time ; see Wal})ole.] 

Earl of Wilmington; lord Hardwicke, &c. . 1742 

Henry Pelham, in the room of earl of Wilming- 
ton, deceased Aug. 1743 

"Broad Botiom" administration — Henry Pel- 
ham; lord Hardwicke, (fee. . . Nov. 1744 

'■'Short-lived" administration — earl of Bath; 
lords Winchilsea and Granville 10-12 Feb. 1746 

Henry Pelham, &c., again . 12 Feb. 1746 

Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle; earl of 
Holdernesse, &c April, 1754 

Duke of Devonshire ; William Pitt, &c. Nov. 1756 

Duke of Newcantle, and Mr. Pitt, afterwards 
earl of Chatham, &c June, 1757 

George III. — Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's 
ministrj', continued ..... 1760 

Earl of i?Mie,- lord Henley, (fee. . . May, 1762 

George Grenville ; earls of Halifax and Sand- 
wich, (fee April, 1763 

Marquess of JRockingham ; earl of Winchilsea, 
&c July, 1765 

marl oi Chatham ; duke of Grafton, (fee. Aug. 1766 

Duke of Grafton ; lord North, (fee. . Dec. 1767 

Frederick, lord i\^ort/i ; earl Gower, <fec. Jan. 1770 
[Lord North was minister during the whole 
of the American war.] 

Marquess of Rockingham ; lord Camden ; C. J. 
Fox ; Edmund Burke, (fee. . . March, 1782 

Earl of Shelburne (afterwards marquess of Lans- 
downe); William Pitt, (fee. . . . July, „ 

"Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland; lord 
Noi-th ; C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, (fee. April, 1783 

William Pitt ; Henry Dundas, (fee. . Dec. „ 
[During Mr. Pitt's long administration, nu- 
merous changes in the ministi-y took place.] 

Heni'y Addington; duke of Portland; lord 
Eldon, (fee March, et seq. 1801 



William Pitt ; lord Eldon ; George Canning, 

(fee May, et seq. 

[Mr. Pitt died 23 Jan. 1806.] 

"All the Talents" — lord Grenville; lord Henry 

Petty ; lord Erskine ; C. J. Fox ; sir Charles 

Grey (afterwards earl Grey). Feb. 

[Mr. Fox's death, 13 Feb. 1806, led to 

numerous changes.] 

Dnke oi PoHland ; lord Eldon, (fee.* March, 

Spencer Perceval; earl of Liverpool; viscount 
Palmerston, (fee. . . . Nov. and Dec. 

Regency. — Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by 
Bellingham, 11 May, 1S12), (fee. 5 Feb. 

lEarl of Ziverjiool ; lord Eldon; Mr. Vansittart ; 
lord Melville ; viscounts Castlereagb, Palmer- 
ston, &c May, June, 

George IV. — Earl of Liverpool, (fee. 29 Jan. 
[During lord Liverpool's long administra- 
tion numerous changes occurred.] 

George Canning ; lord Lyndhurst ; viscount 
Goderich; Wm. Huskisson; viscount Palmer- 
ston ; duke of Clarence, (fee. . . April, 
[Mr. Canning died 8 Aug. 1827.] 

Viscount Goderich ; viscount Palmerston ; mar- 
quess of Lansdowne ; Huskisson, (fee. Aug. 

Duke of Wellington; Robert Peel; Mr. Hus- 
kisson, (fee Jan. 

I The ministry reconstructed on the retire- 
ment of the earl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, 
Mr. Grant, and Mr. Huskisson.] May and June, 

William IV. — Duke of Wellington, (fee, 26 June, 

Earl Grey; marquess of Lansdowne ; lord 
Brougham ; viscount Althorpe ; earl of Dur- 
ham ; viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and 
Goderich ; sir James Graham ; lord John 

Russell, (fee Nov. 

[Earl Grey resigns, owing to a majority 
against him in the lords, on the Reform Bill, 
10 May ; but resumes his post.] . 18 May, 

Viscount Melbourne ; (fee. . . . July, 

Melbourne administration dissolved, Nov. 

1834. The duke of Wellington held the seals 

of office till the return of sir Robert Peel 

from Italy, Dec. 1834.] 

Sir Robert Peel ; lord Lyiidhurst ; duke of 

Wellington ; earl of Aberdeen ; (fee. Nov. 

and Dec. 

Viscount Melbourne, (fee. . . . April, 

VICTORIA' — Viscount Melbourne, fee, 20 June, 
[Subsequent accessions, F. T. Baring ; earl 
of Clarendon ; T. B. Macaulay, &c. Viscount 
Jlelbourne resigned, and sir Robert Peel re- 
ceived the queen's commands to form a new 
administration, 8 May. This command is 
withdrawn, and on 10 May, lord Melbourne 
returned to power] 

Sir Robert Peel; duke of Wellington; lord 
Lyndhurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aber- 
deen ; lord Stanley, ifec. . Aug. and Sept. 
[Accessions, Sidney Herbert ; W. E. Glad- 
stone, (fee] 

hord John Hussell; viscount Palmerston; earl 

Grey, (fee July, 

[Accessions : earl Granville ; Mr. Fox Maule ; 
earl of Carlisle : sir Thomas Wilde, ^created 
lord Truro, (fee.] 

Lord John Russell and the marquess of Lans- 
downe on 24 Feb. announced the resigna- 
tion of ministers, owing to their defeat on 
Mr. Locke King's motion respecting the fran- 
chise ; they informed parliament, that it 
ha^dng been found impossible to construct a 
coalition ministry, the queen, by the advice 
of the duke of Wellington, had called upon 
her late ministers to resume office. Lord 
Stanley (since earl of Derby), in the interval, 
had been unable to form a cabinet, 3 March, 



1807 



1K12 
1820 



183s 
1337 



1S39 
1841 

1846 



* The duel between lord Castlereagb and Mr. Canning, 22 Sept. 1809, led to the breaking up of this 
administration. 



ADM 11 ADM 

ADMINISTRATIOISrS of Great Britain, continued. 



Earl of De)-b-i/ (late lord Stanley) ; lord St. Leo- 
nards ; Benjamin Disnieli ; Spencer H. Wal- 
pole ; earl of Malmesbury ; sir John Paking- 
ton; duke of iSortliumberland, &c. 27 Feb. 1852 

Earl of Aberdeen : lord John Russell ; viscount 

Palmerston, <fec 28 Dec. ,, 

[Various changes of offices took place ; a 
fourth secretary of state was appomted, by 
the separation of the war from the colonial 
department ; see Secretaries of State. The re- 
tirement of Lord J. Russell, 24 Jan. 1855, 
and a majority, in the commons against 
ministers of 157 (305 to 148) on Mr. Roebuck's 
motion respecting the conduct of the war, 
led to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and 



spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a 
vote of censure being passed by a majority of 
19, on the motion of Mr. Milner Gibson) re- 
signed immediately] . . . .19 Feb. 1858 

Earl of Derbij ; B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; 
lord Stanley; sir P. Thesiger (lord Chelms- 
ford), &c 26 Feb. ,, 

[The Derby administration, in consequence 
of a vote of want of confidence in it being 
carried by a majority of 13, 10 June 1859, 
resigned the ne.x:t day. Earl Granville failed 
to form an administration.] 

Viscount Palmerston; lord John (since earl) 

Russell, (fee 18 June, 1859 

[Lord Palmerston died 18 Oct. 1865.] 



bis colleagues, 30 Jan. ; the cabinet was re- ! Earl Mussell ; W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Claren- 



constructed by Viscount Palmerston; lord 
Cran worth ; &o.] . . . . 7 Feb. 1855 

[Secession of Sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, 
and Mr. S. Herbert.] 
Accession of Lord John Russell ; earl of Claren- 
don ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; sir W. 
Molesworth, <Sic 24 Feb. ,, 

[On the second reading of the Foreign Con- 



don ; (fee Oct. 1865 

[Resigned (in consequence of a minority on 
the Reform Bill, 19 June) . . 26 June, 1866 
Earl of Derby, B. IDisraeli, lord Stanley, (fee. ; for 
changes, see Derby Administrations. 6 July, 1866 
[Earl of Derb^ resigned through ill health] 

25 Feb. i868 
B.i)i3raelireconstitutedtheadministration2g Feb. „ 



ADMINISTEATIVE EEFORM ASSOCIATIOlSr derived its origin from a general opinion 
that the disasters wliich occurred to the army in the Crimea in 1854-5 Avere attributable to 
the inefficient and irresponsible management of the various departments of the state. The 
association was organised in London, 5 May, 1855. A meeting was held in Drury-lane 
theatre, on 13 June, and Mr. Layard's motion on tlie subject in parliament was negatived 
18 June following. The association was reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., becoming 
chairman, but soon became unimportant ; see Civil Service. 

ADMIRAL. The title does not appear to have been adopted in England until about 
1300, but was previously in use in France. Sir Harris Nicolas. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, 
Harold, and other kings, were commanders of their own fleets. The first French admiral is 
said to have been appointed 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was first given 
to "William de Leybounie by Edward I. in 1297. Spelvian; Rymer. The first Loed Hi«h 
Admiral in England was created by Richard II. in 1385 : there had been previously high 
admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. The duties have generally been executed 
by lords commissioners ; see Admiralty. A similar dignity existed in Scotland from the 
reign of Robert III. : in 1673, the king bestowed it upon his natural son Charles Lennox, 
afterwards duke of Richmond, then an infant, who resigned the office to the crown in 1 703 : 
after the union it was discontinued. — The dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of Ijrief 
existence) was conferred upon James Butler by Henry VIII. , in Maj'', 1534. The Admiral 
of the Fleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, corresponding to that of marshal in the 
army. We have now 3 admirals of the fleet, 20 admirals, 24 vice-admirals, and 48 rear- 
admirals (1868) ; see Navy. The first admiral of the United States of America, David G. 
Farragut, was nominated in 1866. 

ADMIRALTY, Court of, a court for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs, 
said to have been erected by Edward III., in 1357. It was enacted in the reign of Henry 
VIII., that criminal causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some of the judges at 
^Vestminster (or, as now, at the Old Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the admiralty was 
constituted in 15 14, and was filled by two or more functionaries until the Revolution, when 
it was restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has usually been an eminent doctor of the 
civil law. In 1844 the criminal j urisdiction of this court was removed, and by 20 & 21 Vict, 
c. 77 {1857), the judge of the Probate court was to be also judge of the Admiralty court. 
The present judge of the Admiralty court. Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed in 1838), 
resigned i July, 1867, and was succeeded by Sir Robert Phillimore. The j urisdiction of this 
court was extended in 1861. 

ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to 
inspect his ships of war, &,c. In 1662 the admii'alty was first put into commission, the great 
officers of state being the commissioners. During the commonwealth the admiralty afiairs 
were managed by a committee of the parliament ; and at the restoration in 1660, James, 
duke of York, became lord high admiral ; see succeeding changes hclow. In 1688-9. the 
admiralty was put into commission, and the board appears to have assembled at admiral 
Herbert's lodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being at that time first lord. In 1830, 
1832, and 1836 various changes Avere made in the civil departments, several offices being 



ADM 



12 



ADU 



abolished or consolidated witli others. In March, 1861, a royal commission recommended 
the abolition of the board of admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the navy 
department. 



FIRST LOKDS OF THE ADMIKALTY, ETC. 



1660. 
1673. 



1679. 



1683. 
1684. 
1685. 



1690. 

1C92. 
1693. 
1694. 
1699. 
1701. 
1702. 

1708. 

1709. 
1710. 
1712. 
1714. 
1717. 
1727. 

1733- 
1742, 
1744. 
1748. 
1751- 
1756. 
1757- 

1762. 
1763. 



James, duke op York, lord high admiral, 6 June. 

King Charles II., 14 June. 

Prince Bupekt, g July. 

Sir Henry Capel, 14 Feb. 

Daniel Finch, esq. , 19 Feb. 

Daniel, lord Finch, 20 Jan. 

Daniel, earl of Nottingham, 17 April. 

King Charles II. 

King James II., 17 May. 
Office in cornmission. 

Arthur Herbert, esq., 8 March. 

Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 
20 Jan. 

Charles, lord Cornwallis, 10 March. 

Anthony, viscount Falkland, 15 April. 

Edward Russe), esq. (aft. earl of Orford), 2 May. 

John, earl of Bridgewater, 2 June. 

Thomas, earl of Pembroke, 4 April. 

Geokge, prince of Denmark, lord high ad- 
miral, 20 May. 

Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, 29 Nov. 
Office in commission. 

Edward, earl of Orford, 8 Nov. 

Sir John Leake, 4 Oct. 

Thomas, eai'l of Strafford, 30 Sept. 

Edward, earl of Orford, 14 Oct. 

James, earl of Berkeley, 19 March. 

George, viscount Torrington, 2 Aug. 

Sir Charles Wagner, knt., 25 June. 

Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 19 March. 

John, duke of Bedford, 27 Dec. 

John, earl of Sandwich, 10 Feb. 

George, lord Anson, 22 June. 

Richard, earl Temple, 19 Nov. 

Daniel, earl of "Winchilsea, 6 April. 

George, lord Anson, 2 July. 

George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, ig June. 

George GrenviUe, esq., i Jan. 



1763 John, earl of Sandwich, 23 April. 

,, John, earl of Egmont, 10 Sept. 
1766. Sir Charles Saunder.s, 10 Sept. 

,, Sir Edward Hawke, 10 Dec. 
1771. John, earl of Sandwich, 12 Jan. 

1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, i April. 

,, Augustus, viscount Keppel, 18 July. 

1783. Richard, viscount Howe, 28 Jan. 
1788. John, earl of Chatham, 16 July. 
1794. George John, earl Spencer, 20 Dec. 
1801. John, earl St. Vincent, 19 Feb. 

1804. Henry, viscount Melville, 15 May. 

1805. Charles, lord Barham, 2 May. 

1806. Hon. Charles Grey, 10 Feb. 

,, Thomas Grenville, esq., 23 Oct. 

1807. Henry, lord Mulgrave, 6 April. 
1809. Charles Yorke, esq., 10 May. 

1812. Robert, viscount Melville, 25 March. 

1827. William Henry, duke of Clarence, lord 

high admiral, i May, resigned 12 Aug". 1828. 

1828. Robert, viscount Melville, 19 Sept. 
1830. Sir James R. G. Graham, bart., 25 Nov. 

1834. George, lord Auckland, 11 June. 

,, Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 23 Dec. 

1835. George, lord Auckland, 25 April. 
,, Gilbert, earl of Minto, 19 Sept. 

1841. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 8 Sept. 
1846. Edward, earl of EUenborough, 13 Jan. 

,, George, earl of Auckland, 24 July. 
1849. Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, 18 Jan. 

1852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, 28 Feb. 

1853. Sir James Robert George Graham, 5 Jan. 
1855. Sir Charles Wood, bart., 24 Feb. 

1858. Sir John Pakiugton, 26 Feb. 

1859. Edward, duke of Somerset, June. 

1866. Sir John Pakington, bart., 6 July. 

1867. Henry Lowry Corry, 8 March, 1867. 



ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. "At the south end of Duke-street, "Westminster, was seated 
a large house, made use of for the admiralty office, until the business was removed to 
Greenwich, and thence to Wallingford-house, against Whitehall." It was rebuilt by Eipley 
about 1 726 ; the screen was erected, to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the brothers 
Adam, in 1776. — Lord Nelson lay in state in one of the apartments on 8 Jan. 1806 ; and on 
the next day was buried at St. Paul's. 

"ADMOISriTIOJSr TO THE Parliament," condemning all religious ceremonies but those 
commanded by the New Testament, was published by certain Puritans in 1571. It was 
answered by abp. Whitgtft. Its presimied authors, Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. 

ADOENO and FREGOSO, two families, of which the doges were frequently members, 
and which disturbed Genoa from the 14th to the i6th centuries, the former favouring the em- 
peror, the latter the French king. Their power was annihilated by Andrea Doria about 1528. 

ADRIAN'S WALL (to prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts into the northern 
counties of England, then under the Roman government) extended from the Tyne to Solway 
jirth, and was eighty miles long, twelve feet high, and eight in thickness, with watch-towers ; 
buUt 121. It was repaii-ed and strengthened by Severus, 207 — 210. 

ADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died 10 
July, A.D. 138) . Near here was fought the battle in which Constantine defeated Licinius and 
gained the empire, 3 July, 323 ; also, near here the emperor A^'alens was defeated and slain 
by the Goths, 9 Aug. 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks under Amurath in 1361, 
and was the capital till the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It was taken by the 
Russians on 20 Aug. 1829 ; and restored 14 Sept. same year ; see Turkey. 

ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Yenice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted 
about 1 1 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The doge dropped a ring into the sea 
from his bucentaur, or state barge, being attended by his nobility and foreign ambassadors. 
The ceremony was first omitted in 1797. 

ADULLAM, a cave to which David fled from the persecution of Saul about 1062 B. c. 



ADU 13 ^LI 

(i Sam. xxii. i, 2). Mr. Horsman, Mr. R. Lowe, earl Grosvenor, lord Elcho, and other 
liberals who opposed the Franchise hill in 1866, were termed " Adullamites. " * 

ADULTERATION of Food was prohibited in England in 1267. Much attention was 
drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Accum's book, called "Death in the Pot," and in 1855 
through Dr. Hassall's book, "Food and its Adultei'ations. " By an act for preventing the 
adulteration of food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts may be appointed. 

ADULTERY was punished with death by the law of Moses (1490 e.g. ; Lev. xx. 10) — and 
by Lyciirgus (884 b. c. ). The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a gibbet over 
her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and nose were cut off under 
Canute, 103 1. Adultery was ordained to be punished capitally by Cromwell, May 14, 1650 : 
but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New England the punishment for 
adultery was made capital to both parties, and several suffered it, 1662. Hardie. Till 1857 
the legal redress against the male offender was by civil action for a money compensation ; 
the female being lialjle to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (1857) the "action for criminal 
conversation" was abolished and the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes established, 
with power to grant divorces for adultery and ill usage ; see Divorce. 

ADVENT {advcnicns, coming). The season includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, 
the first being the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies 
respecting Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sunday, 1868, 29 Nov. ; 1869, 28 
Nov. ; 1870, 27 Nov. ; 1S71, 3 Dec. 

ADVENTURE BAY, S.E. end of Van Diemen's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. 
Furneaux in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from his ship Adventv^re. It was 
visited by captain Bligh in 1 788. 

ADVENTURERS, see Merchants. 

ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, as now published, were not general in England 
till the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of 50Z. was inflicted on persons 
advertising a reward with "No questions to ha asked " for the return of things stolen, and 
on the printer, 1754. The advertisement duty, formerly charged according to the number of 
lines, was afterwards fixed, in England, at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland at 2s. '6d. each advertise- 
ment. The duty, further reduced, in England to is. 6d. and in Ireland to is. each, in 1833, 
was abolished in 1853. f Advertising Vans, a great nuisance, were prohibited in 1853. 

ADVOCATE, The King's, (always a doctor of the civil law,) was empowered to prosecute 
at his own instance certain crimes about 1597. The Lord Advocate in Scotland is the 
same as the attorney-general in England with judicial powers. — It was decided in the 
parliament of Paris, in 1685, that the king's advocate of France might at the same time be a 
judge ; and in Scotland sir William Oliphant (1612) and Sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord 
advocates and lords of session at the same time. Beatson. — The Advocates' library in 
Edinburgh was established by sir G. Mackenzie in 1682. 

^DILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 B.C. There were three degrees. The 
plebeian rediles ])resided over the more minute affairs of the state, the maintenance of 
order, the reparation of the streets, the supply of provisions, &c. Varro. 

A. E. I. 0. U., (for "Austria est imperare orbi universi," "Austria is to rule all the 
world,") was the motto of the weak and unfortunate emperor, Frederick III. 1440—1493^ 

jEGATES isles, W. of Sicily : near these, during the first Punic war, the Roman consul, 
C. Lutatius Catulus gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 
10 March, 241 b. c. Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 talents. 

.^GINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was humbled by Themistocles, 485 b.c. ; and 
taken 455. Its inhabitants, expelled, 431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they renewed 
war with Athens 388, and made peace 387. 

jEGOSPOTAMOS, (the Goat-river,) in the Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedjemonian, 
defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 b. c. , and endeel the Peloponnesian war. 

iELIA CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of Jerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 130. 

* During a debate on this bill on 13 March, 1866, Mr. Bright said of Mr. Horsman, that he "had 
retired into what may be called his political cave of Adullam, to which he invited every one who was 
in debt, and every one who was discontented," (fee. On 19 April, lord Eloho said, "No improper motive 
has driven xis into this cave, where we are a most hapisy family, daily — I may say, hourly — increasing in 
number and strength, where we .shall remain until we go forth to deliver Israel from oppression." 
Although their oppo.sition led to the defeat and resignation of the Russell ministry, they declined to take 
ofBce under lord Derby in July, iS56 They did not vote together uniformly in 1867. 

t On 16 Oct. i860, the whole of the libretto of MacFarren's Opera, Robin Hood, was inserted as aa 
advertisement in the Timti (4J columns). 



yEMI 



li 



AFF 



EMILIA, the name given to the provinces of Parma, Modena, and the Eomagna, united 
to Sardinia in i860 ; and now part of the kingdom of Italy. 

^NEID, the gi'eat Latin epic poem, relating the adventures of iEneas, written ahout 24 
B.C. by Yirgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 b.c., before he had finally corrected the poem. It was 
first printed in 1469, at Eome. 

.ENIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C. ; Jiidges xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. 
Gale attributes jenigmatical speeches to the Egyptians. The ancient oracles frequently gave 
responses admitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. In Nero's time, the Eomans had 
recourse to this method of concealing truth. The following epitaph on Fair Eosamond 
(mistress of our Henry II. about 1173) is a mediseval specimen : — "Hie jacet in tomba Eosa 
mundi, non Eosa munda ; Non redolet, sed olet, quaj redolere solet. " 

MOJAA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a principal branch of the Hellenic race ; begin- 
ning about 1 1 24 B.C. The ^olians built several large cities both on the mainland and the 
neighbouring islands ; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered the capital. 

J^OLIAN HAEP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1650, but it was known before. 

.^OLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in which a tube might be screwed, was used 
in the 1 7th century as a lioiler for experimental steam-engines. 

JEQIJI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Eomans, and their lands annexed 
after a severe struggle, 471-302 b.c. 

iEEAS, see Eras. 

AEEATED "WATEES. Apparatus for combining gases with water were patented by 
Thomson in 1807 : F. C. Bakewell in 1832 and 1847 ; Tylor in 1840, and by others. Aerated 
BREAD is made by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 

AEEIANS, followers of Aerins, a presbyter, in the 4th century, who held that there was 
no distinction between a bishop and presbyter ; that there was no Pasch to be observed by 
Christians ; that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; and that prayers should 
not be offered for the dead. Epiplianiv^. 

AEEOLITES, see Meteors. 

AEEONAUTICS, and AEEOSTATICS, see Balloons, and Flymg. 

iESOP'S FABLES, said to have been written about 619, 571, or 565 b.c, no doubt 
by various persons. Phtedrus's Latin paraphrases in Iambics (about a.d. 8) are very elegant. 

JiSTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful 
(especially in art) ; a tenn invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, whose work 
" yEsthetica " was published in 1750. 

ETHIOPIA, see ^i!7wopm. "^THIOPICA," see iZomajices. 

AETIANS, followers of Aetius, an Arian heretic about 351. .^TISTA, see Etna. 

.ffiTOLIA, in Greece, a country named after jEtolus of Elis, who is said to have accidentally 
killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled here. After the 
ruin of Athens and Sparta, the ^Etolians became the rivals of the Achseans, and were alter- 
nately allies and enemies of Eome. 



The jEtolians join Sparta against Athens b.c. 455 
The J5tolian league opposes Macedon . . . 323 
Subdued by Antipater dxiring the Lamian war . 322 
Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls . . . . 279 
Invade the Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia 
(Social War), and defeat the Achseans at 

Caphyse 220 

Philip v., of Macedon, invades ^tolia, and takes 

Thermum — Peace concluded .... 217 
Alliance with Rome 211 



War with Philip, 202 ; deserted by the Eomans, 

the .Sltolians make peace . . . . b. c. 205 
They invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and 
Sparta, to coalesce with them against the 

Romans 193-2 

Defeat of the allies near Thermopylae . . . 191 
Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius . .189 
Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party 167 
Made a province of Rome 146 



AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was prohibited in almost every 
age and country, but has yet taken place to a considerable extent. The Jewish law is given 
in Leviticus xviii. (1490 B.C.). In the English prayer-book the table restricting marriage 
within certain degrees was set forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages were 
adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the 99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within 
the forbidden degrees are declared to be absolutely void by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, 1835 ; see 
Marriage {of Wife's Sister). 

AFFIEMATION; see Quakers. The afiirmation was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and 
in April, 1859. — The indulgence was gi-anted to persons who were formerly Quakers, but 
who had seceded from that sect, 2 Vict. 1838 ; and extended to other dissenters by 9 Geo. IV. 
c. 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 2 (1855), 



AFG 



15 



AFR 



AFGHANISTAN, a large country in central Asia, formerly part of the Persian and 
Greek empires, was conquered by the Tartars about 997. 

Eunjeet Sing, the Sikh chief of Lahore, conquers a 

large part of the coimtry in i8i8. 
Dost Mahommed becomes ruler, 1829. 

[For the Afghan war with England, see India, 
1838.] 
Dost Mahommed takes Herat, May 26 ; dies after 

designating his eldest son, Shere-Ali, his successor, 

29 May, 1863 ; a war of succession ensues. 
The English remain neutral, June, &c. 1863. 
Treachery and anarchy prevailing, June, 1865 — 

April, 1866. 
Two rival ameers reigning — Shere-Ali at Candahar 

Afzul Khan, at Cabool, — Sept. 1866. 
Af zul Khan recognised by the British government, 

Feb. 1867. 
Army of Shere-Ali defeated and his general slain, 

about 21 Sept. 1867. 
Afzul Khan dies about 20 Oct. 1867. 

AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient world, and 
the greatest peninsula of the universe ; said to have been Jirst peopled by Ham. For its 
history, see Egypt, Cartilage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, Algiers, Morocco, Ac. 

Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. 
Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery 

of the source of the Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, 

23 Feb. 1863. 
[Oapt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun 

while alone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864.] 
Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White 

Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863 — 



The Mahommedan dynasty, the Ghaznevides, said 
to have ruled from 1186 to 1206. 

Overthrown by Genghis Khan about 1221, and by 
Tamerlane, 1398. 

Baber conquered Caubul in 1523. 

On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia 
and Hindostan. 

The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take 
Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who 
subdues the whole of the country, 1737. 

On his assassination, one of liis officers, Ahmed Shah, 
an Afghan, forms Afghanistan into an independent 
kingdom, and reigns prcsperously, 1747-73. 

His son and successor, Timovu-, died in 1793 ; whose 
son, Zemaun, was dethroned and bhnded after 
reigning ten years. Since then the history is a 
series of broils, crimes, and murders. 



Carthage subdued by the Eomans 146 B.C. ; other 

provinces gained by Pompey 82. 
N. Africa conquered by tlie Vandals under 

Genseric, a.d. 429-35, re-conquered by Belisarius, 

S33-5 

The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 637 — 709. 

Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487. 

Portuguese settlements begun 1450. 

English merchants visit Guinea in 1550 ; and Eliza- 
beth granted a Patent to an African company in 
1588. 

Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. 

Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. 

Bruce commenced his travels in 1768. 

Sierra Leone settled by the English 1787. 

Mungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, 
1795 ; and his second, 30 January, 1804, and never 
returned (see Park). 

Africa visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809 ; Burckhardt, 
1812; Homemann, 1816; Denham and Clapperton, 
1822 ; the brothers Lander, 1830. 

The great Niger expedition to start a colony in 
Central Africa (for which parliament voted 
60,000?.), consistmg of the Albert, Wilberforce, and 
Soudan steam-ships, commenced the ascent of £he 
Niger, 20 Aug. 1841 ; when they reached Iddah, 
fever broke out among the crews, and they were 
successively obliged to return, the Albert, having 
ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the 
sea, 28 Sept. The expedition was relinquished 
owing to disease, heat, and hardships, and all the 
vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando 
Po, 17 Oct. 1841. 

James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 
1845-6, and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign 
Office) he left England to explore central Africa, 
accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. 
Richardson died 4 March, 1851 ; and Overweg, 27 
Sept. 1852. 

Dr. Vogel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 
20 Feb. 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been 
assassinated. 

Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the 
Royal Geographical Society's medal, 16 May, 1856. 
His travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. 

Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, re- 
turned to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence 
of 16 years, during which he traversed a large 
part of the heart of S. Africa, and walked about 
11,000 miles, principally over country hitherto 
unexplored. His book was pubUshed in Nov. 
1S57. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed Biitish 
consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, 
and left England shortly after. 

Du Chaillu's travels in central Africa created much 
controversy and excitement in 1861. 



The "Universities Mission to east central Africa," 
consisting of a bishop, Charles F. Mackenzie, 
bishop of central Africa, and six clergymen and 
others, started Deo. i860, and arrived at the 
Zambesi in Feb. 1861. All died from privations 
and disease except two, who returned in 1864. 
The bishop died 31 Jan. 1S62 ; succeeded by Dr. 
Tozer. 

Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863 ; 
after being robbed, and undergoing many priva- 
tions, returned to London near the end "of 1865. 
He gave an acco\mt of his journey at a meeting of 
the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866. 

Dr. Livingstone returns, 23 July, 1864. 

Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 
1864. 

[He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes 
near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. 
He opened commercial relations with central 
Af i-ica. ] 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, 
supposed to be another source of the Nile, which 
he named Lake Nyanza Albert, 14 March, 1864. 

Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for inner 
Africa, 24 March, 1865. 

Narrative of Livingstone's Zambesi expedition 1858- 
64, published i856. 

Reports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake 
Nyassa, in Sept. 1866 — March, 1867 ; doubted, 
July, 1S67. 

Expedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, 
sailed 9 July, 1867, returned and reported to the 
Royal Geographical Society his conviction that 
Livingstone was aUve, 27 Jan. 1868. 

African Association, for promoting the exploration 
of central Africa, was formed in June, 1788, 
principally by Sir Joseph Banks ; and under its 
auspices many additions wore made to African 
geography by Ledyard, Park, Burckhardt, 
Homemann, <fec. It merged into the Royal Geo- 
gi'aphical Society in 1831. 

African Chdrch. In 1866 Robert Gray, bishop of 
Capetown (in consequence of a decision of the 
privy council ; see Church of Etifiland), declared 
himself independent, and established synods of 
the " Church of South Africa." 

African Company (merchants trading to Africa), 



AFR 



16 



AGI 



AFEICA, continued. 

arose out of an association in Exeter, formed in 
1588. A charter was granted to a joint-stock 
company in 161 8 ; a third company was created in 
1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; another was 
formed by letters-patent in 1672 ; remodelled in 
1695. In 1821 the company was abolished. 



African Institution, founded in London in 1807, 
for the abolition of the slave trade, and the 
civilisation of Africa. Many schools have been 
established with success, particularly at Sierra 
Leone. 



AGAPjE (agape, Greek for love, charity), "feasts of charity," referred to Jtide 12, and 
described by TertuUian, of which the first Christians of all ranks partook, in memory of the 
last time when Christ ate with his disciples. Disorders creeping in, these feasts were 
forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the councils of Laodicea (366), and Carthage (390). 
They are still recognised by the Greek church, and are held in their original form weekly by 
the Sandemanians, and in some degree by the Moravians and Wesleyans. 

AGAPEMONE (Greek, "the abode of love "), au establishment at Charlinch, near 
Bridgwater, Somersetshire, founded in 1845, where Henry James Prince,* and his deluded 
followers, formerly persons of property, live in common, professing to devote themselves to 
innocent recreation and to maintain spiritual marriage. The Agapemon^ is described by 
Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his " Spiritual "Wives," published in Jan. 1868. 

AGE. Chronologers have divided the time between the creation and the birth of Christ 
into ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described the Golden, SHver, Brazen, and Iron Ages; 
see Dark Ages. 



First Age (from the Creation to the 

Deluge) 4004 — 2349 

Second Age (to the coming of Abraham 

into Canaan) 2348 — 1922 

Third Age (to the Exodus from Egj-pt) 1921 — 1491 



Fourth Age (to the founding of Solo- 
mon's Temple) 1490 — 1014 

Fifth Age (to the capture of Jerusalem) 1014 — 588 
Sixth Age (to the birth of Christ) . 588 — 4 

Seventh Age (to the present time) b.c. 4 — a.d. 1868 



AGE. In Greece and Eome twenty-five was full age for both sexes, but a greater age 
was requisite for the holding certain offices : e.g. thirty for tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. 
In England the minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, and of a female in some cases, 
as that of a queen, at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. was, by the will of 
his father, fixed at eighteen years ; previously to completing which age, Henry VIII. had 
himself assumed the reins of government, in 1509. — A male of twelve may take the oath of 
allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent to a marriage, or choose a guardian ; at seventeen 
he maybe an executor, and at twenty-one he is of age ; but according to the statute of wills, 
7 "WUl. IV. and i Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any person under the age of twenty- 
one years shall be valid. A feviale at twelve may consent to a marriage, at fourteen she 
may choose a guardian, and at twenty-one she is of age. 

AGIlSrCOUPvT (N. France), a village, where Henry V. of England, with about 9000 men, 
defeated about 60,000 French on St. Crispin's day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there 
were according to some accounts 10,000 killed, including the dukes of Aleu9on, Brabant, 
and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, ninety- two barons, and 1500 
knights, and 14,000 prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 
7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen. The English lost the duke of York, the earl of 
Snfi"olk, and about 20 others. St. Remy asserts with more probability that the English lost 
1600 men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom of France. 

AGITATORS (or Adjutators), ofiicers appointed by the English army in 1647, to take care 
of its interests : each troop or company had two. The protector Cromwell was eventuallj'' 
obliged to repress their seditious power. At a review he seized the ringleaders of a mutiny, 
shot one instantly, in the presence of his companions and the forces on the ground, and thus 
restored discipline. Hume. — Daniel O'Connell, called the agitator of Ireland, was born in 
1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 1826; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828 ; 
the election being declared void, he Avas re-elected 30 July, 1829. After the passing of the 
Catholic emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal of the union, 1834 to 1843. 

* Prince was bom in 1811 ; educated for the medical profession and licensed to practise, 1832 ; gave it 
up for the Church and entered St. David's College, Lampeter, and there commenced ultra-rcvivalist move- 
ments in 1836; and finally claimed to be an incarnation of the Deity, with corresponding authority over his 
followers. 

On 22 May, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the possession of his child from the care of its 
mother (from whom he had separated) ; the application was refused by the vice-chancellor, to " save the 
child from the pollution of the parent's teaching."— On 21 Aug. 1858, Miss Louisa Jane Nottidge died, 
having transferred her property to Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Kottidge, by an action, recovered 
from Prince 572S/., as having been fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were made during 
the trial, 25 July, i860. In the autumn of i860, the Rev. Mr. Price, after several vain attempts, succeeded 
in rescuing his wife from the Agapemone. They had both been early supporters of it. 



i 



AGN 



17 



AGR 



He died 15 May, 1847. — Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief Anti-corn- Imu 
agitators, 1841-45. — Mr. Bright became a Reform agitator in 1866. 

AGNADELLO (N. E. Italy). Here Lonis XII. of France gained a great victory over 
the Venetians, some of whose troops were accnsed of cowardice and treachery ; 14 May, 
1509. The conflict is also termed the battle of the Rivolta. 

AGNOITjE (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). I. A sect founded by Theophronins of 
Cappadocia about 370 : said to have doubted the omniscience of God. II. The followers of 
Themistius of Alexandria about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body of Christ, and 
doubted his divinity. 

AGOiS'ISTICI (from agdn, Greek, a conflict), also termed circutores, a branch of the 
Donatists {which sec) in the 4th century. They preached with great boldness and incurred 
severe persecution. 

AGRA (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in 1566, was the capital of the great mogul ; 
see ^lausoleiDii'!. In 1658 Ai;rungzebe removed to Delhi. — The fortress of Agra, "the key 
of Hindostan," in the war with the Mahrattas surrendered to the British forces, under 
general Lake, 17 Oct. 1S03, after one day's siege : 162 pieces of ordnance and 240,000?. 
were captured. — In June, 1857, the city was abandoned to the mutineers bj^ the Europeans, 
who took refuge iu the fort, from which they were rescued by major Montgomery and 
colonel Greathed. — Allahabad was made capital of the N. W. provinces of India, instead of 
Agra, in 1861. 

AGRARIAN LAW (Agraricc lex) decreed an equal division among the Roman people of 
all the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy. It 
was first proposed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and occasioned his judicial 
murder when he went out of oflice in 485. — An agi-arian law was passed by the tribune 
Licinius Stolo, 376 ; and for proposing further amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 133, and 
his brother Cornelius in 121, were murdered. Julius Ctesar propitiated the plebeians by 
passing an agrarian law in 59 B.C. — In modem times the term has been misinterpreted to 
.signify a division of the lands of the rich among the poor, frequently proposed by demagogues, 
such as Gracchus Babeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peu2:)le, in 1794. In 1796 he conspired 
against the directory with the view of obtaining a division of property, was condemned, and 
killed himself, 27 May, 1797. 

AGRICOLA'S WALL, see Boman Walls. 

AGRICULTURE. " Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," 
Genesis iv. 2. The Athenians asserted that the art of sowing corn began with them ; and 
the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim. 



Cato the Censor (died 149 b.c.) and Varro (died 28 
B.C.) were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. 

Virgil's Georgics, 30 B.C. Agriculture in England 
improved by the Romans about a.d. 27. 

Pitzherbert's " Book of Husbandry," printed 1524. 

Tusser's "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry" 1562. 

Blythe's " Improver," 1649. 

Hartlib's " Legacy," 1650. 

Jethro TuU's " Horse hoeing Husbandry," 1701. 

About the end of the i8th century fallowing was 
gradually superseded by turnips and green crops. 

In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on 
the best mode of obtaining accurate Ag-ricultural 
Statistics, which has not been acted on. There 
were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agi'icultural labourers in 
Great Britain, and in Ireland, 1,131,715. 

AORicuLTUKAt, SociRTiES. — The earliest mentioned 
in the British Isles was the Society of Improvers 
of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. 
The Dublin Agricultural Society (1749) gave a 
stimulus to agirculture in Ireland ; its origin is 
attributed to Mr. Prior of Rathdowney, Queen's 
County, in 1731. The Bath and West of England 
Society established, 1777 ; and the Highland 
Society of Scotland, 1793. County Agricultural 
Societies are now numerous. 

London Board of Agriculture established by act of 
parliament, 1793. 

Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agri- 
culture, died. 2 Marcb, 1802. 

Eoyal Agricultural Society of England established 
in 1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief 
landed proprietors in the kingdom, and incor- 
porated by royal charter, 26 March, 1840. It holds 
two meetings annually, one in London the other 
in the country ; the first country meeting at 



Oxford, in 1839. It awards prizes, and pubhshes 
a valuable journal. The London meeting at Bat- 
tersea in June, 1862, was highly successful. 

" Chambers of Agriculture " were established in 
Prance in 1851. 

The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester 
organised, 1842 ; chartered, 1845. 

" History of Agriculture and Prices in England (1259- 
1400)," by Professor James T. Rogers, published, 
June, i865. 

Agricultural Chemistry. — Sir Humphry Davy 
delivered lectures on this subject (afterwards 
pubhshed), at the instance of the Board of Agri- 
culture, in 1812 ; but it excited little attention 
till the publication of Liebig's work in 1840, which 
made a powerful impression. Boussingault's 
" Economie Rurale," an equally important work, 
appeared in 1S44. The immoderate expectations 
from this study having been somewhat dis- 
appointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig's 
" Letters on Agriculture " appeared in 1859. 

Agricultural Hall, Islington, N. London, chiefly 
for the meetings of the Smithfield Club. The 
foundation stone was laid by the president, lord 
Berners, 5 Nov. 1S61. The haU has been much 
used for industrial exhibitions, pubhc meetings, 
equestiian performances, i&c. 

An exhibition of dogs opened here 24 June, 1862 ; 
and of horses and of donkeys, in July, 1864, 1865. 

A great reform demonstration was made here, 30 
July, i866. 

First annual cattle show, 6 Dec. 1862. 

Grand ball to the Belgian visitors, volunteers and 
garde civique; prince of Wales present, 18 July, 
1867. 

Cattle show held here, Dec. 1867. 

C 



AGE, 



38 



AIK 



AGRICULTUIIE, continued. 

AGRICULTURAL GANGS. — lu the Spring of 1867, most 
painful exposures were made of the prevalence of 
much cruelty and immorality in the gang system 



in several of the eastern and midland counties ; 
and in consequence an act was passed 20 Aug. for 
regulating these gangs, licensing gang-masters, ifec. 



The following table, drawn up by Mr. 'William. Coiiling, C.E., in 1827,* is extracted from the Third 
Keport of the Emigration Committee : — 



Countries. 


Cultivated. 


Was es 

capahle of 

Improvement. 


Unprofitable. 


Total. 


England 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland. . . . . . 

British Islands 


ACHES. 

25,632,000 
3,117,000 
5,265,000 

12,125,280 
383,690 


ACRES. 

3,454,000 

530,000 
5,950,000 
4,900,000 

166,000 


ACRES. 

3,256,400 
1,105,000 
8,523.930 
2,416,664 
569,469 


ACB.ES. 
32,342,400 

4,752,000 
19.738,930 
19.441.944 

1,119,159 


46,52-2,970 ' 15,000,000 1 15,871,463 


77,394.433 



AGRIGENTUM (now Girgcnii), a city of Sicily, built about 582 b.g. It was governed 
by tjTants from 566 to 470 ; among these were Phalaris (see Brazen JSull) ; Alcamanes ; 
Tlieron who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera ; and 
Thrasydseus, his son, expelled in 470 ; when a republic was established. It was taken by 
the Carthaginians in 405 B.C., and held, except during short intervals, till gained by the 
Eomans in 262 b.c. From a.d. 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. 

AHMEDNUGGUE (W. India), once capital of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 
149. After having fallen into the hands of the Moguls and the Mahrattas, it was taken from 
the latter by Arthur Welleslejr, 12 Aug. 1803, and annexed to the British dominions in 1817. 

AID, see Ayde. AILANTINE, see Silk. 

_ AIE or AxMOsrHERE. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent 
deity, and the first cause of everything created. Posidouius (about 79 B.C.) calculated the 
height of the atmosphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the square 
inch, was discovered by Torricelli a.d. 1645, and was found by Pascal, in 1647, to vary with 
the height. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time have illustrated the agency 
and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numerous inventions have 
followed; among others, the Air-gun" of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656 ; the Atr-pump, 
invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 1650 ; imi^roved by the illustrious 
Boyle in 1657 ; and the Air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. 
The density and elasticity of air were determined by Boyle ; and its relation to light and 
sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derliam. The extension of our atmosphere above the surface 
of the earth, long considered as about 45 miles, was thought by admiral FitzRoy to be 
only about 9 or 10 miles (1862). — Its composition, about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, 
and 2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, a ti'ace of ammonia, &c., was 
gradually ascertained by Priestley (who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele (1775), 
Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
The researches of Dr. Schonbeiu, a German chemist of Basel, between 1S40 and 1859, led to 
the discovery of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. Dr. 
Stenhouse's^tV-^^^fera (in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set up at the Mansion- 
house, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. R. Angus Smith made kno^^m a chemical method of 
ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air ; see Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, Atmospheric 
Railway, and Pneumatic Despatcli. — The force of compressed air has been employed in 
boring the Cenis tunnel [wMcli see.) 

* At that period it was computed that the soil of the United Kingdom was annually cropped in the 
following proportions : — 

ACRES. 

21,210,000 
20,000 



Wheat ■ . . . 7,000,000 

Barley and rye 1,950,000 

Potatoes, oats and beans . . . . 6,500,000 

Turnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . 1,150,000 

Clover, rye-grass, &c. .... 1,750,000 

Fallow 2,800,000 

Hop grounds 60,000 



Forward 



21,210,000 



Brought forward . . 

Nursery grounds 

Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen, and other 

gardens • 110,000 

Pleasure grounds 100,000 

Land depastured by cattle . . . . 21,000,000 
Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . . 2,000,000 
Ways, water, &c 2,100,000 



Cultivated land 



46,540,000 



It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the cultivation of waste lands would yield above 
20,000,000^ a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of 
the annual value of 37,412,000^. Since that time, much land has been brought into cultivation ; see Wheat. 



AIX 



19 



ALB 



AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Eoman city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Here Charle- 
magne was born 742, and died 814 ; having built the minster (796-804), and conferred many- 
privileges on the city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been crowned. The city was 
taken by the French in 1 792 ; retaken by the Austrians, 1793; by the French, 1794; reverted 
to Prussia, 18 14. 



First Treaty of Peace signed here was between France 
and Spain, when France yielded Franche ComtiS, 
but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, 
2 May, 1668. 

The second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, 
France, Holland, German}'', Spain, and Genoa. 
(By it the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of 
Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of 
Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple 



Alliance in 1717; of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, 
and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and con- 
firmed.) Signed on the part of England by John, 
eaii of Sandwich, and sir Thomas Robinson, 
7 Oct. 1748. 
Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia and 
Prussia, assisted by ministers from England and 
France, held at Aix-la-C'hapelle, and a convention 
signed, 9 Oct. 1818. 



AIX EOADS, see Rochcfort. AJACCIO, see Corsica. 

AJNADIiST (Syria). Here the Jilahometans defeated the army of the emperor Heraclius, 
13 July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. 

AKEKMAN (Bessarabia). After being several times taken, it was ceded to Eussia in 1812. 
Here the celebrated treaty between Eussia and Turkey was concluded in 1826, which secured 
for the former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised the Danubian principalities, &c. 

AKHALZIKH (Armenia). Near here Prince Paskiewitch defeated the Turks, 24 Aug., 
and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1 828. 

ALABAMA, a Southern state, originally part of Georgia, N. America ; made an inde- 
pendent state in 1819 : commercial metropolis, Mobile. It seceded from the Union by an 
ordinance passed 11 Jan. 1861, and was reunited in 1865.* 

ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from Sweden by Eussians, 1809 ; see Bomarsuncl. 

ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. They joined the Huns in invading the 
Roman empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. They were subdued by the 
Visigoths, 452, and were eventually incorporated with them. 

ALAECOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, 
were totally defeated by the Moors, 19 Jiily, 1195. 

ALASKA, the name given to the Eussian possessions in North America, purchased by the 
United States by treaty, 13 March, 1867. Sitka is the principal station. 

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of 
.^neas, 1 152 B.C. Its history is mythical. 

Asoanius, son of .Slneas, 1152 b.c. ; Sylvius Post- 
humus, 1143 ; jEneas Sylvius . . B.C. 1114 b45 ; J.-'rocas, boB ; JNumitor . . . B.C. 795 

Reign of Latinus, 1048; Alba, 1038; Atys, or ' ' " " 

Capetus, 1002 ; Capys, 976 ; Capetus . . 916 

Reign of Tiberinus, 903; being defeated in 
battle near the river Alhula, he throws him- 
self into the stream, is drowned, and hence 
this river is now called the TiCicr . . . 895 



Agrippa ; Romulus Silvius, 864 ; Aventinus, 
845; Procas, 808 ; Numitor . . .B.C. 

Amulius, t the brother of Numitor, seizes the 
throne. 794 ; killed by his grandson, 
Romulus, who restores Numitor . . . 

Romulus builds and fortifies Rome (see Home) . 

Alba conquered by TuUus Hostilius, and in- 
corporated with Rome (see Boratii) 



754 
753 

665 



ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The 
Albanians became independent during the decline of the Greek empire. They were success- 
fully attacked by tlie Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), they 
baffled the efforts of Mahomet II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when 
they partially submitted. Albania became independent under Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 181 2, 
who defeated tlie Turkish pachas, and governed ably, but cruellj'- and despotically, till Feb. 
1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering under a solemn promise of 
safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. 

ALBANS, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Eoman Verulam, derived its name from Alban 
the British protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the persecution by Diocletian, 

* The " Alabama," a steam-vessel belonging to the Southern States of North America, was built at 
Birkenhead, and sailed under a false name from the Mersey, 28 July, 1862. Under the command of 
captain Semmes it made much havoc in the Federal trading vessels. The AUihama was attacked and 
sunk by the Federal iron-clad Kearsage, captain Winslow, near Cherbourg, on Sunday morning, 19 June, 
1864. Several of the crew were saved by Mr. John Lancaster in an English j'acht. 

t Traditions state, that Amulius dethroned his brother, and made Ilia, his daughter, a vestal, to assure 
his usurpation. Ilia was ravished, and became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be 
biuried alive, and her offsjiring to be thrown into the Tiber, 770 B.C. The little bark in which the infants 
were sent adrift stopped near mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief 
shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and called them Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca- 
Laiirentia, was surnamed Lupa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled by a 
she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 B.C., and the 
next year founded Rome. Yarro. 

C 2 



ALB 



20 



ALB 



23 June, 286. A stately monastery to his memory was erected aljoiit 793, by Offa, king of 
Mercia, who granted it many privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in parliament 
till the dissolution in 1539. Verulam was taken from Cassivelaunus by Julius Csesar, 54 
B.C., and retaken with much slaughter by Boadicea or Bunduica, queen of the Iceni, a.d. 61. 



First Battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians 
were defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of 
Somerset, slain, and king Henry VI. taken 
prisoner, by the duke of York and his partizans, 
22 or 23 M.ay, 1455. 

Second battle, queen Margaret totally defeated the 



Yorkists under the earl of Warwick, and rescued 
the king. Shrove Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. 

St. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553. 

Disfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852. 

St. Alban's raid, see United States, 1804. 



ALBAISTY or Alb^mnn, the ancient name of the Scottish Highlands. The brother of 
Eobert IIL of Scotland was made duke of Albany in 1398. Frederick, son of George IIL, 
was duke of York and Albany. He died 5 Jan. 1827. 

ALBERT MEMOEIALS. 'The Prince Consort died on 14 Dec. 1861, deeply lamented by 
the whole civilised world. A meeting to organise a method of receiving contributions for a 
great national memorial was held at the Mansion-house, 14 Jan. 1862 ; and a large sum was 
quickly subscribed. 36,000?. had been received on i March, and 50,220?. on 11 June, 1862. 



The nature of the memorial was referred to the 
queen herself. In a letter to the lord mayor, 
dated 19 Feb. 1862, sir Charles Grey says, on be- 
half of her majesty, " It would be more in accor- 
dance with her own feelings, and she believes 
with those of the country in general, that the 
monument should be directly personal to its 
object. After giving the subject her maturest 
consideration, her majesty has come to the con- 
clusion, that nothing would be more appropriate, 
provided it is on a scale of sufficient grandeur, 
than an obelisk to be erected in Hyde-park on the 
site of the Great Exhibition of 1851, or on some 
spot immediately contiguous to it. Nor would 
any proposal that could be made be more gratify- 
ing to the queen herself personally, for she can 
never forget that the prince himself had highly 
approved of the idea of a memorial of this charac- 
ter being raised on the same spot in remembrance 
of the Great Exhibition." In a second letter the 
queen expressed her intention of personally con- 
tributing towards erecting the memorial, that "it 
might be recorded in future ages as raised by the 
queen and people of a grateful country to the 
memory of its benefactor." Shortly after a com- 
mittee was appointed to fulfil her majesty's desire. 
As a suitable block of granite could not be ob- 
tained, the profiosal for an obelisk was given up. 

The queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert 
G. Scott for an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet 
high, accompanied by statues, (fee, 22 April ; par- 
liaraent voted 50,000^., in addition to the 6o,oooi. 
receivedby voluntary contributions, 23 April, 1863. 

Tlie sculptors employed are M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, 
John Bell, and Ai-mistead : material, Sicilian 
marble. (Jan. 1865.) 

ALBIGEiSrSES, a name given to various persons who opposed the doctrines and corrup- 
tions of the church of Rome, living at Albiga, in Languedoc, and at Toulouse in the 12th 
century. They were persecuted as Manicheeans, 1163, and a crusade (proclaimed by pope 
Innocent III.) commenced against them in 1207. Simon.de Montfort commanded, and at 
Bezieres he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, " God will find 
his own ! " At Minerba he burnt 150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur he hanged 
the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering 
other women. He next defeated the count of Toulouse, but was himself killed in 12 18. 
Louis VIII. and IX., kings of France, patronised the crusade ; count Raymond was subdued 
in 1229 ; and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. See Waldcnses. 

ALBION (probably derived from albus or alp, white). Britain is said to have been so 
called by Julius Csesar and others, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast. 

ALBUERA or Aluuhera, Estremadura, Spain, where a battle was fought between the 
French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, imder 
marshal, afterwards lord Beresford, 16 May, 181 1. The allies obtained the victory, one of 
the most brilliant achievements of the war. The French loss exceeded 8000 men previously 
to their retreat ; but the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt of the action fell on 
the British ; colonel Inglis, 22 ofiBcers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who had 



Inscription on the "Memorial Cairn" on a high 
mountain overlooking Balmoral palace : — ''To the 
beloved memory of Albert the great and good 
Prince Consort, erected by his broken-hearted 
widow, Victoria E., 21 Aug. 1862." Upon another 
dressed slab, a few inches below the above, is this 
quotation: — "He being made perfect in a short 
time, fulfilled a long time : for his soul pleased the 
Lord, therefore hasted he to take him away from 
among the wicked." — Wisdom of Solomon, chap. iv. 

13. 14- 

A statue of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugu- 
rated at Bosenau, his birth-place, in the presence 
of the queen and the royal family, 19 Aug. 1865. 

" Early years of the Prince Consort " ; edited by the 
Hon. C. Grey ; pubHshed 6 July, 1867. 

Another statue by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated 
IS Oct. 1867. 

Many other memorials of the prince have been set 
up throughout the empire. 

BoYAL Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences ; The 
erection of a great building for congresses, 
concerts, &c., was proposed by the prince-consort 
at the close of the exhibition of 1851, and an 
estate at Kensington was purchased ; a committee, 
with the prince of Wales at the head, to erect the 
building, was appointed 6 July, 1865 ; circulars 
soliciting svibcriptions were issued April 1866; 
and the first stone was laid by the queen, 20 
May, 1867. 

Albert Medal, to be awarded to persons who 
endanger their lives by saving others from ship- 
wreck, appointed by royal warrant, 3 March, 1866. 
The first was given to Samuel Popplestone on 14 
May, 1866, for saving life on 23 March previous. 



ALB 21 ALD 

mounted a hill, fell, — out of the 57th regiment alone ; the other regiments were scarcely 
better off, not one-third being left standing ; " 1500 unwounded men, the remnant of 6000 
unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal hill." Napier. 

ALBUFERA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, near which the French marshal Suchet 
(afterwards duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under Blake, 4 Jan. 1812 : this led to 
his capture of Valencia on 9 Jan. 

ALCALA, Spain, near the Roman Complutum. At the university here was printed the 
Complutensian Polyglott bible, at the expense of cardinal Ximenes 1502-14. 

ALCANTARA, an illustrious Spanish military order of knighthood, established in 1156. 
The sovereign of Spain has been grand master since 1495. 

ALCAZAR-QUIVER, near Fez, N. W. Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the 
Portuguese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 Aug. 1578. The Portuguese disbe- 
lieved his death and long expected his return ; this led to the appearance of five impostors. 

ALCHEMY, the forerunner of chemistrj' : its chief objects being the discovery of the 
philosopher's stone (which was to effect the transmutation of metals into gold), an alkahest 
or universal mensti'uum, and the elixir of life.* The alchemists assert that their founder 
was Hermes Trisnugistus (thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king. — Pliny says, the 
emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, 
but left it off, because the charge exceeded the profit. Zosimus wrote on the subject about 
410. The Arabians cultivated alchemy and were followed (in the 13th century) by Roger 
Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, Raymond LuUius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), 
Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. — In 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was 
made felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689. A licence for jiractising 
alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. 
Rymer's Feed. Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of his experiments 
and brought specimens of gold to the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red 
and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of 
expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; 
but after much equivocation and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. 

ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated alcohol is said to have been obtained by the 
■distillation of fermented liquors by Abucasis in the 12th century ; and the dehydration of 
this liquor to have been partially efi"ected by Raymond Lullius in the 13th century by 
carbonate of potassium. Alcohol has never been reduced to the solid state, but becomes viscid 
at very low temj^eratures. In 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of alcohol by pass- 
ing olefiant gas (bi-carburetted hydrogen) through sulphuric acid ; and in 1862 this process 
was examined and confirmed by Berthelot ; see Distillation, Sjnrits, Brandy, Gin, Bum. 

AL-CORAN or Al-Koran, see Koran, Maliometanism, &c. 

ALDERMAK. The Saxon ealdorman was next to the king and frequently a viceroy : 
but after the settlement of the Danes the title was gradually displaced by that of earl. 
Aldermen in corporations are next in dignity to the mayor. They were appointed in London 
(where there are twenty-six) in 1242 ; and in Dublin (where there are twenty-four) in 1323. 
Aldermen chosen for life, instead of annually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. Present mode of 
election established 11 Geo. I. 1725. Aldermen made justices of the peace 15 Geo. II. 1741. 

ALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, &c., was incorporated with the kingdom 
by William the Conqueror, 1066. The "Race" is celebrated for two fatal occurrences ; 
William of ISTormandy, son of Henry I. of England, and many young nobles (140 youths of 
the principal families of France and Britain), were overtaken by a storm, and all lost, 25 
Nov. 1 120. The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 1160 men, was wrecked here, 
5 Oct. 1744 ; the admiral, sir John Balchen, and all his crew perished. Through this strait 
the French escaped after their defeat at La Hogue by admiral Rooke, 19 May, 1692. 

ALDERSHOT CAMP, a moor near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 
1854, the War office, having obtained a grant of ioo,oooZ., purchased 4000 acres of land 
for a permanent camp for 20,000 men. 



Additional land purchased in 1856. 

Barracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, 
and several batteries of artiUery. Great improve- 
ments in military cookery introduced (see Cookery) 
under the superintendence of captain John Grant, 
1857. 

Visited by the queen, 19 April, 1856. 



The troops returned from the Crimea, reviewed by 

her, 7, 16 July. 
About 15,000 men were stationed here, 1859. 
Cost, said to be 1,291,531?. up to Feb. i860. 
An industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by 

officers and men and their wives, opened 29 June, 

closed 14, July, 1864, 



* M. Martin Ziegler patented a method of producing a " vital fluid" by combining nitrogen and carbon 
in a porous cell containing ammonia, immersed in a vessel filled with molasses. The current was to flow 
through silk threads attached to the vessel. 



ALD 



22 



ALE 



ALDINE PEESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many of the 
first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musaeus. 

ALE, Beer (and Wine) are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the first in Egypt, 
where the soil was considered unable to produce grapes. Ale was known as a beverage at 
least in 404 B.C. Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley- wine to 
Isis, the wife of Osiris. — A beverage of this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 B.C. The 
Romans and Germans very early learned from the Egyptians the process of preparing a 
liquor from corn by means of fermentation. Taciiics. Ale-houses are made mention of in 
the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (a.d. 688). Booths were set up in England 728, when laws 
were passed for their regulation. Ale-houses were subjected to regulation by 5 & 6 Edw. 
VL c. 25 (1551). By I James L c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the best, and two quarts of 
small ale were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed by the 
parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. {1660) ; see Beer, Porter, Wine. 

ALEMAITNI or All Mek {i.e. men of all nations), hence AUemand, German. A body 
of Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After several repulses, they 
invaded the empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three battles, 270. They were 
again vanquished by Julian, 356, 357. They were defeated and subjugated by Clovis at 
Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants, 

ALEN^OIST (N. France) gave title to a count and duke. 

1268. Peter made Count by his father king Louis IX. 
1293, Charles I. of Valois, made Count by his bro- 
ther king Philip the Fair. 
1325. Charles II. his son, killed at Crecy. 
1346. Charles III. (his son), became a»priest. 
1361. Peter, his brother. 



1404. John (his son), made Duke in 1414, killed at 
Agincourt, 1415. 

1415. John II. (his son), intrigued against the king. 

1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia ia 
1525, and died shortly after of chagrin. The 
duchy was absorbed by the crown. 

ALEPPO, N. SjTia, a large town named Bercea bySeleucus ISTicator about 299 B.C. The 
pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of Syria. It was taken by the Turks, a.d. 
638, who restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Saladin, 1193 ; and sacked by 
Timour, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been freqiient ; 60,000 persons were 
computed to have perished by it in 1797 ; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in 1832. 
Aleppo sufl'ered severelj'- from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often 
been the scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, the Mahometans attacked the 
Christians, burning everything. Three churches were destroyed, five others plundered, and 
thousands of persons slain. The total loss of property amounted to about a million sterling j 
no interference was attempted by the pacha. 

ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 under the name of Csesarea by the 
Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the emperor, and named after pope 
Alexander III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. The French took it in 1796, 
but were driven out 21 July, 1799. They recovered it after the battle of Marengo, in 1800, 
and held it till 1814, when the strong fortifications erected by Napoleon were destroyed. 
They have been restored, since June, 1856. 

ALEUTIAN ISLES, in the Pacific Ocean, discovered by Behring, 1741, visited by Cook, 
and settled by Russians, 1785. 

ALEXANDER, Eea of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, 12 Nov. 323 B.C. 
In the computation of this era, the period of the Creation was considered to be 5502 years 
before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year i A.D. was equal to 5503. This 
computation continued to the year a.d. 284, which was called 5786. In the next year (a.d. 
285), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date became 5777. 
This is still used in the Abyssinian era {which see.) The date is reduced to the Christian era 
by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 5492. 

"ALEXANDRA GAS'S," see Trials, 1862-64. 

ALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, London, N. purchased by a company, and named 
after the princess of Wales, was opened with a flower show, 23 July, 1863. A portion of 
the Exhibition building of 1862 was to be erected here. The work proceeded rapidly in 
1864, Avas suspended in 1865, recommenced in 1866, and made good progress, 1867. 

ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, was founded by 
Alexander the Great, 332 B.C. who was buried here, 322. It became the residence of the 
Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptolemies, 323. 

Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Sera- Alexandria taken by Julius Csesar ; when a 

peum, the Pharo, and other edifices, and library is burnt B.C. 4S 

begins the library about . . . .B.C. 298 Which Antony replaces by one brought from 

These works completed by his son P. Philadel- Pergamus 36- 

phu6 and his grandson P. Euergetes . 283-222 The city restored by Adrian , . A.i>. 122 



ALE 



23 



ALG 



ALEXANDRIA, continued. 

Massacre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge 

for an old insult a.d. 215 

Alexandria supporting the usurper AchiUeus is 

taken by Diocletian after a long sieg-e 
Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the 

Athanasians and Arians . 
George of Cappadocia was killed 362, and 

Athanasius finally restored .... 363 
50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . 365 

Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a 

second hbrary is burnt 390 

Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia, 

616 ; and by Anirou, the general of the caliph 

Omar, who ordered the library to be burnt,* 



297 



321 



whereby the baths were supplied with fuel 
for six months .... 22 Dec. 64c 

Cairo founded by the Saracens ; which tends to 
the decay of Alexandria g5g 

Alexandria plundered by the Crusaders . 1365 

The French capture Alexandria . July, 1798 

Battle of Alexandria, or Canopus : the British 
under gen. Kalph Abercromby defeat the 
French under Menou, . . 21 March, 1801 

Abercromby dies of his wounds, 28 March ; 
Menou and 10,000 French s'urrender it to 
Hutchinson 2 Sept. 1801 

Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, 
20 March ; evacuated by them . 23 Sept. 1807 

Railway to Cairo formed 1851 



ALEXANDRIAlSr CODEX, a MS. of the Septuagint translation of tlie bible in Greek, 
said to have been transcribed by a lady named Thecla, in the 6th century, and to have 
belonged to the patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented to Charles I. of England 
in 1628 by Cyrillus Lascaris, patriarch of Constantinople, and was j)laced in the British 
Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac-simile, 1 786-1 821. 

ALEXANDEIAiSr ERA, see Mundane. 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose soon after the 
foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemies till 
about 100 B.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287-212), ApoUonius (250), Hippar- 
chus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about a.d. 140, and lasted till about 
400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system (150), 
Diophantus the arithmetician (200), and Pappus the geometer (350). 

ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 
I164, and since called after him. The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. 
In Pope's Essay on Criticism, this verse is thus happily exemplified : — 

" A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." 

The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published 
1612-22. 

ALFORD (N. Scotland), Battle of. General Baillie, with a large body of Covenanters, 
was defeated by the marquess of Montrose, 2 July, 1645. 

ALGEBRA : Diophantus, said to be the inventor, first wrote upon it, between the 3rd 
and 5th centuries. It was much cultivated in the gtli century by the Arabs, who brought 
it into Spain ; and in Italy by Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 1494 Luca Paciolo 
published the first printed book on algebra in Europe. Serret Some of the algebraic signs 
were introduced either by Cristophe Rudolph (1522-6) or Michael Stifelius of Nuremberg, 
1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use. Morcri. 
Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. The binomial theorem of Newton, the 
basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. Dean Peacock's "Algebra " is 
a first-class work. 

ALGERIA, see A Igiers. 

ALGESIRAS or Old Gibealtak (S. Spain). Here the Moors entered Spain in 711, 
and held it till 1344. — Two engagements took place here between the English fleet under 
sir James Saumarez and the united French and Spanish fleets, 6 and 12 July, 1801. In the 
first the enemy was victorious, the English losing the Pompey ; but their lionour was 
redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 74 guns, being captured. Two Spanish 
ships fired on each other by mistake, and took fire ; of 2000 men on board, 250 were saved 
by the English. Alison. 

ALGIERS, now Algeeia, N.W. Africa ; part of the ancient Mauritania, which was 
conquered by the Romans, 46 B.C. ; by the Vandals, a.d. 439 ; recovered for the empire by 
Belisarius, 534; and subdued by the Arabs about 690. Population of Algeria; in 1862, 
2,999,164. 



The town Algiers founded by the Arabs on the 
site of Icosium about 935 



Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates cap- 
tured by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509 ; retaken 



* The celebrated saying of Omar — " That if the books agi-eed with the book of God, they were useless ; 
if they disagreed, they were pernicious " — is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to Theophilus, 
archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to cardinal Ximeues (1500). 



ALG 



24 



ALI 



ALGIERS, coiitimied. 

by Horuc and Hayreddin Barbarossa, and 

made the capital of a state ; governed by a 

dey, nominally subject to Turkey . . 1516-20 
The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and 

army in an expedition against Algiers . .1541 
Algiers tei-rified into pacific measures by 

Blake, 1655 ; by Du Quesne . . . 1683-4 
For continued piracy, the city successfully 

bombarded by the British fleet, under lord 

Exmouth 27 Aug. 1816 

A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery 

was abolished. 
Algiers surrendered to a French armament 

under Bourmont and Duperrfi, after severe 

conflicts ; the dey deposed, and the barbarian 

government wholly overthrown . 5 July, 1830 
The French ministry announce their intention 

to retain Algiers permanently . 20 May, 1834 
The Arab chief, Abd-el-Kader, preaches a holy 

war, becomes powerful, and attacks the 

French, at first successfully . . . . „ 
He is recognised as emir of Mascara, by treaty 

with the French ,, 

War renewed 1835-6 

Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two 

battles, and enters Mascara . . 8 Deo. 1836 
Gen. Damremont attacks Constantina . 13 Oct. 1837 
Thoroughly defeated, he recognises the French 

supremacy 30 May, „ 

War renewed 18 Dec. 1839 

Algeria annexed to France, and the emir de- 
clared a rebel Feb. 1842 

ALHAMBEA, a Moorish palace and fortress near Granada, S. Spain, founded by 
Mohammed I. of Granada about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians about ISTov. 1491. 
The remains liave been described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, 
published 1842-5. A fac-simile of a part of this j)alace in the Ciystal Palace at Sydenham, 
was destroyed by the fire, 30 Dec. 1866. — The Panopticon (luMcJi see) was opened as a 
circus, &c., under this name, in March 1858. The Alhambra Palace Company, incorporated 
in July 1863, applied for dissolution in Jan. 1865. 

ALT, Sect of. Ali married Mahomet's daughter Fatima, about 632, and became vizier, 
613 ; and calijih 655. Ali was called by the prophet, "the lion of God, always victorious ;" 
and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other 
Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. Ali was assassinated in 660. Ij: — -The 
Shiite sect have been termed Fatimites from having been supported by an alleged descendant 
of Ali and Fatima who established a dynasty in Egypt. 

ALIENS or Foreigners, were banished in 1155, being thought too numerous. In 
1343 they were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. By 2 Rich. II. st. i, 1378, 
they were much relieved. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half 
foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was relaxed in 1663. 



He is totally defeated by Bugeaud at Isly, 

14 Aug. 1844 
After a long struggle Abd-el-Kader surrenders 

to Lamoricifere 23 Dec. 1847* 

An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 

French, after several sharp engagements . 1851! 
Insurrection suppressed ...... 1857 

The government entrusted (for a short time) 

to prince Napoleon 1858 

The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 

31 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1859 
Algiers visited by Napoleon III. . . Sept. i85o 
Marshal Felissier, duke of Malakhoff, appointed 

governor-general of Algeria . . Nov. „ 
The emperor promises a constitution securing 

the rights of the Arabs, saying: "I am as 

m.uch emxjeror of the Arabs as of the French." 

Feb. 1863 
Insurrection of the Arabs, May; submission, June 1864 
Death of marshal Pelissier, 22 May ; M'Mahon, 

duke of Magenta, succeeds him . 8 Sept. „ 
Fresh revolts ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet, 

2 Oct. „ 
The emperor well received during his visit, 

3 May — June 1865 
More rights and privileges promised to the 

natives July, ,, 

The emperor publishes his letter on the policy 

of France in Algeria (20 July) . . Nov. „ 



was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. 

IV. 1836. 
The rigour of the alien laws was mitigated by acts 

passed in 1844 and 1S47. 
"Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained 

our fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges 

and harbours." Smiles, 1861. 



Alien priories suppressed in England in 1414. 

The Alien BUI passed, Jan. 1793. 

Act to register aliens, 1795. 

Baron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at 

court, ordered out of England, 6 April, 18 12. 
BiU to abolish their naturalisation by the holding of 

stock in the banks of Scotland, June, 1820. 
New registration act, 7 Geo. IV. 1826. This last act 

ALIWAL, a village N. "W. India, the site of a battle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh 

* He, with his suite, embarked at Gran, and landed at Toulon on 28 Dec. following. He was removed 
to the castle of Amboise, near Toui-s, 2 Nov. 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 
16 Oct. 1852, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again ; he was to reside henceforward at 
Broussa, in Asia Minor ; but in consequence of the earthquake at that place 28 Feb. 1855, he removed to 
Constantinople. In July, i860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, and there protected many of 
the Christians whoni he had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by the Turks. He received 
honours from the English, French, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and London in Aug. 1865. 

t 500 Arabs in a cave refuse to surrender : suffocated by smoke ; said to have been ordered by general 
Pelissier, 18 June, 1845. 

X The first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in estab- 
lishing his relia-ion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the "cutting swords 
of God" — all died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own 
decease. 



AU 



25 



ALM 



army under sirdar Rimjoor Singli Majeetliea, 19,000 strong, supported by 68 pieces of 
cannon, and the British iiader sir Harry Smith, 7000 men with 32 guns. The contest was 
obstinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, wlio lost nearly 6000 killed or drowned in 
attempting to recross the Sutlej. 

ALJUBARROTA, Portugal. Here John I. of Portugal defeated John l'. of Castile, and 
secured his country's independence 14 Aug. 1385 ; see Batalha. 

ALKALIES (from Tcali, the Arabic name for the plant from which an alkaline substance 
was tirst procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and lithia. Black discovered the nature of 
the difl'erence between caustic and mild alkalies in 1 736. 



The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, 
aud the metals potassium, and sodium formed, 
by Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, 
London, 1807. 

Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. 

The manufacture of alkalies, very estensive in 
Lancashire and Cheshire, are based on the decom- 
position of common salt (chloride of sodium), by 
a process invented by a Frenchman named Le 
Blanc, about 1792. 

Jlr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine aboiit 
1814. Various modifications of these processes 
are now in use. 



" Alkali works " are defined as works for the manu- 
facture of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of 
potash, and in which muriatic g-as is evolved. 

Mr. Wm. Gossage's jarocess for condensing muriatic 
acid gas patented in 1836. In consequence of the 
injury to vegetation produced by the alkali v>rorks 
in Lancashire and Cheshire, the Alkali act "for 
the more effectual condensation [of 95 per cent.] of 
muriatic acid gas " (or hydrochloric acid) was 
passed, 28 .Tuly, 1863. It came into operation i 
Jan. 1864, and has proved beneficial. 



ALKMAEPt, see Bergen. 

ALLAHABAD (N. W. Hindostan), the "holy city" of the Indian Mahometans, situated 
at the jmiction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. Tlie province of Allahabad was succes- 
sively subject to the sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, but in 1803 was wholly incorporated with 
tlie British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, &c., was ceded to the English in 1765. — 
During the Indian mutiny several sepoy regiments rose and massacred their officers, 4 June, 
1857 ; colonel Neil marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the insurrection. In 
Nov. 1 86 1, lord Canning made this city the capital of the IST, W. provinces. 

ALLEGIANCE, see Oatlis. 

ALLEGORY abounds in the bible and in Homer : see Jacob's blessing upon his sons, 
Genesis xlix. (1689 B.C.), Psalm Ixxx., aud aU the prophets. Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590) 
and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678) are allegories throughout. The Spectator (171 1), by 
Addison, Steele, and others, abounds in allegories. 

ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls 
defeated the Romans, 16 July, 390 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome and committed so much 
injury that the day was thereafter held to be unlucky (nefas), and no public business was 
permitted to be done thereon. 

ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high European powers. The following are the 
principal ; see Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United Kingdom, &c. 



ALLIANCE. 

Of Leipsic . 
Of Vienna 
The Triple . 
Of Warsaw 
The Grand . 
The Hague 
The Quadruple 
Of Vienna . 



9 April, 


1631 


27 May, 


1657 


28 Jan. 


1668 


31 March, 


1683 


12 May, 


i68q 


4 Jan. 


1717 1 


2 Aug. 


1718 


16 March, 


1731 



ALLIAIJCE. 

Of Versailles . . 
Germanic . 
Of Paris. . . 
Of St. Peter.sburg 
Austrian . 
Of Sweden . . 
OfTopUtz . 
Holy Alliance . 



I May, 1756 

23 July, 1785 

16 May, 1795 

8 April, 1805 

14 Mai-ch, 1 81 2 

24 March, , , 

9 Sept. 1813 

26 Sept. 1815 



ALLIANCE. 

OfEngland,France,& Turkey 
(at Constantinople) 12 Mar. 1854 

Of England and France rati- 
fied ... 3 April, „ 

Of Sardinia with the Western 
Powers (at Turin) 26 Jan. 1855 

Of Sweden with the Western 
Powers . . 19 Dec. „ 

Of Prussia and Italy June, 1866 



ALLOTMENTS, see Land, note. 

ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. i), or All-Hallows, a festival said to have been begini by 
pope Boniface IV. about 607, and celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, and established by 
pope Gregorj'- IV. (about 830) for the commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in 
whose honour no particular day is assigned. The reformers of the English church, 1 549, 
struck out of their calendar altogether a great number of anniversaries, leaving only those 
which at their time were connected with popular feeliug or tradition. 

ALL SOULS' DAY (2 Nov.), a festival of the Roman Catholic church to commemorate 
the souls that are in purgatory, instituted, it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000. 

"ALL THE TALENTS" KDl^imi^T'RA.TlO'E, ^qb Grenville Admi/nistrations. 

ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near wliich was fought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854. (See 
Russo-Turkish TFflr and Crimea.) The English, French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 
men) moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea on 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the 
night on the left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (commanded by prince Menschikoff), 



ALII 26 AL]\I 

mustering 40,000 infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on the morning of 20 Sejit. 
were joined by 6000 cavalry from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces under lord 
Eaglan, consisted of 26,000 men ; the French of 24,000, under Marshal St. Arnaiid. At 12 
o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the river Alma was crossed, while prince ISTapoleou 
took possession of the village under the fire of the Eussian batteries. At 4, after a san- 
guinary fight, the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, utterly routed, thi-ewaway 
their arms and knapsacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of whom 900 were 
made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men killed, 
and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded (chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, aud33rd regiments) ; that 
of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. Total 
loss of Allies, about 3300. 

ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King-street, St. James's, London, at first very ex- 
clusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almaclc, and opened 12 Feb. 1765. They are 
now termed Willis's rooms from the present proprietors. 

ALMAISTACS (from the Arabic al manali, to count).* The Egyptians computed time by 
instruments ; the Alexandrians had almanacs, and log calendars are ancient. Li the Britisli 
Museum and universities are specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostradamus the astro- 
loger, wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1556. Bufresnoy. Professor Augustus De 
Morgan's valuable '■''Boole of Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the almanac 
maybe found for every year, "was published in March, 1851. Among the earlier and more 
remarkable almanacs were 

John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford . 1380 Moore's Almanac . . 1698 or 1713 

170S 
1735 
1741 

1767 



One in Lambeth palace, written in . . . 1460 Lady's Diary 

First printed one, published at Buda . . 1472 Season on the Seasons 

First printed in England, by Richard Pynson . 1497 , Gentleman's Diary 

Tybalt's Prognostications 1533 , Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Mas 

Almanac Liegeois . . . . , . 1636 

Lilly's Ephemeris 1644 

Poor Robin's almanac 1652 

British Merlin 1658 

Edinburgh Almanac 1683 

Uounaissance des Temps (by Picard) . . . 1699 



kelyne (materially improved 1S34) 
British Imperial Kalendar .... 
Hone's Every-Day Book .... 

British Almanac and Companion 
Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd 
Chambers' Book of Days .... 



1826 
1828 



ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here on 25 April (0. S. 14), 1707, the English, Dutch, and 
Portugese forces under the earl of Galway, were totally defeated lay the French and Spanish 
commanded by James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James II.). Most of 
the English were killed or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the Portuguese at the 
first charge. 

ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, captured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French 
crossed into Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded by the English, 6 April, 181 1. 
Almeida was retaken by Wellington ( 1 1 May), who eventually compelled Massena to retire 
from Portugal, his route being tracked by horrid desolation. 

ALMENARA, a village K E. Spain, where on 28 July, 17 10, an English and German 
army defeated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV. of France. 
Stanhope, the English general, killed the Spanish general, Amezaga. in single conflict ; an act 
almost unexampled in modern warfare. 

ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, followers of El-Mehedi in Africa, about 11 20. 
They subdued Morocco 1 145 ; entered Spain and took Seville, Cordova, and Granada, 1 146-56 ; 
ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 1278. 

ALMONER, an office anciently allotted to a dignified clei'gyman who gave the first dish 
from the royal table to the poor, or an alms in money. By an ancient canon all bishops were 
required to keep almoners. The grand almoner of France was the highest ecclesiastical 
dignity in that kingdom before the revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner (now the 
bishop of Oxford) or his sub-almoner distributes the queen's gifts on Maundy Thursday 
{rollick see). 

ALMORAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in Africa, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by 
invitation, 1086 ; were overcome by the Almohades in 1 147. 

* The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent 
from James L, granting the privilege to them and the two Universities ; but the monopoly was broken up 
by a decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. The 
stamp duty on English almanacs first imposed in 1710, was abohshed in August, 1834 ; since when almanacs 
have become innumerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods. Of Moore's (under the manage- 
ment of Henry Andrews, the able computer of the Nautical Ephemeris) at one time upwards of 430,000 
copies were annually sold. He died in 1820. Of Foreign Almanacs, the principal are the " Aimanach de 
France," first published in 1699, and the " Aimanach de Gotha," 1764. 



ALM 



27 



ALP 



Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 
1613 (in gratitude for her escape from an 
arrow-shot), were rebuilt by the Brewers' 
company . . 1839. 

Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected 1735 

The London almshouses, in commemoration of 
the passing of the Keform Bill, built at 
Brixton 1833. 

Numerous almshouses since erected for 
printers, bookbindex-s, &c. 



ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons have been erected by many public com- 
panies and benevolent individuals, particularly since the abolition of religious houses at the 
Keformatiou iu the i6th century. A list of them, with useful information, will be found in 
" Low's Charities of London," ed. 1S62. 

Cornelius Van Dun founded the Bed Lion alms- 
houses, Westminster 1577 

Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by 
Lady Dacre 1594 

Whittington's almshouses founded in 1621, 
were rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mer- 
cers' company 1826 

The Fishmongers' company founded alms- 
houses in i6i8, and rebuilt them on Wands- 
worth common 1850 

Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded 
by Robert Aske 1692 ] 

ALNEY, an island on the Severn, Gloucestershire. Here a combat is asserted to have 
taken place between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, in sight of their armies. The 
latter was wounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, the south part falling to 
Edmund. Edmund was murdered at Oxford shortly after it is said by iEdi'ic Streou, and 
Canute obtained possession of the whole kingdom, ioi6. 

ALNWICK (Saxon Ealmvic), on the river Alne in Northumberland, was given at the 
conquest to Ivo de Vesco. It has belonged to the Percies since 1310. Malcolm, king of 
Scotland, besieged Alnwick iu 1093, when he and his sons were killed. It was taken by 
David I. in 1136, and attempted in 11 74 by William the Lion, who was defeated and taken 
prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, and by the Scots iu 1448. Sfnce 1854 the 
castle has been repaired and enlarged with gi'eat taste and at unsparing expense. 

ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S. American qiiadruped, the Llama, the soft hairy 
wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into 
this country about 1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c. (covering 11 acres), 
was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. 

ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, is said to have been the author of hieroglyphics, 
and to have written thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 B.C. Blah: But Josephus 
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam : this is deemed fabulous. 



The EgyptLan alphabet is ascribed to Memnon 

1822 B.C. 

The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew 
alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and 
abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew 
is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. 

Cadmus the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is said 
to have brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in 
number) into Greece, viz. : — A, B, T, A, I, K, A, 
M, N, O, n, P, 2, T, r. These letters were 
originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian 
characters, and changed gradually in form till 



they became the ground of the Roman letters, 
now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Ai'gos 
invented the double characters, 0, X, *, S, about 
1224 B.C. ; and Simonides added, Z, ■*", H, il, about 
489 B.C. Arundelian Marbles. — When the E was 
introduced is not precisely known. The Greek 
alphabet consisted of 16 letters till 399 (or 403) 
B.C., when the Ionic of 24 characters was intro- 
duced. The small letters are of later invention. 
The alphabets of the different nations contain the 
following number of letters : — 



English 


. 26 


German 


. 26 


Greek 


. 24 


French . 


• • 25 


Slavonic 


. . 42 


Hebrew. 


. . 22 


Italian 


. 20 


Russian 


■ 35 


Arabic 


. 28 


Spanish 


• • 27 


Latin . 


. . 22 


Persian . 


• • 32 



Turkish . . .28 

Sanscrit . . . 44 

Chinese radical cha- 
racters . , .214. 

ALPHONSIjSTE TABLES, astronomical tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astro- 
nomers, and collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the 
Wise, who is said to have expended ujiwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work ; he 
himself wrote the preface. The Spanish government ordered the works of idphonso to be 
reprinted from the best MSS. ; four volumes have appeared (1863-6). 

ALPS, European mountains. Those between France and Italy were passed by Hannibal, 
218 B.C., by the Romans, 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I. May, 1800. Koads over Mont Cenis 
and the Simplon, connecting Prance and Italy, were constructed by order of Napoleon, 
between 1801-6 ; see Simplon. A sub-alpine tunnel through Mont Cenis to connect Savoy 
and Piedmont has been in progress since 1857.* In 1859 the "Alpine Club," which 
consists of British travellers in the Alps, published their first work, ' ' Peaks, Passes, and 
Glaciers;" see Matter horn. 

* At first the boring was effected by ordinary machinery ; in i860 steam power was employed ; but 
afterwards compressed air was used as a motive power with great success. It is confidently expected that 
the tunnel will be completed in 1870. [Excavated 6374 metres ; to excavate 5845 metres, 31 Dec. 1866. J 
In 1865 Messrs. Brassey proposed laying down a line of steeply inclined railway for 47 miles, to be used till 
the tunnel is completed ; see Railways, 1867. 



ALS 28 AMA 

ALSACE (N. E. France), formeiiypart of the kingdom of Austrasia, now the departments 
of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It was incorporated with the German empire in the loth 
century. A portion was restored to France, 1648, and the whole, including Strasburg, in 
1697. The precinct of Whitefriars, London, called J ^sato, is described in Scott's "Fortunes 
of Nigel." Its privilege of sanctuary was abolished in 1697. 

ALTAE. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. [Gen. viii. 20) ; others by Abraham, 1921 
{Gen. xii. 8). Directions for making an altar are given Exod. xx. 24, 1491 B.C. Altars 
were raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. He introduced among the Greeks 
the worship of the deities of Egypt. Herodotus. The term "altar" was applied to the 
Lord's table for the first three centuries after Christ {Heb. xiii. 10). Christian altars in 
churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I., A.D. 135 ; and were first consecrated by pope 
Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was iu 634. Stow. The church of England 
terms the table on which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth 
there has been much controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the civil war destroyed 
many of the ancient stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In 1845 it was decided in 
the Arches Court that stone altars were not to be erected in English churches. 

ALTER EGO {another or second I), a term applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising 
regal power ; used at Naples when the crown prince was appointed vicar-general during an 
insurrection in July, 1820. 

ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty of peace dictated by Charles XII. of 
Sweden, to Frederick' Augustus of Poland, was signed 24 Sept. 1 706, o. s. Frederick deposed, 
iu 1704, regained the throne of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709. 

ALUM is said to have been first discovered at Roccha, in Syria, about 1300 ; it was found 
in Tuscany about 1470 ; was brought to perfection in England by sir T. Challoner, who 
established large alum works near Whitby in 1608 ; was discovered in Ireland in 1757 ; 
and in Anglese}'^ in 1 790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in dyeing ; and also to harden 
tallow, to whiten bread, and in the paper manufacture. It may be made of pure clay 
exposed to vapours of sulphuric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but is usually 
obtained by means of an ore called alum slate. 

ALUMBAGH, a palace with other buildings near Lucknow, Oude, India, taken from the 
rebels and heroically defended by the British under sir James Outram during the mutiny, 
Sept. 1857. He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan. 1858, and of 20,000 on 21 
Feb. He was relieved by sir Colin Campbell in March. 

ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth alumina, which is combined with silica iu 
clay, and which was shown to be a distinct earth by Marggraff in 1754, having been pre- 
viously confounded with lime. Oerstedt in 1826 obtained the chloride of aluminium ; and 
in 1827 the metal itself was first obtained from it by F. Wohler, but M'^as long a scientific 
curiosity, the process being expensive. The mode of production was afterwards simplified 
by Bunsen and others, more especially by H. Ste. -Claire Deville. who in 1856 succeeded in 
procuring considerable quantities of this metaL It is very light (sp. g. 2'25), malleable, and 
sonorous ; when pure does not rust, and is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except 
hydrochloric. These qualities will render it very useful when improved processes render it 
cheaper. In March, 1856, it was 3Z. the ounce ; in June, 1857, lis. or 12s., and it is now 
much cheaper (1868). The eagles of the French colours have been made of it, and many 
other ornamental and useful articles. Deville's work, " De I'Aluminium," was published in 
1859. An aluminium manufactory was established at Newcastle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. 
They obtain the metal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their aluminium bronze, an aUoj' 
of copper and aluminium, invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., was made into watch-cases, 
&c., by Messrs. Reid of Newcastle, in 1862. 

AMADIS OF Gaxjl, a Spanish or Portuguese romance, stated to have been written about 
1342 by Vasco de Lobeiro. It was translated and enlarged by De Montalvo, about 1485. 

AMALEKITES (descendants of Amalek, gi-andson of Esau or Edom, the brother of Jacob) 
attacked the Israelites 149 1 B.C., when perpetual war was denounced by God against them. 
They were subdued by Saul about 1079 ; by David, 1058, and 1056 ; and by the Simeonites 
about 715 B.C. 

AMALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, in the 8th century became the seat of 
a republic, and flourished by its commerce tiU 1075, when it was taken by Roger Guiscard, 
and eventually was incorporated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of the town in 1 135, 
are said to have found a copy of the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced the 
revival of the study of Roman law in "Western Europe ; the story is doubted. Flavio Gioia, 
a native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the mariner's compass, about 1302. 



AMA 



29 



AME 



AMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left Southampton on lier first voyage, Friday, 2 
Jan. 1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan 4, was destroyed by fire at sea, about no miles 
W.S.W. of Scilly (ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible matter placed near the 
engine-room). Out of 161 persons on board, 102 persons must have perished by fire or 
drowning, 21 persons were saved by the life-boat of the ship ; 25 more were carried into 
Brest harboiu- by a Dutch vessel passing by ; and 13 others were picked up in the bay of 
Biscay, also by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distinguished writer in general 
literatiu'e, was among those lost. 

AMAZONIA (S. America) was discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1540. Coming from 
Peru, he sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing companies of women 
in arms on its bank, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the 
river, which had previously been called Maranon. 

AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have been mentioned — the Asiatic, Scythian, and 
African. They are said to have been the descendants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, 
where their husbands, having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades 
by their enemies. Their widows resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established 
themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quinlus Curtius. They 
were said to have been conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B.C. The Amazons were constantly 
employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right 
breasts were burned ofi", whence their name from the Greek, a, no, mazos, breast. Others 
derive the name from maza, the moon, whom they are supposed to have worshipped. About 
330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his 
conquests in Asia; three hundred females were in her train. Herodotus. 

AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and representatives from one court to another, are 
referred to early ages. In most countries they have great privileges ; and in England, they 
and their servants are secured against arrest. England usually has twenty- five ambassadors 
or envoys extraordinary, and about thirty- six chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, exclu- 
sive of inferior agents ; the ambassadors and other chief agents from abroad at the court of 
London in 1865, were 47 ; in i868, 43. 

The Russian ambassador's being imprisoned for breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them 

debt by a lace-merchant, 27 July, 1708, led to the to be imprisoned three months, and the other 

passing the statute of 7 Aime, for the protection fined, 12 May, 1780. 

of ambassadors, 1708. The first ambassador from the United States of 

Two men, convicted of an-esting the servant of an America to England, John Adams, presented to 

ambassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the king, i June, 1785 ; the first from Great 

the house of the ambassador, with a label on their Britain to America was Mr. Hammond, in 1791. 

AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral, * principally found in the northern parts Europe, of 
great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian 
era : Theophrastus wrote upon it ; 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found 
in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. Phillips. 

AMBLEF, near Cologne, Germany. Here Charles Martel defeated Chilperic II., and 
Ragenfroi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716. 

AMBOISE (C. France). A conspiracy of the Huguenots against Francis II., Catherine 
de Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this place in Jan. 1560. On 19 March, 1563, 
the Pacification of Amboise was published, whereby toleration was granted to the Hugue- 
nots. The civil war was however soon renewed. 

AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca isles, discovered about 15 12 by the Portuguese, but not 
wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken by the Dutch in 1605. The English 
factors at this settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, 17 Feb. 1623-4, by the 
Dutch, on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the two 
nations resided and jointly shared in the pepper trade of Java. Cromwell compelled the 
Dutch to give a sum of money to the descendants of the sufi'erers. Amboyna was seized by 
the English, 16 Feb. 1796, but was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It was 
again seized by the British, 17-19 Feb. 1810 ; and again restored at the peace of 1814. 

AMBROSIAN CHANT, see CJiant, &c. 

AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, faithful, certain, is used in the Jewish 
and Christian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer ; see i Cor. xiv. 16 (a.d. 59). 

AMENDE Honorable, in France, in the 9th century, was an infamous punishment 
inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered into the hands of 

* Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists, respecting the origin of 
amber. It is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dissolved in volatile oil. It often contains 
delicately- formed insects. Sir D. Brewster concludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. When rubbed it 
becomes electrical, and from its Greek name, eleL-tron, the term Electricity is derived. 



.^ME 



30 



AME 



the hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope put round his neck, and a taper in his hand ; 
he was then led into court, and was obliged to heg pardon of God and the country. Death 
or hanishment sometimes followed. 

AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for an offence done, or pecuniary punishment 
at the mercy of the court : thus differing from a fine directed and fixed by a statute. By 
Magna Charta a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the 
offence he has committed, 9 Hen. III. 1225. 

AMERICA,* the great "Western Continent, is about 9000 miles long, with an area of 
about 13,668,000 square miles. It is now believed to have been visited by the Norsemen 
or Vikings in the loth and nth centuries ; but the modern discovery is due to the sagacitj' 
and courage of the Genoese navigator, Christopher Columbus, t who, after having his scheme 
long contemptuously rejected, sailed on his first expedition from Palos in Andalusia on 
Friday 3 Aug. 1492, with vessels supplied by the sovereigns of Spain. 



Columbus lands on Guanahaui, one of the Baha- 
mas ; takes possession of it in the name of 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names 
it San Salvador . . . Friday, 12 Oct. 1492 

He discovers Cuba, 28 Oct. ; and Hispaniola 
(now Hayti), where he builds a fort, La Navi- 
dad 6 Dec. ,, 

He returns to Spain, 15 March; sails from Cadiz 
on his second expedition, 25 Sept. ; discovers 
the Caribbee isles, — Dominica, 3 Nov. ; Gua- 
daloupe, 4 Nov. ; Antigua, 10 Nov. ; founds 
Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian 
city in the New World . . . Dec. 1493 

He discovers Jamaica, 3 May ; and Evangelista 
(now Isle of Pines), 13 June; war with the 
natives of Hispaniola 1494 

He visits the various isles ; and explores their 
coasts 149S-6 

Eetums to Spain to meet the charges of his 
enemies 11 June, 1496 

■Cabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) dis- 
covers Labrador on the coast of North Ame- 
rica [he is erroneously said to have dis- 
covered Florida, and also Newfoundland, 
and to have named it Prima Vista] 24 June, 1497 

Columbus sails on his third voyage, 30 May; 
discovers Trinidad, 31 July; Lmds on Terra 
Firma, without knowing it to be the new 
continent, naming it Isla Santa . i Aug. 1498 

Ojeda discovers Surinam, June ; and the gulf 
of Venezuela 1499 

Vicente Yaiiez Pinzon discovers Brazil, South 
America, 26 Jan. ; and the river Maranon (the 
Amazon) ; Cabral the Portuguese lands in 
Brazil (see Brazil) .... 3 May, 1500 

Caspar Cortereal discovers Labrador . . ,, 

Columbus is imiM-isoned in chains at San Do- 
mingo by Borbadilla, sent out to investigate 
into his conduct, May; conveyed to Spain, 
where he is honourably received . 17 Dec. „ 

Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, 9 May; 
discovers various isles on the coast of Hon- 
duras, and explores the coast of the isthmus, 
July, &c. ; discovers and names Porto Bello, 

2 Nov. 1502 

Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola . 1501-3 



Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he 
returns to Spain, 7 Nov. ; his friend, queen 
Isabella, dies .... 20 Nov. 1504 
He dies while treated with base ingratitiide by 

the Spanish government . . 20 May, 1506 
Solis and Pinzon discover Yucatan . . . , , 
Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on 

the mainland 1510 

Subjugation of Cuba by Velazquez . . . 1511 
The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de 

Leon 1512 

Vasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, 

and discovers the South Pacific Ocean . . 1513 
Mexico discovered by Fernando de Cordova . 1517 
Grijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it 

New Spain 1518 

Passage of Magellan's Straits by him . . . 1520 
Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes . 1519-21 
Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . . . 1526 
He invades and conquers Peru . . . 1532-5 
Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. 

Lawrence, and sails up to Montreal . . 1534-5 
Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortes, dis- 
covers California 1535 

Mendoza foiinds Buenos Ayres, and conquers 

the adjacent country ,, 

Chili conquered by Valdivia .... 1541 
Orellana sails down the Amazon to the sea . . „ 
Louisiana conquered by De Soto . . . „ 
Eebellion in Peru — tranquUlity established by 

Gasca 1548 

Davis's Straits discovered by him . . . 1585 
Raleigh establishes the first English settlement 

— at Eoanoke, Virginia ,, 

Falkland isles discovered by Davis . . . 1592 
De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 

Nova Scotia 1604 

Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English settle- 
ment on the mainland, founded by lord de la 

Warr 

Quebec founded by the French 
Hudson's bay discovered by him 
The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amster- 
dam (now New York) on the Hudson 
Settlement in New England begun by capt. 
Smith 



1607 
1608 
1610 



1614 



* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant, who died in 1512. He accom- 
panied Ojeda in his voyage on the eastern coasts in 1498 ; and described the country in letters sent to his 
friends in Italy. He is charged with presumptuously inserting " Tierra de Amerigo " in his maps. Irving 
discusses the question in the Appendix to the Life of Colombus, but comes to no conclusion. Humboldt 
asserts that the name was given to the continent in the popular works of Waliseemtiller, a German geo- 
grapher, without the knowledge of Vespucci. To America we are indebted, among other thing.s, for 
maize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, and tobacco. 

t Christophoro Columbo was born about 1445 ; first went to sea about 1460 ; settle^. at Lisbon in 1470, 
where he married Felipa, the daughter of PerestreUo, an Italian navigator ; wherebyhe obtained much 
geographical knowledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage of discovery before the republic 
of Genoa, in 1485, and other powers, and finally before the court of Spain, where at length the queen 
Isabella became his patron. After undergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from his own 
followers and the Spanish court, he died on 20 May, 1506 ; and was buried with much pomp at Valladolid. 
His remains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville ; in 1536 to San Domingo ; and in Jan. 1796 to the 
Havanna, Cuba. The original inscription on his tomb is said to have been : "A Castilla y a Leon Nuevo 
Mundo dio Colon." "To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World." Humboldt says beautifully, that 
the success of Columbus was " a conguest of reflection ! " 



AME 31 AMM 



New Orleans built 1717 

Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe . . 1732 
Kentucky, by colonel Boon . . . . . 1754 
Canada conquered by the English, 1759-60 ; 

ceded to Great Britain 1763 

American war — declaration of independence by 

tbe United States, 1776 ; recognised by Great 

Britain 1783 

Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1762 ; transferred to 

France, 1800 ; sold to tbe United States . 1803 
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by 

Spain, 1781 ; to wbora it is ceded, 1783; ceded 

to tbe United States 1820 

Rfevolution in Mexico — declaration of indepen- 
dence 1821 

Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence 

established by Chili, 1810; Paragiiay, 1811 ; 

Buenos Ayres, and other provinces, 1816 ; 

Peru 1826 



AMERICA, continued. 

Kew Plymouth built by the banished English 

nonconformists 1620 

Kova Scotia settled by the Scotch under sir 

Wm. Alexander 1622 

Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . . 1627 
Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . . ,, 
Maryland, by lord Baltimore . ... 1633 

Connecticut granted to lord Say and Broke in 

1630 ; but no English settlement was made 

here till 1635 

Rhode Island settled by Roger 'Williams and his 

brethren, driven from Massachusetts . . ,, 
New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and 

Swedes, 1627 ; granted to the duke of York, 

who sells it to lord Berkeley .... 1664 
New York captured by the English . . . , , 
Carohna settled by the EngUsh .... 1669 
Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the 

celebrated Quaker 1682 

Louisiana settled by the French . . . ,, 

The Mississippi explored 1699 ' [See United States, Mexico, and other states, 

The Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) aban- throughout the volume.] 

doned 1700 

AMERICA, British, see British America. 

AMERICA, Central, iacludes the republics of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, 
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica [lohich sec). They declared their independence 21 Sept. 1821, and 
separated from the Mexican confederation, 21 July, 1823. The states made a treaty of 
union between themselves 21 March, 1847. There has been among them since much 
anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under 
Kenny and "Walker, 1854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala (afterwards 
joined b}"- Nicaragua) and San Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter 
■were defeated at Santa Rosa 16 June, and San Salvador was taken 26 Oct. ; the president 
of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and Carrera, the dictator of Guatemala, became predominant 
over the confederacy. — Population, 1859, about 2,355,000; see Nicaragua, Darien, and 
Panama. 

AMERICA, EussiAN, sold to the United States for about 400,000?., March, 1867. 

AMERICA, South, see Brazil, Argentine, Peru,, Paraguay, Urugioay, &e. 

"AMERICA," an American yacht, schooner-built, 171 tons burthen. On 22 Aug. 1851, 
at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of Wight for a cup worth looZ., open to all 
nations, she came in first by 8 miles, due to her construction on the wave principle. 

AMERICANISMS : a useful dictionary of these expressions was compiled by John E. 
Bartlett, and first published in 1848. 

AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priest, 149 1 B.C. 
It is of a rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix- dollars, having been rendered colourless, 
equalled a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. Dc Boot. — Amethysts dis- 
covered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 

AMIENS, a city in Picardy (N. France) : the cathedral was built in 1220. It was 
taken by the Spanish 11 March, and retaken by the French 25 Sept. 1597. The preliminary 
articles of the peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and Spain, were signed in 
London by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, i Oct. 1801 ; 
and the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquess of 
Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmel- 
penninck for Holland. — War was declared again in 1803. 

AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly produced by the decomposition of organic sub- 
stances. Its name is ascribed to its having been procured from heated camel's dung near 
the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Liliya. The discovery of its being a compoimd of nitrogen 
and hydrogen is ascribed to Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of chemists the 
oxide of the once hypothetical metal ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, liave been 
formed ; and specimens of each were shown at the Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. 
Hofmann, who lias done very much for the chemical history of ammonia. 

AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (1897 ^.c). They invaded 
the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated by Jephthah, 
1143 ^••^- They again invaded Canaan, with an intention to put out the right eye of all 
they subdued; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B.C. They were afterwards many times 
vanquished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabbah their capital, and destroyed all the 
walls, 198 B.C. JosepJms. 



AMlSr 32 A'EM 

AMNESTY (a general pardon after political disturbances, &c. ) was granted by Thrasy- 
bulus, the Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only 
thirty friends, 403 B.C. Acts of Amnesty were passed after the civil war in 1651, and after 
the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745. — After his victorious campaign in Italy, 
Napoleon III. of France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859. An 
amnesty, with certain exemptions, Avas granted to the vanquished southern states of North 
America by president Johnson, 29 May, 1865. An amnesty for political offences was 
granted by the emperor of Austria at his coronation as king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. 

AMOY, see CJiina, 1853-5. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted traditionally to have been established at Ther- 
mopylee by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. The cele- 
brated council, composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities of 
Greece, began 1498 [1113, Clinton] B.C., and existed 31 B.C. Its immediate office was to 
attend to the temples and oracles of Delphi. Its interference caused the Sacred wars, 595- 
586, and 356-346. 

AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up while riding at anchor in Plymouth 
Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two hundred 
and fifty persons, officers and men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796. 

AMPHITHEATRES, romid or oval buildings, said to have been first constructed by 
Curio, 76 B.C., and by Juliiis Csesar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphitheatres, the people 
witnessed the combats of gladiators, and of wild beasts, &c. They were generally built of 
wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, uirder Augustus Caesar ; see Coliseum. The- 
amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 87,000 persons) was built between A.D. 75 
and 80 ; and is said to have been a fortress in 13 12. The amphitheatre at Verona was next 
in size, and then that of Nismes. 

AMPHITRITE, The Ship, see WrecJcs, 30 Aug. 1833. 

AMPUTATION, in surgery, was greatly aided by the invention of the tourniqiiet by 
Morel, a French surgeon in 1674, and of the flap-method by Lowdham of Exeter in 1679. 

AMSTERDAM (Holland). The castle of Amstel was commenced in iioo ; the building 
of the city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased by the decay of that of Antwerp 
after 1609. The exchange was built in 1634 ; and the noble stadthouse in 1648 ; the latter 
cost three millions of guilders, then a large sum. It was built upon 13,659 piles. Amsterdam 
surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in favour of the 
stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. Tho 
Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. A crystal palace for an industrial exhibition 
was opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands 16 Aug. 1864. 

AMULETS or Charms, employed from the earliest times. Amulets were made of the 
wood of the true cross, about 328. They have been esteemed in modern times. 

AMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 
1844, by distilling fousel oil (potato-spii'it) with chloride of zinc. The vapour Avas employed 
instead of chloroform first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been tried in many hospitals. 
here, and in France. The odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more vapour 
must be iised, but it is thought less dangerous. 

ANABAPTISTS. The sect arose about 1521, and was known in England before 1549. 
Miinzer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, taught that infant baptism was a con- 
trivance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual 
things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. They took arms, committed many 
violences, and in 1534 seized Miinster, calling it Mount Zion, and one Mathias, a baker, to 
be king. Miinster was taken 24 June, 1535, and the chiefs of the Anabaptists Avere put to 
death.— On 6 Jan. 1661, about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, headed by their 
preacher, Thomas Venner, a Avine-cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many of tlie- 
soldiers brought against them. Their leader and sixteen others Avere executed, 19 and 21 
Jan. Annals of England. — For the modern Anabaptists see Baptists. 

ANACHORETS, see Monachism. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE, of the bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, 
the Greek lyric poet, Avhose odes are much prized. He is said to have been choked by a 
grape-stone in his eighty-fifth year, about 514 B.C. His odes ha\'e been frequently trans- 
lated ; Thomas Moore's version was published in 1800. 

AN.^STHETICS, see Oimim, Chloroform, Ether, Amyleiie, Kerosolene. Intense cold 
has been also employed in deadening pain. 



ANA 33 AND 

ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the ancient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithyuia, 
Paplilagonia and Phrygia, {toMch see). 

ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of the letters of a name or sentence : as armxj 
from Mary, are said to have been made by ancient Jews, Greeks, &c. On the question put 
by Pilate to Our Saviour, " Quid est Veritas? " (what is truth ?) we have the anagram, " Est 
vir qui adcst" (the man who is here) ; from " Eoratio Nelson," is ^^ Honor est a Nile" 
(there is Honour from the Nile). 

ANAM, see Annam. ANASTATIC PPJNTING, see Printing, 1841. 

ANATHEMA, the sentence of excommunication (i Cor. xvi. 22), used by the early 
churches, 365 ; see Excommunication. 

ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The human body was studied by Plato, Xenophon, 
and Aristotle ; and became a branch of medical education under Hippocrates, about 420 b.c. 
Erasisti'atus and Herophilus, regarded as the fathers of anatomy, ilrst dissected the human 
form, as anatomical research had been previously confined to animals : it is said that they 
practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died A. 11. 
193, was a great anatomist. In England, the schools were long supplied Avith bodies 
unla\vfully exhumed from graves ; and until 1832, the bodies of executed criminals were 
ordered for dissection.* Pope Boniface VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 1297. — 
The first anatomical plates, designed by Titian, were employed by Yesalius, about 1538. 
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, studied anatomy. The gi-eat discoveries 
of Harvey were made in 1616. "William and John Himter were great anatomists, "William 
died 1783, and John 1793. Quain's and "Wilson's large anatomical plates were published 
1842. Comparative anatomy has been treated systematically by Cnvier, Owen, Miiller, 
Huxley, and others. — The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680 ; see Botany. 

ANCHORITES, see Mmiacliism. 

ANCHORS are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans. Pliny. The 
second tooth, or fluke, was added by Auacharsis, the Scythian (592 B.C.) Straho. Anchors 
were first forged in England a.d. 578. Those of a first-rate ship of war (four) wiU weigh 99 
cwt. each, costing 450Z. Phillips. The Admiralty anchor was introduced about 1841. 
Improved anchors were made by Pering and Rodgers about 1831 ; by Porter 1846 ; \)j 
Costell 1S48 ; by Trotman 1853 ; and by several other persons. Trotman's is attached to 
the Queen's yacht the Fairy. The anchors of the Ch~eat Eastern are of enormous size. An 
act for the proving and sale of chain cables and anchors was passed in 1864. 

ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures 4004 b.c. and in the history 
of Herodotus about 16S7 B.C., and is considered to end with the destruction of the Roman 
empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet (a.d. 622), or Charle- 
magne (768). 

ANCIENTS, see Councils, French. 

ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. 
After many changes of rulers Ancona was finally annexed to the papal states in 1532. In 
1797 it was taken by the Prench ; but was retaken by the Austrians in 1799. It was 
occupied by the Prench in 1832 ; evacuated in 1838 ; after an insurrection it was bombarded 
and captured by the Austrians, June i8, 1849. The Marches (comprising this city) rebelled 
against the Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamoriciere, the papal general, fled to Ancona 
after Ms defeat at Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surfender himself, the city, and the 
garrison, on 29 Sept. The king of Sardinia entered soon after. 

ANCYRA, a town in ancient Galatia, now Angora or Engour, Asia Minor. Councils 
were held here 314, 358, 375. Near this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamerlane 
defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, and is said to have conveyed him to Samar- 
cand in a cage. 

ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province once part of the ancient Lusitania and Bffitica. 
The name is a corraption of "Vandalitia, it having been held by the Vandals from 419 to 421, 
when it was acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were expelled by the Moors in 711, who 
established the kingdom of Cordova, which they retained till their final overthrow in 1492. 

* By 32 Heii._ VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted four bodies of executed malefactors for 
"ewiaJ/toOTs/es," which privilege was extended in foUowiiig reigns : but in consequence of the crimes com- 
mitted by resun-ection-men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing churchyards and even com- 
mitting raurder, see Burking), a new statute was passed in 1S32, which abated the ignominy of dissection 
by prohibiting that of executed murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons liy permitting, 
under certain regulations, the dissection of persons dying in workhouses, &c. The act also appointed 
inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a 
licence. It repealed the clause of the act of 182S, which directed the dissection of the body of an executed 
murderer. 



AND 



34 



ANG 



ANDEE.NACH, Ehenish Prussia, once an imperial city. Near here, the emperor Charles 
the First, while attempting to deprive his nephews of their inheritance, was totally defeated 
hy one of them, Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876. 

ANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, bearing the title of. "the valleys and 
sovereignties of Andorra," was made independent hy Charlemagne about 778, certain rights 
being reserved to the bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which long appertained to 
the counts of Foix, reverted to the French Icing, Henry IV., in 1589 ; but was given up in 
1790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial decree restored the old relations between Andorra 
and France. The repiiblic is now governed by a council elected for life ; but the magistrates 
are appointed alternately by the French government and the Spanish bishop of Urgel. The 
population was about 18,000, in 1850. Guibert. 

ANDRE'S Execution, see United States, 1780. 

ANDREW, ST. , said to have been martyred by crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patrse, in 
Achaia. His festival was instituted about 359. The Royal Society's anniversary is kept on 
St. Andrew's day. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted in 1698 by Peter I. 
For the British order, see Thistle. 

ANDREWS, St. (E. Scotland), made a ro3''al burgh in 1140. Here Robert Bruce held 
his first parliament in 1309 ; and here Wishart was burnt by archbishop Beaton, 154S, who 
himself was murdered here in 1546. The university was founded in 141 1 by bishop 
Wardlaw. The bishopric originated with the establishment of Christianity in Scotland. 
The cathedral (built 1159-1318) was destroyed by a mob, excited by a sermon of John 
Knox, June 1559. Sir R. Sibbald's list of the bishops commences with Killach, 872. The 
see became archiepiscopal in 1470, and ceased soon after 1689. It was re-instituted in 1844 : 
see BisJiops. 

ANDRUSSOV, Peace of (30 Jan. 1667), between Russia and Poland, for 13 years, 
with mutual concessions, although the latter had been generally victorious. 

ANEMOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), a measurer of the strength and velocity of 
the wind, was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to 
be 93 miles per hour. Osier's and Whewell's anemometers were highly approved of in 1844. 

ANEROID, see Barometer. 

ANGEL, an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 2>d. in the 
reign of Henry VI., and at los. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The Angelot, a gold coin, 
value half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the English, 1431. Wood. 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. Geokge. This order is said to have been instituted in 
Greece, 456. The Angelici were instituted by the emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191. 
— The Angelicce, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, 1534. 

ANGERS (W. Central France), the Roman Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheati'e ; 
afterwards Andegarum, the capital of Anjou (which see). It was frequently besieged, and 
many councils were held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to ecclesiastical discipline. 

ANGERSTEIN GALLERY, see National Gallery. 

ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona (N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were 
massacred in great numbers, Avhen Suetonius Paulinus took the isle, 61. It was conquered 
by Agricola, in 78 ; occupied by the Normans, 1090 ; and with the rest of Wales annexed 
by Edward I. in 1284. He builf the fortress of Beaumaris in 1295. The Menai suspension 
bridge was erected 1818-25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50. 

ANGLICAN CHURCH, see Church of England. 

ANGLING. Allusion is made to it in the Bible ;. .4 mos iv. 2 (787 B.C.), and by 
ancient Greek writers. 



Worde," in 1496, is " TJie treatise of fyssfiyng with 
an Angle." 
Izaao Walton's " Compleat Angler" was first published, 
in 1653. 



Oppian wrote his " Halieiitics," a Greek epic poem 

on Fishes and Fishing, about a.d. 198. 
In the book on ' ' Haiokynge and Hwitynge, " by Jnlian a 

Berner.s or Barnes, prioress of Sopwith, near St. 

Albans, " emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de 

ANGLO-SAXONS or Angles, derive their name from a village near Sleswick, called 
Anglen, whose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined the first Saxon freebooters. 
East Anglia was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, 
Uffa, assumed the title of king, 571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. Cffidmon 
paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the gospels was 
made by abbot Egbert, of lona, 721 ; of Boethius, Orosius, &c., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo- 
Saxon laws were printed by order of government, in 1840. 



ANG 35 ANJ 

ANGOLA (S. "W, Africa), settled by the Portuguese soon after tlie discoYery, by Diego 
Cam, about i486. Loanda, their capital, was built 1578. 

ANGORA, see Ancyra. 

ANGOULEME, (tlie Roman Iculisma,) capital of the province of Angoumois, Central 
France, W., was a bishopric in 260. Angouleme became an independent county about 856 ; 
was united to the French crown in 1308 ; was held by the English, 1360 to_i372, in the 
reign of Edward III. The count of Angouleme became king of France as Francis I. in 1515. 

ANGRIA'S Fort, see India, 1756. 

ANGUILLA, Snake Island, West Indies. Settled by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits 
of phosphate of lime were found here in 1859. 

ANHALT, House of, in Germanj'-, deduces its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made 
war upon the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, the principality was divided 
among the four sons of Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John-George. Tlius began the four 
branches— Anhalt-Dessau (descended from John-George) ; Zerbst, extinct, 1793 ; Plotsgau 
or Coethen, extinct, 1847 ; and Bemburg,* extinct, 1863. The princes of Anhalt became 
dukes in 1809. 

Leopold (bom Oct. i, 1794), became duke of Anhalt- 1 Heir, his son, prince Frederic, born 29 April, 1831. 
Dessau, 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernbiirg 1863. | Po-pxdation {l)ec. 1S64), 193,046. 

ANHOLT, Island of, Denmark, was taken possession of by England, 18 May, 1809, in 
the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring British commerce. The Danes 
made an attempt to regain it with a force which exceeded 1000 men, but were gallantly 
repulsed by the British force not amounting to more than 150, 27 March, 181 1. 

ANILINE, an oily alkaline body, discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products 
of distillation of indigo. From benzole {luMcIi see) Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it by the 
successive treatment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The scientific 
relations of aniline have been carefully examined by several chemists, especially by Dr. A. 
W. Hofmann. It was long known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but it was 
only in 1856 that Mr. W. A. Perkin showed how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could 
be applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured upon a large scale for the commercial 
production of " Mauve " and "Magenta" (rosaniline) {which see), and several other colouring 
matters.t 

ANIMALCULiE. Leeuwenhoek's researches in 1677 produced the most astonishing 
revelations. His book. Arcana Natm-ce, was piiblished at Leyden in 1696. The great 
works of Ehrenberg of Berlin, on the Infusorial Animalculse, &c., were issued 1838-57. 
Pritchard's Infusoria, ed. 1861, is a valuable summary of our present knowledge of 
animalculse. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM was introduced by father Hehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 
1774, and had its dupes in France and England in about 17S8-89 ; J see Mesmerism. 

ANIMALS, Cruelty to. Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously laboured to repress 
it ; and in 1824, the Cruelty to Animals Society was founded. Mr. Martin's act was passed 
1822, and similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were 
forbidden to be used for draught in 1839. 

ANJOU, a province in France, was inherited by Hem-y II. of England from his ftither 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, who married the empress Matilda in 1127. It was 
taken from his son John by Philip of France in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward III., and 
relinquished by him in 1360, and was given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with the 
title of duke. The university was formed in 1349. 

1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same grant, 
but is also unsuccessful. 
Louis III., adopted by Joanna ; dies 1434. 
1434. Kegnier or Rene le bon (a prisoner) declared 



1360. Louis I. duke, invested by the pope -^vith the 
dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; his in- 
vading army destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; 
he dies, 1384. 



* Alexander, the last duke of Anhalt-Bernburg, (born 2 March, 1805 ; duke, 24 March, 1834 ;) died 
without issue, 22 Aug. 1863, when his duchy reverted to the duke of jWnhalt-Dessau. 

t After mucli litigation, the isatent of Simpson, Maule, & Nicholson, for aniline colours, was annulled 
by the House of Lords, 27 July, 1S66. 

X It was a pretended mode of ciu-ing all manner of diseases by means of gym2Mtlietic affection between 
the sick person and the oiDerator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of 
the fingers and features of the ojjerator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes 
were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagination and enfeebled mind of the sick, 
and performing a number of distortions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. Hehl for a 
short time associated with Mesmer, but they soon quarrelled. — Mr. Perkins (who died in 1799) invented 
"Metallic Tractors for collecting, condensing, and applying animal magnetism; " but Drs. Falconer and 
Haygarth put an end to his pretensions by performing many wonders with a pair of icoodoi tractors. 
Mnmde. 

D 2 



ANJ 



36 



ANN 



ANJOU, continued. 

king of Naples, 1435 ; his daughter, Margaret, 1 
married Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was 
expelled from Anjou by Louis XI., 1474, and 
his estates confiscated. 
Francis, duke of Alenpon, brother to Henry III. 



of France, became duke of Anjou ; at one 
time he favoured the Protestants, and Taiuly 
offered marriage to Ehzaboth of England, 
1581-82; died 1584. 



ANJOU or Beauge, Battle of, between tlie English and French ; the latter com- 
manded by the dauphin of France, 22 March, 1421. The English were defeated : the duke 
of Clarence was slain by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 men perished on the 
field ; the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. Beauge was 
the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English. 

ANNAM or Anam, an empire of Asia, to the east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin 
China, part of Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese Sea ; said to have been 
conquered by the Chinese 234 B.C., and held by them tillA.D. 263. In 1406 they recon- 
quered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French 
missionary, obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his pupil Gia-long, the son of the 
nominally reigning monarch, and with the aid of a few of his countrymen established Gia- 
long on the throne, who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son became king. In 
consequence of the persecution of the Christians, war broke out with the French, who 
defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, about 22 April, 1859, when 500 were killed. 
On 3 June, 1862, peace was made ; three provinces were ceded to the French, and toleration 
of the Christians granted. An insurrection in these provinces against the French, begun 
about 17 Dec. 1862, was suppressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from Annam with the 
view of regaining the ceded provinces arrived at Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. Three 
provinces were annexed to the French Empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867. 

ANNAPOLIS, see Port Roijal. ANNATES, see First Fruits. 

ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of Our Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Cir- 
cumcision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis). The Christian era commenced i Jan. in 
the middle of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the building of Kome, 
and in 4714 of the Julian period. It is now held that Christ was born Friday, 5 April, 4 b. c. 
This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was introduced into 
Italy in the 6th century, and ordered to be used by bishops by the council of Chelsea, in 
816, but was not generally employed for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was the 
first who added "in the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879. 

" ANNOYANCE JURIES," of "Westminster, chosen from the householders in conformity 
with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. 

ANNUAL PbEGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and 
continued to the present time), was commenced by R. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at 
first wrote the whole work, but afterwards became only an occasional contributor. Prior.) 
The similar elaborate work, the " Annuaire des Deux Mondes," began in Paris in 1850. 

ANNUALS, a name given to richly bound volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, 
by eminent authors, illustrated by engravings, published annually, at first in Germany, and 
also in London in 1823. The duration of the chief of these publications is here given : 

Forget-me-not (Ackerman's) . . . 1823-48 

Friendship's Offering 1824-44 

Literary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") 1824-34 



Amulet 

Keepsake 

Hood's Comic Annual 



1827-34 
1828-56 
1830-38 



ANNUITIES or Pensions, were granted in 15 12, when 20Z. were given to a lady of 
the court for services done ; and 61. 13s. ^d. for the maintenance of a gentleman, 1536. 
13Z. 6s. ?>d. deemed competent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. An 
act was passed empowering the government to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity 
of fourteen _??er cent., 4-6 WUl. & Mary, 1691-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards 
became general among civUised governments. An annuity of il. 2s. iid. per annum, accu- 
mulating at 10 jjer cent., compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,oooZ. The Govern- 
ment Annuities and Life Assurances Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the working 
classes ; since, it enables the government to grant deferred annuities, on condition that the 
sum required may be payable in small instalments. 

ANNUITY TAX : a tax leaded to provide stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and 
Montrose, and which caused much disaffection, was abolished in i860, and other provisions 
made for the purpose. These, however, have proved equally unpalatable. 

ANNUNCIATION of the Vikgin Mary, 25th of March, Lady-day (which see), a 
festival commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the angel Gabriel {LuJce i. 26) : its 
origin is referred to the 4th and 7th century. The religious order of the Annunciation 



ANO 37 ANT 

was instituted in 1232, and the military order, in Savoy, by Ainadeus, count of Savoy, in 
memory of Amadeus 1., who had bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, 1355. 

ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed at the inauguration of kings, bishops, and 
other eminent personages. Aaron was anointed as high priest, 149 1 B.C. ; and Saul, as king, 
1095 B.C. Alfred the Great is said to have been the first English king anointed, a.d. 871 ; 
and Edgar of Scotland, 1098. — The religietis rite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, 
about A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying persons, and persons in extreme 
danger of death, were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this was the origin of Extreme 
Unction (one of the sacraments of the Koman Catholic church). 

ANONYMOUS LETTERS, see Threatening Letters. 

ANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 387 b.c. Antalcidas the Lacedaemonian made peace with 
Artaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece but principally in favour of Sparta, giving up the 
cities of Ionia to the king. 

ANTARCTIC POLE, the opposite to the north or arctic pole ; see Southern Continent. 

ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the' tables of Mr. "Whiston, the number of people in 
the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 
549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482. 

ANTHEMS or Hymns, see Hymns. Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, and St. Ambrose were 
the first who composed them, about the middle of the 4th century. Lenglct. They were 
introduced into the church service in 386. Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced 
them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western Church. They were introduced 
into the Reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY {anthropos, Greek for man), for promoting the science 
of man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 Feb. 1863. Dr. James Hunt, president, 
in the chair. The "Anthropological Review" first came out in May, 1863. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh), see Cannibals. 

ANTICHRIST (opposed to Christ), i John ii. 18, termed the "Man of sin," 2 Thess. 
ii. 3 ; of these passages many interpretations have been given, and many myths were current 
in the middle ages, respecting the incarnation of the devil, &c. The term is freely applied 
to each other by Roman Catholics and Protestants ; some persons consider that the term is 
to be given to all who openly or secretly oppose the doctrines of Christ and obedience to his 
commandments {Rev. xii. 17). 

ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, for procuring the repeal of the laws charging duty on the 
importation of corn, sprang from various metropolitan and provincial associations (1834-8), 
supported by Messrs. Charles Villiei-s, Richard Cobden, John Bright, &c ; see Corn Laws, 
and Protectionists. 



The Anti-Corn-Law League formed at Man- 
chester 18 Sept. 1838 

Meetings held in various places March & Apiil, 1841 

Excited meeting at Manchester . 18 May, ,, 

A bazaar held at Manchester, at which the 
League realised io,ocof. ... 2 Feb. 1842 

About 600 deputies connected with provincial 
associations assemble in London, Feb.-Aug. ,, 

The League at Manchester proposed to raise 
50,000?., to depute lecturers throughout the 
coimtry, and to print pamphlets 20 Oct. „ 

First meeting at Diiiry-lane Theatre, 15 March, 1843 



Bazaar at Covent-Garden opened . . 5 May, 1845 

Great Manchester meeting, at which the 
League proposed to raise a quarter of a 
million sterling . . . - 23 Dec. „ 

The Corn Importation Bill having passed, 26 
June, the League is formally dissolved ; Mr. 
Cobden was rewarded by a national subscrip- 
tion, nearly 8o,oooZ. . •. . 2 July, 1846 

On the accession of the Derby ministry, a re- 
vival of the Anti-Corn-Law League was pro- 
posed at Manchester, and a subscription was 
opened, which produced within half an hour 



Monthly meetings at Coven t-Garden, com- 27,520?. ...... 2 Mar. 1852 

menced 28 Sept. ; great free-trade meetings [The reconstruction of the League was soon 

at Manchester 14 Nov. 1843, and 22 Jan. 1845 I deemed unnecessary.] 

ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U. S. Here was fought a terrible 
battle on 17 Sept. 1862, between the Federals under general M'Clellan and the Confederates 
under Lee. After his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, 30 Aug., Lee invaded Maryland, 
and was immediately followed by M'Clellan. On the i6th Lee was joined by Jackson, and 
at five o'clock next morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the 
battle raged till night. The Federals were repeatedly repulsed ; but eventually the Con- 
federates retreated and repassed the Potomac on 18 and 19 Sept. The loss of the Federals 
was estimated at 12,469; of the Confederates, 14,000. 

ANTIGUA, a West Indian Island, discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493 ; settled by 
the English in 1632 ; made a bishopric, 1842. Population iu 1861, 36,412, 

ANTILLES, an early name of the West Indies {luhich see). 

ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal. Compounds of it were early known. It was, and 



ANT 



APO 



is still, used to blacken both men's and women's eyes in the east (2 Kings ix. 30, and 
Jeremiah iv. 30). Mixed with lead it forms j^rinting type metal. Basil Valentine wrote on 
antimony about 1410. Priestley. 

ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, against, and nomas, law), a name given by 
Luther (in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have held "that it mattered not how 
wicked a man was if he had but faith." (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, & v. i, 2.) He retracted 
these doctrines in 1540. They were condemned by the British parliament, 1648. 

ANTIOCH, Syria, built by Seleucus, 300 B.C., after the battle of Ipsus acquired the 
name "Queen of the East." Here the disciples were first called Christians, a.d. 42 (Acts 
xi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; by the Saracens about 638 ; recovered 
for the Eastern emperor, 966 ; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the Crusaders in 1098, and 
held by them till 1268, when it was captured by the Sultan of Egypt. It was taken from 
' the Turks in the Syrian war, i Aug. 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the peace. — The 
Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers of Antioch and Alexandria ; it 
placed the Creation 5492 years b.c. 

ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes 
existed (about 388 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Ment^;, legate of pope Zachary, is said to 
have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, A.D. 741. The antipodes 
of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. 

ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various times, especially by the French and Italian 
factions, from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti-popes are printed in italics. 

ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 B.C. 



A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Cam- 
den, Stow, and others in 1572. Spelman. 

AppUoation was made in 1589 to EUzabeth for a 
charter, but her death ensued, and her suc- 
cessor, James I., was far from favouring the 



The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received 
its charter of incorporation from George II., 1751 ; 
and apartments in Somerset-house granted to it 
in 1777. Its Memoirs, entitled " Archseologia," 



first published in 1770 ; present president, earl 

Stanhope, elected, 1846. 
British Archajological Association founded Dec. 1843. 
Archseological Institute of Great Britain fonned by a 

seceding part of the Association, 1845. 
Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. 
Since 1843 many county archseological societies have 

been formed in the United Kingdom. 
The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 

1S05 as the Celtic Academy. 



ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first 
who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the 2nd century. This 
doctrine, advocated by Arius about 318, spread widely after the Reformation, when it was 
adopted by Lselius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. See Arians, Socinians, Unitarians. 

ANTIUM,' maritime city of Latium, now Porto d'Anzio, near Rome, after a long struggle 
for independence, became a Roman colony, at the end of the great Latm war, 340-338 B.C. 
It is mentioned by Horace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors and wealthy Romans, 
who erected many villas in its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple of Fortune 
here were taken by Octavius Cpesar during his war with Antony, 41 B.C. 

ANTONINUS' WALL, see Roman Walls. 

ANTWERP, (French, Anvers) the principal port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 
517. It was a small republic in the nth centu.ry, and it was the first commercial city in 
Europe till the wars of the i6th and 17th centuries. 



Its fine exchange built in 153 1 

Taken after a long siege by the prince of Parma 

17 Aug. 1585 
Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United 

Provinces) for 12 years 1609 

Much injured by the imposition of a toll on the 

Scheldt by the treaty of Mtinster . . . 1648 
After Marlborough's victory at Ramillies, 

Antwerp surrenders at once . 6 June, 1706 
The Barrier treaty concluded here . 16 Nov. 1715 
Taken by marshal Saxe ... 9 May, 1746 

Occupied by the French . . 1792-3, 1794-1814 
Civil war between the Belgians and the House 

of Orange. (See Belgium.) .... 1830-31 
The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, 

were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who. 



after a dreadful conflict, being driven into 
the citadel, cannonaded the town with red- 
hot balls and shells . . . .27 Oct. 1830 

The citadel bombarded by the French, 4 Dec. ; 
surrendered by gen. ChassS . 23 Dec. 1832 

The exchange burnt; archives, &c. destroyed 

2 Aug. 1858 

Propcsal to strengthen the fortifications adopted 

Aug. 1859 

A fine art fete held . . . 17-20 Aug. 1861 

Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire; loss 25 
lives and about 400,000^. . . .2 Dec. „ 

Great f§te at the opening of the port by the 
abolition of the Scheldt dues . . 3 Aug. 1863 

Fortifications completed 1865 



APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 1856 it began to be largely employed as: 
manure. It is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West India Island. 

APOCALYPSE or Revelation, written by St. John in the isle of Patmos about a.d. 95. * 

* Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. 
In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the 4th century it was excluded from the sacred 



APO ., 39 APP 

APOCRYPHA. Ill the preface to the Apocrj'pha it is said, "These books are neyther 
found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 
135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the council of Laodicca 
about A. p. 366, but were received as canonical by the Roman Catholic church, at the 
council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of the Apocrypha are read as lesso7is by the 
chui'ch of England. 



Wisdom of Solomon . . * * 
Ecclesiastious (J ohn) b. c. 300 or 1 80 
Baruch . . . * * 

Song of the Three Children * * 
History of Susannah . * * 
There are also Apoci-yphal writings in connection with the New Testament, 



I Esdras, from about e.g. 


623-445 


2 Esdras ,, 




Tobit 


734-678 


Judith ,, 


656 


Esther „ . . . 


51° 



Bel and the Dragon . . * * 
Prayer of Manasses B.C. 676 

1 Maccabees, abmit . . 323-135 

2 Maccabees, from about . 187-161 



APOLLINARISTS, followers of ApoUinaris, a reader in the church of Laodicea, who 
taught (366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his flesh was 
pre-existeut to his appearance upon earth, and was sent down from heaven, and conveyed 
through the Virgin ; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. 
These opinions were condemned by the council of Constantinople, 381. 

APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had many 
temples and statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. His most splendid temple at Delphi, 
was built 1263 B.C. ; see Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.C., during a period in 
which pestilence raged, was burnt a.d. 362, and the Christians were accused of the crime. 
Lenglct. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered in the remains of Antium, in Italy, in 
1503, was purchased by pope Julius II., who placed it in the Vatican. 

APOLLONICOISr, an elaborate musical instrument, constructed on the principle of the 
organ, was invented by Messrs. Flight and Robson, of St. Martin's lane, "Westminster, and 
exhibited by them first in 181 7. Timhs. 

APOSTLES (Greek, apostolos, one sent forth). Twelve were appointed by Christ, A.D. 
31 ; viz. Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, 
Nathanael (or Bartholomew), Matthew (Levi), Thomas, James the Less (son of Alphteus), 
Simon the Canaanite and Jude or Thaddaius (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. Matthias was 
elected in the room of Judas Iscariot, a.d. 33 {Acts i.); and Paul and Barnabas were 
appointed by the Holy Spu-it, A.D. 45 (Acts xiii. 2). 

APOSTLES' CREED, erroneously attributed to the apostles, is mentioned by Ruffinus, 
390. Irenajus, bishop of Lyons (177), gives a creed resembling it. Its repetition in public 
worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and in the Roman church in the nth 
century, whence it passed to the church of England. 

APOSTOLICI, a sect, the end of the 2nd century, which renounced marriage, wine, 
flesh, &c. A second sect, founded by Segarelli about 1261, wandered about, clothed in 
white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women called 
spiritual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the chtirch of Rome, and 
predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, the mass, purgatory, &c., and by their 
enemies are accused of gross licentiousness. Segarelli was burnt alive at Parma in 1300, 
and his followers were dispersed in 1307. 

APOTHECARY (literally, a keeper of a storehouse). On 10 Oct. 1345, Edward III. 
settled sixpence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, AiMhecarius London', for 
taking care of him during his severe illness in Scotland. Rymer's Fcedem ; see Pharmacy. 

Apothecaries exempted from serving on juries 

or other civil ofl&ces 1712 

London Apothecaries' Company separated from 

the Grocers' and incorporated . . . . 1617 

Their hall built in 1670 

Their practice regulated and their authority 

extended over all England, 55 Geo. III. c. 19 

(1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV. 0. 133 . . . 1825 ' 

APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, by which they raised 
their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deifying a deceased emperor was begim at 
Rome by Augustus, in favour of Julius Caasar, 13 B.C. Tillemont. 

APPEAL or Assize of battle. By the old law of England, a man charged with 
mm-der might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 
181 7, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by 

canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of 
Trent, held in 1545, et neq. Although the book has been rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its 
authority questioned in all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his first Apology for the 
Christians in a.d. 139), yet its canonical authority is still almost universally acknowledged. 



Botanical Garden at Chelsea left by sir Hans 
Sloane to the company, Jan. 1753, on con- 
dition of their introducing every year fifty 
new plants, until theirnumbershouldamount 
to 2000 Jan. I7S5 

The Dublin guild incorporated . . . . 174s 



APP 40 AQU 

Abraham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of battle, which the 
com-t allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the 
accused escaped, i6 April, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck off the statute- 
book, by 59 Geo. III. (1819). 

APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (869-901), appeals lay from courts of justice to the 
king in council ; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England, he 
framed the body of laws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. The house 
of lords is the highest court of appeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer 
Chamber, in error from the judgments of the superior and criminal courts, were regulated by 
statutes in 1830 and 1848. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were first introduced 
about 1 15 1, were long vainly opposed, and were finally abolished by Henry VIII. 1534; 
.see Privy Council, and Justices, Lord. 

APPEISTZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early 
in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the Swiss confederation, 1513. 

APPIAN "WAY, a Koman road, made by Appius Claudius Csecus, while censor, 312 B.C. 

APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to England ; but those in general use Iftive been 
brought at various times from the continent. Eichard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII., is 
said to have planted a great number of the orchards in Kent, and lord Scudamore, ambas- 
sador to France in the reign of Charles I. , planted many of those in Herefordshire. Eay 
reckons 78 varieties of apples in his day (1688). In 1866 there were 1500 varieties in the 
collection of the Eoyal Horticultural Society, many not worth cultivation. 

APPEAISEES. The valuation of goods for another was an early business in England ; 
and so early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, "it was enacted that if they valued the 
goods of parties too high, the appraisers should take them at such price as they have limited. " 
In 1854 their annual licence was raised from los. to 40s. 

APPEENTICES, Those of London were obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and 
blue gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds was then a great 
apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I. 
Stoid's Survey. The apprentice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. An act for the protection 
of apprentices, &c. was passed in 1851. The term of seven years, not to expire till the 
apprentice was 24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth (1563), was abolished in 
1814. The apprentices of London have been at times very riotous ; they rose into insm'rection 
against foreigners on Evil May-clay {ivhicli see). 

APPEOPRIATION CLAUSE, of the Irish Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord 
John Eussell, whereby any surplus revenue that might accrue by the working of the act was 
to be appropriated for the education of all classes of the people. The clause, adoj)ted by the 
commons but rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, was abandoned. 

APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from the chm-cli), began in the time of William L 
The parochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were impoverished by the bishops and higher 
clergy (generally Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed by the conqueror's friends. 
Where the tithes were so appropriated, the vicar had only such a comi^etency as the bishop 
or superior thought fit to allow. Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane of 
religion, the destruction of the church, and a poison that had infected the whole nation. 
Lay appropriations began after the dissolution of the monasteries, 1536. 

APEICOT, Prunus Armeniaca, from Asia Minor, first planted in England about 1540, 
by the gardener of Henry VIII. 

APEIL, the fom'tli month of our year, the second of the ancient Eomans. 

APTEEYX (wingless), a bird, a native of ISTew Zealand, first brought to this country in 
1813, and deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. Fossil specimens of a gigantic 
species of this bird (named Dinornis) were discovered in New Zealand by Mr. Walter Mantell 
in 1843, and since. 

APULIA, a province in S.E. Italy, conquered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard 
received the title of duke of Apulia from Pope Nicholas II. in 1059. After many changes 
of masters, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. 

AQUAEII, a sect said to have been founded by Tatiau in the 2nd century, who forbore 
the use of wine even in the sacrament ; during persecution they met secretly at night. For 
this they were censured by Cyprian (martyred 258). 

AQUAEIUM or Aquavivariuji, a vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which 
animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other ; snails being introduced 
as scavengers. In 1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea-weeds in artificial sea- 
water ; in 1850, Mr. R. Waringtou demonstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of 



AQU 41 AEA 

animals and plants in jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, 
Eegent's Park, were set up under the skilful direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. 
Gosse published " The Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland-road, London, 
by his enterprise in collecting specimens did much to increase the value and interest of 
aquaria. The gi-eat aquarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at 
Paris, Avas constructed under his direction in i860. 

AQUATINT, see Engraving. 

AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse on an inclined plane. Appius Claudius advised 
and constructed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the Ajjpian way, about 312 B.C. 
Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of Eome. Limj. There are now some 
remarkable aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty ; that at 
Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, 
with 242 arches in three stoiies. The stupendous ' aqueduct on the EUesmere canal, in 
England (1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high) was completed by T. Telford, and opened 
26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct was completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, near 
New York, was constructed between 1837 and 1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles 
with water was commenced in 1830. An aqueduct to supply London with water from the 
"Welsh lakes was jn'oposed by Mr. J. Bateman in 1865. 

AQUILA, S. Italy. Near here the Arragouese under the condottiere Braccio Forte- 
braccio were defeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan,, and Milanese army under Jacob 
Caldora, 2 Juue, 1424. Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, and died, 5 June. 

AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony aboiit 180 B.C. and fortified a.d. 168. 
Coustantine II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at Aquileia towards the close of 
March 340. Maximus defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia 28 July, 388. 
Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole 
emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, 
mortified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was 
almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths 
totally defeated Odoacer, the king of Italy. 

AQUITAINE, the Roman province Aquitania (S.W. France), conquered by the Romans 
28 B.C. ; bythe Visigoths, A.D. 418 ; taken from them by Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England 
obtained it with his wife Eleanor, 1152. It was erected into a principality for Edward the 
Black Prince in 1362 ; but Avas annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine 
was taken by the cro^vn of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418. 
The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 

ARABIA (W. Asia). The terms Petrcea (stony), Felix (happy), and Descrta are said to 
have been applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A.D. 140. The Arabs claim descent 
from Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, born 1910 B.C. Ocn. x^d. Arabia was unsuccess- 
fully invaded \ry Gallus, the Roman governor of Egypt, 24 B.C. In a.d. 622, the Arabians 
under the name of Saracens, followers of ilahomet (born at Mecca, 570), their general and 
I^rophet, commenced their course of conquest ; see Mahometanism. The Ai'abs greatly 
favoured literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. To 
them we owe our ordinary [Arabic) numerals and arithmetical notation. The Koran was 
■\mtten in Arabic (622-632). The Ijible was printed in Arabic in 1671, 

ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or looi Tales) were translated into French 
by Galland, and published in 1704 ; but their authenticity was not acknowledged till many 
years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, pub- 
lished in 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustrations. 

ARABICI, a sect which sprang up in Arabia, about 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, 
that the soul died with the body, and rose again with it. 

ARAGONj part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a kingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by 
the Carthaginians, who were expelled bythe Romans about 200 B.C. It became an inde- 
pendent monarchy in a.d. 1035 ; see Spain. 

ARAM, the ancient name of Syria (ivJiich see). 

ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine royal palace, at which several important 
treaties were concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrection broke out here against Charles 
IV. and his favourite, Godoy, the prince of peace. The former was compelled to abdicate in 
favom- of his son, Ferdinand VII., 19 March. 

ARAUSIO (now Okange), S. E. France. Through the jealousy of the Roman proconsul 
Q. Servilius Crepio, "who would not wait for the arrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, 
both were defeated by the Cimbri with much slaughter, 105 B.C. 



ARB 42 AEC 

ARBELA. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius 
Codomanus decided the fate of Persia, i Oct. 331 B.C., on a plain in Assyria, between Arbela 
and Gangamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse ; the 
Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold and 
silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this 
victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, 
belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5200 camels. Plutarch. 

ARBITRATIOiSr. Submission to arbitration was authorised and made equivalent in 
force to the decision of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. III. (1698). Submissions to arbitration may 
be made rules of any court of law or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attendance of 
witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. lY. c. 42 (1833) ; see Oiozel Galley. The Common Law Procedure 
Act (1854) authorises the judges of superior courts to order compulsory arbitration ; and, by 
an act passed in 1859, railway corapanfes may settle disputes with each other by arbitration ; 
see PrucChommes. 

ARBUTUS. The Arhutus Andrachne, oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England 
from the Levant about 1 724. 

ARCADES, or walks arched over. The principal in London are the Burlington-arcade, 
opened 20 March, 1819 ; and the Lowther-arcade, Strand, opened at the period of the 
Strand improvements ; see Strand, and Exeter Change. The Royal-arcade, Dublin, opened 
June, 1820, was burnt to the ground, 25 April, 1837. 

ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, Greece, named after Areas, a king. The 
Arcadians regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece, and older than the moon 
(Proseleni, which word Doderlein conjectures to mean Pre-Hellenic). Pelasgus is said to 
have taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutritious than herbs, their former food ; 
for which they honoured him as a god, 1521 B.C. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose 
history is altogether fabulous. 



Magna Greecia, in S. Italy, said to have been 
colonised by Arcadians \mder CEnotrus, about 
1710 B.C. ; and under Evander. . . B.C. 1240 

Pelasgus begins his reign 1521 

Supposed institution of the Luperc'alia, in 
honour of Jupiter by Lycaon, who reigned . 1514 

Areas taught his subjects agriculture and to 
spin wool 1514 

Lycsean games instituted, in honour of Pan . 1320 

Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians 
at the siege of Troy (/Tomer) .... 1194 

The Lacedsemonians invade Arcadia, and are 



beaten by the women of the country in the 
absence of their husbands (?) . . B.C. 1102 

Ai'istocrates I. (of Orchomenus) put to death for 
offering violence to the priestess of Diana . 715 

Aristocrates II. stoned ; a republic founded . 681 

Supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) 
abolished by the Thebans ; Megalopolis 
founded by Epaminondas 371 

The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and 
are defeated by Archidamus .... 367 

Arcadia, having joined the Achsean league, on 
its suppression becomes part of the Eoman 
empire 146 

ARCADIANS, a new ultra-conservative French political club, composed of a section of 
the majoritj'- in the chambers, and opposed to liberal measures, even when emanating from 
the emperor (such as the new press law). It derives its name from Rue de I'Arcade, where 
its meetings are held : Eeb. 1868. 

ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and Assyrian architecture. The oldest arch in 
Europe is probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, constructed under the early kings, 
about 588 B.C. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of great magnitude, and 
are built with stone arches similar to those that have been considered a Roman invention. * 
— The Triumphal arches of the Romans formed a leading feature in their architecture. The 
arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and that of Constantine (312), were magnificent. 
The arches in our parks in London were erected about 1828. The Marble Arch, which 
formerly stood before Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed to Cumberland-gate, 
Hyde Park, in 1851) was modelled from the arch of Constantine ; see Hyde Park. 

ARCHEOLOGY, the science of antiquities ; see Antiquaries. 

ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus named from a monastery founded here, and 
dedicated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English 
navigator Richard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only seaport of Russia till the formation 
of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful fire here, 
by which the cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June, 1793. 

ARCHBISHOP (Greek archieiiiscofos), a title given in the 4th and 5th centuries tothe 
bishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and (Ilonstantinople, who presided 
over the other metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached to those places. The 

* The new bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was commenced in 1829. The central arch of 
London Bridge is 152 feet ; and the three cast iron arches of South wark bridge, which rest on massive stone 
piers and abutments are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet : thus the centre arch 
exceeds the admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the long-famed Rialto at Venice, 
by 167 feet ; see Bridges. 



ARC 



43 



AEC 



word is first found in the Apology against the Arians by Atlianasius, who died 373. 
Eastern archbishops have since been styled patriarchs. Riddle. 



The 



Before the Saxons came to England, there were 
three archbishops : London, York, and Caerleon- 
upon-Usk ; but soon after St. Augustin settled 
the metropolitan see at Canterbury, 602 ; see Can- 
terbury. 

York continued archiepiscopal ; but London and 
Caerleon lost the dignity ; see St. David's. 

The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdic- 
tion of the archbishop of York until the erection 
of the archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and 
Glasgow in 1470 and 1491 ; these last were discon- 
tinued at the Bevolution; see Glasgow and St. 
Andrev>'s. 

The bishop of Moray, <fcc., is now (1868) styled Primus. 



The rank of archbishop was early in Ireland; see 
Ferns. 

Pour archbishops were constituted, Armagh, Cashel, 
Dublin, and Tuam ; (until then the archbishop of 
Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well 
as English bishops, in like manner as the arch- 
bishop of York had jurisdiction over those of 
Scotland), 1151. 

Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to 
bishoprics (Cashel and Tuam) conformably with 
the Stat. 3 <& 4 Will. IV. by which also the number 
of sees in Ireland was to be reduced from twenty- 
two to twelve (see Bishops, Cashel, Tuam; 
Pallium, ifcc.) 1833. 



397 



1538 



ARCH-CHAMBERLAIlSr. The elector of Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary 
arch-chamberlain of the German Empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in 
that quality he bore the sceptre before the emperor. 

ARCH-CHAlSrCELLORS were appointed under the two first races of the kings of France 
(418-986), and when their territories were divided, the archbishops of Jileutz, Cologne, and 
Treves became* arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Aries. 

ARCHDEACOISr, a name early given to the first or eldest deacon, who attended on the 
bishop without any power ; biit since the council of Nice, his function has become a dignity 
above a pi'iest. The appointment in these countries is referred to 1075. There are seventy- 
one archdeacons in England (1868), and thirty-three in Ireland. The archdeacon's court is 
the lowest in ecclesiastical polity ; an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 24 
Henry VIII. (1532). 

ARCHERY is ascribed to Apollo, who communicated it to the Cretans. 

Tshmael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi. 20), B.C. 
The Phihstine archers overcame Saul (i Sam. 

xxsi. 3). 
David commanded the use of the bow to be 

taught (2 Sa»i. i. 18) 

Aster of Amphipolis, having been slighted by 

Philip, king of Macedon, at the siege of 

Methone, shot an arrow, on which was written 

"Aimed at Philip's right eye," which put it 

out; Philip drew back the arrow with these 

words : "if PhiUp take the town. Aster shall 

be hanged," and kept his word . . . . 
Archery introduced into England previous to 

A.D. 

Harold and his two brothers were killed by 
arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Nor- 
man soldiers at the battle of Hastings in 

Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, 
and was himself killed by an arrow in . 

ARCHES, Court of, the most ancient Consistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from 
inferior jurisdictions within the province of Canterbur}'- ; it derives its name from the church 
of St. Mary-le-Bow {Sancta Maria de Arcubus), London, where it was formerly held ; and 
whose top is raised on stone pillars built archwise, Coioell. Appeals from this court lie to 
the judicial committee of the privy coiincil, by statute, 1832. The judge, Dr. Stephen 
Lushingtou, (appointed in 1828) resigned i July, 1867, and was succeeded by sir Robert 
Phillimore. 

ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi-teUon, chief artificer). The five great orders 
are, — the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian {Greek) ; — the Tuscan and Composite {Roman). 
Gothic began to prevail in the 9th century. See the Orders and Gothic. 

The Parthenon finished . . . . B.C. 438 
The Pantheon, &c. , buQt at Rome . . a.d. 13 

The Colos.seum (or Cohseum) 70 

Hadrian builds temples at Rome, &.C. . . 117 
Diocletian's palace at Spalatro . . . . 284 

Basilicas at Rome 330-900 

St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun . . . 532 
Rock-cut temples in India — Caves of Ellora 500-800 
Canterbury cathedral, founded .... 602 
Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem . . . . 637 
York Minster, begun about .... 741 

St. Peter's, Rome 1450-1626 

St. Paul's, London 1675-1710 



The victories of Crecy (1346), Poictiers (1356), 
and Agincourt (1415), were won chiefly by 
archers. 

Four thousand archers surrounded the houses 
of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and 
the members, 21 Richard II. (Stow.) . _ . 

The citizens of London formed into companies 
of archers in the reign of Edward III. ; and 
into a corporate body by the style of "The 
Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. . 

Roger Ascham's " Toxophilus, the School of 
Shootiny," -pnbUshed in 1571 

The long bow was six feet long, and the arrow 
three feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 
yards. Robin Hood is said to have shot from 
600 to 800 yards. The cross-bow was fixed to 
a stock, and discharged with a trigger. 
See Artillery Company, Toxophilites, i&c. 



The Pyramids of Egypt, begun about . e.g. 1500 

Solomon's Temple, begun 1004 

Birs Nimroud, in Assyria, about • . , . 900 
The Doric order begins about .... 650 

Doric Temple at iEgina 550 

Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, 

founded 616 

Babylon bviilt 600 

The Ionic order begins about . . . 500-420 
The Corinthian order begins . . . • • 335 
Choragic Monument of Lysikrates . . . 335 
Architecture flourishes at Athens . . . 480-320 
Erechtheum at Athens .... 450-420 



ARC 



44 



AEG 



ARCHITECTUEE, cmtinued. 



EMINENT 



Vitruvius, about . 

William of Wickham 
Michael Augelo Buo- 
narotti 



Born. Died. 
B.C. 27 

A.D. 

. 1324—1405 
• 1474—1564 



A. Palladio 
Inigo Jones . 
Bernini . 
Cliristoplier Wren 
J. Vanbrugh 



ARCHITECTS. 

JBorn. Died. 
. . 1518 — 1580 
. 1572—1652 



1632— 1723 
1670 — 1726 



James Gibbs . 
R. and J. Adams. 
Augustus W. Pugin 
Charles Barry 



Bom. Died. 

. 1674—1754 
. 1728 — 1794 
. 1811 — 1852 
• 1795 — i860 



An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Architectural Society existed in London in 1808. 
The Royal Institute of British Architects was founded in 1834 — Earl de Grey, president, 1835-61. 
The Architectural Society, establised in 1831, was united to the Institute in 1842. The Architectural 
Association began about 1846. 

ARCH0N3. When royalty was abolislied at Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed 
in battle, 1044 b.c. (1070), the executive government was vested in elective magistrates 
called archons, whose office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, was the first 
archon. The office was limited to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. 

AECOLA (Lomhardy), the site of battles between the French under Bonaparte, and the 
Austrians imder field-marshal Alvinzi, fought 15-17 Nov. 1796. The Austriaus lost 
18,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. The French 
lost about 15,000, and became masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, in most 
immiaent danger, was rescued by the impetuosity of his troops. 

AECOT (East Indies). This city (founded 17 16) was taken by colonel Clive, 31 Aug. 
1751," was retaken, but again surrendered to colonel Coote, 10 Feb. 1760; besieged and 
taken by Hyder Ali, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered severe defeat, 31 Oct. 
1780. Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since 1801 ; see India. 

AECTIC EXPEDITIOIsrS, see North West Passage, and Franklin's Expedition. 

AEDAGH, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew, 
Me 11, the first bishop, previously to 454. This see, once held with Kilmore since 1742, 
has been held in commendam with Tuam [which see). It was united with KUmore in 1839, 
and with Elphin in 1841. 

AEDFERT and AGHADOE, bishoprics in Ireland long united ; the former was called 
the bishopric of Kerry ; Ert presided in the 5th centmy. "William Fuller, appointed in 
1663, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Aghadoe have been 
united to that prelacy. ISTear the cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the loftiest 
and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 1770. 

AEDOCH, see Grampians. AEDEES, see Field of Cloth of Gold., 

AREIOPAGUS or Areopagus, a Greek tribunal, said to have heard causes in the 
dark, because the judges should be blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens about 1507 
B.C. ; also ascribed to Cecrops, 1556. The name is derived from the Greek Areios pagos, 
the hill of Mars, through the tradition that Mars was the first who was tried there for the 
murder of Halirrhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this court 
were enlarged by Solon, about 594 B.C., and dimiaished by Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached 
on Mars' hill, a.d. 52 {Ads xvii.). 

AEEZZO, near the ancient Arretium or Aretinum, an Etrurian city, which made peace 
with Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by Galli Senones, about 283 e.g., who 
defeated the Eoman army Metellus sent to its relief — a ' disgrace avenged signally by 
Dolabella. Arezzo was an ancient bishopric : the cathedral founded in 1277. It is 
renowned as the birthplace of M^ceuas, Petrarch, Yasari, and other eminent men. Michael 
Angelo was born in the vicinity. 

AEGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir Arthur Wellesley, on 29 Nov. 1803, 
thoroughly defeated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the Mahratta chief Scindiah. 

AEGENTAEIA, Alsace (now Colmar, IST. E. France), where the Eoman emperor 
Gratian totally defeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of Gaul, 378. 

AEGENTINE (or La Plata) COISTFEDEEATION, S. America, 14 provinces. This 
country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1515 ; settled by them in 1553, and formed part 
of the vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Eio de la Plata. It joined the 
insurrection in 181 1, and became independent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 
to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent as Monte- Video, and at 
war with France from 1838-40. 



Buenos Ayres seceded in 1S53 ; reunited . 

An insurrection in San Juan in Nov. i860 ; sup- 
pressed ill J an. 1861. J. Urquiza, elected presi- 
dent, 20 Nov. 1853, was succeeded by Dr. S. 
Derqui. 8 Feb. 



1859 



Gen. Bartholomew Mitre, elected for six years, 
assumed the president's office . 12 Oct. 

Lopez, president of Paraguay, declared war 
against Mitre, and invaded the Argentine 
territories, May. Mitre declares war against 



AEG 



ARI 



ARGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFEDERATION, cmitimced. 



Ayres for the disputes with that state, and 
Brazil for the war with Paraguay. 



Paraguay, i6 April ; and made alliance with 
Brazil and Uruguay . . . 4 May, 1865 
Populationin 1866, about 1,465,000. See Buenos 

ARGINUSjE isles, between Lesbos and Asia Minor ; near tliese Conon and the 
Athenian fleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 406 B.C. 

ARGONAUTIG EXPEDITION", 1263 b.c. (1225, Clinton), undertaken by Jason to 
avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and recover the treasures seized by his murderer, 
^etes, Icing of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been 
adorned with the figure of a ram, led to the fiction that the journey was to recover the 
golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record. Many kings and heroes 
accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its builder. 

ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded either by Inachus, 
1856 B.C., or his son, Phoroneus, 1807, received its name from Argus, the fourth of the 
Inachidse, 171 1 B.C. 



Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of the b. c. 
kingdom, and calls it after his mfe, Messenia 1552 

Gelanor, last of the Inachidte, deposed by 
Danaus, an Egyptian 1475 

Feast of the Flambeaux, instituted in honour 
of Hypermnestra, who saved her husband, 
Lynceus, son of ^gyptus, on his nuptial 
night, while her forty-nine sisters sacrificed 
theirs, at the command of then father, 
Danaus 1425 

LjTiceus dethrones Danaus 1425 

The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius 
and Proetus 1344 (1313 CI.) 

Perseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos 
and founds Mycenas (ivMch see) . . . . 1313 

The Herachdaj retake the Peloponnesus, and 
Temenus seizes Argos 1102 

Pheidon's prosperous rule. . . . 770-730 



417 
395 
272 

229 

146 

1686 

1826 



The Argives fine Sicyon and iEgina for helping e.g. 
their enemy, Cleomenes of Sparta . . . 514 

Sparta becomes superior to Argos . . 495-490 

Themistocles an exile at Argos . ... 471 

The Argives destroy Mycenas and regain their 
superiority 468 

Peloponnesian war — ^Argos long neutral, joins 
Athens 420 

The aristocratical party makes peace with 
Sparta, and overthrows the democracy . 

A reaction — alliance with Athens resumed . . 

Pyrrhus of Macedon besieging Argos, slain 

Argos governed by tyrants supported by Mace- 
don ; freed ; joins the Achsean league . 

Subjugated by the Romans 

Argos taken from the Venetians . . a.t>. 

Talien by the Turks 1716, who held it imtil 

United to Greece under King Otho (see Greece) 

25 Jan. 1833 

ARGYLE (W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded about 1200, Evaldus being the first 
bishop ; the diocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended 1688. Argyle and the Isles 
is a post-revolution bishopric, 1847 ; see Bislioprics. 

ARIAN or Akyan (in Sanskrit signifying noble, warlike), a term now frequently 
applied to the hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations. 

ARIANS, followers of Arius of Alexandria, who preached against the divinity of Christ, 
aboiit 315, and died in 336. The controvei'sy was taken iip by Constantine, who presided at 
the council of Nice, 325, when the Arians were condemned ; but their doctrine long prevailed. 
It was favoured by Constantius II. 341 ; and carried into Africa by the Vandals in the 5th 
century, and into Asia by the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 
1531, and was burnt, 1553. Leggatt, an Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614 ; see 
Aihanasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians. 

ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY : the most comprehensive ever devised by man. 
Aristotle was born at Stagyra (hence termed the StagjTite), 384 B.C. ; was a pupO. of Plato 
from 364 to 347 ; became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, in 342 ; and died 
in 322. He divided the circle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, physics, including 
part of the science of mind, and ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by the 
schoolmen during the middle ages, and too much depreciated after the reformation. His 
works on natural science contain a vast collection of facts and an extraordinary mixture of 
sound and chimerical opinions. To him is attributed the assertion that nature abhors a 
vacuum, an opinion now maintained by eminent modern philosophers. 

ARITHMETIC is said to have been iuti-oduced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 
600 B. c. The Chinese used the abacus at an early period. It is asserted that the ancient 
Hindus adopted a system having ten as a basis. 



The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 

(7th, 8th, and gth books of his Elements), 

about B.C. 

The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was 
used A.D. 

Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of 
thirteen books of arithmetical questions (of 
which six are now extant) . . about 



Notation by nine digits and zero, known at 
least as early as the 6th century in Hindo- 
stan — introduced from thence into Arabia, 
about 900 — into Europe, about 980 — into 
France, by Gerbert, 991 — into Spain, 1050 — 
into England 1253 

The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, 
Arabic charactei-s, is 1480 



ARI 



AEM 



ARITHMETIC, continued. 

Arithmetic of decimals invented . . . 1482 
John Shirwood bishop of Durham's ludus 

Aritlimo Machince, printed at Rome . . . ,, 
First work printed in England on arithmetic 
(de Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop 
of Durham 1522 



The theory of decimal fractions was perfected 

by Napier in his Rhabdologia, in ... 1617 
Cocker's arithmetic appeared in . . . 1677 
Jsystrom's Tonal system with 16 as a basis, pub- 
lished 1863 



ARIZOIsrA, a territory of the United States, originally part of New Mexico, was organised 
24 Feb. 1863 ; capital, Tucson. 

ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being tlie place 
on which Noah's ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2347 b. c. ; see Gen. vi. vii. Some 
assert Apamea, in Phrygia, to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest 
on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves ; this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. 

ARKADI, a successful Greek blockade-runner during the Cretan insurrection, was 
destroyed by the Turkish vessel Izeddin, off Crete, 19 Aug. 1867, after at least 22 successful 
voyages. 

ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, purchased from France by the United States 
in 1803, was admitted into the Union, 1836, seceded from it 6 May, 1861; conquered, 1865. 
Several battles were fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little Rock. 

ARKLOW (in "Wicklow), where a battle was fought between the insurgent Irish, 
amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, 10 
June, 1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May j)revious. — Native 
gold was discovered in Arklow, in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol 86. 

ARLES (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-lait, near. the waters), S. France, said to have 
been founded 2000 B.C., a powerful Roman city, was made capital of the kingdom of 
Provence by Boson in 879 ; and of the kingdom of Aries or Trausjurane Burgundy by 
Rodolph II. in 933. He was succeeded by Coiirad I. 937 ; and by Rodolph III. 993 ; who 

his death, 1032, transmitted it to the emperor Conrad II. 

ARMADA, THE Invincible, collected and equipped by Philip II. king of Spain, for the 
subjugation of England. The following particulars are taken from Morant's historical 
account accompanying Pine's engravings of the tapestries formerly in the house of lords, 
printed 1739. 



Suffered in a series of engagements (the 

sharpest on 25 July), . . . 21-27 July, 15 
Dispersed by fire-ships sent into the midst 

28 July, ,, 
Many vessels sunk or taken by the English 

29 July, ,, 
The remainder retreat northward to Spain, 

suffering much loss by severe storms, 

Aug. and Sept. ,, 

Computed Spanish loss — 35 ships ; 13,000 men. 

The queen attended a most solemn thanks- 
giving at St. Paul's ... 24 Nov. , 



It consisted of 132 ships (besides caravels), 3165 

cannon, 8766 sailors, 2088 galley-slaves, 

21,855 soldiers, 1355 volunteers (noblemen, 

gentlemen, and their attendants), and 150 

monks, with Martin Alarco, vicar of the In- 
quisition, — the whole under the command of 

the duke of Medina-Sidonia .... 1587 
The English fleet under lord Charles Howard, 

sir Francis Drake, and sir John Hawkins, 

ready for sea, and three armies on land Dec. „ 
The Armada sailed from Lisbon ; soon after 

dispersed by a .storm . . • . 19 May, 1588 
Ee-collected, entered the Channel off Cornwall, 

19 July, ,, 

ARMAGH, N. Ireland, of which it was the metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, 
the seat of the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, 
about 444, and said to have built the first cathedral 450. Six saints of the Roman calendar 
have been bishops of this see. In the king's book, by an extent taken 15 James I.,. it is 
valued at 400?. sterling a year ; and until lately, was estimated at i5,oooZ. per annum. The 
see was re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1151. Beatson. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes 
on Easter-day, 852, and by O'Neil in 1564. 

ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, followers of the duke of Orleans, derived 
their name from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. About 3500 of this party 
were massacred at Paris in June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of the duke of 
Burgundy. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy of the northern powers against England, 
formed by the empress of Russia, 1780; ended, 1781 ; renewed, and a treaty ratified in order 
to cause their flags to be respected \>y the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The principle 
that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, 
the British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of 
Denmark before Copenhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event and the murder of the emperor 
Paul of Russia led to the dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. 

ARMENIA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347 



ARM 



47 



ARM 



B.C. Armenia, after forming part of tlie Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, became 
subject to the Greek kings of Sj'ria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C. ; the 
Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over 
them was frequently interrupted by the aggi-essions of the Parthians. In all their political 
troubles the Armenians have maintained the profession of Christianity, and their church is 
governed by patriarchs, not subject to Rome. Since 17 15 an Armenian convent has existed 
at Venice, -where boolcs on all subjects are printed in the Armenian language. 

City of Artaxarta built .... B.C. 

Antiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia 

Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major . 

Becomes king of Syria, and assumes the title 

of " King of Kings " 

( Defeated by LncuUus, 6g ; he lays his crown at 
' the feet of Pompey 

His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54; he assists 
Pompey against Julius Cassar, 48 ; and the 
Parthians against Marc Antony 

Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with 
silver chains to Egypt 34 

Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians 33 

Deposed by the Eomans, who enthrone Ti- 
gi-anes II. 20 

Armenia subjected to Parthia . . a.d. 15 

Eeconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Au- 
gustus 18 

After many changes Tiridates is made king by 
the Romans 58 

The Parthian conquei'ors of Armenia are ex- 
pelled by Trajan IIS 

Severus makes Volagarses king of part of 
Armenia . igg 



165 
95 



36 



Christianity introduced, between . a.d. 100-200 

Armenia added to the Persian empire . . 232 

Tiridates obtains the throne through Dio- 
cletian, 286 ; is expelled by Nai-ses, 294 ; 
restored by Galerius 298 

On his death, Armenia becomes subject to 
Persia, 342 ; is made neutral by Rome and 
Persia, 384 ; who divide it by treaty . . 443 

Armenia conquered and reconquered by the 
Greek and Persian sovereigns . . S77-687 

And by the Greek emperors and Mahom- 
medans 6'93-io6s 

Leon VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisoner 
by the Saracens, 1375 ; released : he dies at 
Paris 1393 

Overrun by the Mongols, 1235 ; by Timour, 
1383 ; by the Turks, 1516 ; by the Persians, 
1534 >■ by the Turks 1583 

Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to 
the Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian 
families into his own states . . . . 1604 

Overrun by the Russians 1828 

Surrender of Erzeroum .... July, 1829 
(See /Si/ria and Russo-Turkish War.) 



ARMENIAIST ERA, commenced on 9 July, 552; the ecclesiastical year on 11 Aug. 
To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one 
day from i March to 10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style and months in their 
correspondence with Europeans. 

ARMILLARY SPHERE, an astronomical instrument composed of brass circles disposed 
in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere may be seen in their natural 
position and motion. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 B.C. ; 
and was employed by Tycho Brahe and others. 

ARMINIAXS or Remoksteants, derive their former name from James Arminius (or 
Harmensen), a Protestant divine of Leyden, Holland (died, 1609) ; the latter name from his 
followers having presented a Remonstrance to the states-general in 1610. They separated 
from the Ualvinists, objecting to their views of predestination. Their doctrines were con- 
demned in 1619, at the synod of Dort [loMch see); they were exiled till 1625. The Calvinists 
were sometines styled Gomarists, from Gomar, the chief opponent to Arminius. James I. 
and Charles 1. favoured the Arminian doctrine. 

ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the I2tli century. 
They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with different figures, and were 
employed by the crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle, 1 100. The 
lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by 
Columbiere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The armo- 
rial bearings of the English sovereigns are given under the article England. 

ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was conquered by Julius Caesar, 56 B.C. Many 
Gauls retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, A.D. 584 ; see Brittany. 

ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 1063 B.C.) i Sam. xvii. 5. The warlike 
Europeans at first despised any other defence than the shield. Skins and padded hides were 
first used, and brass and iron armour, in plates or scales, followed. The bodj^ armour of the 
Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned 
leathern cuirass. Tacitus. This latter contmued till the Anglo-Saxon era. Hengist is 
said to have had scale armour, a.d. 449. 



The Norman armour formed breeches and 

jacket 1066 

The hauberk had its hood of the same piece . iioo 
John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings 

set edgeways iigg 

The heavy cavalry covered with a coat of mail, 
Henry III. Some horsemen had vizors, and 

scull-caps, same reign 1216 

Armour exceedingly splendid about . . . 1350 
Armour of plate commenced .... 1407 



Black armour, used not only for battle, but for 
mourning, Henry V 1413 

Armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuii-ass of 
steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about . 1500 

Armour ceased to reach below the knees, 
Charles I. 1625 

In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other 
armour than a large gorget, which is com- 
memorated in the diminutive ornament 
known at the present day. Meyrich. 



ARM 



48 



AEM 



AEMOUR PLATES, see Iron, and Navy of England. 

ARMS. The. club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, 
pike, spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of 
the sling to the Phoenicians ; see articles on the variotis ivcapons throughout the volume. 

ARMS, see Armorial hearings, and Heraldry. 

ARMS' BILL, for the repression of crime and insurrection in Ireland, was passed 15 
Oct. 1831. It was a revival of the expired statutes of George III. The guns registered 
under this act throughout the kingdom at the close of the first year scarcely amounted to 
3000, and the number was equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms' bill 
passed 22 Aug. 1843. It has been since renewed, but has not been rigidly enforced. 

ARMSTRONG GUIT, see under Cannon. 

ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting 
men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by 
Saul, 1093 B.C. EuseMus. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is said to have been 
1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse : 480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which we 
have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The army which Darius opposed to 
Alexander the Great (332 b. c. ) is set down as between 750, 000 and a million. The first 
standing army which existed as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by 
Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European nations have had in their service the following 
armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; Pnissia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; 
Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. Estimated number in Europe in 
1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 1,000,000 horses, 11,000 -guns. The European powers are still 
increasing their armies, 1868. 

ARMY, British, mainly arose in tke reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the 
extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry were established 
between 1633 and 1680, James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (16S5-8). 
In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. Standing armies were introduced 
by Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Char. II. 1679 ; but one 
was then gradually forming, which was maintained by "William III. 1689, when the Mutiny 
Act was passed ; see Regiments. Grose's "History of the British Army." was published in 
1801. The efi'ective rank-and-file of the army actually serving in the pay of Great Britain 
on 24 Dec. 1800, amounted to 168,082 ; and the estimates of the whole army in that 
year were 17,973,000?. The militia, volunteer, and other auxiliary forces were of immense 
amount at some periods of the war ending in 1815. The strength of the volunteer corps 
was greatest between the years 1798 and 1804, in which latter year this species of force 
amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 70,000 were Irish ; and the militia had increased to 
130,000 men, previously to the regular regiments being recruited from its ranks in 1809 ; see 
Militia, and Volunteers. 

Sum voted. 
£13,721,158 







Men. 


Sum voted. 


1780, 


Time of war : troops of 








the lino 


110,000 


^67, 847,000 


1800, 


War 


168,000 


17.973)000 


1810, 


War : army including 








foreign troops 


300,000 


26,748,000 


181=!, 


Last year of the war . 


300,000 


39,150,000 


1820, 


Time of peace ; war in- 








cumbrances . . . 


88, 100 


18,253,000 


i8c;o, 


Peace .... 


89,300 


6,991,000 


1840, 


Peace . . . . 


93i47i 


6,890,267 


18 qo, 


Peace .... 


99,118 


6,763,488 


1 8 =12, 


Peace (except Kaffir war^ 


101.937 


7,018,164 


iSS4> 


War with Russia . . 


112,977 


7,167,486 



Men. 
178,643 



185s, War with Russia . 
1856, War with Russia (effec- 
tive men 154,806) . . 206,836 14,545,059 
(5 Sept. 1856, reduced to 125,000 men, 
exclusive of the Indian army. ) 
iSi^q, Prospect of European") , 

war in April-June (in L'^9.640 13,300,000 

Great Britain) . ^ . J (Only those at home) 

i860, (War with China) . . 235,852 14,842,000 

1861 212,773 14,168,621 

1862, ,, „ 

1863, (With Indian army) . 220,918 15,060,237 
1867, 203,404 14,675,540 

■Volunteers in Great Britain in 1862, stated to be 167,291 ; 1867 about 170,000 ; see Volunteers. 



The Mutiny Act is passed annually ; alterations 
were made m this act and in the Articles of 
War in 1855 

Army Service Acts : 12 & 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, 
1847), and 18 Vict. c. 4 . . . 27 Feb, 1855 

Officers in the service of the East India Com- 
pany to have the same rank and precedence 
as those in the regular army . 25 April, „ 

The office of Master-General of the Ordnance 
abolished, and the civil administration of the 
Army and Ordnance vested in the hands of 
Lord Panmure, the Minister of War, 25 May, „ 

Examination of staff officers previous to their 
appointment ordered . . .9 April, 1857 



The army largely recruited for Indian War, 1857-I 

The East India Company's army was transferred 
to the Queen 185; 

Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in con- 
sequence of no bounty being gi-anted ; and 
threatenings of mutiny appeared, which sub- 
sided after an arrangement was made granting 
discharge to those who desired it . . . ,, 

Examination of candidates for the Military 
Academy, previously confined to pupils from 
Sandhurst, was thrown open, 1855; the prin- 
ciple of this measure was affirmed by the 
house of commons by vote . 26 April, 1858 

By 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a re- 



ARM 



49 



ARS 



Flogging- restricted to insubordination (with 
violence) and indecency . . March (?) 1867 

New Armj' Enlistment Act (limiting period of 
enlistment to 12 years, &c.) passed 20 June, ., 

Increased pay to all soldiers (except to life- 
guards) from I April, 1867 ; by warrant, 
dated 29 June, ,, 

Act to form a reserve of men in the militia 
to join the army in the event of war, passed 

20 Aug. „ 

" War-departraent stores " Act passed zo Aug. ,, 



ARMY, BiUTisH, continued. 

serve force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who 

had been in her m.ajesty's service . . . 1S59 
Flogging virtually aboUshed in the army : First 

class soldiers to be degraded to second class 

before being liable to it . . .9 Nov. ,, 
A report of a commission in 1858 causes great 

sanitary improvements in the army, barracks, 

(fee, under direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert 1859-60 
A commission recommend the establishment 

of a recruiting department, increase of pen- 
sions, (fee 31 Oct. iS65 

ARMY OF OcctrpATiON. By treaty, signed 20 JSTov. 1815, the allied powers established 
the boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occupation of certain fortresses by foreign 
troops for three years. 

AROIIATICS. Acron of Agrigentura is said to have been the first who caused great 
fires to be made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which means he 
put a stop to the plague at Athens, 429 b. c. 

ARPAD DYJSTASTY, see Hungary. 

ARPINUM (now Arpiuo, S. Italy) the birthplace of Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 B.C. ; many 
remains still bear his name. 

ARQUEBUS, see Fire Arms. 

ARQUES (N". France). Near here the league army, commanded by the due de Mayenne, 
was defeated by Henry IV. 21 Sept. 1589. 

ARRACAN, a province of N. E. India. Arracan, the capital, captured by the Burmese, 
1783 ; was taken from them by general Morrison, i April, 1825. The subjugation of the 
whole province soon followed. 

ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indictment by the officer of the coiirt, and 
calling upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. Formerly, persons who 
refused to plead in cases of felony were pressed to death by weights placed upon the breast. 
A person standing mute was declared convicted by an act passed 1772 ; but in 1827, the 
court was directed to enter a plea of "not guilty " in such cases ; see Mute. 

ARRAS (N. E. France), the ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. Here a 
treaty was concluded between the king of France and duke of Burgundy, when the latter 
abandoned his alliance with England, 22 Sept. 1435. Another treaty was concluded by 
Maximilian of Austria with Louis XL of France, whereby Burgundy and Artois were given 
to the dauphin as a marriage portion ; 1482. Velly. Arras was held by the Austrians from 
1493 till 1640, when it was taken by Louis XIII. 

ARRAY. On 23 Dec. 1324, Edward II. directed the bishop of Durham to make 
"arraier" his men of arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed to Portsmouth ; 
thence to proceed to the war in Gascony. Rymer's Fo^dera. Hallam says that this was the 
earliest commission of array that he could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The 
attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry 
IV., was strenuously opposed as illegal. 

ARREST FOE, Debt. The persons of peers, members of parliament, &c., are protected 
from arrest ; see Ambassadors ; Ferrars' Arrest. 

Clergymen performing divine service privi- 
leged, so Edw. Ill 1375 

Seamen privileged from debts under 20?., by 
30 Geo. Ill 1756 

Barristers privileged from arrest while going 
to, attending upon, and retiirning from court, 
on the business of their clients. 

By stat. 29 Char. II. no arrest can be made, nor 



1S3S 



Statute aboUshin^ an-est for debt on mesne 
process, except in cases wherein there is 
ground to show that the defendant designs 
to leave the country, 2 Vict. . . Aug. 

By 7 & 8 Vict. c. 96, the power of imprison- 
ment even upon final process, that is judg- 
ment debts, is aboh.shed if the sum does not 
exceed 2oi. exclusive of co.sts, 1844 ; and by 
9 <fe 10 Vict. c. 95, the judge has no power to 
punish, except in case of fraud or contempt 
of court 1846 

By the Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, ab- 
sconding debtors owing 2of. and upwards arc 
liable to arrest 1851 



process served upon a Sunday ; this law was 

extended by Will. III. 
Vexatimis arrests prevented by act. Jlay, 1733. 

Prohibited for less than 10?. on process, 1779 : 

and for less than 20!. . . . July, 1827 
Arrests for less than 20?. were prohibited on 

mesne process in Ireland, in Jime . . 1829 

ARRETIUM, see Arezzo. 

ARSACID^E, a Parthian dynasty, began with Arsaces aboiit 250 B.C. and ended with 
Artabanus, killed in battle with Artaxerxes, the founder of the Sassanidaj, a.d. 226, 
ARSENAL, a gi-eat military or naval repository ; see Woolwich. 
ARSENIC, a steel-gray coloured brittle metal, extremely poisonous, known in early 

E 



AES 50 AllT 

times. Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chemical nature. Tlie 
heinous crimes committed by means of this mineral obliged the legislature to enact regula- 
tions for its sale, 1851. In 1858 Dr. A. S. Taylor asserted that green-paper-hangings and 
dresses prepared from arsenic are injurious to health ; which is doubted by some chemists. 

ARSENITE SCHISM, see Eastern Clmrcli, 1255. 

ARSON, punished with death by the Saxons, remained a capital crime on the consolida- 
tion of the laws in 1827, 1837, and 1S61. 

ARSOUF (Syria). At a battle here Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian 
forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on 
6 Sept. 1 191. Ascalon surrendered, and Richard marched to Jerusalem, 1192. 

ART ACT, facilitating the public exhibition of works of art, (lent to the president of the 
privy council), passed April 1866. 

ARTEMISITJM, a promontory in Eubosa, near which indecisive conflicts took place 
between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days ; 480 B. c. The former retired on hearing 
of the battle of Thermopylaj. 

ARTESIAN "WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) 
are formed by boring througli the uj)per soil to strata containing water, which has peicolated 
from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring tube. The fountains 
in Trafalgar square and government offices near have been supplied since 1844 by two of 
these wells (393 feet deep). At Paris the Crenelle well (1798 feet deep), was completed in 
1841, after eiglit years of exertion, by M. Mulct at an expense of about i2,oooZ., and the 
well at Passj^, which it is said will supply sufficient water for nearly 500,000 persons, was 
begun in 1855, and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos and Easton completed 
an Artesian well for the Horticultural Society's garden in 1862, which yielded 880,000 gallons 
of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at Kissingen was 
completed in 1850. Artesian wells are now common. 

ARTICHOKES are said to have been introduced from the East into "Western Europe in 
the 15th century, and to have reached England about 1502. 

ARTICLES OF Religiok. On 8 June, 1536, after much disputing, the English clergy 
in convocation published "Articles decreed by the king's highness" Henry VIII., who 
published in 1539 the " Statute of Six Articles," decreeing the acknowledgment of transub- 
stantiation, communion in one kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the clergy, 
and auricular confession. Offenders were punishable as heretics. In 1551 forty-two were 
prepared. These forty-two were modified by the convocation, and reduced to Thirty-nine 
in Jan. 1563 ; and they received the royal authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. 
The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic character, attempted to be imposed by archbishop 
"Whitgift, were withdrawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen Elizabeth, 1595. One 
hundred and foiir articles were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 16 14. On the 
union of the churches, the Irish adopted the English articles ; see Perth Articles. 

ARTICLES OF "War were decreed in the time of Richard I. and John. Those made by 
Richard II. in 1485 appear in " Grose's Military Antiquities." The articles of war now in 
force are based upon an act, passed by "William III. in 1689, to regulate the army about to 
engage in his continental warfare. 

ARTIFICERS and Manufacttjrees. Their affairs were severely regulated by the 
statutes of 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and especially of 1562. They were prohibited from 
leaving England, and those abroad ^vere outlawed, if they did not return wthiu six months 
after the notice given them. A fine of xooZ., and imprisonment for three months, were the 
penalties for seducing them from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other statutes, which 
were repealed in 1824; see Workmen, &c. 

ARTILLERY, a term including properly all missiles, now applied to cannon. A small 
piece was contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, 
in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of Algesiras, in Spain, in 1343 ; and 
according to some historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four 
pieces of cannon. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians employed 
artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. Voltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars 
for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. Rymer's Fmdera. Made of brass 
1635 ; improvements by Browne, 1728; see Cannon, Bombs, Carronades (under Carron), 
Mortars, Hoicitzers, Petard, Rocket^, Fire-arms, The Royal Artillery regiment was estab- 
lished in the reign of Anne. 

ARTILLERY ASSOCIATION, National, held its first annual meeting for prize- 
shooting at Shoeburyness, Julj^, 1865. Meetings were held in July, 1866, and July, 1867. 



ART 



5] 



ASC 



ARTILLERY COMPANY of London, Honourable, instituted in 1585, having ceased, 
Tras revived, in 1610. It met for military exercise at the Artillery ground, Fiusbury, where 
the London archers had met since 1498 ; (see Archery). In the civil war, 1641-8, the 
company took the side of the parliament, and greatly contributed towards its success. The 
company numbered 1200 in 1803 and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have been 
appointed by the queen. On the decease of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the prince consort 
became colonel and captain-general. He died 14 Dec. 1861, and the prince of Wales was 
appointed his successor, 24 Aug. 1863. 

ARTISTS' PUND was established in 1810 to provide allowances for sick, and annuities 
for incapacitated members. Artists' General Benevolent Institution, established 1814. 

ARTS. In the 8th century, the circle of sciences Avas composed of seven liberal arts — 
grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. Harris. The Royal 
Society of England {ivhich see) obtained its charter 2 April, 1663. 



Society for the Encouragement of the Pine Ai-ts 

founded in Dec. iS 

Art Unions began in France and Germany early 

in the present century. 
The first in Britain was established at Edin- 

biu-gh. 
The Art Union of London, 444, West Strand, 

was founded 14 Feb. 1837 ; and chartered 

I Dec. 1846. The Art Union indemnity act 

was passed 3 Aug. 1844. 
See Jil-itish Institution; if ational Gallery ; Royal 

Academy; Albert Hall. 



The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, 
commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, 
originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, 
and of its first president, lord Folkestone . 1754 

FINE ARTS. 

First public exhibition by the artists of the 

British metropolis took place at the rooms of 

the Society of Arts 1760 

Repeated there for several years, till the Royal 

Academy was founded 1768 

Society of British Artists was instituted 21 May, 1823 
Their first exhibition opened ig April . . . 1824 

ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk 
enjo}'s the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inheritance and possession of the 
castle, without any other creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted duke of Norfolk, 
was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was thoroughly 
repaired by a late duke at a vast exjjense. 

ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called also Oxford Marbles ; one containing the chronology 
of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have laeen sculptured 264 B.C. They 
consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the isle of Pares, in 
the reign of James I., about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, purchased by 
lord Arundel, and given by his grandson Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to the 
university of Oxford in 1667 ; and are therefore called also Oxford Marble.^. The 
characters of the inscriptions are Greek. A variorum edition of the inscriptions, by 
Maittaii'e, appeared in 1732, and a fine one by Chandler in 1763 ; and translations by 
Selden, 1628; by Prideaux, 1676 ; see KidcVs Tracts; and Poison' s Treatise, 1789. 

ARUNDEL SOCIETY, for the promotion of the knowledge of art, was established in 
1848. It publishes fac-similes and photographs. 

ARUSPICES, sec Haruspices. 

AS, a Roman weight and coin : as a weight, it was a pound ; as a coin, it had different 
weights, but the same valire. In the reign of Servius, the as weighed a pound of brass ; in 
the first Punic war, it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C. ; in the second Pirnic war, one ounce, 
218 B.C. ; and afterwards half an ounce ; its value was about three farthings sterling. 

ASAPH, St. (N. Wales), a bishopric founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. On 
returning into Scotland about 560, he left St. Asaph his successor, from whom the see is 
named. It is valued in the king's books at 187Z. lis. 6d. By an order in council, 1838, 
the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been united on the next vacancy in either ; 
and the bishopric of Manchester created. This order was annulled in 1846. Present 
income 4200?. ; see Manchester. 



BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 

1802. Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1806. 
1806. "William Cleaver, died 15 May, 1815. 



1815. John Luxmore, died 21 Jan. 1830. 
1830. William Carey, died 13 Sept. 1846. 
1846. Thomas Vowler Short (present bishop). 



ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may be split into threads and filaments, and 
which is endued with the property of remaining uuconsumed in fire. Cloth was made of it 
by the Egyptians {Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 ; and also paper. The 
spinning of asbestos known at Venice, about 1500. Porta. 

ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The 
Egyptian army was defeated here by the crusaders under Godfi-ey of Bouillon, 12 Aug. 
1099. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153 ; and again in 1191. 
Its fortifications were destroyed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan in 1270. 

e2 



ASC 



52 



ASI 



ASCENSIOISr, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 800 miles 'N.W. of St. Helena, discovered 
by the Portuguese in 1501 ; and taken possession of by the English in 1815. 

ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thursday, when the church celebrates the ascension 
of our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection from the dead, 14 May, 33 ; first com- 
memorated, it is said, 68. Ascension day, 1868, 21 May; 1869, 6 May; 1870, 26 May ; 
1 87 1, 18 May. 

ASCHAFFENBURG, on the Maine, Bavaria, S.W. Germany. Here, on 14 July, 1866, 
the Prussians defeated the-German Federal army, captured the town, and took 2000 prisoners. 

ASCOT EACES, see Baces. 

ASCULUM, now Ascoli, Apulia, S. Italy. Near it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the 
Romans, 279 B.C. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all their country, was conquered by 
the consul Sempronius 268 B.C. Andi'ea, general of the emjjeror, Henry YI., endeavouring 
to wrest Naples from Tancred, was defeated and slain, a.d. 1190. 

ASHANTEES, warlike negroes of West Africa. In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in 
which the British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death of their king, 
who had been friendly to the English, hostilities began ; and on 21 -Jan. 1824, the Ashantees 
defeated about 1000 British mider sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, and brought away his 
skull with others as trophies. They were totally defeated, 27 Aug. 1826, by col. Pui'don. 
The governor of Cape Coast Castle began a war with the Ashantees in spring of 1863. The 
British troops suffered much through disease ; and the war was suspended by the government 
in May, 1864. 

ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at "Washington, 9 Aug. 1842, by Alexander, lord 
Ashburton, and John Tyler, president of the United States : it defined the boundaries of 
the respective countries between Canada and the state of Maine, settled the extradition of 
criminals, &c. 

ASHDOD, or Azotus, (seat of the worship of the Phcenician god, Dagon, which fell down 
before the ark of the Lord) : captured by the Philistines from the Israelites, about 1141 B.C. 
(i Sam. V.) 

ASHDOWN, or AssENDUa\E, now thought to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his 
brother Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. 

ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (books, manuscripts, coins, &c.), was presented to the 
university of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and antiquary, about 1682. It included 
the collections of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He died at Lambeth in 1692. 
The Ashmolean Society, Oxford (scientific), was established in 1828. 

ASHTAROTH, a Phoenician goddess, occasionally worsliipped by the Israelites (see 
Judges ii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 984 B.C. (i Kings xi. 5.) 

ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, which in early times began on the Sunday 
now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in 487, first added the four days preceding 
the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great (pope, 
590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence 
the name of Dies Cinermn, or Ash- Wednesday. At the Reformation this practice was 
abolished, "as being a mere shadow, or vain show." Ash- Wednesday, 1868, 26 Feb. ; 
1869, 10 Feb. ; 1870, 2 March ; 1871, 22 Feb. 

ASIA, the largest division of the globe, so called by the Greeks from the nymph Asia, 
daughter of OceUnus and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the 
Avorld peopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest 
monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and hence most of the arts and sciences have been 
derived. Its early history is derived from the Bible and from Herodotus, who relates the 
wars of Crcesus, Cyrus, and others. See Jeics, China, India, Persia, and the other countries. 

ASIA MINOR, now Anadolia, comprised the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early 
seats of Greek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, 
Cappadocia, Galatia, &c., with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna {all which see). From the 
time of the rise of the Assyrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the Turks under 
Osman, Asia Minor was the battle-field of the conquerors of the world. 



First settlement of the Ionian Greeks, aboutB.c. 1043 
Asia Minor subdued by the Medes . about 711 
Conquered by Cyrus .... about 546 
Contest be tween the Greeks and Persians begins 544 
Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . 332 

Contended for by bis successors ; -separate 
kingdoms established .... 321-278 



Gradually acquired by the Romans B.C. 188 to a.d. 15 

Possessed by the Persians 609 

Partially recovered by the emperor Basil . . 874 

Invaded by Timour 1402 

Taken from the Greek emperor, and established 
as an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. 1413 



ASI 53 ASS 

ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The "Asiatic Society of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established 
by sir "William Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its investigation to be the geographical 
limits of Asia." The "Eoyal Asiatic Society," which has several branches in India, was 
founded in 1823. It established the "Oriental Translation Fund" in 1828, which has 
published 83 volumes of Eastern literature (1865). 

ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek askesis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by 
a number of young men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its founders were the after- 
wards celebrated Wm. Allen, "Wm. Phillips, Alex. Tilloch, Luke Howard, W. H. Pepys, 
and others. In 1806 it merged into the Geological Society. 

ASPEENE, Great, a town, and Essling, a village, near the Danube and Vienna, where a 
series of desperate conflicts took place between the Austrian army under the arcliduke 
Charles, and the French nnder ISTapoleon, Massena, &c., on 21-22 May, 1809, ending in the 
retreat of Napoleon on 22 May. The loss of the former exceeded 20,000 men, and of the 
latter 30, 000. The daring marshal Lannes was mortally wounded on 22 May ; and died 3 1 May ; 
the bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and ISTapoleon's retreat endangered ; but the 
success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. 

ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, probably derived from decayed vegetable 
matter. The artificial asphalt obtained from gas-works began to be nsed as pavement about 
1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was laid down in Trafalgar-sqnare, Jan. 1864. 

ASPPtOMONTE, ISTai^les. Here Garibaldi was defeated, wounded, and taken piisoner 
29 Aug. 1862, having injudiciously risen against the French occupation of Rome. 

ASSAM (N. E. India) came under British dominion in 1825, and was surrendered by 
the king of Ava in 1826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. Bruce in 1823. A 
superintendent of the tea-forests was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant having 
been Tecommended by lord William Bentinck, in 1834. The Assam Tea Company was 
established in 1839, by whom Chinese labourers and coolies were introduced. After several 
years, the plantations suffered severely, it is said through over speculation and neglect of the 
laboin-ers ; as a remedy a labour act was passed at Calcutta, about July, 1867. 

ASSASSINATION PLOT, said to have been formed by the earl of Aylesbury and 
others to assassinate William III., near Richmond, Surrey, and restore James II., 14 Feb. 
1695-6. It was discovered by Prendergast. 

ASSASSINS, or Assassinians, fanatical Mahometans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, 
and settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they possessed a large tract of land among the 
mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Montferrat in 1192; Lewis of 
Bavaria in 1213 ; and the khan of Tartary in 1254. They were extirpated in Persia about 
1258 and in Syria about 1272. The chief of the corps was named " Ancie^it of the viouniain," 
and "Old Man of the Mountain.'" They trained up young people to assassinate such 
persons as their chief had devoted to destruction. Henault. From them the word assassin 
has been derived. 

ASSAY OF Gold and Silver originated with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer 
in the reign of Henry I. Die Cange. But certainly some species of assay was practised as 
early as the Roman conquest. Assay was established in England 1354 ; regulated 13 Will. 
III. 1700, and 4 Anne, 1705. Assay masters appointed at Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. 
The laws respecting assay were amended in 1854 and 1855. The alloy of gold is silver and 
. copper, that of silver is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of fine gold. 
Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper to 11 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver ; see Goldsmiths' Co. 

ASSAYE (E. Indies). The British army, under general Arthur Welleslej'- (afterwards 
duke of Wellington), entered the Mahratta states on the south ; took the fort of Ahmed- 
jmggur, 12 Aug. ; and defeated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, 23 Sept. 1803. 
This was Wellesley's first great battle, in which he opposed a force more than ten times 
greater than his own (only 4500 men). The enemy fled, leaving their artillery, ammunition, 
and stores. 

ASSEMBLY of Divines held at Westminster, i July, 1643, convoked by order of 
parliament, to consider the liturgy, government, and doctrines of the church. Two 
members were elected for each county. They adopted the Scottish covenant, and drew up 
the directory for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms now used by the church 
of Scotland. The last (1163rd) meeting was on 22 Feb. 1649 ; see Church of Scotland. 

ASSENT, see Royal Assent. 

ASSESSED TAXES. The date of their introduction has been as variously stated as the 
taxes coming under this head have been defined — all things have been assessed, from lands 
and houses to dogs and hair-powder. By some the date is referred to Ethelbert, in 991 ; 
to Henry VIII. 1522 ; and to William III. 1689, when a land-tax was imposed ; see Land 



ASS 



54 



ASS 



Tax. The assessed taxes yielded in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the land- 
tax, 6,524,766^., their highest amount. These imposts have varied in their nature and 
amount, according to the exigencies of the state, and tlie contingencies of war and peace. 
They were considerably advanced in 1797 and 1801, ct scq., but considerably reduced in 1816, 
and in subsequent years. The last act for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 

16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, 20 Aug. 1853, explained and amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. i, 

17 Feb. 1854. — Acts for the better securing and accounting for the Assessed and Income 
Taxes, 10 Aug. 1854 ; see Taxes, and Income Tax. 

ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of Spain and other poAvers, for furnishing the 
Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves, be'gan with the Flemings. By the treaty 
of Utrecht in 17 13, the British government engaged to furnish 4800 negroes annually to 
Spanish America for thirty years. The contract was renewed in 1748, but given up in 
1750 ; see Guinea. 

ASSIGN ATS, a paper currency, ordered by the ISTational Assembly of France to support 
public credit during the revolution, April, 1 790. At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 
350 millions of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- 
dencies. Alison. Assignats were superseded by mandats in 1796. 

ASSIZE of Battle, see Appeal. ASSIZE of Bread, &c., see Bread, and Wood. 

ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) are of very ancient institution in England, and in 
old law books are defined to be an assembly of knights and other substantial men, with 
the justice, to meet at a certain time and place : regulated by Magna Charta, 1215. The 
present justices of assize and Nisi Prizes are derived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. 
I. 1284. Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will that no lord, or other of the country, 
shall sit upon the bench with the justices to take assize in their sessions in the counties of 
England, upon great forfeiture to the king," 20 Rich. II. 1396. Stahttes, Brough Act. 
Assizes are general or special ; general when the judges go their circuits, and special when a 
commission is issued to take cognisance of one or more causes ; see Bloody Assize. 

ASSOCIATIONS, see National Associations. 

ASSUMPTION, Feast of the, 15 Aug. It is observed by the church of Rome in 
honour of the Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, 
body and spirit, on this day, a.d. 45, in her 75th j^ear. The festival was instituted in the 
7th centuiy, and enjoined hj the council of Mentz, 813. 

ASSURANCE, see Insurance. 

ASSYRIA, an Asiatic country between Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of the 
earliest recorded monarchy. Its history is mainly derived from Ctesias, an early Greek 
historian of doubtful authenticity, Herodotus, and the Holy Scriptures. The discovery by 
Mr. Layard of the Ninevite antiquities, now in the British Museum, and the deciphering of 
many ancient cuneiform inscriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, and other scholars, 
have drawn much attention to the Assyrians. The chrouologers, Blair, Usher, Hales, and 
Clinton, differ much in the dates they assign to events in Assyrian history. 



Nimrod or Belus reigns B.C. [2554 H. 2235 C] 2245 
"Asshur builded Nineveh " (Gen. x. 11) about 221S 
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and 

names his capital Nineveh . . [2182 C] 2069 
Babylon taken by Ninus, who having subdued 
the Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all 
Asia Minor, establishes what is properly the 
Assyrian monarchy, of which Nineveh was 
the seat of empire. Blair . . [2233 C] 2059 
Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . . 2017 
Semiramis, motber of Ninyas, usurps the 
government, enlarges and embellishes Baby- 
lon I.2130 C] 2007 

She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India Lenglet 1975 
She is put to death by her son Ninyas . ' . 1965 
Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . . 1927 

Eeign of Aralius 1897 

Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus. . 1446 
He makes his daughter Atossa, surnauied Se- 
miramis II., his associate on the throne . 1433 
Atossa proo\ires the death of her father, and 
marries Belatores (or Belapares) who reigns . 1421 

The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, and 
foretells its destruction. Blair . . . 840 

Nineveh taken by Arbaces. '.[Sardanapalus, the 
king, is mythically said to have enclosed 
himself, his court, and women, in his palace, 



and to have perished in the fire kindled by B.C. 
himself.] 820 

Phul raised to the throne. Blair. . about 777 

He invades Israel, but departs without di-awing 
a sword. Blair ; 2 Kincis xv. 19, 20 . . . 770 

Tiglath Pileser invades Syria, takes Damascus, 
and makes great conquests . . . 744-740 

Shalmaneser takes Samaria, transports the 
people, whom he replaces by a colony of 
Cutheans and others, and thus finishes the 
kingdom of Israel. Blair 721 

He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five 
years. Blair 713 

Sennacherib invades Judea, and his general, 
Kabshakeh, besieges Jerusalem, when the 
angel of the Lord in one night destroys 
180,000 of his army. Isaiah xxxvii. . . 710 

Esar-haddon invades Judea .... 680 

Sarac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wife 
and children, and burns himself in his 
palace 625 or 621 

Nineveh razed to the ground, and Assyria be- 
comes a Median province 605 

Assjria subdued by Alexander the Great . 332 

It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms 
of Syria, Parthia, and Persia. 

It was conquered by the Turks . . . a.d. 1637 



AST 



AST 



ASTEROIDS, see uuder Planets. 

ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE, see under Theatres. 

ASTORGA (N. W. Spain), the ancient Asturica Augusta, was taken by the French in 
1810, and treated with great severity. 

ASTRACAIST (S. E. Russia), a province acquired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited 
and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. 

ASTROLABE, an instrument for observing the stars, said to have been employed by 
Hipparchus about 130 B.C.; and by Ptolemy about 140 a.d. The modern astrolabe was 
described by Fabricius in 15 13. 

ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was cultivated by the Chaldeans, and transmitted to 
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in Italy and France in the 
time of Catherine de Medicis (married to Francis I. of France, 1533). Hcnault. It is said 
that Bede, 673-735, was addicted to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord Burleigh is 
said to have calculated the nativity of Elizabeth, and she, and other princes, were dupes of 
Dee, the astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his 
projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. Astrological almanacs are 
still published in London. 

ASTROISTOMY. The earliest astronomical observations were made at Babylon it is said 
about 2234 B.C. The study was much advanced in Chaldsa under Nabonassar ; was known 
to the Chinese about iioo B.C.; some say many centuries before; see EcU])scs, Planets, 
Comets. 

Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and re- 
corded by Ptolemy . . . about B.C. 720 

Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause 
of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, died . 546 

Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught 
the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed 
in the plurality of habitable worlds, died about 470 

Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle about . 432 

Treatises of Aristotle "concerning the heavens," 
and of Autolycus " on the motion of the 
sphere " (earliest extant works on astronomy) 

about 350 

Aratus writes a poem on astronomy . . . 2S1 

Archimedes obseiwes solstices, cfec. . . . 212 

Hipparchus, greatest of Greek asti'onomers, 
determines mean motion of sun and moon ; 
discovers precession of equinoxes, <fec. 160-125 

The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, 
and the places and distances of the planets 
discovered by Ptolemy . . . a.d. 130-150 

Astronomy and geography cultivated by the 
Arabs about 760 : brought into Europe about 1200 

Alphonsine tables (if/i!c/t see) composed about . 1253 

Clocks first used in astronomy . . about 1500 

True doctrine of the motions of the planetary 
bodies revived by Copernicus, formder of 
modern astronomy 1543 

Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who yet 
adheres to the Ptolemaic system . about 1582 

True laws of the planetary motions announced 
by Kepler 1609 and 1618 

Gahleo constructs a telescope, 1609; and dis- 
covers Jupiter's satellites, &c. . . 8 Jan. 1610 

Various forms of telescopes and other instru- 
ments used in astronomy invented . 1608-40 

1637 



Cartesian system published by Des Cartes 
The transit of Venus over the sun's disc first 

observed by Horrocks . . .24 Nov. 1639 
Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante ; 

see Bologna 1655 

The aberration of the light of the fixed stars 

discovered by Horrebow 1659 

Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's 

ring 1654 



Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . a.d. 1663 

Discoveries of Picard 1669 

Cliarts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, 

Langrenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, &c., about 1670 
Discoveries of Romer on the velocity of light, 

and his observation of Jupiter's satellites . 1675 
Greenwich Observatory founded . . . „ 
Motion nf the sun round its own axis proved 

by Halley 1676 

Newton's Principia published ; and ths system, 

as now taught, demonstrated .... 1687 
Catalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed . . 1688 
Cassini's chart of the full moon executed . . 1692 
Satellites of Saturn, &c., discovered by Cassini 1701 
Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 

1758) . 1705 

Flamsteed's Hidoria CceUstia piiblished . . 1725 
Aberration of the light of the stars clearly ex- 
plained by Dr. Bradley 1727 

John Harrison produces chronometers for de- 
termining the longitude, 1735 et seq., and 
obtains the reward . . . . . . 1764 

Nautical almanac first published . . . 1767 
Celestial inequalities found by La Grange . . 1780 
Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel ; 

.see Georgium Sidus ... 13 March, 1781 

jl/ecan(7!(e Cttes^c, by La Place, published . . 1796 
Boyal Astronomical society of London founded, 

1820 ; chartered 1831 

Beer and Madler's map of the moon published 1834 
Lord Rosse's telescope constructed . . 1828-45 
The planet Neptune discovered . 23 Sept. 1846 

Bond photographs the moon (see Pliotogvaphy, 

celestial) 1851 

Hansen's table of the moon published at ex- 
pense of the British government . . . 1857 
Trustees of the rev. Richard Sheepshanks pre- 
sent io,ooo(. stock to Trinitj' College, Cam- 
bridge, for promotion of the study of astro- 
nomy, meteorology, and magnetism 2 Dec. 1858 
Large photograph of the moon by Warren De 

la Rue ■ ■ 1863 

[For the minor planets recently discovered see 
Planets.'] 



ASTURIAS (E. "VV. Spain), an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the Gothic 
fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, and by his victories checked Moorish conquest. 
For his successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the monarchy has borne tlie title 
"prince of Asturias" since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of John I. king of Leon, 
on his marriage with a descendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of Asturias began 
the organised resistance to the French usurpation. 



ASY 



56 



ATH 



ASYLUMS, or Privileged Places, at first were places of refuge for those Avho by 
accident or necessity had done things that rendered them ohnoxions to the law. God com- 
manded the Jews to huild cities of refuge, 145 1 B.C., Numbers XXV. — The posterity of Her- 
cules are said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father 
had irritated. Cadmus is said to have built one at Thebes, 1490 B.C., and Poomulus one at 
Mount Palatine, 751 B.C. ; see Sanctuaries. 

ATELIERS NATIONAUX (National Workshops), were established by the French pro- 
visional government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly with private trade, as about 
100,000 workmen threw themselves upon the government for labour and payment. The 
breaking-up of the system led to the fearful conflicts in June following ; and the system was 
abolished in July. 

ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of Alexandria, was elected bishop, 326. He 
firmly opposed the doctrines of Arius (who denied Christ's divinity) ; was several times exiled ; 
and died in 373. The creed which bears his name is supposed by many to have been written 
about 340 ; or to be the compilation of Vigilius Tapseusis, an African bishop in the 5th 
century. It was commented on by Venatius Fortunatus, bishop of Poictiers in 570. Dr. 
"Waterland's history of this creed (1723) is exhaustive ; see Arians. 

ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, Theos, God, see Psalm xiv. i), has had its 
martyrs. Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine (1632-1677). Lucilio Vanini 
publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Toulouse in 1619. 
Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand 
disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were 
called Conscienciaries, because they held that there is no other deity tlian conscience. 
"Though a small draught of philosoph}^ may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will 
certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." Lord Bacon. Atheism became the 
iTiling doctrine of the French republic, 1804. 

ATHEN.^A were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honour of Minerva. One was 
called Panathenea, the other Chalcea ; they are f:aid to have been instituted by Erechtheus 
or Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C. ; and revived by Theseus, who caused them to be observed 
by all the Athenians, the first every fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. 

ATHEN.^UM, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers 
recited their compositions. Celebi'ated Athenrea were at Rome and L5-ons : that of Rome, 
of great beauty, was erected bj'^the emperor Adrian, 125. — The ATHENiEUM Club of London 
was formed in 1823, for the association of persons of scientific and literary attainments, and 
artists, and noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of learning, &c., by the earl of Aberdeen, 
marquess of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Faraday, Croker, 
Chantrey, Lawrence, and others ; the clubhouse was erected in 1829-30 on the site of the 
late Carlton-palace ; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of the 
Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. — The Liverpool Athenffium 
Avas opened i Jan. 1799. — At Manchester, Bristol, and many other places, buildings under 
this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded. — The Athenceicm, a weekly literary 
journal, first appeared in 1828. 

ATHENRY (Galway). Near here the Irish were totally defeated, and a gallant young 
chief, Feidlim O'Connor, slain, 13 16. 

ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of modern Greece. The first sovereign 
mentioned is Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. 
Tradition states that in his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the country, which so 
remained till the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, b}' whom the land was re- 
peopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 B.C. The city, said to have been first called Cecropia, 
was afterwards named Athens in honour of Minerva (Athene), her worship having been intro- 
duced by Erechtheus 1383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings (487 years), 
by thirteen perpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial archons (70 years), and lastly by 
annual archons (760 years). It attained great power, and no other city has had, in a short 
space of time, so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athens Astu, 
the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece ; see Greece. 



Arrival of Cecrops B.C. [1558 Hales, 1433 Cliutoii] 1556 

The Areopagus established 1507 

Deucalion arrives in Attica .... 1502 

Eeign of Amphictyon . . . [1499 H.'] 1497 
The Panathensean Gaines . . . [1481 ff.] 1495 

Erichthouius reigns 1487 

Erechtheus teaches husbandry .... 1383 
Eleusinian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus 1356 
Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians 1347 



iEgeus invades Attica, and ascends the thi-one . 1283 
He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned ; 

hence the name of the .Slgean Sea. Eusebius. 1235 
Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years ,, 
He collects his subjects into one city, and 

names it Athens 1234 

Reign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; Uemophoon . . 1182 

Court of Ephetes established 11 79 

The Prianepsse instituted 1178 



ATH 



57 



ATM 



ATHENS, continued. 

Melanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat B.C. 

and is chosen king 1128 

Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king . . 1092 
In a bati le with the HeracUda;, Codrus is killed : 
he had resolved to perish ; the oracle having 
declared that the victory should be with the 
side whose leader was killed, 1070. Royalty- 
abolished ; — Athens governed by archons, 
Medon the first .... [1070 H.\ 1044 
Alcmeon, last jjerj:)rfuf'i arohon, dies . . . 753 
Cherops, first decennial archon . ... 752 
Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty . . .713 
Erixias, 7th and last decennial archon, dies . . 684 

Creon, first annual archon 683 

Draco, the 12th annual archon, publishes his 

laws, said "to have been written in blood" . 621 
Solon supersedes them by his excellent code . 594 
Pisistratus, the "tyrant," seizes the supreme 
power, 560 ; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus 
establishes his government, 537 ; collects a 

pubUc hbrary, 531 ; dies 527 

First tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by 

Thespis 535 

Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and 

Aristogeiton 514 

The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and 
the Pisistratidce banished . . . .510 

Lemnos taken by Miltiades 504 

Invasion of the Persians, who are defeated at 

Marathon 490 

Death of Miltiades 489 

Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished . . 483 
Athens taken by the Persian Xerxes . . . 480 
Rurnt to the ground by Mardonius . . . 479 
Rebuilt and fortified ; Piraeus built . . . 478 

Themistocles banished 471 

Cimon, son of MUtiades, overruns all Thrace . 469 
Pericles takes part in pubUc affairs, 469 ; he and 
Cimon adorn Athens, 464; the latter banished 

through his influence 461 

Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . 459 
Literature, philosophy, and art flourish . . 448 
Ths first sacred (or social) war ; (which see) . „ 
Tolmidas conducts an expedition into Boeotia, 

and is defeated and killed near Coronea . . 447 
The thirty years' truce between the Athenians 

and Lacedasmonians 445 

Herodotus said to have read his history in the 

council at Athens ,, 

Pericles obtains the government . . . 444 

Pericles subdues Samos 440 

Comedies prohibited at Athens . . . . ,, 
Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at 
war with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Pelopon- 
nesian war (lasted 27 years); it began . . 431 
A dreadful pestilence, which had ravaged 
Ethiopia, Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends 
to Athens, and continues for five years . . 430 
Death of Pericles of the plague . . . . 429 
Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of 
the commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias. 
Athenian fleet destroyed by Gylippus . 415-413 
Government of the " four hundred " . . . 411 
Alcibiades defeats the Lacedasmonians at 
Cyzious ; (which see) 410 



Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign B.C. 

power, banished 407 

Athens victorious in a sea fight at Arginusas . 406 
Athenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at 

iEgospotamus 405 

He besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walls 

are destroyed, and it capitulates, and the 

Peloponnesian war terminates . . . 404 
Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown 

by Thrasybulus 403 

Socrates (aged 70) put to death .... 399 
The Corinthian war begins , . . . . 395 
Conon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the 

Pirasus 393 

Plato founds the academy 388 

The Lacedasmonian fleet defeated at Naxus by 

Chabrias 376 

Philip, king of Macedon, opposes the Atheni- 
ans ; see Macedon 359 

Second sacred (or social) war .... 357-355 
First Philippic of Denrosthenes .... 352 
Battle of Cheronasa, (which see) ; the Athenians 

and Thebans defeated by Philip . . . . 338 
Philip assassinated by Pausanias ... 336 
Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the 

orators 335 

Death of Alexander 323 

The Lamian war ; the Athenians and others 

rise against Macedon, 323 ; defeated at Cranon ; 

Demosthenes poisons himself . . . . 322 
Athens sui-renders to Cassander, who governs 

well 318 

Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phale- 

reus, and restores the Athenian democracy, 

307 ; the latter takes the chair of philosophy 296 
A league between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . 277 
Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of 

Macedon, 268 ; restored by Aratus . . . 256 
The Athenians join the Achajan league . . 229 
They join the jEtohans against Macedon, and 

send for assistance to Rome . . . . 215 
A Roman fleet arrives at Athens . . .211 
The Romans proclaim liberty at Athens . . 196 

Subjugation of Greece 144 

The Athenians implore assistance against the 

Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, 

whose general, Archelaus, makes himself 

master of Athens 88 

Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general ; 

it is reduced to surrender by famine . . 86 
Cicero studies at Athens, 79 ; aud Horace . . 42 
The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the 

interests of Cajsar 47 

Athens visited by the apostle Paul . . a.d. 52 
Many temples, &c., erected by Hadrian . 122-135 
Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from 

slaughter ' . . 396 

By Mahomet II 1456 

By the Venetians 1466 

Restored to the Tui-ks . . . . _ . 1479 
Athens suffered much dviring the insurrection, 

1821-7. Taken May 17 1827 

Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modem 

Greece 1833 

Population, 41,298 1861 

ATHLONE, Eoscommon, Ireland, was burnt during the civil war in 1641. After the 
battle of the Boyne, colonel R. Grace held Athlone for James II. against a besieging army, 
but fell when it was taken by assault by Ginckel, 30 June, 1691 ; see Auglirim. 

ATLANTA, see United States, 1864. 

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH, see Electric Tdcgrapli, under Electricity. 

ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the constituent gases of a compound gas (such as 
atmospheric air) by caitsing it to pass through a vessel of poroiis material (such as graphite) ; 
first made known in Aug. 1863, by the discoverer, professor T. Graham, F.R.S., master of 
the mint. 

ATMOSPHERE, see Air. 



ATM 58 ATT 

ATMOSPHEPJ C RAI LWAYS. The idea of producing motion by atmospheric pressure ^Yas 
couceived by Pa])in, the French engineer, about 1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail, 
laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, between Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western 
railroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, the working of the air-pump, and speed of 
carriages upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, and then tried on a line between 
Croydon and London, 1845. An atmospheric railway was commenced between Dalkey and 
Killiney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843 • opened 29 March, 1844 ; discontinued 
in 1855. A similar railway was proposed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. 
T. W. Eammell in 1857. Mr. EammeU's Pneumatic Piailway was put in action successfully 
at the Crystal Palace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. An act for a pneumatic railway 
between the Waterloo railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 1865. 

ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with the indivisible particles of all substances. 
The somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors (such as Wenzel in 1777) were reduced 
by John Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which have received the name of 
"Atomic Theory." His "Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition of his views, 
appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. 
In his standard of Atomic weights Dalton takes hydrogen as i. Berzelius, who commenced 
his elaborate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen as 100. The former standard 
is used in this country, the latter on the continent. * 

ATREBATES, a Belgic people, subdued by Cresar, 57 B.C. 

ATTAINDER, Acts of, whereby a person not only forfeited his land, but his blood was 
attainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where 
corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 
Will. III. 1694-5. BlacJcstone. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of attainders was mitigated. 
The attainder of lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn-fields, 21 July, 1683, was 
reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in 
the reign of James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 2 Oct. 1695. Amongst the last 
acts reversed was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Eitzgerald (who was implicated 
in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), i July, 1819. ATTICA, see Athens. 

ATTILA, surnamed the '^Scourge of God," and thus distinguished for his conquests and 
his crimes, having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, when he made peace 
with Theodosius. He invaded the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius at 
Chalons, 45 1 ; he then retired into Pannonia, where he died through the bursting of a blood 
vessel on his nuptials with Ildico, a beautiful virgin, 453. 

ATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person qualified to act for others at law. The number 
in Edwai'd III.'s reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI. 
1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to four- 
teen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in England, or 
registered, or retired, is said to be about 13,000, and the number in Ireland 2000. The 
qualifications and practice of attorneys and solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 
1843 and 1 86 1. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, a law officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. He 
has to exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills 
in exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or profit. Others may 
bring bills against the king's attorney. "The first attorney-general was William de GisUham, 



7 Edward I. 1278. Beatson. 

ATTORNKY-GENERALS. 

Sir Jeffery Palmer 1660 

Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards lord Finch . . 1670 

Sir Francis North, knt., aftds. lord Guildford . 1673 

Sir William Jones 1674 

Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. . . . 1679 

Sir Robert Sawyer, knt 1681 

Sir Thomas Powis, knt 1687 

Henry Pollexfen, esq. 1689 

Sir George Treby, knt ,, 

Sir John Somers, knt., afterwards lord Somers. 1692 

Edward Ward, esq 1693 

Sir Thomas Trevor, knt., aftds. lord Ti'evor . 1695 

Edward Northey, esq 1701 

Sir Simon Harcoiu-t, knt 1707 

Sir James Montagu, knt 1708 

Sir Simon Harcourt, again ; aft. lord Harcourt . 1710 

Sir Edward Northey, knt , , 

Nicholas Lechmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere . 1718 



Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond . . 1720 
Sir Philip Yorke, aft. earl of Hardwicke . . 1724 

Sir John Willes, knt 1733 

Sh- Dudley Ryder, knt 1737 

Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield . 1754 
Sir Robert Henley, knt. , aft. earl of Northington 1756 
Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden 1757 

Hon. Charles Yorke 1762 

Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., aft. lord Grantley . 1763 
Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards lord 

Morden, and lord chancellor ; see Chancellors 1765 
William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham . 1766 
Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow 1771 
Alex. Wedderburne, aft. lord Loughborough . 1778 

James Wallace, esq. 1780 

Lloyd Kenyon, esq 1782 

James Wallace, esq 1783 

John Lee, esq ,, 

Lloyd Kenyon, again ; afterwards lord Kenyon ,, 



* In i8s5 Hinrichs propounded a new hypothetical science, Atomechanics, in which panfogen, composed 
of panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical principle. 



ATT 59 AUG 



ATTOENEY- GENERAL, continued. 

Sir Eichard P. Ardeii, aft. lord Alvanley . . 1784 

Sir Archibald Macdonald 1788 

Sir John Scott, afterwards lord Eldon . . 1793 

Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Redesdale . . 1800 

Sir Edward Law, aft. lord EUenborough, 14 Feb. 1801 
Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Belling- 

ham, II May, 1812) . . . . 15 April, 1802 



Sir John Campbell, again, afterwards lord 

Campbell Cand, 1859, Id. chancellor,) 30 April, 1835 
Sir Thomas Wilde .... 3 July, 1841 

Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron 6 Sept. ,, 
Sir William W. Follett . . . 17 April, 1844 
Sir Frederick Thesiger . . . . 4 July, 1845 
Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwards lord 



Su- Arthur Pigott 12 Feb. 1806 [ Truro, and lord chancellor . . 6 July, 1846 

Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the 
the common pleas . . . 7 April, 1807: common pleas 13 July, 



Sir Thomas Pluraer, afterwards first vice-chan- 
cellor of England .... 26 June, 1812 
Sir WilUam Garrow . . . . 4 May, 1813 

Sir Samuel Shepherd 7 May, 1817 

Sir Robert Gifi'ord, aft. lord Gifford 24 July, 1819 



Sir John Romilly, aft. mast, of the rolls, 1 1 July, 1850 
Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn . 28 March, 1851 
Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterwards lord 

Chelmsford, and lord chancellor . 2 March, 1852 
Sir Alexander Cockburn, again ; aft. ch. just. 



Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord 1 of common pleas and queen's bench, 28 Dec. 

Lyndhurst 9 Jan. 1824 ' Sir Richard Bethell . . . .15 Nov. 1856 



Sir Charles Wetherell . . . . 20 Sept. 1826 
Sir James Scarlett . . . .27 April, 1827 
Sir Charles Wetherell, again . . . ig Feb. 1828 
Sir Jas. Scarlett, agn. ; aft. Id. Abinger, 29 June, 1829 
Sir Tho.s. Denman, aft. lord Denman . 26 Nov. 1830 



Sir Fitzroy Kelly 27 Feb. 

Sir R. Bethell (since lord Westbury, and lord 

chancellor) 18 June, 1859 

Sir William Athcrton . . . . 27 July, 1861 
Sir Roundell Palmer .... 2 Oct. 1863 



Sir William Home .... 26 Nov. 1832 i Sir Hugh M. Cairns, aft. lord chancellor 13 July, 1866 

Sir John Campbell i March, 1S34 I Sir John Rolt, (made justice of appeal) 28 Oct. ,, 

Sir Frederick Pollock 17 Dec. ,, ! Sir John Kerslake .... i Jvily, 1867 

ATTRACTION, described hj Copernicus, about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which 
the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter ; by Kepler as a corporeal affection tending 
to union, 1605. In 1687, sir I. Newton published his "Principia, " containing his impor- 
tant researches on this subject. There are the attractions of Gravitation, Magnetism, and 
Electricity {which see). 

ATTWOOD'S MACHINE, for proving the laws of accelerated motion bj^ the falling of 
weights, invented by George Attwood ; described 1784 : he died 11 July, 1807. 

AUBAINE, a right of the French tings, which existed from the beginning of the 
monarchy, whereby they claimed the property of every stranger who died in their country, 
without having been naturalised, was abolished by the national assemblj^ in 1790 ; re-esta- 
blished by Napoleon ; and finally annulled 14 July, 1819. 

ATJBEROCHE, Guienne, S. France. The earl of Derby defeated the French, besieging this 
place, 19 Aug. 1344. 

AUCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north island,) was founded in 1840. The popu- 
lation of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 Europeans, and 35,000 natives. The 
seat of government was removed to Wellington on Cook's Strait, Dec. 1864. 

AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans, mentioned by Petronius Arbiter (about 
A.D. 66). The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George in 
the East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax 
began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have regulated auctions and imposed duties, in 
some cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 (^845,) the duties were repealed, and 
a charge imposed ' ' on the licence to be taken oiit by all auctioneers in the United Kingdom, 
of loZ." In 1858 there were 4358 licences granted, producing 43,580?. The abuses at 
auctions, termed "knock-outs," caused by combinations of brokers and others, excited much 
attention in Sept. 1866. An act regulating sales of land by auction was passed 15 July, 1867. 
Certain sales are now exempt from being conducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods 
and chattels under a distress for rent, and sales under the provisions of the Small Debts' acts 
for Scotland and Ireland. 

AUDIANI, followers of Audeus of Mesopotamia, who had been expelled from the S3'rian 
church on account of his severely reproving the vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect 
and became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, where he is said to have made many 
converts. His followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish passover, attributed the 
human figure to the Deity, and had other peculiar tenets. 

AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Commissioners for auditing the public accounts 
were appointed in 1785, and many statutes regulating their duties have since been enacted. 

AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here and at Jena, on 14 Oct. 1806, the French signally de- 
feated the Prussians ; see Jena. 

AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where on 12 July, 1691, a battle was fought 
between the Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and the English under general 
Ginckel. The former were defeated and lost 7000 men : the latter lost only 600 killed and 



AUG 



60 



AUR 



960 wounded. St. Ruth was slaiu. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interest 
of James XL, and Ginckel was created earl of Athlone. 

AUGMENTATIOlf of Poor Livings' Office, established in 1704. 5597 clerical livings, 
not exceeding 50Z. per annum, were found by the commissioners under the act of Anne 
capable of augmentation, by means of the bounty then established. 

AUGMENTATIONS COURT, established in 1535 by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 27, in relation 
to cap. 28 same session, which gave the king the property of all monasteries having 200Z. a 
year. The court was abolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 1558. 

AUGSBURG (Bavaria), originallj'- a colony settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C. ; became 
a free city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here many important diets of the 
empire have been held. In A.D. 952, a council confirmed the order for the celibacy of the 
priesthood. Augsburg has suffered much by war, having been frequently taken by siege, 
788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, 10 Oct. 1805, who restored it to Bavaria in 
March, 1806. 



Augsburg Diet, summoned by the emperor 
Charles V., to settle the religious disputes of 
Germany, met 20 June, and separated, Nov. 1530 

Confession of Augsburg, compiled by Melanch- 
thon, Luther, and others, signed by the 
Protestant princes, and presented to the 
emperor Charles V., and read to the diet, 

25 June, 1530 

Interim of Augsburg, a document issued by 



Charles V. : an attempt to reconcile the Catho- 
lics and Protestants : it was fruitless and 
was withdrawn 1548 

"Peace of Religion" signed at Augsburg, 

25 Sept. 15SS 

League of Augsburg, for maintenance of the 
treaties of Mlinster, Nimeguen : a treaty be- 
tween Holland and other powers against 
France, signed 9 July, 1686 



AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long 
before the time of Hesiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the 
liriesthood, were formally constituted by Numa, about 710 B.C. The number had increased, 
and was fifteen at the time of Sylla, 81 B.C. The college of augurs was abolished by 
Theodosir;s about A.D. 391. 

AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the year (previously called Sextilis, or the sixth 
from March), by a decree of the senate received its present name in honour of Augustus 
Cffisar, in the year 8, or 27, or 30 B.C., because in this month he was created consul, had 
thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of the 
civil wars. He added one day to the month, making it 31 days. The appearance of shoot- 
ing stars on the loth of Aug. was observed in the middle ages, when they were termed,- "St. 
Lawrence's tears. " Their periodicity was noticed by Mr. Forster early in the present century. 

AUGUSTAN ERA began 27 b.c., or 727 years after the foundation of Rome. 

AUGUSTIN or Austin Friars, a religious order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, 
bishop of Hippo, who died 430. They first appeared about the nth century, and the order 
was constituted by pope Alexander IV., 1256. The rule requires poverty, humility, and 
chastity. Martin Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins held the doctrine of free 
grace, and were rivals of the Dominicans. The order appeared in England soon after the 
conquest. One of their churches, at Austin Friars, London, erected 1354, and since the 
Reformation used by Dutch protestants, was partially destroyed by fire, 22 Nov. 1862. It 
was restored, and reopened, i Oct. 1865. A religious house of the order, dedicated to St 
Monica, mother of Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-square, London, 1864. 

AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian 
I., 1506, being one of the two courts, the first called the Imperial Chamber civil and crimi- 
nal, instituted at Worms, 1495, ^^^ afterwards held at Spires and Wetzlar, and the other the 
Aulic council at Vienna. These courts having concurrent jurisdiction, were instituted for 
appeals in particular cases from the courts of the Germanic states. 

AURAY (N. W. France). Here, on 29 Sept. 1364, the English, under John Chandos, 
defeated the French and captured their leader Du Guesclin. Charles of Blois, made duke of 
Brittany by the king of France, was slain, and a peace was made in Apiil, 1365. 

AUEICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin aioris) of the 
priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been forbidden in the 4th 
century by Nectarius archbishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by the council of 
Lateran in 1215, and by the council of Trentini55i. It was one of the six articles of faith 
enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but was abolished in England at the Reformation. 
Its revival here has been attempted by the church party called Puseyites, Tractarians, or 
Ritualists. * 

* The rev. Alfred Poole, a curate of St. Barnabas, Knightsbridge, was suspended by his bishop from 
h.is office for practising auricular confession in June, 1858, the suspension was confirmed in Jan. 1859. 
Much excitement was created by a similar attempt by the rev. Temple West at Boyne Hill, in Sept. 1858. 



AUR 



61 



AUS 



AURIFLAMMA or Oeiflamme, the national golden banner mentioned in French, 
history, belonging to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over the tomb of that saint, 1 140. 
Louis le Gros was the first king who took this standard from the abbey to battle, 11 24. 
Henmdt. It aj^peared for the last thne at Agincourt, 1415. Tillct. Others say at Mout- 
Ihery, 1465. 

AURORA FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 1771, to the East Indies, and was never 
again heard of. 

AURORiE BOREALES and AUSTRALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights), though 
rarely seen in central Europe, are frequent in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March, 
1716, an aiu'ora borealis extended from the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia. The 
whole horizon in the lat. of 57° IST. overspread with continuous haze of a dismal red during 
the whole night, by which many people were much terrified, Nov. 1765. — Mr. Foster, the 
companion of captain Cook, saw the aurora in lat. 58° S. Its appearance in the southern 
hemisphere had been previously doubted.* 

AUSCULTATION, see Stetlwscope. 

AUSTERLITZ (Moravia), where a battle was fought between the French and the allied 
Austrian and Russian armies, 2 Dec. 1805. Three emperors commanded : Alexander of 
Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 
30,000 on the side of the allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and thousands 
of prisoners. The decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of Presbiu-g, signed 26 
Dec. 1805 ; see Prcshurg. 

AUSTIN FRIARS, see Augusiin Friars. 

AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of the world. This name originally given it by 
De Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Zealand, New Britain, 
New Caledonia, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were 
made by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the first accurate knowledge of these southern 
lands is due to the Dutch, who in 1605 explored a part of the coast of Panua or New Guinea. 
Torres, a Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear his name, between that island 
and Australia, and gave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. The Dutch continued 
their discoveries. Between 1642 and 1644, Tasman completed a discovery of a great part of 
the Australian coast, together with the island of Van Diemen's Land (also called Tasmania). 
Wm. Dampier, an Englishman, between 1684 and 1690, explored a part of the "W. and N. 
W. coasts. Between 1763 and 1766, Wallis and Carteret followed in the track of Dampier 
and added to his discoveries; and in 1770, Cook first made known the east coast of Austi'alia. 
Fm-neanx, in 1773, Bligh in 1789, Edwards in 1791, Bligh (asecond time) in 1792, Portlock 
same year, Brampton and Alt in 1 793, and Bass and Flinders explored the coasts and islands 
in 1798-9 and discovered Bass's Straits. Grant in 1800, and Flinders again (1801-5) com- 
pleted the survey. M'Culloch. 

AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the largest island and smallest continent ; esti- 
mated area about three million square miles, including five provinces — New South Wales, 
Victoria (formerly Port Phillip), South Australia, West Australia (or Swan River), and Queens- 
land {which see). Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 1863, about 1,366,956. 



Alleged discovery by Manoel Godinho de 
Heredia, a Portuguese 1601 

The Dutch also discover Australia . March, 1606 

The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators : 
north, by Zeachen, 1618 ; west, by Edels, 
1619 ; south, by Nuyts, 1627 ; north, by 
Carpenter 1627 

■Wm. Dampier explores the W. andN.W. coasts, 

1684-go 

Tasman coasts S. Australia .... 1642 

Ten-a AustraUs (Western Australia) named New 
Holland by order of the States-General . . 1665 

"WiUiam Dampier lands in Australia . Jan. 1686 

C'apt. Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others, land 
at Botany Bay, and name the country " New 
Soxith Wales" 28 AprU, 1770 

Governor PhiUip founds Sydney near Port Jack- 
son, with 1030 persons . . 26 Jan. 1788 

[The seventy-first anniversary of this event was 
kept with much festivity, 26 Jan. 1859.] 



Great distress in consequence of the loss of the 

ship " Guardian," captain Riou . . . 1790 
First church erected .... Aug. 1793 
Government gazette first printed . . . 1795 
Bass's straits discovered by Bass and FUnders 179S 

First brick church bxiilt 1S02 

Colony of Van Diemen's land (now Tasmania) 

established 1S03 

Fhnders surveys the coasts of Australia . 1S0T-5 
Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled . . 1804 
Govei-nor BUgh for his tyranny deposed and 

sent home 1808 

Superseded by governor Macquarie . . . 1809 
Expeditious into the interior by Wentworth, 

Lawson, Bloxland, Oxley, &c. . 1813, 1817, 1823 
Population, 29,783 (three fourths convicts) . . 1S21 
IPerf .<ii',s<?Yt?i(t formediuto a province . . 1829 
Legislative council established . . . . ,, 
Sturt's expeditions into South AustraUa 1828-1831 
<SowfA ^MS(raiia erected into a province . Aug. 1834 



* The aurora is now attributed by many philosophers to the passage of electric light through the 
rarefied air of the polar regions. In xVugust and September, 1859, when brilliant aurone were very 
frequent, the electric telegraph wires were serioxisly affected, and communications interrupted. Auroraj 
were seen at Borne and Basel, and also in Australia. 



AUS 



62 



AUS 



AUSTRALIA, continued. 

Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into E. Australia 1831-6 
First Roman Catholic Bishop (Folding) arrives, 

Sept. 1835 
Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . Nov. ,, 
First Church of England bishop of Australia 

(Broughton) arrives .... June, 1836 
Colony of South Australia founded . Dec. 1836 
Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to 

King George's Sound 1836-7 

Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 

Suspension of transportation 1839 

Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps ; Eyre 

explores west Australia 1840 

Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establish- 
ment of " Home for Female Emigi-ants" 1 841-6 
Census — 07,200 males; 43,700 females . . . 1841 
Very numerous insolvencies . . , 1841-2 
Incorporation of city of Sydney . . . . 1842 
Leichhardt's expedition (never returned) . 1844-5 
Sturt proceeds from South Australia to the 

middle of the continent 1845 

Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males; 

74,800 females 1846 

Great agitation against transportation, which 

had been revived by earl Grey . . . 1849 
Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 

Victoria 1850 

Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, &;c.* . .1851 
Census — males, 106,000 ; females, 81,000 (exclu- 
sive of Victoria, 80,000) ,, 

Mints established .... March, 1853 

Transportation ceased ,, 

Gregory's explorations of interior . . . 1856 
Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after 

about fifty yeai-s' residence . . . July, 1858 
Queensland made a province . . 4 Dec. 1859 
J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions . . . 1838-62 
Expedition into the interior uuder Mr. Lan- 

dells organised Aug. i860 

Eobert O'Hara Burke, Wm. John WHls, and 

others, stai't from Melbourne . . 20 Aug. ,, 
Burke, Wills, and two others, cross Australian 
continent to the gulf of Carpentaria; all 
perish on their return, except John King, 
who aiTives at Melbourne . . . Nov. 1861 
Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross 
Australia from sea to sea .... 1861-2 



Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public 
funeral 21 Jan. 1863 

Strong and general resistance throughout Aus- 
tralia to the reception of British convicts in 
West Australia . . . about June, 1864 

Cessation of transportation to AustraUa in 
three years announced amid much rejoicing, 

26 Jan. 1865 

Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer, 
surrounded and shot . . . April, „ 

Boundary disputes between New South Wales 
and Victoria, in Summer of 1864 ; settled 
amicably 19 April, ,, 

Total population of Australia, exclusive of 
natives, 1,298,667 Jan. 1866 

Meeting of ministers from the Australian co- 
lonies at Melbourne to arrange postal com- 
munication with Europe . . . March, 1867 

Exploration of South Australia ; capt. Cadell 
discovers mouth of the river Roper, and fine 
pastoral country, lat. 14 S. . . . Nov. „ 

GOVEENOES. 

Captain Arthur Phillip ■ 1788 

Captain Hunter 1795 

Captain Philip G. King iSoo 

Captain William Bligh 1806 

Colonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and successful 

administration) 1809 

General sir Thomas Brisbane 1821 

Sir Richard Bourke 1831 

Sir George Gipps 1838 

Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the 
Australian colonies, with a certain jurisdic- 
tion over the lieutenant-governors of Van 
Diemen's Land, Victoria, and South and 

Western Australia " 1846 

Sir WilUam T. Denison 1854 

Sir John Young, of New South Wales only . i860 
Earl of Belmore, appointed. . . Aug. 1867 

Acts for the government of Australia, 10 Geo. 
IV. c. 22, 14 May (1829), 6 & 7 WiU. IV. c. 68, 
13 Aug. (1836), 13 & 14 Vict. c. 59, 5 Aug. 
(1850). Act for regulating the sale of waste 
lands in the Australian colonies, 5 & 6 Vict. 
c. 36, 22 June (1842). 



AUSTRASIA, (Esterreicli (Eastern Kingdom), also called Metz, a French kingdom wliicli 
lasted from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the division of the territories of 
Clovis by his sons, 511, and ended by Carloman becoming a monk and surrendering his 
power to his brother Pepin, who thus became sole king of France, 747. 

AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steamship, sailed from Southampton for K'ew York 
4 Sept. 1858, with 528 persons on board. On 13 Sept. in lat. 45° N., long. 41° 30' "W., it 
caught fire through the carelessness of some one in burning some tar to fumigate the 
steerage. Only 67 persons were saved — upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque ; 
the rest by a Norwegian barque. A heartrending account was given in the Times, 11 Oct. 
1858, by Mr. Charles Brews, an English survivor. 



* Gold Discovery. — Mr. Edward Hargraves went to California in search of gold, and was struck with 
the similarity between the rocks and strata of California and those of his own district of Conobolas, some 
thirty miles west of Batliur.«it. On his return home, he examined the soil, and after one or two months' 
digging, found a quantity of gold, 12 Feb. 1851. He applied to the colonial government for a reward, 
which he readily obtained, with an ajjpointmentas commissioner of crown lands. The excitement became 
intense throughout the colony of New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and other places ; 
and in the first week of July, 1851, an aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Wellington mission, 
and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold among 
a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo Creek, 
fifty miles to the north of Bathurst, contained 112 lb. of pure gold, valued at4oooL The "Victoria nugget," 
a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo 
diggings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was also fo>md. From the gold fields of Mount 
Alexander and BaUarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 
105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; and the gold exported up to the same date represented 8,863,477^. sterling. In 
Nov. 1856, the "James Baines " and " Lightning" brought gold from Melbourne valued as i,2oo,oooJ. The 
"Welcome nugget" weighed 2019I ounces ; value, 8376^. los. rod. : found at Baker's Hill, Ballarat, 11 June, 
1858. Between May, 1851, and May 1861, gold to the value of 96,000,000^. had been brought to England 
from New South Wales and Victoria, 



AUS 



63 



AUS 



AUSTRIA, CEsterreich (Eastern Kingdom), anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia, 
was annexed to the Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun hy the Huns, Avars, &c., during 
the 5th and 6th centuries, and talvcn from them by Charlemagne, 791-796. He divided the 
government of the country, establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and Austria. Louis 
the German, son of Louis le D^bonnaire, about 817, subjugated Eadbod, margrave of 
Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter raised a civil war in Bavaria against the 
emperor Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of Austria were declared immediate 
princes of the empire. In 1156 the margraviate was made a hereditary duchy by the 
emperor Frederic I. ; and in 1453 it was raised to an archduchy by the emperor Frederic III. 
Eodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 1278 ; 
and from 1493 'to 1804 his descendants were emperors of Germany. On 11 Aug. 1804, the 
emperor Francis II. renounced the title of emperor of Germany, and became hereditary 
emperor of Austria. The condition of Austria is now gi'eatly improving under the en- 
lightened rule of the present emperor. The political constitution of the empire is based 
upon — I. The pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 1734, which declares the indivisibility of 
the empire and rules the order of succession. 2. The pragmatic sanction of Francis II., 
I Aug. 1804, when he became emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis Joseph, 
20 Oct. i860, whereby he imparted legislatiA'^e power to the provincial states and the council 
of the empire (Reichsrath). 4. The law of 26 Feb. 1S61, on the national representation. 
Self-government was granted to Hungary 17 Feb. 1867. Population of the empire* in Oct. 
1S57, 35,018,988 ; reduced to 32,530,002 by the loss of Venetia, &c. in 1866. 



Frederic II., the last male of the house of 
Bamberg, killed in battle with the Hunga- 
rians 15 June, 1246 

Disputed succession : the emperor Frederic II. 
sequestered the provinces, appointing Otto, 
count of Eberstein, governor in the name of 
the emperor ; they are seized by Ladislaus, 
margrave of Moravia, in right of his wife, 
Frederic's niece, Gertrude : he died childless 1247 

Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Ger- 
trude, and holds the provinces till his death 1250 

Ottocar(orPremislas,)of Bohemia, acquires the 
provinces 1254 

Compelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he makes 
war and recovers it, in consequence of a great 
victory 1260 

He inherits Carinthia, 1263 ; refuses to become 
emperor of Germany, 1272, and to render 
homage to Eodolph of Hapsbm-g, elected 
emperor 1273 

War against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled 
to cede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to 
Rodolph 1274 

The war renewed: Ottocar perishes in the 
battle of Marchfeld ... 26 Aug. 1278 

Albert I. assassinated by his nephew while 
attempting to enslave the Swiss . i May, 1308 



Successful revolt of the Swiss 



1307-9 



They totally defeat the Austrians under duke 
Leopold, at Morgarten . . .16 Nov. 

The Tyrol acquired 

The duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; 
which they resist with violence : he makes 
war on them, and is defeated and slain at 
Sempaoh July, 

Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary' 
and is elected emperor of Germany . 

The emperor Frederic HI. as head of the 
house of Hapsburg, creates the archduchy 
of Austi-ia with sovereign jjower . 6 Jan. 1453 

Austria divided between him and his relatives, 
1457 ; war ens\ies between them till . . . 

The low countries accrue to Austria by the 
marriage of Maximihan with the heiress of 
Bui-gundy ........ 

Also Spain, by the maniage of Philip I. of 
Austria, vyith the heiress of Ai-ragon and 
Castile 

Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under 
Ferdhiand I. . . . 



1363 



1437 



1463 



1496 
1526 



Austria harassed by Turkish invasions . 1529-45 

Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, 
Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, 
and their dependencies, abdicates (see Spain) 1556 

The destructive 30 years' war .... 1618-48 

Mantua ceded to the enaperor . . 3 Jan. 1708 

By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the 
duchy of Milan . . . .11 April, 

By treaty of Kastadt he acquires the Nether- 
lands 

Naples, (fee, added to bis dominions 15 Nov. 

Further additions on the east (Temeswar, &c.) 
by the peace of Passarowitz .... 

Naples and Sicily given wp to Spain . . . 

Death of Charles VI. , the last sovereign of the 
■male line of the house of Hapsburg; his 
daughter, Maria Theresa, becomes queen of 
Hungary . . . . . . ... 1740 

She is attacked by Prussia, France, Bavaria, 
and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 1741 

Francis, duke of Lorraine, who had married 
Maria Theresa in 1736, elected emperor 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle : Parma, <&c. ceded to 
Spain 

Galicia, &c., acquired from Poland . . . 

By the treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor 
gives uj) Lombardy (which see) and obtains 
Venice 15 Oct. 

Treaty of Luneville 

Francis II., emperor of Germany, becomes 
Francis I. of Austria : declared hereditary 
emperor of Austria . . . 11 Aug. 

His declaration against France . . s Aug. 

War : Napoleon successful, enters Vienna, 

14 Nov. ,, 

Au,strians and Russians defeated at Austerhtz, 

2 Dec. ,, 

By treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice 
and the Tyrol i Jan. 1806 

Vienna evacuated by the French . 12 Jan. „ 

Dissolution of the Germanic confederation, and 
formal abdication of the emperor . 6 Aug. 1S06 

The French again take Vienna . . 13 May, 1809 

But restore it at the peace . . .24 Oct. ,, 

Napoleon marries the archduchess JIaria 
Louisa, the daughter of the emperor, i April, 1810 

Congress at Vienna .... 2 Oct. 1814 

Treaty of Vienna 25 Feb. 1S15 

[Itahan provinces restored with additions — Lom- 
bardo-Venetinn kingdom established, 7 April.] 



1713 

1714 

1715 

1718 
1735 



• 1745 



1772 



1797 
iSoi 



1S05 



* The empire is now divided into two parts, separated by the river Leithe. The Cis-Leithan section 



AUS 



64 



AUS 



AUSTRIA, continued. 

Death of Francis 1 2 March, 

New treaty of commerce with England, 3 July, 

Insurrection at Vienna : flight of Metternich, 

13 March, 

Insurrection in Italy, see Milan, Venice, and 
Sardinia 18 March, 

Another insurrection at Vienna : the emperor 
flies to Inspruck . . . . 15-17 May, 

Archduke John ajjpointed vicar-general of the 
empire 29 May, 

A constituent assembly meet at Vienna, 22 July, 

Insurrection at Vienna: murder of Count 
Latour 6 Oct. 

Eevolution in Himgary and war, see Hungary, 

The emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, 
Francis-Joseph 2 Dec. 

Convention of Olmtltz ... 29 Nov. 

The emperor revokes the constitution of 
4 March, 1849 .... 31 Dec. 

Trial by jury abolished in the empire 15 Jan. 

Death of prince Schwartzenburg, prime minis- 
ter 4 April, 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by 
Libenyi, 18 Feb. ; who was executed, 28 Feb. 

Commercial treaty with Prussia . ig Feb. 

Austrians enter Danubian principalities Aug. 

Alliance with England and France relative to 
eastern question 2 Dec. 

Great reduction of the army . . 24 June, 

Degrading concordat with Rome . 18 Aug. 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 

12 July, 

Austrians quit the principalities . March, 

Austria remonstrates against the attacks of the 
free Sardinian press . . . .10 Feb. 

Firm reply of count Cavour . . 20 Feb. 

Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sar- 
dinia broken off in consequence, 23-30 March, 

Emperor and emi)ress visit Hungary . May, 

JDeath of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) 5 Jan. 

Excitement tliroughout Europe, caused by the 
address of the emperor Napoleon III. to the 
Austriaia ambassador : — "I regret that our 
relations with your government are not as 
good as formerly, but I beg of you to tell the 
emperor that my personal sentiments for 
him have not changed." . . i Jan. 

The emperor of Austria repUed in almost the 
same words on 4 Jan. 

Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess 
Clotilde of Sardinia ... 30 Jan. 

Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies 
in Italy ; and strongly fortifies the banks of 
the Ticino, the boundary of her Italian pro- 
vinces, and Sardinia . . Feb. & March, 

Lord Cowley at Vienna on a " mission of peace," 

27 Feb. 

Intervention of Russia — proposal for a con- 
gress ; disputes respecting the admission of 
Sardinia — Sardinia and France prepare for 
war Marcli & April, 

Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia 
and the dismissal of the volunteers from other 
states within three daj's . . 23 April, 

This demand rejected . . .26 April, 

The Austrians cross the Ticino . 26 April, 

The French troops enter Piedmont . 27 April, 

The French emperor declares war (to expel the 
Austrians from Italy) . . .3 May, 

Resignation of count Buol, foreign minister ; 
appointment of coimt Rechberg . 13-18 May, 

The Austrians defi ated at Montebello, 20 May; 
at Palestro, 30-31 May ; at Magenta, 4 June ; 
at Malegnano (SlaviMiiano) . . 8 Jiane 

Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been 
actively engaged in the wars and negotia- 
tions of Napoleon I.) . . . II J\ine, 

Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the 
Mincio) ; the emperors of Austria and France 
and king of Sardinia present . 24 June, 

Armistice agreed upon, 6 July ; the emperors 



183s 



1850 



i«5i 
i8s2 



1853 
1854 

185s 

1856 
1857 



meet, 11 July; the preliminaries of peace 
signed at Villa Franca [Lombardy given up 
to Sardinia, and an ItaUan confederation 
proposed to be formed] . . 12 July, 

Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the 
army, 12 July ; to the people . .15 July 

Patent issued, granting greatly increased privi- 
leges to the Protestants, — announced Sept. 

Conference between the envoys of Austria and 
France at Zurich . . .8 Aug. to Sept. 

Many national reforms proposed . . Sept. 

Treaty of Zurich, confirming the preliminaries 
of Villa Franca, signed . . . 10 Nov. 

Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, 

6, 10, Jan. 18 Feb. 

Patent issued for the summoning the great 

imperial council (Reichsrath), composed of 

representatives elected by the provincial diets 

5 March, 

Discovery of great corruption in the army 
financial arrangements, a deficiency of about 
i,7oo,oooL discovered ; general Eynatten 
commits suicide ; 82 persons arrested, March, 

Austria protests against the annexation of Tus- 
cany, &c., by the king of Sardinia . April, 

Baron Brlick, suspected of complicity in the 
army frauds, dismissed 20 April; commits 
suicide , 23 April, 

The Reichsrath assembles, 30 May ; addressed 
by the emperor .... i June, 

Liberty of the press further restrained . July, 

Unsettled state of Hungary (which see) July-Oct. 

Friendly meeting of the emperor and the regent 
of Prussia at Toplitz . . . 26 July, 

Free debates in the Reichsrath; strictures on 

the concordat, the finances, <&c. ; proposals 

for separate constitutions for the provinces, 

Aug. & Sept. 

The Reichsrath adjourned . . 29 Sept. 

Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legis- 
lative powers, the control of the finances, <fec., 
a manifesto issued to the populations of the 
empire (not well received) . . 20 Oct. 

Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of 
Russia and prince regent of Prussia at 
"Warsaw : no important result . 20-26 Oct. 

The government professes non-intervention in 

Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, 

Oct. & Nov. 

The empress goes to Madeira for health Nov. 

Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is repu- 
diated in Dec. 

Ministerial crisis : M. SchmerUng becomes 
minister — more political concessions, 13 Dec. 

The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at 
Dresden, is given up to Austria, which causes 
general indignation, about 20 Dec. ; he is 
released on parole . . . .31 Dec. 

Amnesty for political offences in Hvmgary, 
Croatia, <fcc. , published ... 7 Jan. 

Reactionary policy of the court leads to in- 
creased general disaffection . Jan. & Feb. 

The statutes of the new constitution for the 
Austrian monarchy published . 26 Feb. 

Civil and political rights granted to Protestants, 
throughout the empire, except in Hungary 
and Venice 8 April, 

Meeting of Reichsrath — no deputies present 
from Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania,Venetia, 
or Istria 29 April, 

Ministry of marine created . . . Jan. : 

Inimdation of the Danube, causing great 
distress 4 Feb. 

Increased taxation proposed . . March, 

At an imperial council, the emperor present, 
the principle of ministerial responsibility is 
resolved on 26 April, 

Deficiency of 1,400,000?. in financial statement 
— indignation of the Reichsrath . June, 

Amnesty to condemned political offenders in 
Hungary proclaimed . . . 18 Nov, 



1859 



AUS 



65 



AUS 



AUSTRIA, continued. 

Reduction in the army assented to ; and a per- 
sonal liberty law (resembling our habeas 
corpus act) passed .... Dec. 

Polish insurrection Jan. 

Meeting of the German sovereigns (except kings 
of Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the 
emperor of Austria, at Frankfort, by his 
invitation ; the draft of a reform of the fede- 
rate constitution agreed to . 16-31 Aug. 

The Transylvanian deputies accept the constitu- 
tion, and take their seats in the Reichsrath 

20 Oct. 

Gallicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of 

siege 29 Feb. 

(For events of the war with Denmark, see 
Denmark.) 

The emperor and the king of Prussia meet at 
Carlsbad 22 June, 

Resignation of count Rechberg, foreign minis- 
ter, succeeded by count MeusdorS-Pouillj', 
about 27 Oct. 

Peace with Denmark, signed . . 30 Oct. 

Emperor opens Reichsrath, 14 Nov. ; great 
freedom of debate ; the state of siege in 
Gallicia censured .... Dec. 

Austria supports the Confederation in the dis- 
pute respecting the duchies . . Dec. 

Apparent reunion between Austria and Prussia, 

Jan. 

Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction 
in the army by the chanabers . . Jan. 

Contest between the government and the 
chambers April, 

Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to 
Vienna, to pi'omote free trade . June, 

New ministry formed ; count Mensdorff as 
nominal premier ; counts Belcredi and 
Esterhazy as ministers : conciliatory mea- 
sures towards Hungary, proposed 27 July, 

Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed 

14 Aug. 

Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitu- 
tion, with the view of giving autonomy to 
Hungary (whick tee) ... 20 Sept. 

Rejoicings in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in 
Austria, Croatia, &c. . . . Nov., Dec, 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 

16 Dec. 

Warm disputes with Prussia, aggressive, re- 
specting the settlement of Holstein Jan. Mar. 

Preparations for war begin . . March, 

The archduke xMbrecht made commander of 
the southern army, 6 May ; Benedek of the 
northern 12 May, 

War declared by Prussia, 18 June ; by Italy 
(which S(e) . . . . . 20 June, 

The Austrians enter Silesia, 18 June; and the 
Prussians Bohemia ... 23 June, 

The Itahans defeated by the archduke Al- 
brecht, at Custozza ... 24 June 

Prussian victories at Naohod, &c. 27-29 June, 

Benedek totally defeated at Koniggratz or 

Sadowa 3 July, 

(For details of the war see Prussia and 
Italy.) 

The emperor cedes Venetia to the emperor 
Napoleon, and requests his intervention, 

4 July 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 

26 July, 

Treaty of peace with Prussia signed at Prague, 

23 Aug. 

Treaty of peace with Italy signed at Vienna, 
ceding Venetia, 3 Oct. ; the iron crown 
given up 11 Oct. 

The Quadrilateral and Venice surrendered to 
the Italians 11-19 Oct. 

Baron Ferdinand von Beust, late Saxon minis- 
ter of foreign affairs, made Austrian foreign 
minister 30 Oct. 

Meeting of the Reichsrath . , 19 Nov. 



1862 
1863 



1865 



Commercial treaty with France, to commence 
I Jan. 1S67, signed .... 11 Dec. i856 

Great dissension among the nationalities of the 
emijire Dec. „ 

Extraordinary diet conToked(for 25 Feb.) 3 Jan. 1867 

Establishment of autonomy for Hungary an- 
nounced ; resignation of Belcredi 4 Feb. ; 
Von Beust made president of the coiuicil 7 Feb. ,, 

Rescript restoring a separate ministry for 
Hungary, count Andrassy jsresident 17 Feb. ,, 

Death of archduke Stephen (palatine of Hun- 
gary in 1848) Feb. ,, 

Commercial treaty with Italy, signed 23 April, ., 

Reiohsratti opened at Vienna . . 20 May, ,, 

The Czechs (of Bohemia and Moravia\ Croats, 
Slavonians, Serbs, Roumans(of Transj Ivaiiia), 
and Russinians (of Gallicia), protest against 
absorption, and demand national legislative 
powers May & J\ily, ,, 

Painful death of the archduchess Matilda 
through burns .... 6 June, ,, 

The emperor and empress crowned king and 
queen of Hungary at Buda . . .8 June, ,, 

Von Beust made chancellor of the empire, 

23 June, „ 

The Sultan visits Vienna ; well-received 

27 July — I Aug. ,, 

The emperors of Austria and France meet at 
Salzburg 18-23 Aug. ,, 

AiTangements for the dividing the financial 
affairs of Austria and Hungary, signed, 1 3 Sept. , , 

Changes (respecting marriage and education) 
in the concordat, proposed . . Sept. ,, 

Letter from the emperor to cardinal Rausch, 
declaring for complete liberty of conscience 
in opposition to the concordat. The con- 
cordat almost annulled by the lower house, 

Oct. „ 

Emperor of Austria and king of Pi-ussia meet 
at Oss, in Bavaria . . . .21 Oct. ,, 

Emperor arrives at Paris, 23 Oct ; leaves 5 Nov. ,, 

Dualism accepted by the Reichsrath at Vienna, 

Nov. ,, 

New Austrian ministry constituted . 31 Dec. ,, 
(See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, <Ssc.) 

Margraves of Austria. 
Leopold I., 928; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; 
Leopold II., 1075 ; Leopold III., 1096; Albert II., 
1 1 36; Leopold IV., 1 1 36; Henry II., 11 42 (made a 
duke 1156). 

Dukes. 
1156. Henry II. 
1 1 77. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of 

England when returning incognito from 

the crusade, and sold him to the emperor 

Henry VI. 
1194. Frederic I., the catholic. 
1198. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. 
1230. Frederic II., the warlike. Killed in a battle 

with the Hungarians, 15 .June, 1246. 
InterregTium. 
1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph. Albert 

becomes emperor of Germany, 1298. 
1308. Frederic I. 

1330. Albert II. and Otho, his brother. 
1358. Rodolph. 
1365. Albert III. and Leopold II. or HI. (killed at 

Sempaoh). 
1395. William, and other brothers, and their cousin 

Albert IV. 
141 1. The same. The provinces divided into the 

duchies of Austria and Carinthia, and the 

county of Tyrol. 
1411. Albert V., duke of Austria; obtains Bohemia 

and Moi-avia ; elected king of Hungary and 

emperor, 1437 > dies, 1439 ; succeeded by 

his posthumous son 
1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 
1457. The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VT. 



AUS 66 AYD 



AUSTRIA, continued. 

1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederic III. (archduke), 
emperor ; see Germany. 

Emperors. 
1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), 

emperor of Austria only, 11 A\ig. 1804 ; 

died 2 March, 1835. 
1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 March ; abdicated in 



favour of his nephew, his brother Francis- 
Charles having renounced his rights. 

1848. Francis-Joseph, 2 Dec. 1S48, emperor of 
Austria, son of Francis-Charles [born 18 
Aug. 1830 ; married 24 Aisril, 1854, to Ehza- 
beth of Bavaria]. 

[Heir : their son, the archduke Rodolph, born 21 
Aug. 1858.] 



AUTHORS. For the law securing copyright, see Copyrights. 

AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term given to the punishment of a heretic, generally 
burning alive, inflicted b}' the Inquisition {ivJiich sec). 

AUTOMATON FIGURES (or Andkoides), made to imitate living actions, are of early 
invention. Arcliytas' flying dove was formed about 400 B.C. Friar Bacon is said to have 
made a brazen head which spoke, a.d. 1264. Albertus Magnus spent thirty years in making 
another. A coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a lady inside, were made by 
Camus for Louis XIV. when a child ; the horses and figures moved naturally, variously, 
and perfectly, 1649. Yaucanson, in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed every 
function of a real one, even an imperfect digestion — -eating, drinking, and quacking. He 
also made a flute-jdayer. The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a j)entagraph 
Avorked by a confederate out of sight. Tlie automaton chess-player, exhibited the same 
year, was also worked by a hidden person, and so was "the invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel 
made a trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an automaton was exhibited in 
London which pronounced several sentences with tolerable distinctness. In July, 1864, the 
"anthropoglosson," exhibited in St. James's-hall, London, seemed to utter songs. 

AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of producing a metal plate from drawings, made 
known by Mr. "Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it resembled Nature-printmg (whicii see). 

AUXERRE DEGLARATIOlSr, see France, May, 1866. 

AVA iu 1822 became the capital of the Burmese empire, it is said, for the third time. 
A British embassy was received here in Sept. 1855. 

AYARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, and annoyed the eastern empire in the 6tli 
and 7th centuries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an eight years' war. 

AYEBURY, or Abury ("Wiltshire). Here are the remains of the largest Celtic or 
Druidical work in this country. They have been surveyed by Aubrey, 1648 ; Dr. Stukeley, 
1720 ; and sir R. C. Hoare, iii 1812, and by others. Much information may by obtained from 
Stukeley's " Abury " (1743), and Hoare's "Ancient "Wiltshire" (1812-21). Many theories 
have been put forth, but the object of these remains is still unknown. Tliey are considered 
to have been set up during the " stone age," i.e., when the weapons and implements were 
mainly formed of that material. 

AVEIN, or AvAiNE (Luxemburg, Belgium). Here the French and Dutch defeated the 
Spaniards, 20 Ma}^, 1635. 

"^ YE MARIA .'" the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin {Luke i. 28), was 
made a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 1326. In the beginning of the I5t]i 
century Vincentius Ferrerius used it before his discourses. Bingham. 

AVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal 
seat was removed by Clement Y. to Avignon, in 1309. In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the 
sovereignty from Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. In 1408, the French, 
wearied of the schism, expelled Benedict XIII. , and Avignon ceased to be the seat of the 
papacy. Here were held nine councils (1080 — 1457). Avignon was seized and restored 
several times by the French kings; the last time restored 1773. It was claimed by the 
national assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the congress of sovereigns in 1815. 
In Oct. 1791, horrible massacres took place here ; see Poises, 1309-94. 

AXE, "WEDGE, LEVER, and various tools in common use, are said to have beeu 
invented by Deedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts 
and sails for ships, 1240 B.C. Many tools are represented on the Egyptian monuments. 

AXUM, a town in Abyssinia said to have been the capital of a kingdom whose people 
were converted to Christianity by Frumentius in the 4th century, and to have been allies of 
Justinian, 533. 

AYACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians finally achieved their independence by 
defeating the Spaniards, 9 Dec. 1824. 

AYDE, or Aide, the tax paid by the vassal to the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In 
France and England an aide was due fur knighting the king's eldest son. One was demanded 



AYL 67 BAB 

by Philip the Fair, 13 13. The aide due upon the birth of a prince, ordained by the statute 
of "Westminster (Edward I.) 1285, for the ease of the subject, was not to be levied until he 
was fifteen years of age. The aide, for the marriage of the king's eldest daughter could not 
be denial) ded in this countiy until her seventh year. In feudal tenures there Avas an aide 
for ransoming the chief lord ; so when our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emj)eror of 
Germany, an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was enforced upon every knight's fee. 

AYLESBURY", Buckinghamshire, was reduced bythe West Saxons in 571. St. O'Syth, 
beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. William the Conqueror invested 
his favourites with some of its lands, under the tenure of providing "straw for his bed- 
chambers ; three eels for his use in winter ; and in sumniei', straw, rushes, and two green 
geese thrice every year." Incorporated by charter in 1554. 

AYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the Britons were victorious over the Saxon 
invaders, 455, and Horsa was killed. 

AZINCOUR, see Agincoiort. 

AZOFF, Sea of, the Palus Mfeotis of the ancients, communicates by the strait of 
Yenikal^ (the Bosphorus Cimmerius) with the Black Sea, and is entirely surrounded by 
Russian territory ; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal places. An expedition com- 
posed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, arrived at 
Kertch, 24 May, 1855, wdien the Russians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On 
the 25th the allies marched upon Yenikale which also ottered no resistance. On the same 
evening the allied fleet entered the sea of Azoff', and in a few days completed their occupa- 
tion of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An immense amount of 
stores was destroyed by the Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of the allies. 

AZORES, or Western Isles (K Atlantic), belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of 
the ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered in the 15th century by "Vanderberg of 
Bruges, Avho was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabi'al, sent by the Portu- 
guese court, fell in with St. Mary's in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered ; and 
named Azores from the number of goshawks found on them. Thej' were given by Alfonso V. 
to the duchess of Burgundy in 1466 and colonised by Flemings. They were subject to Spain 
1580-1640. The isle Terceira, during the usurpation of don Miguel, declared for Donna 
Maria 1829 and she resided at the capital Angra, 1830-33. A volcano at St. George's 
destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 181 1 a volcano appeared near St. 
Michael's, in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep ; an island then formed, gra- 
dually disappeared. A destructive earthquake lasting 12 days happened in St. Michael's, 1591. 

AZOTE, the name given by French chemists to nitrogen {ivhicJi see). 

AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion (1519). In 
June 1853 two pretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. They were considered 
by professor Owen to be merely South American dwarfs. They were married in Loudon 
I April, 1 86 7. 

B. 

BAIL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoanician nations, frequently worshipped by the 
Israelites, especially by Ahab, 918 B.C. His priests and votaries were massacred by Jehu 
and his temple defiled, 884 B.C. 

BAALBEC, Heliopolis (both meaning "City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, 
of which magnificent ruins remain, visited by Wood (in 1751), and others. Its origin 
(referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. Here Septimius Severus built a temple to the sun, 
200. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. 

BABEL, Tower of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B.C. (Genesis, ch. xi.) The mag- 
nificent temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said to have had lofty 
spires, and many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this 
temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scriptures), who was 
deified after death. Blair. The Birs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and others, is 
considered by some persons to be the remains of the tower of Babel. 

BABEUF'S CONSPIRACY, see Agrarian Law. 

BABYLONIA,* an Asiatic empire (see Assyria), founded by Belus, supposed to be the 

*_The city of Babylon was at one time the most magnificent in the world. The Hanghif/ Gardens are 
described as having ijeen of a square form, and in terraces one above another until they rose as high as 
the walls of the city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. The whole pUe was sustained by 
vast arches raised on other arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely cemented together with plaster 
of bitumen, and that covered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of the garden, where there 

f2 



BAB 68 BAD 

Mmrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B.C. Lenglet. Ninus 
of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by 
uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 e.g. 2233 CI. The second empire of Babylon com- 
menced about 747 B. c. 

Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 

B.C. 2234 [2230, H. 2233, CI.'] 

Nabonassar governs 747 

Merodach Baladan king, 721 ; bis embassy to 
Hezekiah of Judah about 712 

Nebuebadnezzar invades Syria, 606; Judea, 
605 ; defeats Pbaraoh Kecho, and annihilates 
the Egyptian power in Asia . . . . 604 

He returns to Babylon with the spoUs of Jex-u- 
salem. Blair : Lenglet , . . . . „ 

Daniel interprets the king's dream of the gol- 
den-headed image. Daniel ii. . . . . 602 

Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jeru- 
salem, takes it and destroys the temple. 
Blaiv ; Usher 589 to 587 

The golden image set up, and Shadrach, 
Meshach, and Abed-nego thrown into the 



furnace for refusing to worship it. Daniel 

iii. B.C. S70 

Daniel interprets the king's second dream, and 

Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men. 

Daniel iv 569 

The king recovers bis reason and his throne, 

562 ; dies 561 

Evil Merodach, 561 ; Neriglissar, king . . . 559 
Labynetus, 556 ; Nabonadius, 551 ; Belshazzar 

king 539 

Babylon taken by the Modes and Persians, 

under Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain . . . 538 
Daniel thrown into the lion's den. Daniel vi. 537 
Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . 518 
Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here . . 323 

Seleucus Mcator, who died 280 B.C., transfers 

the seat of government to Seleucia, and 

Babylon is deserted. 

BABYNGTON'S CONSPIRACY, . to assassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of 
Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by 
Wm. Gilford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony Babyngton and others joined in 
the scheme. They wei'e betrayed by Pooley Aspy, and fourteen were executed, 20, 21 Sept. 
1586. Babyngton was deluded by a romantic hope that Mary would accept him as a husband. 

BACCHANALIA (games in honour of Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were brought into 
Greece by Melampos, and called Dionysia, about 141 5 B.C. Diodorus. In Eome the 
Bacchanalia -were suppressed, 186 B.C. The pi'iests of Bacchus were called Bacchanals. 

BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men ; and 
men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of 
old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various mai'ks of 
infamy and disgrace. Vossius. A tax laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five years of 
age (varying from 12I. 10s. for a duke, to is. for a common person), lasted from 1695 to 
1706. Bachelors were subjected to an extra tax on their male and female servants in 1785. 

BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game, about 
1224 B.C. It is said to have been invented in Wales before its conquest. Henry. 

BACTRIANA, a province in Asia, was subjugated by Cyrus and formed part of the 
Persian empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. About 254 B.C., Theodotus or 
Diodotus, a Greek, threw off the yoke of the Seleucidse, and became king. Eucratides 
reigned prosperously about 181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek kingdom 
appears to have been broken up by the irruption of the Scythians shortly after. 

BADAJOZ (S. W. Spain). An important barrier fortress, surrendered to the French, 
under Soult, 11 March, 181 1; was invested by the British, under lord Wellington on 16 
March, 1812, and stormed and taken on 6 April following. The French retreated in haste. 

BAUDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, near Bath, where Bede says the Britons 
defeated the Saxons in 493 ; others say in 511 or 520. 

BAUEN (S. W. Germany). The house of Baden is descended from Hei-man, regarded 
as the first margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of Zahringen; but Herman II. 
assumed the title, Feb. 1130. From Christopher, who died 1527, proceeded the branches 
Baden-Baden and Baden-Dourlach, united in 1771. Population of Baden, Dec. 1864, 
1,429,199 

Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great I Charles William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born 
general, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 1679, died 1746; succeeded by his son, 
defeated the Tui-ks, 1683; died 1707. | Charles Frederic, born 1728; margrave of Baden- 



were large trees, shrubs, and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. 'There were five of these gardens, 
each containing about four English acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. Slrcibo; Diodoru-i. 
Pliny said that in his time it was but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in 1811, and sir R. 
Kerr Porter in 1818. The laborious researches of Mr. Layard, sir H. Rawlinson, M. Botta, and others, and 
the interesting relics excavated and brought to this country between the years 1849 and 1855, have caused 
very much attention to be given to the history of Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or 
wedge-like character have been translated, prinoipaUy by col. (now sir Henry) Rawlinson, and published 
in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 1855, he returned to England, bringing with 
him many valuable relics, drawings, &c., which are now in the British Museum. He gave discourses on 
the subject at the Royal Institution, Loudon, in 1851, 1855, and 1865. 



BAD 69 BAK 



BADEN, continued. 

Dourlach, 1738 ; acquired Baden-Baden, 1771, 
made grand-duke by Napolenn, 1S06. 

Treaty of Badtn : — Landau ceded to France, 7 Sept. 
1714. 

Baden made a grand-duchy, with enlarged terri- 
tories, 1S06. 

A representative constitution granted by charter, 18 
Aug. 1 81 8. 

Eepublican agitation during 184S. 

Insurrection; joined by the free city Rastatt; the 
grand-duke 9ies, May, 1849. 

The Prussians enter Baden, 15 June ; defeat the 
insurgents commanded by Mierolawski ; Rastatt 
surrenders, 23 July ; the grand-duke re-enters 
Carlsruhe, 18 Aug. 1849. 

Arrests for political offences, 9 July, 1857. 

Concordat with the pope signed, 28 June, 1859. 

Greatly opposed by the chambers ; anrmlled by the 



III. and the prince regent of Prussia, and the 
German kings and princes, 16 June, i860. 

The new ecclesiasticil law (adopted by the chambers) 
promulgated, 16 Oct. i860. 

Opposition of the archbishop of Friburg and the 
clerical party, 1860-65. 

Disfjutes in the German diet ; the grand-duke vainly 
endeavours to obtain a reconciliation ; and re- 
mains neutral, June, 1866. 

Baden joins the Zollverein {loldch see), July, 1867. 

GKAND-DUKES. 

1806. Charles Frederic ; dies 1811 ; succeeded by his 

grandson, 
1811. Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue 

in 1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, 
1818. Louis William, died without issue in 1S30 ; 

succeeded by his brother, 



grand-duke by a manifesto, securing autonomy to I 1830. Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second 
the Catholic and Protestant churches ; signed 7 1 son (the first being imbecile), 

April, i860. i 1852. Frederic (born 9 Sept. 1826), regent 24 April, 

Interview at Baden-Baden of the emperor Napoleon 1852 ; declared grand-duke, 5 Sept. 1856. 

IHtir : his son Frederic WiUiam, born 9 July, 1857. j 

BAFFIN'S-BAY (N. America), discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, 1616. 
The extent of this discovery -was much doubted, until the expeditions of Eoss and Parry 
]iroved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry entered Lancaster 
Sound, and discovered the islands known by his name, in 1818 ; see North-Wcst Passage. 

BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkej^, built by AI Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen 
empire, about 762. — Taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. 
Often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great slaughter : the latter 
took it in 1638, and have held it since. 

BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Koman instrument. On a piece of ancient Grecian 
sculpture, now in Eome, a bagpiper is represented dressed like a modern highlander. Nero 
is said to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland regiments retain their pipers. 

BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San 
Salvador was seen by him on tbe night of the nth Oct. 1492. New Providence was settled 
by the English in 1629. They were expelled by the Spaniards, 1641 ; returned 1666 ; again 
expelled in 1703. The isles Avere formally ceded to the English in 1783. Popiilation in 1861, 
35,287; in 1867, about, 38,000. The 'Bahamas profited by blockade-running during the 
American civil war, 1862-5. Governor, "William Rawson, 1864. 

BAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a 
princely dominion, became subject to the English East India company in 1765 by the treaty 
of Allahabad for a quit-rent of about 300,000?. 

BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, 
till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3 Edward I. (1275) the power of bailing in 
treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away. Bail was further regulated in 
later reigns. It is now accepted in all cases, except felony ; and where a magistrate refuses 
bail, it may be granted by a judge. 

BAILIFF, or Sheeiff, said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire-rcve prior to 
the conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. Hen. 
Cornehill and Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriff's in London in 11 89. Stoto. 
Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the nanie 
was changed to sheriff" in 1548. There are still some places where the chief magistrate is 
called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bicm-bailiff is a corruption of bound- 
bailiff', every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good behaviour. 
JBlackslone. 

BAIRAM, or Beieam, Mahometan festivals. In 1865 the Little Bairam, following the 
fast of Ramadan (whicJi sec), fell on 28 Feb., i and 2 March ; in 186S, on 26, 27, 28 Jan. ; 
the Great Bairam in 1865, began on 10 May ; in 1868, on 10 April. 

BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufacture, was brought into England by some 
Flemish or Dutcli emigrants who settled at Colchester, in Essex, and had privileges granted 
them by parliament in 1660. The trade was under the control of a corporation called the 
governors of the Dutch baize-hall, who examined the cloth previous to sale. Anderson. 

BAKER AND Bakehouses ; see Bread. 

BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal society, originated in a bequest of looZ. by Hemy 



BAL 



70 



BAL 



Baker, F.R.S., tlie interest of which was to be given to one of the fellows, for a scientific 
discourse to be delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first lecture in 1765. Latterly 
it has been the custom to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one of the fellows. 
Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other eminent men have given the lecture. 

BALAKLAVA, a sinall town in the Crimea, with a fine harbour, 10 miles S.E. from 
Sebastopol. After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced upon this place, 26 Sept. 1854. 



Battle of Balahlava : — About 12,000 Russians, 
commanded by gen. Liprandi, attacked and 
took some redoubts in the vicinity, which 
had been entrusted to about 250 Turks. 
They next assaulted the English, by whom 
they were compelled to retire, mainly through 
the charge of the heavy cavalry, led by briga- 
dier Scarlett, under the orders of lord Lucan. 
After this, from an unfortunate misconcep- 
tion of lord Raglan's order, lord Lucan 
ordered lord Cardigan, with the light cavalry, 
to charge the Russian army, which had re- 
formed on its own ground with its artillery 
in front. This order was most gallantly 



obeyed, and great havoc was made on the 
enemy; but of 670 British horsemen, only 
198 retui-ned, (Termed by Tennyson "The 
Charge of the Six Hundred,") . . 28 Oct. 

A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to 
a desperate engagement here, in which the 
Russians were vigorously repulsed, with the 
loss of 2000 men kiUed and wounded ; the 
allies losing about 600 . . .22 March, 

The electric telegraph between Loudon and 
Balaklava completed . . . April, 

A railway between Balaklava and the trenches 
completed Jmae, 



i8s4 



1855 



BALANCE OP Poaver, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control 
the ambition of sovereigns ; a principle said to have been first laid down by the Italian 
politicians of the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIIL of France. Robertson. It 
was recognised by the treaty of Miinster, 24 Oct. 1648. The arrangements for the balance 
of power in Europe made in 1815, without the consent of the people of the countries con- 
cerned, have been greatly set aside since 1830. 

BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediterranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by 
the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the inhabitants at slinging : they include Majorca, 
Minorca, Ivica, Formentera, Cabrei'a, Conejera, and other islets. They were conquered by 
the Romans, 123 B.C. ; b}'- the Vandals, about 426 B.C., and formed part of Charlemagne's 
empire in a.d. 799. They were conquered by the Moors about 1005, and held by them till 
about 1280, when they were annexed by Arragon ; see Majorca a.nd Minorca. 

BAIiIZE, see Honduras. 

BALKAN, the ancient Hfemus, a range of mountains extending from the Adriatic to 
the Euxine. The passage, deemed impracticable, was completed by the Russians under 
Diebitsch, during the Russian and Turkish war, 26 July, 1829. An armistice was the 
consequence ; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, 14 Sept. following. 

BALLADS may be traced in the British history to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme, 
who died 709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads into England. "The 
harp was sent round, and those might sing who could." Bedc. Alfred sung ballads. 
Malmeshury. Cani\te composed one. Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of 
Edward IV. ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made panishable among rogues, 
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. Yiner. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may 
make the laws." Fletcher of Saltoun. The sea-ballads of Dibdin were very popular in the 
French war ; he died 20 Jan. 1833. 

BALLARAT, &&& Australia, 1851. 

BALLETS began through the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at 
the interview between our Henry VIIL and Francis I. of France in the field of the Cloth of 
Gold, at Ardres, 1520. Guicciardini. Ballets became popular in France, and Louis XIV. 
bore a part in one, 1664. They were introduced here with operas early in the i8th century. 

BALLINAMUCK, Longford. Here, on 8 Sept. 1798, the Irish rebels and their French 
auxiliaries were defeated and captured. 

BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of the construction of balloons was formed 
by Albert of Saxony, an Augustin monk in the 14th century, and adopted by a Portuguese 
Jesuit, Francesco Mendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is also attributed 
to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died in 1724. The theory of aeronautics includes : — 
I, the power of a balloon to rise in the air ; 2, the velocity of its ascent ; and 3, the 
stability of its suspension at any given height. The application of sails and rudders has 
been duly considered, and judged to be futile. + Fatal accidents to the voyagers have been 
estimated at 2 or 3 per cent. 

* " Astra Castra ; Experiments and Adventures in the Atmosphere; by Hatton Tumor," a copious 
work, appeared iii 1865. 

t Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, founded with the object of fostering ami developing aeronautics 
and aevologj% by the duke of Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir Charles Bright, and others, 12 Jan. 1866. 



BAL 



15A[, 



BALLOONS, continued. 

Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the 
air by means of a boat raised by four hollow 
balls made of thin oo^jper, from which the air 
had been exhausted 1670 

Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with 
the fine diffuse air of the upper regions of the 
atmosphere 1755 

Henry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas 
is ID'S times lighter than common air . . 1766 

And soon after Black of Edinburgh filled a bag- 
with hydrogen, which rose to the ceihng of 
the room 1767 

Cavallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen . 1782 

Joseph Montgolfier made a silken bag ascend 
with heated air (first. n're ballooa) . Nov. ,, 

Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and 
descend safely by means of a fire balloon at 
Annonay, for which they received many 
honours 5 June, 1783 

First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at 
Paris, by MM. Eobert and Charles, 27 Aug. ,, 

Joseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated 
with smoke of burnt straw and wool, 19 Sept. ,, 

First aerial voyage in a fire balloon — Pilatre de 
Kozier and the marquis d'Arlandes 21 Nov. ,, 

Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon 
to the height of 9770 feet . . i Dec. ,, 

Mr. Tytler ascended in a Montgolfier balloon at 
Edinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 

Ascents become numerous : Andreani, 25 Feb. ; 
Blanchard, 2 March ; Guyton-Morveau, the 
chemist, 25 April and 12 June ; Fleurant and 
Madame Thible (the first female aeronaut), 
28 June ; the duke of Chartres (Philip 
Egaht(l) 19 Sept. „ 

The first ascent in England, made by Lunardi 
at Moorfields, London ... 15 Sept. ,, 

Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover; cross 
the Channel ; alight near Calais . 7 Jan. 1785 

The first ascent in Ireland, from. Bauelagh 
gardens, Dubhn ig Jan. ,, 

Kozier and Romain killed in their descent near 
Boulogne ; the balloon took fire . 15 June ,, 

Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard, 

Aug. „ 

Gamerin's narrow escape when descending in 
one, in London 2 Sept. 1802 

Sadler, who made many previous expeditions 
in England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, 
but was taken up . . . .9 Oct. 1812 

Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at 
night ; the balloon, being surrounded by fire- 
works, took fire, and she was precipitated to 
the ground and killed . . . .6 July, 1819 

Mr. Charles Green's fii'st ascent . . 19 July, 1821 

Lieut. Harris killed in a balloon descent 25 May, 1S24 

Sadler, jun., killed, falling from a balloon, in . 1825 

The great Nassau balloon, which had for some 
time previously been exhibited to the inha- 
bitants of London in repeated ascents from 
Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on 
an experimental voyage, having three indi- 
viduals in the car, and after having been 
eighteen hours in the air descended at Weil- 
burg, in the duchy of Nassau . 7 Nov. 1S36 

Jlr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall to try his 
parachute ; in its descent from the balloon it 
collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, 

24 July, 1837 

An ItaUan aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
in Denmark ; his coi-pse was subsequently 
found on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, 
dashed to pieces .... 14 Sept. 1851 

Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. 
Louis (after travelling 1150 miles they de- 
scended in Jeflerson county. New York, 
nearly dead) 23 June, 1859 

Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when 
fully inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of 
gas ; the car, a cottage in wicker work, 
raised 35 soldiers at Paris ; Nadar hoped by 



means of screw to steer a balloon in ihe 
heavens ; his first ascent, with 14 persons, 
successful 4 Oct. 18G3 

His second ascent ; voyagers injured ; saved by 
presence of mind of M. Jules Godard ; descend 
at Nieuburg, Hanover ... 12 Oct. ,, 

Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham Nov. ,, 

Society for promoting aerial navigation formed 
at M. Nadar's at Paris ; president M. Barral, 

15 Jan. 1864 

Godard's great Montgolfier or fire balloon as- 
cends ... 28 July and 3 Aug. ,, 

Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon 
at Brussels 26 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new 
balloon; several persons are injured by the 
balloon becoming uncontrollable ; it escapes, 

3 July, 1S65 

Mr. Coxwell said to have made 550 successful 
ascents April, 1867 

An aerial screw machine (helicopteric) sug- 
gested, in Paris, 1863 ; described by Dr. J. 
Bell Pettigrew, in London, at the Royal 
Institution . . . . .22 March, ,, 

Mr. Hodsman crossed the Channel from Dubhn 
and descended in Westmoreland . 22 April, ,, 

MILITARY APPLICATIONS. 

Guyton Morveaux ascended twice during the 
b.ittle of Fleurua, and gave important infor- 
mation to Jourdain . . . .17 June, 1794 

Balloons were used during the battle of 
Solferino, 24 June, 1S59 ; O'lid ^7 the Federal 
army near Washington, in . . . July, 1861 

EQUESTEIAN A-SCENTS. 

Mr. Green affirms that he ascended from 
London, on a horse attached to a balloon, 
though few persons seem to be aware that 
the experiment was made . . May, 1828 

He did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very 
diminutive pony July, 1850 

Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent 
with a horse from the Hippodrome of Vin- 
cennes, near Bordeaux. On descending, and 
detaching the animal from the balloon, the 
people who held its ropes, from some miscon- 
ception, prematurely let them go, and the 
unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly borne in the 
air before he was quite ready to resume hia 
voyage. (He was discovered next morning 
dashed to pieces in a field a mile from where 
the balloon was found) ... 8 Sept. ,, 

The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremorne 
gardens, near London, as " Europa on a 
bull " (a feat she had often performed in 
France), and several ascents on horses, 
brought the parties concerned before the 
police-courts on a charge 1 if cruelty to animals, 
and put an end to exiscriments that outraged 
public feeling Aug. 1852 

M. Poitevin ascended on a horse in the vicinity 
of Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was 
nearly drowned in the sea, near Malaga, 
while descending from his baUoon in 1S58, 
and died soon after. 

SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS. 

Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, 23 Aug. ; Gay- 
Lussac (to the height of 22,977 *cet) 15 Sept. 1804 

Dixio and Barral at Paris (to the height of 
19,000 feet. They passed through a cloud 
9000 feet thick). 1850 

Mr. Welsh ascends, 17, 26 Aug. ; 21 Oct. and 

10 Nov. 1852 

Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
mended by the British Association and funds 
provided, Mr. James Glai.sher commenced 
his series of ascents, provided with suitable 
ajpparatus, in Mr. Coxwell's great balloon, at 



BAL 



72 



BAM 



BALLOONS, continued. 

"Wolverhainpton : he reached the height of 

5 miles 17 July, 1862 

He ascended to the height of ahout 7 miles at 
Wolverhampton ; at sf miles high he became 
insensible ; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his 
hands, but was able to open the valve with his 
teeth ; they thus descended in safety, 5 Sept. ,, 

He ascended at Newcastle during the meeting 
of the British Association. . . 31 Aug. 1863 

His i6th ascent ; surveys London . . 9 Oct. ,, 



His T7th ascent at Woolwich ; descends at Mr. 

Brandon's, Suffolk (ist winter ascent this 

century) ...... 12 Jan. 1864 

He ascends from Woolwich (24th time) 30 Dec. ,, 
His 25th ascent .... 27 Feb. 1865 

Other ascents, 2 Oct. 2 Dec. 1865 ; and in May, 1866 
(Mr. Glaisher has laid the result of his 

observations before the scientific world.) 
Nadar ascended in his "Geant" balloon at 

Paris 23 June, „ 



BALLOT (French hallotte, a little ball). Secret voting was practised by the ancient 
Greeks and Eomans, and the modern Venetians, and is now employed in France and in the 
United States of North America. The " Ballot Society " is very energetic. 
The ballot-box used in a political club at Miles's I The ballot adopted in Victoria, Aiistralia . . 1856 

coffee-house, Westminster .... 1659 I Seci-et voting existed in the chamber of deputies 
A tract entitled "The Benefit of the Ballot," in France from 1840 to 1845. It has been 

said to have been written by Andrew Marvell, employed since the coup d'etat in . Dec. 1851 

was puMished in the " State Tracts" . . 1693 The house of commons rejected the ballot — 257 
Proposed to be used in the election of members being against, and 189 for it . 30 June, 1851 

of parliament, in a pamphlet .... 1705 For several years it has been annu.ally proposed 
A bill authorising vote by ballot passed the by Mr. Henry Berkeley, and rejected (by 161 

commons, but rejected by the lords . . . 1710 to 112, 12 July, 1S67). 
The ballot has been an open question in whig 

governments since 1835 

BALL'S BLUFF, Virginia, on the banks of the Potomac, North America. On 21 Oct. 
1S61, by direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone the heroic col. Baker crossed the river 
to reconnoitre. He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with 
great loss. The disaster was attribnted to mismanagement, and in Feb. 1862, general Stone 
was arrested on suspicion of treason. 

BALLYNAHINCH (Ireland), where a sanguinary engagement took place between a 
large body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, under gen. Nugent, 13 June, 1798. 
A large part of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely. 

BALMOPtAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeenshire ; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 
1850.^ The estate was purchased for 32,000?. by prince Albert in 1852. In 1853 the present 
building, in the Scotch baronial style, Avas commenced, from designs by Mr. W. Smith of 
Aberdeen. 

BALTIC SEA, Ostsee or Eastern Sea, separates Sweden and the Danish Isles from 
Eussia, Prussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for commerce by treaty between Russia and 
Sweden 1759, and Denmark 1760. It is often partially frozen. Charles X. of Sweden, with 
an army, crossed the Belts in 1658, and the Russians passed from Finland to Sweden on the 
ice in 1809. 



EALTIO EXPEDITIONS. 

Against Denmark. See Armed Neutrality.— 1. 
Under lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Co- 
penhagen was bombarded, and twenty-eight 
sail of the Danish fleet taken or destroyed, 

2 April, 1801 

2. Under admiral Gambler and lord Cathcart, 
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen fi-igates, and 
thirty-one brigs and gunboats surrendered to 
the British 26 July, 1807 

Agaimt Russia. — 1. The British fleet, com- 
manded bj- sir Chai-les Napier, sailed from 
Spithead in presence of the queen, who led it 
out to sea in her yacht, the Fairy, 11 March, 1S54 

It arrived in Wingo Sound, 15 March; and in 
the Baltic 20 March, ,, 

The gulf of Finland blockaded . 12 April, ,, 

10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for 



the Baltic in English ships of war, in pre- 
sence of the emperor . . .15 July, 1854 

Capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland is- 
lands, and surrender of the garrison ; see 
Bomarsund . . . . . . 16 Aug. ,, 

Bngli.sh and French fleets return homeward to 
winter 15 Oct. ,, 

2nd expedition sailed . 20 March — 4 April, 1855 

It consisted of 85 English ships ('2oq8 guns), 
commanded by admiral R. S. Dundas, and 
16 French ships (408 guns), under admiral 
Pernand. 

Three vessels silenced the Russian batteries at 
Hogland island .... 21 July, ,, 

The fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many 
infernal machines * were discovered. Svea- 
borg was attacked (sec Sveaborg) . g Aug. ,, 

Shortly after the fleet returned to England. 



BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, United States, founded in 1729. On 12 Sept. 
1 8 14, the British army under col. Ross advanced against this j^lace. He was killed in a 
skirmish ;. and the command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked and roiited the 
American army, which lost 600 killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The i^rojected attack 
on the town was however abandoned. Alison. See Uniied States, 1861. 

BAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been founded by Saxons, in S04, and endowed with a 
church by Chai'lemagne. It was made a bishopric in 1007, and the bishop was a prince of 
the empire till the treaty of Luueville, 1801, when Bamberg was secularised. It was incor- 

* These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 
9 or 10 lb. of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphmic acid. Little damage was done by them. 
They were said to be the invention of the philosopher Jacobi. 



BAM 73 BAN 

porated with Bavaria in 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in mo, has been recently 
repaired. Bamberg was taken and pillaged by the Prussians in 1759. 

BAMBOPiOUGH, or Bamburg, Northumberland, according to the "Saxon Chronicle," 
was built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebbanburgh. The castle and estate, the 
property of the Forsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their taking part in the rebel- 
lion in 1715, were purchased by Isi athaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and bequeathed 
by him tor various cliaritable purposes. The valuable library was founded by the trustees 
in 1778. The books are lent to persons residing within 20 utiles of the castle. 

BAMPTON LECTURES (Theological), delivered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with 
a lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is paid out of the proceeds of an estate 
bequeatlied for the purpose by the rev. John Bampton, and the lectures are published. 
Among the more remarkable lectures were those by White (1784), Heber (1815), Whately 
(1822), Milman (1827), Hampden (1832), and JIansel (1858). 

BANBURY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The castle, erected by Alexander de Blois, 
bishop of Lincoln, 1125, has been frequently besieged. In 1646 it was taken by the parlia- 
mentarians and demolished. At Edgecote or Dancsmoue, near Banbury, Edward IV. 
defeated the Lancastrians under the earl of Pembroke, 26 July, 1469, and their leader and 
his brother were soon after taken prisoners and executed. Banbuiy cakes were renowned 
in the time of Ben Jonson, and Banbury Cross was destroyed by the Puritans. Cakes were 
jiresented to the queen at Banbury, 30 Nov. 1866. 

BAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS, see Gentlemm-at-Arms. 

BAND A ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, visited by the Portuguese in 1511, who settled 
on them, 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 1600. Rohun island was ceded to the 
English in 1616. The Bandas were taken by the latter in 1796 ; restored in 1801 ; retaken 
in 181 1 ; and restored in Aug. 1816. 

BANDA ORIENTAL (South America), a portion of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, one 
part of which, in 1828, was incorporated with Brazil, while another part became independent, 
as the republic of Uruguay. 

BANGALORE (S. India) was besieged by the British under lord Cornwallis, 6 March, 
and taken by storm, 21 March, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tippoo in 1792, wdien he 
destroyed the strong fort, deemed the bulwark of Mysore. 

BANGOR (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), Flintshire, the site of an ancient monastery, 
very populous, if it be true that 1200 monks were slain by Etlielfdd, king of the Angles, for 
praying for the Welsh in their conliict with him in 707. Tanner. 

BANGOR (N. Caernarvonshire). Its bishopric is of great antiquity, but its founder is 
unknown. The church is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. OwenGlendower 
greatly defaced the cathedral ; and the bishop Bulkeley alienated many of the lands, and 
even sold the bells of the church, 1553. The see is valued in the king's books at 131^. i6s. ^d. 
An order in council directing that the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph be united 011 the next 
vacancy in either, was issued in 1838 ; but rescinded in 1847. Present income, 4200^. 

BISHOPS OF BANGOR. I i8og. Henry 'William Majendie, died 9 July, 1830. 

1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asapb, 1806. 1830. Christopher Bethell, died 19 April, 1859. 

1806. John Eandolph, translated to London, 1S09. | 1S59. James Colquhoun Campbell. 

BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was occasioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, bishop of 
Bangor, preaching a sermon before George I., 31 March, 171 7, upon the text, '■^ My Icingdom 
is not of this world " (John xviii. 36), in which he demonstrated the spiritual nature of the 
church and kingdom of Christ. He thereby drew uj)on himself the indignation of almost all 
the clergy, who published hundreds of pamphlets. 

BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By 39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues 
were to be banished out of the realm, and to be liable to death if they returned ; see 
Transportation. 

BANK. The name is derived from hanco, a bench, erected in the mai'ket-place for the 
exchange of money. The lirst was established in Italy, S08, by the Lombard Jews, of 
whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The Mint 
in the Tower of London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I. 
laid his hands upon the money and destroyed the credit of the Mint in 1640. The traders 
were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, 
their apprentices frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented 
to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for 
their own valuable wares ; this became the origin of banking in England ; see BanJc of 
England; Savings Banks. 



BAN 



74 



BAN 



BANK, continued. 

Samubl Lamb, a London banker, recommended 
the Protector Cromwell to establish, a public 

bank 1656 and 1658 

Francis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank 

about 1663 ; he died . . . . 4 Oct. 1713 
Eun on the London bankers (said to be the first) 1667 
Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments 
to bankers out of the exchequer of raonies 
deposited there by them ; they lost ultimately 

3,321, 313^ . 2 Jan. 1672 

Hoare's bank began about 1680 

Bank of England established (see next article) . 1694 
Wood's bank at Gloucester, the oldest county 

bank, established 1716 

A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " 1 765 
Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; exe- 
cuted 30 Nov. 1824 

Act passed permitting estabhshment of joint- 
stock banks, lohich see 1826 

Rogers's bank robbed of nearly 50,000!. (bank 



notes afterwards returned) 

Bank of 

Venice formed . . . 1157 

Geneva 1345 

Barcelona .... 1401 

Genoa 1407 

Amsterdam .... 1607 

Hamburg 1619 



Rowland Stephenson, MP., banker and trea- 
surer of St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds ; 
defaulter to the amount of 200,000!. ; 70,000!. 
in exchequer bills ; (caused a great depression 
among bankers) 27 Dec. 

Establishment of joint-stock banks (see p. 75) . 

Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities 
unlawfully used); private banking much 
injured 11 June, 



1834 



Banks in 1855. 

Bank of England 

English private banks 

English joint-stock banks [lohich see) 



Banks in Scotland 
Banks in Ireland 



Notes alloiced to he issued. 

I 14,000,000 

ig6 4.999,444 

67 3>4i8,277 



264 



22,417,721 
3,087,209 
6,354.494 



24 Nov. 1844 

Bank of 

Rotterdam .... 1635 

Stockholm . . . . 1688 

England . . . .. 1694 

Scotland 1695 

Copenhagen. . . . 1736 

Berlin 1765 



290 31,859,424 

Bank of 
Caisse d'Escompte, France . 1776 

Ireland 1783 

St. Petersburg . . . 17S6 
In the East Indies . . . 1787 
In North America . . . 1791 
France * 1803 



BANK OF England was projected by "William Paterson, a Scotcli mercliant (see Darien), 
to meet the difficulty experienced by William III. in raising the supplies for the war against 
France. By the influence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 merchants subscribed 
500,000?. towards the sum of 1,200,000?. to be lent to the government at 8 per cent., in 
consideration of the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. The scheme was violently 
opposed in parliament, but the bill obtained the royal assent 25 April, 1694, and the charter 
was granted 27 July following, appointing sir John Houblon the first governor, and Michael 
Godfrey the first deputy governor. The bank commenced active operations on i Jan. 1695, 
at Grocers' hall, Poultry, + issuing notes for 20I. and upwards, and discounting bills for 4^ 
to 6 per cent. The charter was renewed in 1697, 170S, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1742, 1746, 1749, 
1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. Lawson. 



Run on the bank : its notes at 20 per cent, dis- 
count ; capital raised to 2,201,171!. los. Nov. 1696 
The bank monopoly established by the prohi- 
bition of any company exceeding six persons 
acting as bankers (Scotland not included in 

the act) 1708 

Capital raised to 5,559,995!. 10.? 1710 

Bank post bills issued (ist record) . 14 Dec. 1738 
Run for gold through rebellion in the North ; 
bank bills jiaid in silver; the city support 

the bank Sept. 1745 

Rd. Vaughan hanged for forging notes i May, 1758 

10!. notes issued 1759 

Gordon riots ; since then the bank has been 
protected by the military .... 1780 

5!. notes issued 1793 

Cash payments suspended, in conformity with 

an order in council .... 26 Feb. 1797 
i!. and 2!. notes issued .... March, ,, 
Bank restriction act passed . . 3 May, ,, 
Voluntary contribution of 200,000!. to the go- 
vernment 1798 

Loss by Aslett's Frauds (see Exchequer) 342,697!. 1S03 
Resignation of Abraham Newland, 50 years 

cashier. 18 Sept. 1807 

The bank issues silver tokens for 3s, and is. 6d. 

9 July, 1 81 1 
Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash 
payments July, 1819 



Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the 
mint price, i May, 1821 ; in the current coin 
of the realm i May, 

Great commercial panic — many i!. notes (acci- 
dentally found in a box) issued with naost 
beneficial effects .... Dec. 

The act for the establishment of joint-stock 
banks breaks up the monopoly . ... 

By the advice of the government, branch banks 
opened at Gloucester, ig July ; Manchester, 
21 Sept. ; Swansea, 23 Oct 

And at Birmingham, i Jan. ; Liverpool, 2 Jxily, 
Bristol, 12 July ; Leeds, 23 Aug. ; Exeter, 
17 Dec 

The bank loses 360, 000!. by Fauntleroy 's forgeries 

Statements of the bank affairs pubhshed 
quarterly 

Peel's bank charter act : renews charter till 
I Aug. 1855, and longer, if the debt due from 
the public to the bank (11,015,100!.), with in- 
terest, (fcc, be not paid after due notice; 
established the issue department ; requires 
weekly returns to be published ; limited the 
issue of notes to 14,000,000!., &c. . 19 July, 

Commercial panic : lord John Russell autho- 
rises relaxation of restriction of issuing 
notes (not acted on) ; bank discount 8 per 
cent 25 Oct. 



1825 
1826 



1827 
1830 

1833 



1847 



* Instituted by laws passed 14 April, 1803, and 22 April, 1806. The statutes were approved 16 Jan. 
1808. In 1810, Napoleon said that its duty was to provide money at all times at 4 per cent, interest. 

t The foundation of the building in Threadneedle-street was laid i Aug. 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy, 
governor, and the bank removed there 5 June, 1734 ; it was erected by G. Sampson, architect. Great addi- 
tions have been made from time to time by successive architects : sir Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and 
Mr. C. R. CockereU. It now occupies the site of the church, and nearly all the parish of St. Christopher- 
le-Stocks. The churchyard is now termed " the garden." 



BAN 



75 



BAN 



BANK OF England, continued. 

Bank clerks establish a library and fidelity 
guarantee fund .... March, 1850 

Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on dis- 
covery of gold in Australia;, 2i,845,3go(. 

10 July, 1852 

Branch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W. 
opened i Oct. 1856 

Committee on the bank acts appointed July, 1857 

Bank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmerston 
authorises addition to issue of notes [to the 
amount of 2,ooo,oooi. were issuedj 12 Nov. ,, 

Committee on the bank acts appointed, i Dec. 
1857 ; report recommending continuance of 
present state of things . . . i July, 1858 



Bank discount, 3 per cent. Feb. 1858 ; 6 per 
cent, (demand for gold in France), 15 Nov. 
i860 ; 7 percent. 7 Jan. ; 8 per. cent, (demand 
for money in France, India, and United 
States, &c.), 14 Feb. ; 3 per cent. 7 Nov. 1861 ; 
25 per cent. Jan. ; 3 per cent. April ; 25 per 
cent. July ; 2 per cent. 24 July ; 3 per cent. 
Oct.— Dec. 

Much alarm through the announcement of the 
bank solioitar that a quantity of bank i^aper 
had been stolen from the makers (forged 
notes soon appeared) . . .16 Aug. 

The culprits, soon detected, were tried and 
convicted (see Trials) . . . 7 — 12 Jan. 



Bank discount, 1863, raised to 4 per cent., Jan. 16 ; 

to 5, Jan. 28 ; reduced to 4, Feb. ; to 33- and 3, 

April ; raised to 4, May ; raised to 5, 6, in Nov. ; 

to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7, in Dec. 
Bank discount, 1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20 ; reduced 

to 7, Feb. 12 ; to 6, Feb. 25 ; raised to 7, Apz-il 16 ; 

to 8, Jlay 2 ; to 8, May 5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; 

to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June i5 ; raised to 7, July 25 ; 

to 8, Aug. 4 ; to 9, Sept. 5 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 10 ; 

to 7, Nov. 24. 
Bank discount, 1863, rcdiiced to 5.}, Jan. 12 ; to 5, 

Jan. 20 ; raised to sk, March 2 ; reduped to 4, March 

30 ; raised to 4J, May 4 ; reduced to 3.J, June i ; to 



1863 



3, June IS ; raised to 3^, July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3 ; to 
4i, Sept. 28 ; to s, Oct 2 ; to 6, Oct. 5 ; to 7, Oct. 7 ; 
{three times in one week) ; reduced, to 6, Nov. 23 ; 
raised to 7, Deo. 28. 
Bank discount, 1866, raised to 8, Jan. 4; reduced to 

7, Feb. 22 ; to 6, March 15 : raised to 7, May 3 ; to 

8, May 8 ; to 9, May 11 {panic — suspension of Bank 
Act authorised by Government) ; to 10 May 12 ; 
reduced to 8, Aug. 16 ; to 7, Aug. 23 ; to 6, Aug. 
30; to s, Sept. 6; to 4J, Sept. 27; to 4, Nov. 8; 
to 3s, Dec. 20. 

Bank discount, 1867, reduced to 3, Feb. 7 ; to 2J, May 
30 ; to 2, July 25. 



AVERAGE AMOtrXT OF BANK OF ENGL.IND NOTES IN CIRCULATION. 



1718 
1778 
1790 
1800 



£1,829,930 I 1810 . 

7,030,680 I 1815 

10,217,000 1820 . 

iS!450i000 I 1830 



, £23,904,000 

. 26,803,520 

27,174,000 

. 20,620,000 



183s. 
1840 
184s. 
1850 



. £18,215,220 
17,231,000 
19,262,327 

• 19.776,814 



1855- 

1857 

1859. 



,£19,616,627 
21,036,430 
22,705,780 



Deo. 27, 1856. 
Assets — Securities . . £29,484,000) p o 

Bullion. . . loiiosiooo) ^39,589,000 

Liabilities. ...... 36,329,000 

Balance £3,260,000 



Nov. II, 
-Securities 
Bulhon . 
Liabilities 



. {Time of Panic.) 
. £35,480,281) £ 650 g 
7,171,508) t ' :> '/ ^ 
39,286,433 

Balance £3,364,356 
Sept. 14, 1859. ^sseis. — Securities, 30,099,179?. Bullion, 17, 120,822?. Liabilities, 43,503,2x4?. Balance, 3,716,787? 



Feb. 14, 1 
Aug. 30, 1862. 
Aug. 9, 1865. 
Mar. 14, 1866. 
Sept. 26, 1866. 
June 19, 1867. 
March 5, 1868 



1694 
1708. 
1716 



29,095,172? 
30,106,295?. 
. 31,823,066?. 
29,415,059?. 
34,418,382?. 
31,849,662?. 
31,226,793?. 



11,571,332'- 
17,678,698?. 
14,223,390?. 
14,327,618?. 
16,929,262?. 
21,882,770?. 
21,136,192?. 



37.167,336?. 
44,453,778?. 
42,528,577?. 
39.934,150?. 
47,039.390?. 
50,612,342?. 
48,752,291?. 



PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 



£1,200,000 
2,175.027 
4,175,027 



1721 .... £9,100,000 I 1816 
1742 . . ... 10,700,000 1844. 
1746 .... 11,686,000 I 



3,499,168?. 
3,331,215?. 

3,517,879^- 
3,808,527?. 
4,108,254?. 
3,120,090?. 
3,610,694?. 



. £14,686,000 
11,0x5,100 



BANK OF IREL.4.ND. On 9 Dec. 1721, the Irish hou-se of commons rejected a bill for 
establishing a national bank. Important failures in Irish banks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 
1758 : this led gradually to the establishment of the bank of Ireland at St. Mary's abbey, 
Dublin, I June, 1783. The business was removed to the late parliament house, in College- 
green, in May, 1808. Branch banks of this establishment have been formed in most of the 
provincial towns in Ireland, all since 1828. Irish banking act passed, 21 July, 1845. 

BANKS OF Scotland. The old bank of Scotland was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, 
and began i Nov. , the second institution of the kind in the empire : lending money to the 
crown was prohibited. 



Royal bank chartered .... 8 July, 1727 
British Linen Company bank . . . . 1746 

Commercial bank i8io 

National bank 1825 

Union bank 18:10 



First stone of present bank of Scotland laid 

3 -Tune, i8or 
■Western bank of Scotland and the Glasgow- 
bank stopped, causing much distress . Nov. 1857 
Scotch banking act passed . . 21 July, 1S45 



BANK OF Savings, see Savings' Banks. 

BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 1826, a nimiber of these banks have been esta- 
blished. In 1840, the amount of paper currency issued by joint-stock banks amounted to 
4,138,618?. ; theamount in circulation by private banks, same year, was 6,973,613?. — the 



BAN 76 BAN 

total amount exceeding eleven millions.* In Ireland similar banks have been instituted, 
tlie first being the Hibernian' bank, in 1825. The note-circulation of joint-stock banks, on 
I Oct. 1855, was, in England, 3,990,800?. ; in Scotland, 4,280,000?. ; and in Ireland, 
6,785,000?. ; total, with English private banks, about 19,000,000?. : and with the bank of 
England, above 39,000,000?. 

Chief London Banks. Founded _ Chief London Banks. Founded 

London and Westminster 1834 

London Joint-Stock 1836 

Union Bank of London 1839 

Commercial Bank of London . . . . ,, 

Joint-Sl.och Banl-.t, Jan. i860 : — [ Ireland 8 

England and Wales (including London) . . . 94 British and foreign colonial banks -with offices 
Scotland 15 | in London 18 

BANKRUPT (signifying either bank or bench broken), a trader declared to be unable to 
pay his just debts. The laws on tlie subject (1543, 1571 ct seq.) Vi&XQ consolidated and 
amended in 1825, 1849, 1852, 1854, and 1861. 



London and County 18 

City Bank 18 

Bank of London 



Lord Chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt , Bethell), 24 & 25 Vict. c. 134, passed (1861) ; 

his certificate, because he had lost five pounds ! great changes made ; the court for relief of 

at one time in gaming . . 17 July, 17S8 i insolvent debtors abolished, and increased 

Enacted that members of the house of com- powers given to the commissioners in bank- 

mons becoming bankrupt, and not paying | ruptcy, <&c. ; the new orders issued . 12 Oct. 1861 



their debts in full, should vacate their seats 1812 
Present Bankruptcy Court erected by 2 Will. IV. 

c. 56 . . . . 1831 

Bills for reforming bankruptcy law were in 

vain brought before parliament . . 1859, i860 
Bill by the lord chancellor (formerly sir R. 



[This act has not given public satisfaction 
(1865.) ] 
Irish bank ruptcy laws consolidated in 1836, and 

further amended in 1857 

Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1856, 
and further amended in 1857 



NTJMBEll OF BANKllUPTS IN GREAT BPaXAIX AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 



1700. ... 38 

172s . . . . 416 

1750. . . .432 

1775 . . . . 520 



I33Q 


1830 


• 1467 


1857 England 


. 1488 


2000 


1840 . 


• 130S 


i860 ditto . 


. 1268 


I3S8 


1845 England 


. 1028 


1863 ditto 


. 8470 


2683 


1850 ditto 


. 1298 


1864 ditto 


. 7224 



1800 

I8I0 . 

1820 '. 
i825t. ' . 

In 1857 there were in Scotland, 453 ; Ireland, 73 ; in the United Kingdom, 2014 
i860 „ 445 ,, 113 ,, 1826 

BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was established 
in 1823 by sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative of the history, anti- 
quities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 volumes were issued : dissolved, i860. 

BANNERET, Knight, a dignity between baron and knight, anciently conferred by the 
king under the royal standard. Its origin is of uncertain time : Edmondson dates it 736 ; 
but it was probably created by Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara, 3 April, 1367. The dignity was 
conferred on John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at Edgehill light, 23 Oct. 1642. It 
fell into disuse, but was revived by Geo. III. for sir William Erskiiie, in 1764. 

BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or banners — 
Nitm. ii. (149 1 B.C.) The standard of Constantino bore the inscription, In hoc signo vinces — 
" By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure of the cross. See Cross. The magical 
banner of the Danes (said to have been a black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred 
when he defeated Hubba, 878. St. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma, 
or oriflamme, were the standards of France about iioo ; see Auriflamma, Standards, &c. 

* The Royal British Bank was established in 1849, by Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under 
sir R. Peel's joint-stock banking act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 113 (1844) ; as an attempt to introduce the Scotch 
banking system of cash credits into England. On 3 Sept. 1856, it stopped payment occasioning much 
distress and ruin to many small tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong evidence of the existence 
of fraud in the management of the bank, elicited during the examination before the court of bankruptcy, 
the government instructed the attorney-general to file ex-officio informations against the manager, Mr. H. 
Innes Cameron, and several of the directors. They were convicted 27 Feb. 1858, after 13 days' trial, and 
sentenced to various degrees of imprisonment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed (May, 1858) ; 
but all were released except Cameron and Esdaile, in July, 1858. In April, i860, dividends had been paid 
to the amount of 155. in the pound. The attorney-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent Trustees' 
Act, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 54, to prevent the recurrence of such transactions. — On 19 April, i860, a deficiency of 
263,0002. was discovered in the Union Bank of London. Mr. George PuUinger, a cashier, confessed himself 
guilty of forgery and fraud, and was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. — On 18 Feb. 1861, it was dis- 
covered that John Burden, a clerk of the Commerciai Bank of London, had robbed his employers of 67,000^., 
of which 46,000?. might be recovered. — In Dec. 1864, J. W. Terry and Thomas Burch, manager and secre- 
tary of the Unity Bank, were committed on a charge of conspiracy for fabricating accounts ; but acquitted 
on their trial. 

+ According to a return to parliament made at the close of Feb. 1826, there had become bankrupt in 
the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establish- 
ments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred 
merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was the period of bubble speculation, 
and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. 



BAN 77 BAR 

BANlSrOCKBUEN (Stirlingshire), the site of two hattles : (i) between Robert Bruce of 
Scotland and Edward II. of England, 24 June, 13 14. The army of Bruce consisted of 
30,000 ; that of Edward of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed 
a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, and 
were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete : the English king narrowly escaped, 
and 50,000 were killed or taken prisoners : (2) at Sauchieburn, near here, James II. was 
defeated and slain on 11 June, 1488, by his rebellious nobles. — ^A national monument was 
founded here, 24 June, 1861. 

BANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn proclamation of any kind : hence arose the 
present custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage ; said to have been intro- 
duced into the English church about 1200. The proper time of publishing banns in the 
church has been recently the subject of much discussion (1867). 

BANQUETING-HOUSE, Whitehall, London, built by Inigo Jones, about 1607. 

BANTAM (Java). Here a British factory was established by captain Lancaster, in 1603. 
The English and Danes were driven from their factories by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam 
surrendered to the British in 181 1, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in 1814. 

BANTINGISM, see Corjnclence. 

BANTRY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French fleet, bringing succour to the adherents of 
James II., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, i May, 1689 : the latter retired to 
form in line and were not pursued. A French squadron of seven sail of the line and two 
frigates, armed en flute, and seventeen transports, anchored here for a few da}'^s, without 
effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the Bantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell M'as in 
Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, 
at Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to death, of whom eleven were executed ; 
the others were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The executions took place on board 
the Majestic, Centaur, Formidable, Temeraire, and L'Achille, 8 to 18 Jan. 1802. 

BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into the church, practised by all Christian sects 
except Quakers. John the BaiJtist baptized Christ, 30. {Matt, iii.) Infant baptism is 
mentioned by Irenseus about 97. In the reign of Constantino, 319, baptisteries were built 
and baptism was performed by dipping the person all over. In the west sprinkling was 
adopted. Much controversy has arisen since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1850), in the 
church of England, respecting baptismal regeneration, which the Arches' Court of Canter- 
bury decided to be a doctrine of the church of England. See Trials, 1849, and note. 

BAPTISTS (see Ana.haptists). A sect distinguished by their opinions respecting (i) the 
proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : the former they affirm to be those who 
are able to make a profession of faith ; the latter to be total immersion. There are seven 
sections of Baptists — Arminian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &c. The first Baptist church 
formed in Loudon was in 1608. They published their confession of faith in 1689. In 185 1 
they had 130 chapels in London and 2789 (with sittings for 752,353 persons) in England and 
Wales. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. 

BAR {sur Aube), N. E. France. Here the French under Oudinot and Macdonald, were 
defeated by the allies, 27 Feb. 1814. 

BARBADOES, a West India Island, one of the windward isles discovered by the Portu- 
guese about 1600, taken possession of by the English 1605, and settled by sir Wm. Courteen 
1624, who founded Jamestown. As many royalists settled here, the island was taken by the 
parliamentarians in 1652. 



Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands 
of lives, and of immense property, by a hur- 
ricane 10 Aug. 1831 

Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera in . . 1854 
Property to the amount of about 300,000'. de- 
stroyed by a fire at Bridgetown . 14 Feb. i860 



A dreadful hurricane, more than 4000 inhabi- 
tants perished .... 10 Oct. 1780 

A large plantation with all its buildings de- 
stroyed, by the land removing from its ori- 
ginal site to another, and covering everything 
in its peregrination .... 17 Oct. 1784 

An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, j Great increase in growth of cotton, 18645 

May and Dec. 1796 Governor, James Walker 1861 

Bishopi-ic estabhshed 1824 | 

BARBARY, in N. Africa, considered to comprise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and 

Tripoli, with their dependencies. Piratical states (nominally subject to Turkey) were founded 

on the coast by Barbarossa, about 15 18. 

BARBERS existed at Rome in the 3rd century B.C. In England, formerly, the business 

of a surgeon was united to the barber's, and he was denominated a Barber- Surgeon. A 

London company was formed in 1308, and incorporated, 1462. This union was partially 

dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745. "No person using anj"- shaving or barbery in 

London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, except only drawing of 

teeth." 32 Hen. VIII. 1540. 



BAR 78 BAR 

BARCA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony of Gyrene. It was successively subju- 
gated by the Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the sultan Solyman combined 
Barca with the newly conquered pashalik of Tripoli. 

BARCELONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient maritime city, said to have been rebuilt by 
Hamilcar Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 B.C. "With the surrounding 
country it was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, and Franks, and, with the province of 
which it is the capital, was made an independent countiy about a.d. 864, and incorporated 
with Aragon, 1164, the last count becoming king. The city has suffered much by war. The 
siege by the French, in 1694, was relieved by the approach of the English fleet, commanded 
by admiral Russell ; but the city was taken bj' the earl of Peterborough in 1706. It was 
hombarded and taken by the duke of Berwick and the French in 1714, and was taken bj;- 
Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It revolted against the queen in 1841, and was 
bombarded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. 

BARCLAY, Captain, see Pedestrianism. 

BARDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of 
Valentinus, after refuting them, and added the denial of the incarnation, the resurrection, 
&c., about 175. 

BARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; and we find bards, according 
to Strabo, among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The Welsh bards formed an 
hereditary order, regulated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 1078. They lost tbeir 
privileges at the conquest by Edward I. in 1284. The institution was revived by the Tudor 
sovereigns ; and their Eisteddfodds (or meetings) have been and are frequently held ; at 
Swansea, Aug. 1863 ; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864 ; in the vale of Conway, 7 Aug. 1865 ; at 
Chester, 4 Sept. 1866 ; at Carmarthen, 3 Sept. 1867. The Gwyneddigion Society of Bards 
was founded in 1770. Turlogh O'Carolan, the last of the Irish bards, died in 1737. Chambers. 

BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. Cromwell, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 
122 persons, such as he thought he could manage, who with six from Scotland, and five from 
Ireland, met, as a parliament, 4 July, 1653. It obtained its appellation from a nickname 
given to one of its members, a leather-seller, named " Praise- God Barbon." The majority 
evinced much sense and spirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve the administration of 
the law, &c. The parliament was suddenly dissolved, 13 Dec. 1653, and Cromwell made 
Lord Protector. 

BAREILLY, province of Delhi (N. "W. India), ceded to the East India company by the 
ruler of Oude in 1801. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, was suppressed in April, 1816. 
On 7 Maj"-, 1858, it was taken from the cruel sepoy rebels. • 

BARFLEUR (N. France), where William, duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by 
which he conquered England, 1066. Near it, prince William, duke of Normandy, son of 
Henry I., in his passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked, 25 Nov. 1120.* Barfleur was 
destroyed by the English in the campaign in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. 
The French navy was destroyed near the cape by admiral Russell, after the victory of 
La Hogue, in 1692. 

BARI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, in the 9th century, a stronghold of the 
Saracens, and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. 
In the loth century it became subject to the eastern empire, and remained so till it was 
taken by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical council was held 
here on i Oct. 1098, when the filioque article of the creed and the procession of the Holy 
Spirit were the subjects of discussion. 

BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered by captain Penny in 1 850-1, and so named 
by him after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty in 1849. 

BARIUM (Greek, larys, heavy), a metal found abundantly as carbonate and sulphate. 
The oxide baryta was first recognised as an earth distinct from lime by Scheele, in 1774; 
and the metal was first obtained by Humphry Davy, in 1808. Watts. 

BARK, see Jesuits' Bark. 

BARLAAMITES, followers of Barlaam, a learned Calabrian monk of the order of 
St. Basil, who maintained various peculiar tenets, attacked the Greek monks, and supported 
the Latin against the Greek church in a controversy at Constantinople, 1337, and who acted 
as the emperor's envoy in an attempt to reconcile the churches in 1339. He died about 1348. 

BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, celebrated for virtue and courage, were 

* Witli him perished his bride, Matilda, daughter of Fulke, earl of Anjou ; the king's natural son, 
Richard ; his niece, Lucia ; the earl of Chester, and the flower of the nobility, with 140 officers and soldiers, 
and 50 sailors, most of the latter being intoxicated, which was the cause of their running upon the rocks. 
It is said that Henry never afterwards smiled. 



BAR 79 BAR 

massacred through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, about 802. His visir Giafai* 
■was a Barmecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) feast originated in the story of the 
barber's sixth brother, in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. 

BARNABITES, an order of monks, established in Milan about 1530, were much engaged 
in instructing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and converting heretics. 

BARNARD'S, Siii John', Act (7 Geo. II., c. 8), entitled, "an act to prevent the 
infamous practice of stock-jobbing," was passed in 1734, and repealed in i860. Sir John 
Barnard (born 1685, died 1764) was an eminent and patriotic lord mayor of London. 

BARNET, Hertfordshire. Here, at Gladsmore heath, Edward IV. gained a decisive 
victory over the Lancastrians, on Easter-daj'', 14 April, 1471, Avhen the earl of Warwick and 
his brother the marquis of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,000 men were slain. A column 
commemorative of this battle has been erected at the meeting of the St. Alban's and 
Hatfield roads. 

BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Elorentine, having discovered that water did not rise in 
a pumj) through what was supposed to be nature's abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the 
action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. Pascal's ex- 
periments (1646) enhanced the value of the discovery by applying it to the measurement 
of heiglits. "Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 : pendent barometers in 1695 ; 
marine in 1700, and many improvements have been since made. In the Aneroid barometer 
(from a, no, and neros, watery) no liquid is employed ; the atmospheric pressure being 
exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention (attributed to Conte, in 1798, but due to Vidi, 
who died in April, 1866), excited much attention in 1848-9. Barometers were placed at 
N.E. coast stations in i860, by the duke of Northumberland and others. 

BARON, formerly the only title in our peerage, now the lowest. Its original name in 
England, Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, and by the Normans into Baron. 
Many of this rank undoubtedly had assisted in, or been summoned to parliament (in 1205) ; 
but the first precept found is of no higher date than the 49 Hen. III. 1265. The first raised 
to tliis dignity by patent was John de Beauchamp, created baron of Kidderminster, by 
Richard II., 1387. The barons took arms against king John, and compelled him to sign 
the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of our forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, 
June, 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on his restoration, 1660. 

BARONETS, the first in rank among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- 
ditary, were instituted by James I. 161 1. The rebellion in Ulster seems to have given rise 
to this order, it having been required of a baronet, on his creation, to pay into the exchequer 
as much as would maintain " thirty soldiers three years at eightpence a day in the province 
of Ulster in Ireland." It was further required that a baronet should be a gentleman born, 
and have a clear estate of loooZ. per annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (whose 
successor is therefore styled Primus Baroiicttorum Anglice), 22 May, 161 1. The baronets of 
Ireland were created in 1619 ; the first being sir Francis Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia 
were created, 1625 ; sir Robert Gordon the first baronet. — All baronets created since the 
Irish union in 1801 are of the United Kingdom. 

BARONS' WAR, arose in consequence of the faithlessness of king Henry III. and the 
oppression of his favourites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of 
Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted 
statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to the 
decision of Louis IX. of France. War broke out, and on 14 May, 1264, the king's party 
were totally defeated at Lewes : and De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the kingdom. 
Through treacherj'' the war was renewed : and at the battle of Evesham, 4 Aug. 1265, De 
Montfort was slain, and the barons were defeated. They, however, did not render their final 
submission till 1268. A history of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw in 1844. 

BARRACKS (from '■'' Baraquc — Huttc que font les soldats en cavipagne 2Kur se mettre a 
convert,") were not numerous in these countries luitil about 1789. A superintendent-general 
■was appointed in 1793, since when commodious barracks have been built in the various 
garrison towns and central points of the empire. — A report, censuring the condition of many 
barracks, was presented to parliament in 1858 ; and great improvements were effected under 
the direction of Mr. Sydney, afterwards Lord Herbert ; see A Iderslwt. 

BARRICADES, moimds formed of trees and earth, and for military defence. During 
the wars of the League in France, in 1588, the people made barricades by means of chains, 
casks, &c., and compelled the royal troops to retire. During the war of the Fronde, a 
barricade was erected in Paris on 27 Aug. 164S. Barricades composed of overturned vehicles, 
&c., were erected in Paris in the insurrections of 27-30 July, 1830, and 23-26 June, 1848, 
when sanguinary conflicts took place. 



BAR 80 BAR 

BARRIER TREATY, by which the Low Countries were ceded to the emperor Charles VI., 
was signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, 15 Nov. 17 15. 

BARRISTERS are said to have been first appointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there 
is earlier mention of professional advocates in England. They are of various rank, as 
King's or Queen's Counsel, Serjeants, &c., which see. Students for the bar must keep a 
certain number of terms at the inns of court, previously to being called ; and by the 
regulations of 1853 must pass a public examination. Irish students must keep eight terms 
in England. 

BARROSA, or Bakossa (S. Spain), Avhere a battle was fought on 5 March, 181 1, between 
the British army, commanded by major-general sir Thomas Graham, afterwards lord 
Lynedoch, and the French under marshal Victor. After a long conflict, the British achieved 
one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular war. Although they fought at great 
disadvantage the British compelled the French to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead, six 
pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the British had taken ; the loss of the British 
was 1 169 men killed and wounded. 

BARROW ISLAND (K Arctic Sea), discovered by captain Penny in 1850-51, and named 
by him in honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John. 

BARROW-ON-FURNESS (Lancashire), in 1 847, was a village with a population of about 
330, which, in 1867, had increased to above 17,000, in consequence of the large manufacture 
of iron from the ore (haematite^ found there. On 19 Sept. 1867, new docks were opened in 
the presence of the dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch, Mr. Gladstone, and other eminent 
persons. 

BARROW'S STRAITS (N. Arctic Sea), explored by Edwd. Parry, as far as Melville 
island, lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, named after sir John Barrow, was 
entered on Aug. 2, 1819. The thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit. 

BARROWISTS, a name given to the Broivnists, which see. 

BARROWS, circular taounds found in Britain and other countries, were ancient 
sepulchres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrows near Stonehenge to be opened ; in 
them were found a number of curious remains of Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, 
and brooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov. 1808. Many barrows were opened, and 
interesting discoveries made in Yorkshire in 1866 and 1867, under the superintendence of 
the Rev. Wm. Greenwell. 

BARS in music appear in the madrigals of Bonini, 1607. Their common use in this 
country is attributed to Henry Lawes, about 1653. Eng. Cyc. 

BARTHOLOMEW FAIR. The charter was granted by Henry IL, 11 33, and was long 
held on ground which had been the site of tournaments and martyrdoms. The shows were 
discontinued in 1850, and the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 1855. In 1858 Mr. 
H. Morley published his "History of Bartholomew Fair," with, many illustrations; see 
Smithfield. 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., the Apostle, martyred 71. The festival (24 Aug. o.s., 3 Sept. 
N.s. ) is said to have been instituted 1 130. 



Monastery of St. Bartholomew (of Austin friars) 
founded by Ealiere, a minstrel of Henry II. 

about iioo 

The bospital founded by him . . about 1 123 

Refounded after the dissohition of monasteries 
(it then contained 100 beds, with i physician 
and 3 surgeons) 1544 

Incorpoi^ated 1546 



William Harvey, the physiologist, physician 

here 1609-43 

Earliest record of medical school . . . 1662 
Hospital rebuilt by subscription . . . . 1729. 

Medical college founded 1843. 

The hospital (since enlarged) contained 580 
beds, and relieved about 70,000 patients . . 1S61 



BARTHOLOMEW, ST. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew commenced at Paris on the 
night of the festival (according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, including 
women and children, were murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders from Charles 
IX., at the instigation of his mother, tlie queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis), 24 Aug. 
1572. The number of the victims is dilferently stated. La Pop^lion&re calculates the whole 
at 20,000 ; Adriani, De Serres, and De Tliou say 30,000 ; Davila states them at 40,000 ; and 
Perefixe makes the number 100,000. Above 500 persons of rank, and 10,000 of inferior 
condition, perished in Paris alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. Pope 
Gregory XIII. ordered a Te Deum to be performed, with other rejoicings. 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., a West 'indian Island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by 
the French in 1648 ; and has been several times taken and restored by the British. It was- 
ceded to Sweden by France in 1785. 

BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order expelled from Armenia, settled at Genoa 1307, 



BAR 81 BAS 

where is preserved in the Bavtholomite church the image which Christ is said to have sent 
to king Abgarus. The order Avas suppressed by Pope Innocent X. 1650. 

BARTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) was constructed by James Brindley, to carry 
tlie Bridgewater canal over the Irwell, whicli was done at a height of 39 feet above the river ; 
completed in 1761. 

BASHI-BAZOUKS, irregular Turkish troops, partially employed by the British in the 
Crimean war, 1854-6. 

BASIENTELLO (S. ISTaples). Here the army of Otho II. in an ambuscade, was nearly 
cut to pieces by the Greeks and Saracens on July 13, 982 ; the emperor barely escaped. 

BASILIANS, an order of monks, which obtained its name from St. Basil (who died 380) ; 
was reformed by pope Gregor}^ in 1569. — A sect, founded by Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, 
rejected the books of Closes, the eucharist, and baptism, and are said to have had everything 
in common, mo. Basil was burnt alive in 11 18. 

BASILICA, a body of law, in Greek, including the Institutes of Justinian, the Pandects, 
&c., arranged by order of the emperor Basil, the Macedonian, and his son Leo the Philosopher, 
875—911. 

BASILIKOlSr DOROH (Royal Gift), pre^pts on the art of government, composed by 
James I. of England for his son, and first published at Edinburgk in 1599. The collected 
works of this monarch were published at London, 1616-20, in one vol. fol. 

BASLE, a rich city in Switzerland. The i8th general council sat here from Dec. 143 1 
to Maj', 1443. Many important reforms in the church were proposed, but not carried 
into effect : among others the imion of the Greek and Roman churches. The university 
was founded in 1460. Treaties of peace between France, Spain, and Prussia were concluded 
here in 1795. 

BASQUE PROVINCES (N. W. Spain, Biscay, Gnipuscoa, and Alava). The Basques, 
considered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were termed Vascones by the Romans, 
whom they successfully resisted. They were subdued with great difficulty bj^ the Goths 
about 580 ; and were united to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. Their language, 
distinct from all others, is conjectured to be of Tartar origin. 

BASQUE ROADS (W. France). Four French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, 
were attacked by lords Gambier and Cochrane (the latter commanding the fireships), and 
all, with a great number of merchant and other vessels, were destroyed, 11, 12 April, 1809. 
Cochrane accused Gambier of neglecting to support him, and thereby allowing the French to 
escape. At a court-martial (July 26 — Aug. 4), lord Gambier was acquitted. 

BASSANO (N. Italy). Here the Austrians under "Wurmser, were defeated by the French 
under Massena, 8 Sept. 1796. 

BASSET, or Bassette, or Pour et Centre, a game at cards, said to have been invented by 
a noble "Venetian, in the 15th century ; introduced into France, 1674. 

BASSETERRE-ROADS, St. Christopher's, West Indies. Here the French admiral, the 
comte de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate attacks on the British ileet, 
commanded by sir Thomas Graves, 25, 26 Jan. 1782. 

BASSORAH, Basrah, or Bussorah (Asia Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph 
Omar, about 635. It has been several times taken and retaken by the Persians and Turks. 

BASS ROCK, an isle in the Frith of Forth (S. Scotland), was granted to the Landers, 
1316 ; purchased for a state prison, 1671 ; taken by the Jacobites, 1690; surrendered, 1694; 
granted to the Dalrymples, 1706. 

BASS'S STRAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, surgeon of the Reliance, in an open boat from 
Port Jackson, in 1797, penetrated as far as Western Port, and affirmed that a strait existed 
between New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Lieutenant Flinders circumnavigated 
Van Diemen's Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1799. 

BASTARD, a child not born in lawful wedlock. An attempt made in England, in 1236, 
to legitimate bastard children by the subsequent marriage of the parents, failed, and led to 
the answer to the barons assembled in the parliament of Merton : Nohimus leges AnrjUce mutari 
■ — "We will not have the laws of England changed." Women concealing their children's 
birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I., 1624. In Scotland bastard children could not 
dispose of their moveable estates by will until 1836. A new act, facilitating the claims of 
mothers, and making several proAasions for proceeding in bastardy cases, was passed 1845. 

BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles V., king of France, in 1369, for the defence 
of Paris against the English ; completed in 1383, and afterwards used as a state prison. 
Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris, during the war 
^ 1 587— 1594). On 14-15 July, 1789, it was pulled down by the populace ; the governor and 

G 



BAT 



BAT 



other officers seized, comlncted to the Place de Greve ; their hands and heads were cut off, 
and the heads carried on yiikes through the streets. — "The man with the iron mask," the 
most mysterious prisoner Icnown, died here, Nov. 19, 1703 ; see Iron Mash. 

BATALHA, PortugaL The monastery here was built by John I., of Portugal, as a token 
of gratitude for liis victory over John L, of Castile, at Aljubarrota, 14 Aug. 1385, securing 
the independence of his kingdom. The monastery has been in course of restoration since 
1839. 

BATAVIA AND Batavian Republic, see Holland. 

BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, built 
l)y that people about 1619. Taken from the French (who had seized it) ; and by sir Samuel 
Auchmuty, 26 Aug. 181 1 ; restored to the Dutch, in 1814. 

BATH (Somerset), Aqute solis, a favourite station of the Romans about 44 B.C., then 
remarkable for its hot springs. Coel, a British king, is said to have given this city a charter, 
and the Saxon king Edgar was crowned here, a.d. 973. 

Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of Wil- 

ham Rufus, and again in .... 1137 
The abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished 1609 
Present assembly-rooms built . . . . 1771 

Pump-room erected 1797 

Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . . 1805 

BATH and wells, Bishopuic of. The see of Wells, whose cathedral church was 
built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was established in 909. The see of Bath was 
established in 1078. John de Villula, the sixteenth bishop, having purchased the city of 
Bath for 500 marks of Henry I. , transferred his seat from Wells to Bath in 1088. Disputes 
between the monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the election of a bi-shop, were 
compromised in 1135. Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both places ; the 
precedenc}'- to be given to Bath. The see is valued in the king's books at 531^. is. '^d. per 
annum. Present income, 5000^. 



Bath philosophical society formed . . . 1S17 
Victoria park opened by princess Victoria . . 1S30 

.Theatre burnt 18 April, 1862 

British association met here . . 14 Sept. 1864 
Museum destroyed by fire . . .20 Jan. 1867 



1845. Kichard Bagot, died . . .5 May, 1854 
1854. Robert John, baron Auckland (present bishop.) 



BislMps of Bath and Wells. 
1802. Richard Beadon, died . . 21 April, 1824 
1824. George Henry Law, died . . 22 Sept. 1845 

BATH ADMHSriSTRATION". Mr. Pelham and his friends having tendered their resig- 
nation to king George II., 10 Feb. 1746, the formation of a new ministry was imdertaken 
by William Pulteney, earl of Bath ; which expired on 12 Feb., while yet incomplete, and 
received the name of the " Short-lived" administration. The members of it were : the earl 
of Bath, first lord of the treasury ; lord Carlisle, lord privy seal ; loixl Winchelsea, first lord 
of the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the secretaries of state, with the seals of the 
other in his pocket, " to be given to whom he might choose." Mr. Pelham and his colleagues 
returned to power. Cox's Life of Pelham. 

BATH, Oedep. of the, said to be of early origin, but formally constituted 11 Oct., 1399, 
by Henry IV., two days ]irevious to his coronation in the- Tower ; he conferred the order 
upon forty-six esquires, who had watched the night before, and had bathed. After the 
coronation of Charles II. the order was neglected until 18 May, 1725, when it was revived 
by George I., who fixed the number of knights at 37. 

The prince regent enlarged the order, forming 

classes of knights grand crosses (72), knights 

commanders (180), with an unlimited number 

of companions .... 2 Jan. 1815 

By an order, the existing statutes of this order 



were annulled ; and by new statutes, the 
order, hitherto exclusively military, was 
opened to civilians ... 25 May, 1847 
Dr. Lj'on Playfair and other promoters of the 
Great Exhibition received this honour . . 1851 

Civil. 



Constitution. 31ilitary. 

jst Class. Knights grand cross, 50 25 

zdd Class. Knights commanders, 100 50 

3rd Class. Companions, 525 200 

BATHS were long used in Greece, and introduced by Agrippa into Rome. The thermse 
of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) 
were sumptuous. The marble group of Laocoon was found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, 
erected about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla, erected, 211 ; see £ath. 



BATHS IN LONDON. 

In London, St. Agnes Le Clere, in Old-street- 
road, was a spring of great antiquity ; baths 
said to have been formed in 1502. 

St. Chad's-well, Gray's-inn-road, derives its 
name from St. Chad, the fifth bishop of Lich- 
field 



667 



A bath opened in Baafnio-court, now Bath-street, 
Newgate-street, London, is said to have been 
the first bath in England for hot bathing . 1679 
Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . . 1697 
Peerless (Perilous; Pool. Baldwin-street, City- 
road, mentioned by Stow (died 1605); en- 
closed as a bathing place 1743 



BAT 



S3 



BAT 



BATHS, continued. 

Ti'vJdsJi sweating laths very popular in 
The Oriental baths in Victoria-street, 
minster, were completed in . . . . 

PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 

The first established by 5tr. Bowie in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Loudon docks . . . . 

The public baths and wash-houses in Liverpool 
were founded, in 1844, through the instru- 
mentality of Catherine Wilkinson, who in 
1S32 began to lend her room and appliances 
to poor people for washing. 



. i860 Acts were passed to encourage the establish- 
West- I ment of public baths and wash-houses, " for 
1862 the health, comfort, and welfare of the in- 
habitants of pop\ilous towns and districts," 

in England and Ireland 

In the quarter ending Sept. 1854, 537,34s 
bathers availed themselves of the baths in 
London, and in this period there were 85,260 
washers 
Public baths and wash-houses have since been 
established throughout the empire. 



BATON, a trunclieon borne by generals in the French armj^ and afterwards by the 
marshals of other nations. Henry ill. of France, before he ascended the throne, was made 
generalissimo of the army of his brother Charles IX., and received the baton as the mark of 
the high command, 1569. Henault. 

BATON KOUGE, Louisiana, United States, was captured by the Federals, 5 Aug. 1862, 
after a fierce conflict ; see United States, 1862. 

BATTERIES along the coasts were constructed by Henry YIII. (who reigned 1509-47). 
The ten floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, in the siege of that fortress, 
were invented by D'Arcon, a French engineer. They resisted the heavj' shells and 32-pound 
shot, but ultimately yielded to red-hot shot, 13 Sept. 1782 ; see Gibraltar. 

BATTERIISTG-EAM, Teslvdo Arietaria, with other military implements, are said to have 
been invented by Artemou, a Lacedsemonian, and employed by Pericles, about 441 B.C. Sir 
Christopher Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's 
church, previously to rebuilding the edifice in 1675. 

BATTERSEA PARK originated in an act of parliament passed in 1846, which empowered 
her majesty's commissioners of woods to form a royal park in Battersea-fields. Acts to 
enlarge the powers of the commissioners were passed in 1848, 1851, and 1853. The park 
and the new bridge connecting it with Chelsea were opened in A-in-il, 1858. 

BATTLE- ABBEY, Sussex, founded by William L, 1067, on the plain where the battle 
of Hastings was fought, 14 Oct. 1066. It was dedicated to St. Martin, and given to Bene- 
dictine monks, who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The original name of the plain 
was Heth eland ; see Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was taken of William's 
chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-eoll ; and among these chiefs the lands 
and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed. 

BATTLE, Wager of, a trial by combat formerly allowed by oui- laws, where the 
defendant in an appeal of murder might fight wirli the appellant, and make proof thereby 
of his guilt or innocence ; see Appeal. 

BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celts. The Irish were constantly armed vni\\ an axe. 
Burns. At the battle of Bannockburn king Robert Bruce clove an English champion down 
to the chine at one blow with a battle-axe, 13 14. Hume. The battle-axe guards, or beaufe- 
tiers, vulgarly called beef-eaters, and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first raised 
by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally attendants upon the king's bufl"et ; see Yeoman 
of the Guard. 

BATTLEFIELD, Battle of, see Shrewsbury/. 

BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is said to have been the first who ranged an army in a 
regular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier's vigilance by 
giving him a watchword. Lenglet. See Naval Battles, British. The following are , the 
most memorable battles, arranged in chronological order ; further details of the gi'eater part 
being given in separate articles ; n. signifies naval. * 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

Abraham defeats kings of Canaan {Gen. xiv.) . 1913 

Joshua subdues five kings of Canaan (Josh. x.). 1451 

Gideon defeats the Midianites (Judges vii.) . 1245 

Trojan war commenced 1193 

Troy taken and destroyed 1184 

Jephtliah defeats Ammonites . . . . 1143 



Ethiopians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv.) 

Horatii vanquish Curiatii 

Halys (Medes and Lydians, stopped by eclipse) . 
Thymbra (Cyrus defeats Crogsus) .... 
Marathon (Greeks defeat Persians) . 28 Sept. 
Thermopylas (Im-oism of Leonidas) . 7-9 Aug. 
Salamis n. (Greeks defeat Persians) . . 20 Oct. 



941 
669 
585 
548 
490 
480 



World 

Marathon 
Syracuse 
Arbela 
^letaurus 



The following are the battles described by Professor Creasy in his "Fifteen Decisive Battles of the 



B.C. 




4qo 


Teutoberg 


413 


Chalons 


331 


Tours 


207 


Hastings 



A.D. 




A.D. 




P 


Orleans . 


• 1429 


Saratoga 


4'5i 


Spanish Armada 


. 1588 


Valmy . 


732 


Blenheim . 


• 1704 


Waterloo 


1066 


Pultowa . 


• 1709 





A.D. 

1777 
1792 
181 = 



G 2 



BAT 



84 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 



22 Sept, 
22 Sept, 



4S6 
447 
437 
422 
418 
413 
410 
406 
405 
401 
395 
394 

390 
381 
379 
376 or 377 

37J: 
367 
364 
362 
358 
339 
338 
335 

22 May, 334 
Oct. 333 
I Oct. 331 
326 
322 
321 
312 

3" 
310 



B.C. 
479 



Mycale (Greeks defeat Persians) . 
Plataja (ditto : Fausanias) 
Eurymedon n. (ditto : Cimon) 
CEnophyta (Athenians defeat Boeotians) . 
Coronea (Bceotians defeat Athenians) . 
Romans totally defeat Veientes 
Torone (Clean killed : Athenians defeat SjMrtans) 
Mantinea (Spartans defeat Athenians) . 
Athenians defeated before Syracuse 
Cyzicus n. (Alcibiades difeats Spartans) 
Arginusse (Conon defeats Spartans) 
jEgospotamos n. (Athenian fleet destroyed) 
Cunaxa (Cyrus defeated and killed by Artaxerxes] 
Haliartus (Lysander killed) . 
'Cnidus n. (Conon defeats Spartans) 
Coronea (Argesilaus defeats Athenians and allies) 
Allia (Brennus and the Gauls defeat Romans) 
Volsci defeated by Camillus . 
Volsci defeat the Romans .... 
Naxus (Chahrias defeats Lacedaemonians) 
Leuctra (Thebans defeat Spartans) . 
Camillus defeats the Gauls 
Cynocepha'as (Thebans defeat Thessalians) 
'Ma.ntmea, (Thebans victors : Epaminondas slain 
Tamynee (2Eschines thtre) .... 
Crimesus (Timnleon defeats Carthaginians) ' . 
Chseronea (Philip defeats Athenians, &c.) . 
Thebes destroyed by Alexander . 
Granicus (Alexander defeats Daritis) 

Issus {ditto) 

Arbela (Alexander defeats Darius) 
Pandosia (Alexander of E-pirus defeated) 
Cranon (Antipater defeats Greehi) . 
Caudine Porks (Roman army captured) 
Gaza (Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) 
Ecnomus (Carthaginians defeat Agathocles) 
Fabius defeats the Tuscans . 
Himera (Gelon defeats Agathocles) 
Ipsus (Selevcus difeats Antigonus, who is slain 
Sentinum (Romans defeat Samnites) 
Pandosia [Pyrrhus defeats Romans) 

Ascuhim (ditto) 

Beneventum (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) 

First Punic War 

Myla; n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) 

Xantippus defeats Regulus . 

Panormus (Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) . 

Drepanum n. (Carthaginians defeat Romans) 

.Agates n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians), . 

Ladocea (Acheans defeated) 

Clusium (Gauls defeated) .... 

Sellasia (Macedonians defeat S^Mrtans) . 

Caphyaj (Acliceans defeat JEtolians) 

Ss^gnntum (ta/ce7i by Hannibal) 

Second Punic War. — Ticinus (Hannibal defeats 

Romans) 

Trebia (ditto) „ 

Thrasymenes (ditto) 217 

Raphia (Antiochus defeated by Ptol. Philopater) . ,, 
C3,nnse (Victory of Hannibal) . . . 2 Aug. 216 
Scipio defeats Hasdrnbal in Spain . . . 215 

Marcellus and Hannibal (former killed) . . 209 
Metaurus (Nero defeats Asdrubal, who is killed) . 207 
Zama (Scipio defeats Hannibal) . . . . 202 

Abydos (siege of) 200 

Paneas (Antiochus defeats Egyptians, cfcc.) . . 198 
Cynooephalse (Romans defeat Macedonians) . 197 
Ma.gnesia, (Scipio defeaJs Antiochus) . . . 190 
Pydna (Romans defeat Perseus) . . 22 June, 168 
Eleasa (Judas Maccabceus killed) . . . . i6j 
Puuic War (the Ihird) . . i . . . -149 
Carthage taken by Publius Scipio . . . . 146 

Mummius takes Corinth „ 

Metellus defeats Jug\irtha 109 

Arausio (Cimbri defeat Romans) . . . . 105 
Aquse Se.xtiaj (Aix ; Marius defeats the Teutones) 102 
Cimbri and Romans (defeated by Marius) . . loi 
Chseronea (S/dla dfeats Mithridates' army) . 86 

Marius defeated by Sylla 82 

Cabeira (Lucullus defeats Mithridates) . . .71 



301 
295 
280 
279 
275 
264 
260 
25s 
250 

249 
241 
226 
22s 
222 
220 
219 

218 



Tigrnnocertvi, (Lucullus defeats Tigranes) B.C. 69 

Pistoria (Catiline defeated) 62 

Caisar defeats Cassivclaunus 54 

Carrhaj (Crassus defeated by Parthians) 9 June, 53 
Pharsalia (Cccsar defeats Pompey) . 9 Aug, 48 

Zela (Ccesar defeats Pharnaces ; writes, " Veni, 

vidi, vici ") 47 

Thapsus (Ccesar defeats Pompey's friends) . 

Munda (ditto) 17 March, 

PhiUppi (Brutus and Oassius defeated) 
Agrippa defeats Pompey the Younger . 
Actium n. (Octavius defeats Antony) . 2 Sept 



Teutoberg ( Varus defeated by Hennan) .. 
Drusus defeats Germans . . . . 

Shropshire (Caractacus taken) .... 

Suubury (Romans defeat Boadicca) 
Jerusalem taken ...... 

Agricola conquers Mona .... 

Ardoch (He defeats Galgacus and Caledonians) 
Dacians defeated and Decebalaus slain . 

Issus (Niger slain) 

Lyons (Severus defeats Albinun) 

Naissus (Claudius defeats Goths, 300,000 slain) 

Verona (Emperor Philip defeated) 

Decius defeated and slain by Goths 

Valerian defeated and captured by Sapor 

Chalons (Aurelian victor over rivals) 

Alectus defeated in Britain 

Constantino def. Maxentius (see Cross) 27 Oct. 

Adrianople (Constaniine defeats Licinius) 

Aquileia (Constantine II. slain) . 

Thyatira and Nacosia (Procopius defeated) 

Argentaria (Gratian defeats Gauls) 

Aquileia (Maximus slain) 

Aquileia (Eugenius slain) 

Pollen tia (Stilicho defeats Alaric) . 29 Mar. 

Rome taken by Alaric . . .24 Aug, 

V^s^ronce (Clodomir killed by Gondomar) . 

Ravenna taken by Aspar .... 

Franks defeated bjf Aetius .... 

Genseric takes Carthage .... 

Chalons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated by Aetius) 

Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons) 

Crayford, Kent (Hengist d- feats Britons) 

Soissons (Clovis d.ffi:ats Syagiius) 

Tolbiaoh or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alemanrd) 

Saxons defeat Britons 

Victories of Belisarius 

Narses defeats Totilla 

Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) 

Beder (first victory of Mahommed) 

Muta (Mahometans defeaX Romans) . 

Hatfield (Heathfield ; Penda defeats Edwin) 

Yermuk (Saracens victors) . . 23 Aug. 

Saracens subdue Syria 

Ii.a.dseah (Arabs defeat Persians) 

Saracens take Alexandria . 

Near Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of North 

umberland) 

Leeds (Oswy defeats Penda, who is slain) 

Camel, day of (Aii victor) . . .4 Nov. 

Saracens defeated by Wamba, in Spain 

Testri (Pepin defeats Thierry) 

Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) 

Amblef (Cha/rles Martel defeats Neustrians) 

Tours (Charles Martel defeats the Saracens) 

Victories of Charlemagne ... 

'RoncQsvaXle (death of Roland) 

Clavijo (Moors defeated) 

Albaida (Musa and Moors defeated) 



Hengestdown (Danes defeated by Egbert) . 
Charmouth (Ethelwof defeated by the Dalies) 
Danes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia 
Assendon or Ashdown (Danes defeated) 
Merton (Danes victorious) .... 
Wilton (Dnnes victorious over Alfred) 
Andernach (Charles the Bald defeated) 8 Oct, 
'Eth&ndnn (Alfred defeats Danes) 
Farnh..m (Danes defeated) .... 



45 
42 
36 
31: 

A.D. 
9 
19 

50 
61 
70 
78 
84 
106 
194 
I97 
269 
249 
251 
260 
274 
296 
312 
323 
340 
366 
378 
388 

394 
403 
410 
424 
42s 
428 
439 
451 
455 
457 
486 
496 
508 

533-4 
552 
622 
623 
629 
633 
634 

636-8 
638 
640 

642 
65s 
656 
675 
687 
711 
716 
732 
775-800 
778 



852 
835 



871 

872 
876 



BAT 



85 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

Bury {Edward defeats Ellielwald and Banes) . 905 
Tettenhall (Banes defeated) . . .6 Aug. gio 



Soissons (king Robert victor, killed) 
Merseburg (Germans defeat Hungarians) . . 
Simincas (Spaniards defeat Moon) . . 6 Aug. 
Nicephorus Pliocas defeats Saracens . 
BasienteUo (Olholl. defeated by Greeks) 13 July, 



Clontaxf (Banes defeated) 1014 

Assingdon, Ashdon (Caiiute defeats Edimmd) . 1016 
Stic^lestadt (Oluf defeated bi/ Sicedes) 29 July, . 1030 
Civitella (Normans defeat Leo IX.) . . . 1053 

Dunsinane (Macbeth defeated) 1056 

Stanford Bridge (Harold defeats Toi-tig) 25 Sept. 1066 
Ha&tinga (William I. defeats Harold) . 14 Oct. ,, 
Fladenheim (Emperor Henry defeated) . . 1080 
Alnwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) . , , 1093 

Crusades commence 1096 

Dorylajum (Crusaders defeat Turks) . 1 July, 1097 
AscaXon (Crusaders victorious) . . 12 Aug. 1099 
Tin.ch.ehra,j (Robert o_A Normandy defeated) . 1106 

Brenneville, Normandy (i/cnry /. def, French) . 11 19 
Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard 

(Bavid I. and Scots defeated) . 22 Aug. 1138 

Ourique (Portuguese defeat Moors) . 25 July, 1139 
Lincoln (Stephen defeated) . . .2 Feb. 1141 

J a,en (Moors defeated) 11 57 

Alnwick. ClVilliam the Lion d'feated) 13 July, 1174 
Legnano (Italians defeat emperor) . 29 May, 1176 
Tih&riAS (Saladin defeats Crusaders) 3, 4 July, 1187 
Asc6\i(Taricred defeats emperor Henry VI.) . . 1190 
Ascalon surrenders (/Jic/jc67-cJ /.) . 7 Sept. iigi 
Arcadio^oMs (Bulgarians defeat emperor Isaac) . 1194 
Ala,rca.a (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . 19 July, 1195 
Visors (Richard I. def ea/s French) . 10 Oct. iigS 
Arsouf {iJic/ia)'d /. defeats Saracens) . 7 Sept. 1199 
Tolosa, (Moors def eated) . . . 16 July, 1212 
Mmet (Albigenses defeated) . . . 12 Sept. 1213 
Bouvines (French defeat Germans) . 27 July, 1214 
Lincoln (French defeated) . . . 19 May, 1217 
Taillebourg (French defeat Henry III.) 20 July, 1242 
Mansourah (Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated) . 1250 
Largs (Soots defeat Northmen) . . .3 Oct. 1263 
hewes (En'gluh barons victorious) . 14 May, 1264 
Evesham (Barons (fe/caierf) . . . i Aug. 1265 
Benevento (Chas. of Anjou defeats Manfred) 

26 Feb. 1266 
Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) 23 Aug. 1268 
'}iLa,Tcl[iiei\d(Austrians defeat Bohemians) 26 Aug. 1278 
Llandewyer (Lleioellyn of Wales defeated) 11 l)ec. 1282 
Za,gT^h (def eat of Charles Ma'i-tel) . . . 1292 
Dunbax (King of Scots taken) . . 27 April, 1296 
Csiiahuskermeth (Wallace defeats English) . . 1297 
Falkirk ( Wallace defeated) . . 22 July, 1298 
Conrtrsij (Flemings deft. Count of Artois) 11 July, 1302 

Roslin, Scotland 24 Feb. 1303 

Ceiihisus (Bake of Athens def eoied) . . . . 1311 
Jiajmockbuxn (Brnfie defeats English) . 24 June, 13 14 
Morgarten (Swiss defeat Austrians) . 15 Nov. 1315 
Athenry (Irish defeated) . . .10 Aug. 1316 
Foughard or Dundalk (£'d. .Bruce fZefd.) 5 Oct. 1318 
Boroughbridge (Edward II. defeats Barons) . 1322 
Muhldorf (Bavarians defeat Austrians) . . . ,, 
Da-plin (Edward Baliol defeats Mar) . 11 Aug. 1332 
Halidon Hill (Edward III. defs. Scots) 19 July, 1333 
Tarifa (Moors defeated) .... 28 Oct. 1340 
Aaheroche (earl of Berby defeats French) . . 1345 
Cressj (English defeat French) . . 26 Aug. 1346 
Durham, Nevil's Cross (Scots defd.) 12 or 17 Oct. ,, 
lio. HocheD.xrien (Charles of Blois defeated) . 1347 
Poitiers (English defeat French) . 19 Sept. 1356 
Cockerel (Bu, Guesclin defeats Navarre) 16 May, 1364 
Auray {Bu Guesclin defeated) . . 29 Sept. ,, 
Najara (Black Prince defts. Henry of Trastamare) 

3 April, 1367 
Montiel (Peter of Castile defeated) 14 March, 1369 

Eosbecque (French defeat Flemings) . 17 Nov. 1382 
Aljubarrota (Portuguese deft. Spaniards) 14 Aug. 1385 
Sempach (Swiss defeat Austrians) . 9 July, 1386 

•Otterburn(CAeu2/ CTiasc/ Scots victors) 10 Aug. 1388 



Cossova (Turks deft. Albanians, and Amuroth I. 

killfd) Sept. 1389 

Nicopolis (Turks defeat Christians) . 28 Sept. 1396 
Anayra, (I imour def eats Bajazet) . . 28 July, 1402 
Homeldon Hill (English defeat Scots) 14 Sept. ,, 
Shrewsbury (Percies etc., defeated) . 23 July, 1403 
Monmouth. (Glendower d-^f eated) . . 11 May, 1405 
Tannenherg (Poles def t. Teuton knigJds) 15 July, 1410 
ll:\r]a,w (Lo7-d of the Isles defeated) . 24 July, 1411 
Agincourt (English defeat French) . 25 Oct. 141 5 
Aujou, Bea.ng4 (English deft, by Scots) 22 March, 1421 
Cre^a-nt (English deft. French and Scots) 11 June, 1423 
Nevnenil (ditto) .... 17 Aug. 1424 

Herrings (English defeat French) . 12 Feb. 1429 

Orleans (siege relieved) ... 29 April, ,, 
'Pata.y (EnglisJi defeated, Joan of Arc) 18 June, „ . 
Lippau or Bohmischbrod (^ussiics ci«/«aietJ) . 1434 
Kuuobitza (Huniades defeats the Turks) 24 Dec. 1443 
Cossova, (Turks defeat liuniades) . 17 Oct. 1448 

Formigni (English defeated) . . 15 xVpril, 1450 
Aibar (Agramonts defeat Beaumonts) . 23 Oct. 1452 
Brechin, Scotland (Hantley defeats Cravford.) . „ 
Castillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) 

23 July, 1453 

WAE OP THE ROSES — YORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. 

St. Alban's (Yorkists victorious) 22 or 23 May, 1455 
Belgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) . 10 Sep,. 1456 
Blorebeath ( For kists victors) . . 23 Sept. 1459 
Northampton (ditto, Henry VI. taken) 10 July, 1460 
"Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) . 3 1 Dec. , , 

Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) 2 Feb. 1461 
St. Alban's (Lancastrians victors) . if Feb. ,, 

Towton (Yorkuts victorious) . 29 March, ,, 
Hexham (Yorkists victor.?) . . 15 May, 1464 
yiontlheiy (Louis XI.. jancl nobles ; i)td(?c.)i6 July, 1465 
Edgecote or Banbury (Yorkists victors) 26 July, 1469 
Stamford (Lancastriaiu defeated) . 13 March, 1470 

Barnet (ditto) 14 AprU, 1471 

Tewkesbury (ditto) 4 May, „ 

Granson (Siciss defeat Charles the Bold) 3 March, 1476 

Morat (ditto) 22 June, ,, 

Nancy (Charles the Bold killed) . . 4 Jan. 1477 
Bosworth, (Richard III. defeated) . 22 Aug. 1485 
Stoke (Lambert Sinnel taken) . ■ , . . 1487 

Hz. Auhin (Bretons d-feated) 1488 

Fornova (French defeat Italians) . . 6 July, 1495 
Seminara (French defeat Spaniard,s) . . . 1495 
Blackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) . 22 June, 1497 
^^emiuara (Gonsalvo defeats French) . 21 April, 1503 
Cerignola (Cordova defeats French) . 28 April, ,, 
Garigliano (Gonsalvo defeats French) 27 Dec. ,, 
Agnadello {French defeat Venetians) . 14 May, 1509 
Ravenua (Gaston de Foix, victor, killed) 11 April, 1512 
l>!ova.ra (Papal Swiss defeat French) . i June, 1513 
Gmnegate (Synrs) (French def eated) 16 Aug. ,, 

Flodden (English defeat Scots) . . 9 Sept. 1513 

'Marignano (French d'feat S'ciss) . 13-15 Sept. ,, 
Bicocca,, near Milan (Lautrec defeated) 29 April, 1522 
Favio (Francis I. defeated) . . .24 Feb. 1525 
Mohatz (Turks def eat Hungarians) 29 Aug. 1526 

Caippel (Zwinglius slain) . . . 11 Oct. 1531 

Assens (Christian III. defeats Banish rebels) . 1535 
Solway Moss (ffrt^iis/j rfe/ea( Scois) . 25 Nov. 1542 
Ceresuola (French defeat Imperialists) 14 April, 1544 
Miihlberg (C/i(w. V. defeats Protestants) 24 April, 1547 
Binkey (English defeat Scot.i) . . 10 Sept. ,, 
Ket's rebellion suppressed by Warvfick, Aug. 1549 
Marciano (Florentines defeat Frtnch) 3 Aug. 1554 

St. Qaintia (Spanish and English defeat French), 

10 Aug. ISS7 
Calais (taken) . . • . . 7 Jan. 1558 
Gravehnes (Spanish and English defeat French), 

13 July. .» 
Dreux, in France (Huguenots defeated) 19 Dec. 1562 
St. Denis (ditto) .... 10 Nov. 1567 

hangside (Mary of Scotland defeated) . 13 May, 1568 
Jarnac (Huguenots defeated) . . 13 March, 1569 
Moncontour (Coligny defeated) . . 3 Oct. ,, 
Lepanto, n. (Bon John defeats Turks) . 7 Oct. 1571 



IJAT 



86 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

Dorraana {Gruise defeo.ted Huguenots) . lo Oct. 1575 

Alcazar (Moors defeat Portuguese) . . 4 Aug. 1578 
Zutplien (Dutch and English defeat Sjianiards) 

22 Sept. 1586 

Coutras {Henry IV. defeats League) . 20 Oct. 1587 

Spanish Armada defeated, ft. . . Aug. 1588 

Arques (Henry IV. defeats league) 21 Sept. 1589 

lYry (ditto) 14 March, 1590 

Fontaine Fran^aise (Henry IV. beats Sjyaniards) 

5 June, 1595 

'Sia.ck.vftAe.r (Tyrone defeats Bagnal) . . . 1598 

Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austnans) . . . . 1600 

Kmsale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) . . . 1601 

Kirchholm (Poles defeat Sieedes) . , . . 1605 

Gibraltar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) . . . 1607 

Trague (Icing of Bohemia defeated) . . 8 Nov. 1620 

Rochelle (taken) 28 Oct. 1628 

Stuhm (Gustavus defeats Poles) . . . . „ 
LeipsicorBreitenfeld(ffMsiauMSc?e/. Tilly) 7 Sept. 1631 
tiQch. (Imperialists defeated; Tilly killed) $ April, 1632 
Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Sroedes vic- 
torious; Gustavus slain) . (n.s.) 16 Nov. ,, 
Nordlingen (Swedes defeated) . . 27 Aug. 1634 

AiTas (taken by the French) 1640 

Leipsic (Swedes defeat Austricms) . . 23 Oct. 1642 

CIVIL WAK IN ENGLAND. 

Worcester (prince Rupert victor) . 23 Sept. 1642 

Edgehill fight (issMS doM6f/Mi) . 23 Oct. ,, 

Leipsic or Breitenfeld (iSw«rtc's riciors) . 13 Oct. „ 

Chalgrove (Hampdot killed) . . 18 June 1643 

'Bva.rah.ioa. yioor (Fairfax defeated) 29 March, ,, 

Stratton (Royalists victorious) . . 16 May, ,, 

Rocroy (French defeat Spaniards) . 19 May, „ 

Lansdown (RoyoJists victorious) . 5 July, ,, 

Devizes or Eound-away-down (cZirto) . 13 July, ,, 

'Ne-whury (Royalists defeated) . . 20 Sept. ,, 

Cheriton or Alresford (ditto) . 29 March, 1644 

Priedburg (Turenne victor) ,, 

Cropredy Bridge (Charles 1. victor) 29 June, ,, 

Marston Moor (Rupert defeated) . , 2 July, „ 

Newbury (indecisive) ... 27 Oct. ,, 

liTppercavdr (Montrose defs. Covenanters) i Sept. ,, 

Naseby (king totally defeated) . 14 June, 1645 

Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . 2 July, ,, 

Kilsyth (ditto) .... 15 Aug. ,, 

Nordlingen (Turenne defeats Austrians) 

Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) . 

Dungan-hill (Irish defeated) 

Preston (Cromwell victor) 

Bathmines (Irish Royalists defeated) . 

Drogheda (taken by storm) 

Crobiesdale (3'Iontrose defeated) 

Dunbar (Cromwell defeats Scots) 



1647 
1648 
1649 

1650 

yforcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II.) 3 Sept. 1651 



S June, 

8 Aug. 

17 Aug. 

2 Aug. 
12 Sept. 
27 April, 

3 Sept. 



Galway (surrenderee!) 

Arras, France (Turenne defeats Conde) . . . 

Dunkirk (ditto) 14 June, 

Estremoz (Don John def. by Schomberg) 8 June, 
St. Gotthard (Montecuculle defd. Turks) i Aug. 
Candia (taken by Turks) . . . .5 Sept. 
ChocKim (Sobieski defeats Turks and Condd) 
Seneflfe (French and Dutch, indecisive) 11 Aug. 
Fnsisheim (7'urenne defeats Imperialists) 4 Oct. 
Mulhausen (ditto) . . . .31 Dec. 

Turckheim (ditto) S Jan. 

Saltzbach (Turenne killed) . . . 27 July, 
Drumolog (Covenanters def. Claverhouse) i June, 
Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covenanters) 

22 June, 
Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobieski) , 12 Sept. 
Sedgemoor (Monmouth defeated) . . 6 July, 
Mohatz (Turks defeated) . . .12 Aug, 
Killiecrankie (Hiqhlanders def. Mackay) 27 July, 
Newton-butler (Jacobites defeated) . 30 July, 
Boyne ( William III. defeats James II.) i July, 
Pleurus (Charleroi, Liixembotirg victor) i Jul}', 
AnghriTO. (James II.' s cause 7'uined) . 12 July, 
Salenckemeu (Louis of Baden def. Turks) xZ Aug. 



1652 
1654 
1658 
1663 
1664 



1674 
1674 

1675 



1690 
1691 



19 July, 


i6q^ 


3 Oct. 




II Sept. 


1697 


30 Nov. 


1700 


9 July, 


1701 


. I Sept. 


„ 


26 July, 


1702 


14 Oct. 


,, 


I May, 


i7o> 


20 Sept. 




2 July, 


1704 


24 July, 





Enghein or Steenkirk (William III. defeated) 

24 July, 1692 
JjS.ndiQi\ (William III. defeated) 
Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) 
Zenta (prince Eugene defeats Turks) 
Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) 
Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) 
Chiari (Austrians defeat French) 
Santa Vittoria (French Victors) . 
Friedhngen (French defeat Germans) 
Pultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) 
Hochstadt (French defeat Austnans) 
Donauwerth (Marlborough victor) 
Gibraltar taken by Rooke 

Blenheim (Marlborough victor-) . Aug. 13, n. s. 
Mittau (taken by Russians) . . 14 Sept. 
Cassano (prince Eugene ; indecisive) . 16 Aug. 
Tirlemont (Marlborough successful) . 18 July, 
Ramilies (Marlborough defeats French) 23 May, 
Turin (French defeated) . . .7 Sept. 
Almanza (French defeat A Hies) 14 or 25 April, 
Oudenarde (Marlborough victor) . 11 July, 
Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes) autumn, 
Lisle (taken by the Allies) . . . Dec. 

Pultowa (Peter defeats Charles XII.) 8 July, 
Dobro (Russians defeat Swedes) . 20 Sept. 
Malplaquet (Marlborough victor) . 11 Sept. 

Almenara (Austrians defeat French) 28 July, 
Saragossa (ditto) .... 20 Aug. 
Villa Viciosa (Austrians defeated) . 10 Dec. 
Arleux (Marlb. forces French lines) . 5 Aug. 

Bouchain (taken by Marlborough . 13 Sept. 

Denain ( Villars defeats Allies). . 24 July, 
Friburg (taken by French) . . .26 Nov. 
Preston (rebels defeated) . . .12, 13 Nov. 



1705 



T707 
1 70S 



Duniblane ; Sheriff-Muir (indecinve) . 13 Nov. 
Peterwardein (Eugene defeats Turks) 5 Aug. 

Belgrade (taken by Eugene) . . 22 Aug. 
Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) . 26 May, 
Parma (Austrians & French, indecisive) 29 June, 
Gnastalla. (Austrians defeated) . 19 Sept. 
Erivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) . June, 
Krotzka (Turks defeat Austrians) . 22 July, 
Molwitz (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 10 April, 
Dettingcn (George II. defeats French) 16 June, 
Fontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberland) 30 April, 
Hohenfreiburg (Prussians def. Austrians) 4 June, 



1712 

1715 

1716 
1717 
1734 



1735 
1739 
1741 
1743 
1745 



SCOTS BBBELLION. — GEORGE II. 

Preston Pans (rebels defeat Cope) . 21 Sept. 1745 

Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) . . 18 Dec. „ 

Falkirk (rebels defeat Hawley) . . .17 Jan. ly^'i 

CuUoden (Cumberland defeats rebels) . 16 April, „ 

St. Lazzaro (Sardinians def. Austrians) 4 June, „ 

Placentia (Austnans def. French) . 14 June, „ 

Eocoux (Saxe defeats Allies) . . i Oct, ,, 

Bergen-op-Zoom (ia^-cft) . . . 16 Sept. 1747 

Lafleldt (Saxe defeats Cumberla.nd). . 20 June, „ 

ExiUes {Sardi7iians defeat French) . 8 July, „ 

Fort du Quesne (Braddock killed) . 9 July, 1755 

Calcutta (taken) .... 18 June, 1756 

SEVEN YEAES' WAR, 1756-63. 

Prague (Frederick defeats Allies) . . 6 May, 1757 

Kollin (Frederick dejfeated) . . 18 June, „ 

Flaasej (Clire's victory) . . . 23 June, ,, 

Norkitten (Russians defeated) . . 13 Aug. ,, 

Rosbach (Frederick defeats French) . ■ 5 Nov. „ 

Breslaw (Austrians victors) . . 22 Nov. ,, 

Lissa (Frederick defeats Atcstrians) . 5 Dec. ,, 

Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) 23 June, 1758 

Zomdorfl (Frederick def eats Russians) 25 Aug. ,, 
Hochkirchen (Austrians def. Prussians) 14 Oct. ,, 

Bergen (French defeat Allies) . . 13 April, 175^ 

'Nia.ga.va. (English take Fort) . . 24 July, ., 

Minden (Ferdinand defeats French) . 1 Aug. ,, 

Cwanevadorl (Russians def . Prussians) 12 Aug. ,, 

Quebec ( Wolfe, victor, killed) . . 13 Sept, „ 

Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) . 23 Jan. 1760 

haxidshat, aileaia, (Prussians defeated) 23 June, ,, 



BAT 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

Warburg (Ferdina,nd defeats French) 31 July, 1760 

'Piaffendori {Frederick def. Austrians) 15 Aug\ ,, 

Campen (French def. Russians) . 15 Oct. ,, 

TorgoM (Frederick defeats Danes) . . 3 Nov. ,. 

J dha.nmsberg (French defeat Friissians) 30 Aug. 1762 

Buxar (J/«>M-o defeats army nf Oude) 23 Oct. 1764 

Chocziva. (Russians def eat Turks) . . . . 1769 

Silistria (taken) 1774 



AMERICAN WAR. 
Lexington (Gar/e victor, with great loss) 19 April, 
Bunker's HUl (Americans re/julsed) 17 June, 
Long Island (Americans defeated) . 27 Aug, 
White Plains (Howe defeats Americans) 28 Oct. 
Rhode Island (taken by Royalists) . . 8 Dec. 
Brandy wine (Howe defeats Washington) 11 Sept. 
Germanstown (Burgoyne's victory) . 3, 4, Oct. 
Saratoga (he is compelled to surrender) 17 Oct. 
Brier's Creek (Americans defeated) . 3 March, 
Caraden (Cornwaliis defeats Gates) . 16 Aug. 
Guildford (di«o) .... 15 March, 
Eutaw Spi-ings (Arnold def. Americans) 8 Sept. 
York Town (Cormoallis surrenders) . ig Oct. 
[Many inferior actions with various success 
Porto Novo (Coote defeats Hyder) . . i July, 
Bednore 1 taken by Tippoo baib) . 30 April, 

Martinesti (Ai'.strians defeat Turks) 22 S^pt 
Ismael (taken by storm by Suwarrow) 
Arikera (Tippoo defeated) 



1775 
1776 



1779 
17S0 



Seringapatam (ditto) 



1783 
17S9 
1790 

. 1791 
15 May, 1790, 6 Feb. 1792 



22 Dec. 

IS May, 



FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 

Quievrain (French repulsed) . . 28 April, 1792 

Meiiin (French defeat Aust nans) . 20 June, ,, 

Vsiiinj (French defeat Prussians) . . 20 Sept. ,, 

Jemappes (French victorious) . . .6 Nov. ,, 

Neerwinden (F;-e»c/i 6eatoi) . 18 March, 1793 

St. .^mand (French defeated) , . . 8 May, ,, 

Valeuciennes (ditto) . . 23 May, 26 July, „ 

Lincelles (Lake defeats Frencli) . . 18 Aug. ,, 

Tivca^^irk. (Duke of York def eated) . 7, 8 Sept. ,, 

Q,\iesTioj (reducedby AustrioMs) . . 11 Sept. ,, 

Pirmasens (Prussians defeat French) 14 Sept. ,, 

"Wattignies (French defeat Coburg) . 14-16 Oct. ,, 

Toulon (evacuated by British) . . 17 Dec. ,, 

Cambray (French defeated) . . 24 April, 1794 

Troisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies) 30 April, ,, 

Tourcoing (Moreau defeats Allies) 18-22 May, ,. 

^sipierres (taken by Allies) . . 22 May, ,, 

Howe's naval victory .... 1 June, ,, 

Charleroi, Fleurus (French defeat Allies) 26 June, ,. , 

'!A\Bdon(Vendeansdefeated) . . 28 July, ,, 

Bois-le-L)uc (duke of York defeated) . 14 Sept. ,, 

Boxtel (cZJHo) 17 Sept. ,, 

Warsaw or Maciejowice (Poles defeated) 4 Oct. ,, 

Nimeguen ... 28 Oct. and 4 May, ,, 

Warsaw (taken by Suwarrow) . . 4 Nov. „ 

Bridport's victoi-y of L'Orient, n. . 22 June, 1795 

Quiberon (Emigrants defeated) . . 21 July, „ 

Mannheim (taken) .... 20 Sept. ,, 

Loano [French defeat Austriaas) . 23 Nov. „ 

Montenotte {Bonaparte victorious) 12 April, 1796 

Mondovi (ditto) 22 April, ,, 

Lodi {ditto) 10 May, „ 

Altenkirchen {Austrians defeated) . 4 June, 

and 16 Sept. ,, 

Koveredo {French defeat Austrians) . 4 Sept. „ 

Bassano {ditto) 8 Sejjt. ,, 

Biberach {ditto) 10 Oct. ,, 

Lonata and Castiglione {ditto) . . 3-5 Aug. ,, 

Neresheim {Moreau def. Archd. Charles) 10 Aug, ,, 

Areola, {Bonaparte victorious] . . 15-17 Nov. ,, 

Kivoli (ditto) 14, 15 Jan. 1797 

Cape St. Vincent, n. {French defeated) 14 Feb. ,, 

la.gUa.jaento (bonap. def. Austrians) 16 March, ,, 

Ca.jn'perdovfn n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) 11 Oct. ,, 



IRISH REBELLION BEGINS 

Kilcullen (rebels successful) 
Naas (rebels defeated) . 
Tara, (ditto) 



:May, 

23 May, 

24 May, 
26 May, 



Oulart (rebels successful) . . .27 May, 

Gorey, Ross (ditto) .... 4 June, 

Antrim (rebels defeated) ... 7 June, 

Arklow (rebels beaten) ... 10 June, 

Ballynahinch (Nugent defeats rebels) . 13 June, 

Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats rebels) . 21 June, 

Castlebar (French auxiliaries defeated) 28 Aug. 

Ballinamuck (French and rebels def.) 8 Sept. 

'Kile (Kelson defeats French .fleet) . . i Aug. 
Fyravaids (Bonaparte def. Mamelukes) 21 July, 
El Arisch (French defeat Turks) . . 18 Feb. 
Jaffa (stormed by French) . . 7 March, 
Stokaoh (Austrians defeat French) 25 March, 
Verona (Austrians defeat French) 28-30 March, 
Magnano (Kray defeats French) . . 5 April, 
Mount Thabor .... 16 April, 

Cassano (Sun-arrow defeats Moreau) . 27 April, 
Adda, {Sairarrotu defeats French) . ,, 

Seri-agn,]i!itMn. (Tippoo killed) . . 4 May, 
Acre (relieved : Sir Sydney Smith) . 20 May, 
Zurich (French defeated.) ... 5 June, 
Trebia (Suwarroir defeats French) 18, 19 June, 
Alessandria (taken by French) . . 2 Jul}', 
Aboukir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte) 25 July, 



Novi (Suwarrow defeats French) 
Bergen and Alkmaer (Allies defeated) 



15 Aug. 

19 Sept. 
26 Oct. 
9 Sept. 

25 Sept. 

20 Mar. 
3 May. 
5 May, 



Zuypor Sluys (French d'feated) . 
Zurich ( AJas.'<en<i defeats Russians) 
Heliopolis (Freeh defeat Turks) 
Engen (Moreau defeats Austrians) 
Jlojskirch (ditto) ... 

Biberach (ditto) 9 May, 

Moutebello (Austrians defeated) . 9 June, ,, 

Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) 14 June, ,, 

Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) ig June, ,, 

Hohenlinden ((HHo) .... 3 Dec. ,, 

Mincicj (French def eat- Austrians) . 26 Dec. ,, 

Alexandria (Abercrombie's victory) 21 March, iSoi 

Copenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) . 2 April, ,, 

Ahvaednuggnr (Wellesley victorious) 12 Aug. 1803 

Assaye (ditto, his Arst great victory) . 23 Sept. , , 

Arga.mn (lyellesley victor) . . . 29 Nov. ,, 

Furruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . 17 Nov. 1804 

Bhurtpore (taken by Lake) . . 2 April, 1805 

Elchingen (Ney defeats Austrians) . 14 Oct. „ 

Uhn surreiid. (Ney defeats Austrians) 17-20 Oct. ,, 

Traia.lga,Y(NelsondestroysFren.fieet; kiiled)2iOct. ,, 

Austerlitz (Napoleon defeats Austrians) 2 Dec. ,, 

Bnenos Ayres (take-% by Popthatn) . 28 Jxine, 1806 

Maida (Stuart defeats French) . 4 July, „ 

Qxilfeld (French def eat Prussians) . 10 Oct. ,, 

Jenli^*^'^*^ I (Fi'^'^c^i- <^-ef eat Prussians) 14 Oct. „ 

Pultusk (French and Allies, indecisive) 26 Dec. ,, 
Mohrungen (French defeat Russians and 

PrussioMs) 25 Jan. 1807 

Eylau (indecisive) . . . . 7, 8 Feb. „ 

Friedla.nd (Freyich defeat Russians) 14 June, ,, 

Buenos Ayres (Whitelock defeated) . 7 July, ,, 

Copenhagen (bombarded by Cathcart) 6-8 Sept. ,, 
Medina de Rio Seco (French defeat Spaniards) 

15 July, 1808 

Baylen (SjMniards defeat Frmch) . 20 July, „ 



PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 

Vimiera (Wellcsley defeats Junot) . 21 Ang. 
Tudela or Ebvo (French def. Spaniards) 23 Nov. 
Comrvaa. (Moore def eats French) . . 16 Jan. 
Landshut (Austrians de.fecUed) . 21 April, 
Eokmtihl (PfU'OMsZ defeats Austrians) 22 April, 
Ebersborg (French defeat Austrians) . 4 May, 
Oijorto (taken) . . 29 March, 12 May, 

Kss^li^ i (^"-Poleon defeated) . 21, 22 May, 
'Wagram (Austrians deflated) . 5, 6 July, 
Talavera ( M'ellesley defeats Victor) . 27, 28 July, 
Silistria (Turks defeat Russians) . . 26 Sept. 
Ocana. (Mortier defeats Spaniards) . 19 Nov. , 
Busaco (Wellington repulses Massena) 27 Sept. 18 



BAT 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

Barrosa (Grdliam defeats Victor) . s Marcli, i8i 
Badajos {taken by tlie French) . ii March, ,, 
Fueutes d'Oiioro ( Wellington defeats JUasgena) 

5 May, „ 
Alhuera, (Berenford defeats SouU) . i6 May, ,, 
Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed by Buglisli) . 19 Jan. 181 
Badajos Oatoifiy Wellington) . . 6 April, „ 
Tjlerena, (Cotton defeats Soult) . . 11 April, „ 
Salamanca ( Wellington defls. Marmont) 22 July, ,, 
Mohilow (French defeat liusdans) . 23 July, ,, 
Polotzk (French and Russians) . 30, 31 July, ,, 
fiTa.o]ensko (French defeat Russia.ns) 17-ig Aiig. „ 

BoSn\i ('^^^^o) ■ . ■ . 7 Sept. „ 
Moscow (burnt by Russians) . . 14 Sept. ,, 
Qvieenstown (Americans defeated) . 13 Oct. ,, 
Bolotzk (retaken by Ruf^sians) . . 20 Oct. ,, 
Malo-Jaroslawatz, or Winkowa . . 24 Oct. ,, 
Witepsk (French defeated) . . 14 Nov. ,, 
Krasnoi (ditto) .... 16-1S Nov. ,, 
Beresina (di(i!o) .... 25-29 Nov. ,, 

French Town (tal-en by Americans) . 22 Jan. 181 
Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) . . 13 Feb. „ 
Castella (Sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) 13 April, ,, 
Tintzen (Napoleon checks Allies) . . 2 May, ,, 
BaMtzen (Naj). and Allies ; indecisive) 20 May, ,, 
Wurtzchen (c/iMo) . . . . 21 May, ,, 
Yittoria (Welling. defeaJs king Joseph) 21 June, ,, 
y'jrenees(il'ellir(gton defeats Soult) . 28 July, ,, 
Ka,tzha,ch (IHucher defeats Ney) . 26 Aug. ,, 
Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) 25, 27 Aug. ,, 
St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) . 31 Aug. „ 
I)ennevdtz (Ney defeated) . . . 6 Sept. ,, 
Mockern (indecisive) .... 14 Oct. „ 
Leipzic (Napoleon defeated) . . i6-i8 Oct. „ 
Hanau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) . 30 Oct. „ 
St.. Jean de Luz (Welling, defeats Soult) 10 Nov. ,, 
[Passage of the Neve ; several engagements 

between the Allies and French, 10 to 13 Dec. 
1813.] 
St. Dizier, France (French defeated) . 27 Jan. il 

Brienne (ditto) 29 Jan. 

La Eothifere (Napoleon defeats Allies) i Feb. 
Bar-sur-Aube (Allies victors) . . 7 Feb. 

Mincio ('pr. Eugene defeats Austrian.^) S Feb. 
Champ Aubert (French defeat Allies) 10-12 Feb. 
Montmirail (diito) .... 11 Feb. 

Vauchamp (ditto) 14 Feb. 

Fontainebleau (ditto) . , . 17 Feb. 

Montereau (ditto) 18 Feb. 

Orthez ( Wellington defeats Soult)^ . 27 Feb. 
Bergen-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) . 8 March, 
Laon [French defeated) . . .9-10 March, 
Kheims (Napoleon defecds St. Priest) 13 March, 
Tarbes {lVellin^.ton defeats Soult) . 20 March, 
F6re Champenoise (French defeated) 25 March, 
Paris, Montmartre, Romainville (ditto) 30 Mar. 
Battle of the Barriers — Marmont evacuates 

Paris, and the allies enter it .31 March, 
Toulouse ( Wellington defeats Soult) . 10 April, 
Tolentino (Murat defeated) ... 3 May, i 
Ligny (Blilcher repulsed) . . 16 June, 
Quatre Bras (Ney repulsed) . . .16 June, 
Waterloo (Napoleon finally beaten) . 18 June, 



americj^n war. 
Fort George (taken by Americans) 
Burlington Jieighis (Americans routed) 
Chry>tler's Point, Canada 
Black-rock, America .... 
Cx-aoune (Blilcher defeated) 

Chippawa { [^/^^''^ defecUed) . . 

■^■^ l (Americans defeated) . 

Fort Erie (British repulsed) . 
Bladensburg (Americans defeated) . 

Bellair (ditto) 

Baltimore (British def. and victor.'f) . 
New Orleans (British repulsed) 8, 12, ( 



Algiers (bombarded by Exmoulh) . 
Kirklee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) 



27 May, 1813 
6 June, „ 
II Nov. ,, 
28 Dec. ,, 

7 March, 1814 
5 July, „ 
25 July, „ 
15 Aug. ,, 
24 Aug. „ 
30 Aug. „ 
II Sept. ,, 

Si 13 Jan. 1815 

27 Aug. 1S16 

5 Nov. 1817 



Mahedpore (Hislop defeats Holhar) . 21 Dec. 
I )ragaschan (Ipsiianti defeated) . . 19 June, 
Valtezza (Turks defecUed,). . . 27 May, 
Tripolitza (stormed by Greeks) . . 5 Oct. 
Thermopylae (Greeks defeat Turks) . 13 July, 

Corinth (taken) 16 Sept. 

Ayacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) 9 Dec. 
Bhurtpore (taken by Combermere) . . 18 Jan. 

Athens (taken) 17 May, 

Navarino (Allies destroy Turkish fleet) . 20 Oct. 
Brahilow (Russians and Turks) . . 18 June, 
Akhalzikh (ditto) .... 24 Aug. 

Varna (surrenders to Russians) . . 11 Oct. 

Silistria (ditto) 30 June, 

Kainly (Russians defeat Turks) . . i July, 
Balkan (passed by Russians) . . 26 July, 
Adrianoplo (Russians enter) . . 20 Aug. 
Algiers (conquered by French) . . .5 July, 
Paris (Bays of July) . . 27, 28, 29 July, 

Grochow (Poles defeat Rus.Hans) . . 20 Feb. 
Praga (Poles and Russians) . . 25 Feb. 

Wawz (Skrzynecki defeats Russians) 31 March, 
Seidlice (Poles defeat Russiaris) . 10 April, 
Ostrolonka (ditto) .... 26 May, 
Wilna (Poles and Russians) . . 18 June, 
Warsaw (taken by Russians) . . 7 Sept. 
Beylau (Ibrahim defeats I'urks) . 29 July, 
Antwerp (taken by Allies) ... 23 Dec. 
Konieh (Egyptians defeat Turks) . 21 Dec. 

Hernani (Carlists defeated) ... 5 May, 
St. Sebastian (ditto) ... i Oct. 

Bilboa (siege roAsed ; British legion) . 24 Dec. 

Hernani 15 Slarch, 

I run (British Legion defeats Carlists) 17 May, 
Valentia (Carlists attacked) . . 15 July, 

Herera. (Bon. Carlos defeats Buerevo) . 24 A\ig. 
Coiistantina (Algiers; taken by F^'rench) 13 Oct. 
St. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) 14 Dec. 
Pennecerrada (Carlists defeated) . . 22 June, 
Prescott (Canadian rebels defeated) . 17 Nov. 
Ghiznee (taken by Keane) . . .23 July, 
Sidon (taken by Stopford) ... 26 Sept. 
Beyrout (Allies defeat Egyptians) . 10 Oct. 

Afghan War. See India. 

.\ure (stormed by Allies) . . . . 3 Nov. 
Kotiiah (Scinde : English victors) . i Dec. 
Chuen-pe (English viciors) . . .7 Jan. 
Ciinton (English take Bogue forts) . 26 Feb. 
Amoy (taken) 27 Aug. 



1B17 
1821 



1822 

1824 
1826 
1827 



1829 



1030 
i8?i 



1S44 
184s 



1847 



Candahar (Afghans defeated) . . 10 March, 1842 
'^m.g'go (Chinese defeated) ... ,, „ 

Jellalabad (^Ay6er Pass /orccd) . 5, 6 April, ,, 
Cbin-keang (iol-cn) .... 21 July, ,, 
Ghiznee (Afghans defeated) . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Meeanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . 17 Feb. 1843 
Maharajpoor (Gough defeats Mahrattas) 29 Dec. 
Isly (French defeat Abd-el-Kader) . . 14 Aug. 
MooA'k.QQ (Hardinge def eats Sikhs) . 18 Dec. 

Ferozeshah (ditto) ... 21, 22 Dec. 
A.\iwaX (Smith defeats Sikhs) . . . 28 Jan. 
Sobraon (Gough defeats Sik/is) . . 10 Feb. 
Montery (il:/exicaKS def. by Americans) 21-2^ Sept. 
Palo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) 8, 9 May, 
Bueno \is^(Ame^'icansdef. Mexicans) 22 Feb. 

St. Ubes (Portugal) 9 May 

Ozoiitero (Americans def. Mexicans) ig, 20 Aug. 
Curtatone {Austrians defeat Italians) 29 May, 

Custoza (ditto) 23 July, 

Velencze (Croats and Hungarians) . 29 Sept, 
Mooltan (Sikhs repulsed) . . . . 7 Nov. 
Chilian wallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) . 13 Jan. 
Goojerat (ditto) .... 21 Feb. 

Gram (Hungarians victors) . . . 27 Feb. 
Novara (Radeizky defeats Sardinians) 23 March, 
Pered (Russians defeat Hungarians) 21 June, 
Acs (Hungarians repulsed) . . 10 July, 
Waitzen (taken by Rzissiaiis) . . 17 July, 
Schiissberg (Russians defeat Bem) . 31 July, 
Temeswar (Haynau defeats Hungarians) 10 Aug. 
Idstedt (Danes defeat Holsteiners) . 25 July, 



BAT 



89 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

ECSSO-TURKISH WAR. 

Oltenitza, (Turks re^iulse Rusiians) . . 4 Nov. 1853 

Citate {Turks defeat Russians) . . 6 Jan. 1S54 

SUistria (ditto) 13-15 June, „ 

Gim-gevo (ditto) 8 July, ,, 

Bayazid (Russians defeat Tarks) . 30 July, ,, 

Kuruk-Derek (diiio) . . . . s Aug. „ 

Alma (Allies dfeat Russians) . . 20 Sept. ,, 

Balaklava fdt«o) .... 25 Oct. ,, 

Inkermann {ditto) 5 Nov. ,, 

'Ei[ii:>a.toviii(Tii'rks defeat Russians) . 17 Feb. 1855 
MalakofE Tower (AUies and Russians) 

22, 23, 24 May, ,, 

Capture of the Mamelon, ifec. . . . 7 June „ 
Uuusuccessful attempt on Malakoflf tower, and 

Redan (Allies and Russians) . . 18 Jinie, ,, 
Tclieruaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies defeat 

Russians) 16 Aug. ,, 

MulakofE taken by the Pronch. . . 8 Sept. ,, 

Ingour (Turks defeat Russians) . . 6 Nov. ,, 

Bsiida,r (French d/if'eat Russians) . . 8 Dec. ,, 

PERSIAN WAR. 

Bushire (English defeat Persians) . . 10 Bee. 1856 

Koo-shab (ditto) 8 Feb. 1857 

JMohammerah (ditto) . • .26 March, „ 

INDIAN 3IDTINY. (See India.) 
Conflicts before Delhi. 30, 31 May ; 8 June ; 

4, 9, 18, 23 July, 1857 
Victories of General Havelock, near Futteh- 

pore, II July, Cawnpore. (fee. 12 July to 16 Aug. ,, 
Pandoo Nuddee (yictoj-y 0/ JVciW) . 15 Aug. „ 

'is\i]\\Ugh\w (death oj' Nuholson, victor) 25 Aug. ,, 
Assault and capture of Delhi . . 16-20 Sept. ,, 
Conflicts before Lucknow, 25, 26 Sept. ; 
18, 25 Nov. 
Victories of Col. Greathcd, 27 
Cawnpore (victory of Cain^ibell) 
Futteghur (ditto) 
Calpi (victor// of Inglis) 
Alumbagh (viaor/j of Outram) 
Conflicts at Lucknow (taken) . 
Jhansi (Rose victorious) 
Kooueh (ditto) ... 

Gwalior (ditto) 17 June, 

'Ra.jghnr (iVitchell defeats Tantia 2'opee) 15 Sept. 
Dhoodea Khera (Cinde def. Beni Makdo) 24 Nov. 
Gen. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oude, 

10 Feb. li 

ITALIAN WAR. (See Italy.) 
Austrians cross the Ticino . . .27 AprO, il 
French troops enter Piedmont . . May. 
Montebello (Allies victorious) . . 20 May, 
Palestro (ditto) . . . . 30, 31 May. 

^Magenta (ditto) 4 June, 

Malegnano (ditto) .... 8 June, 

tjolferino (ditto) . . . . .24 June, 
(Armistice agreed to, 6 July, 1859.) 

Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien- 
Tsin-ho (English attack on the Chinese Forts 

defeated) 25 June, i 

Taku forts taken (see C/ii/ia) . . 21 Aug. i860 
Chang-kia-wan, Sept. 18 ; and Pa-li-chiau 
(Chinese defeated) .... 21 Sept. 



Sept. 



Oct. 

6 Dec. 

. 2 Jan. 

4 Feb. 

21 Feb. 

14-19 March, 

4 April, 

II May, 



CastQlejo (Spaniards defeat Moors) . i Jan. 

Tetuau (ditto) 4 Feb. 

Guad-el-Ras (ditto) ... 23 March, 

Calatifimi (Garibaldi defs. Neapolitans) 15 May, 
Melazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 21 July, 
Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troops) 

18 Sept. 
Voltumo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) i Oct. 
Isemia (Sardinians defeat Nenpolitwiis) 17 Oct. 



Ga.riglia,-no(Sardinians def. Neapolitans) 3 Nov. i860 
Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists, 

22 Jan. 1861 

Gaeta taken by the Sardinians . . 13 Feb. ,, 
Insm-rection in New Zealand ; English re- 
pulsed, 14, 28 March"; 27 June ; 10, 19 Sept. ; 

9, 12 Oct. i860 

Maohetia (Maoris defeated) . . .6 Nov. ,, 

CIVIL WAR IN UNITED STATES BEGUN.* 

Big Bethell (Federals repulsed) . . 10 June, 1861 

OnrfiiAge (Federal victor I/) . . 10 July, ,, 

Rich Mountain (ditto) . . . .11 July, „ 
Bull Bun or Manassas (Federal defeat and panic) 

21 July, ,, 
Wilson' sCree^ (Federals victors) . 10 Aug. „ 
Carnifex ferry (Rosencrans defeats Floyd Con- 
federate) 10 Sept. „ 

Lexington (taken by Confederates) . 20 Sept. ,, 
Pavon, South America (Mitra defeats Urquiza) 

17 Sept. ,, 

Turks defeat Montenegi-ins 19 Oct., 21 Nov. ,, 

BalVsHlnS (Federals defeated) . . 21 Oct. ,, 

Mill Springs, Kentucky (Confederates defeated 

and their general Zollicffer killed) 19 Jan. 1862 

Roanoke Island, N.C. (Federals victors) 7, 8 Feb. ,, 
Sugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated) 

8 Feb. „ 

Fort Donnelson (taken by Fede^-als) . 16 Feb. „ 

Pea Ridge, Arkansas (i^e(ifi-a(s ■yjct.) 6-8 March, ,, 
Hampton roads (Merrimac and Monitor used,) 

9 March, ,, 
Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh (indecisive) 6, 7 

April, ,, 
Williamsburg (Federals rfpidsed) . . 5 May, ,, 
Fnehla, (Mexicans def eat French) . . s May, ,, 
Successful sortie of Confederates from Rich- 
mond 14 J^Iay, „ 

Oriziiba, (Mexicans defeat French) . 18 May, ,, 

'^iniShe&ier (Federals repulsed) . 25 May, ,, 

Hes.v Orizsha. (French defeat Mexicans) 13 June, ,, 
Fairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) 31 May, 

I June, ., 
Chickahominy — Severe conflicts between Fede- 
rals and Confederates before Richmond — 
the former retreat . . 25 June to i July, ,, 
Cedar Mountain (/av. to Confederates) 9 Aug. ,, 
Severe conflicts on Rappahannock 23-29 Aug. „ 
MviW Kwn (def ct,t of Federals) . . 29 Aug. „ 
Aspromonte (Goj-ibaldi and his volunteers cap- 
tured by Royal Italian Troops) . . 29 Aug. „ 
Antietam (.severe,- Confederates retreat) 17 Sept. ,, 
Tei-ryville (Confederates worsted) . 8, g Oct. ,, 
Fredericksburgh (Federals defd. by Lee) 13 Dec. ,, 
Murfrcesburgh (indecisive) 29 Dec. 1862, 2 Jan. 1863 
Nashville (Confederates defeated) . . 2 Jan. „ 
ChancellorsviUe (Confederates victors) 2-4 Slay, „ 
y^inchestev (Eio-tll defeats Confederates) 14 June, „ 
Gettysburg (severe but indecisive) . 1-3 July, ,, 
Chicxina.\\ga.(CoHfederates victorious) ig-20 Sept. ,, 
Spottsylvauia, (fee, in the Wilderness, near 

ChancellorsviUe (indecisive) . 10-12 May, 1864 

Petersburg, near Richmond (indecisive bat 

Grant advances) . . . 15-18 June, ,, 

Cha.ttanooga (Confederates defeated) 23-26 Nov. ,, 

Winchester (ditto) . . . .19 Sept. „ 

Cedar Creek ((^iiJo) 19 Oct. ,, 

Frankhn ((Z;«o) 30 Nov. ,, 

Five Forks (Lee totally defeated) . i April, 1865 

Farmville (Lee finally de^'eated) . 6 April, ,, 

Oeversee (Danes and Allies) . . 6 Feb. 1864 

Diippel (taken by the Prussians) . 18 April, ,, 

Alscn (ditto) 29 June, ,, 

SOUTH AMERICAN WAR. (Soe Brazil.) 
Santayuna (Allies defeat Paraguayans ; Uru- 

guyana taken) .... 18 Sept. 1S65 



We have no space for the numerous smallsr conflicts, of which the accounts are very uncertain. 



BAT 



90 



BAV 



BATTLES, continued. 

Paso de la Patria {indecisive) 
Parana {A Uies victors) 
Estero Velhaco (ditto) . 
Tnyuty (Allies defeated) . 
Curupaiti (ditto) . 
Tuyuty (Allien victors) . 
Corumba {taken by Brazilians) 



, 25 Feb. 1866 

16 April, ,, 

2 May, ,, 

. 16, 18 July, „ 

17, ig, 22 Sept. ,, 

. 30 Oct. ,, 

. 13 Juue, 1867 



SEVEN weeks' war, 

Custozza (Austriaiis defeat Italians) 
Lissa (ditto, naval battle) 



1866 



Gitschin, Konigiuliof, Jaromier, Scbwein- 

schiidel 29 June, 

Konltfgratz or Sadowa ... 3 July, 

Dermbacb, 4 July ; Hiinfeld . . $ July, 
Waldaschacli, Hausen, Hamnielburg, Friede- 
licsball, Kis.singen ... 10 July, 
Laufacb, 13 July ; Aschaffenburg . 14 July, 
Tobitscbau, 15 July ; Blumenau, 22 July; Hof, 

23 July, . 
Tduber-Biscbofsbeim, "Werbacli, Hoobbausen, 

24 July, 
Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerchsbeim 
Eoszbrunn, Wtirzbui-g, Bau-euth 



1866 



Monte Rotondo (Garibaldians victors) 
Mentana (Garibaldi defeated) . 



25 July, ,, 
28 July, „ 

27 Oct, 1867 
. 3 Nov. ,, 



24 June, 
20 July, 

Prussian victories (as inscribed on sbield exbi- 

bited at Berlin, 20 Sept. i856, see Prussia.) 

Liebenau, Ttlrnau, PodoUj . . .26 June, 

Nachod, Langensalva (which see), Oswieoin, 

Hilbnerwasser .... 27 June, 

Mtincbengratz, Soor, Trautenau, Skalitz, 

28 June, 

BAUGE, see Anjou. 

BAUTZElSr, a town in Saxony, near which desperate battles were fought 20, 21, and 22 
May, 1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, and the allies under the emperor 
of Russia and the king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 19th, with a contest on 
the outposts, which cost each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th (at Bautzen) 
the French were more successful ; and on the 21st (at Wnrschen) the allies were compelled 
to retire ; but jSTapoleon obtained no permanent advantage from these sanguinary engage- 
ments. Duroc was killed at Rachenbach by a cannon ball, on 22 May, to the great sorrow 
of the emperor and the French army. 

BAVARIA (part of ancient ISToricum and Yindelicia), a kingdom in South Germany, 
conquered from the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 630 and 660. The countr}- 
was afterwards governed by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasillon II. was- 
deposed by Charlemagne, who established margraves in 788. The margrave Leopold, 895, 
father of Arnulph the Bad, is styled the first duke. Guelf of the house of Este was made 
duke by the emperor Henry IV. in 1071. His descendant Henry the Lion, duke of 
Saxony, Bavaria, and Brunswick (ancestor of the present Brunswick family, see Brunsioick), 
was dispossessed in 11 So by the emperor Frederick Barbarossa (who had been previously his 
friend and benefactor). Bavaria supported Austria in the contest with Prussia in June, 
1866, and took part in the war, and made peace with Prussia 22 Aug. ; see Prussia. 
Population, after cessions 1866, 4,774,464, 



DUKES. 

107 1. Guelf I., an illustrious warrior. 

iioi. Guelf II. ; son; married the countess Matilda, 
1089. 

1120. Henry the Black ; brother. 

1126. Henry the Proud; son. (He competed with 
Conrad of Hoheiistaufon for the empire and 
failed, and was deprived of Bavaria.) 

1138. Leopold, margrave of Austria ; d. 1142. 

1142. Henry of Austria ; bi-other ; d. 1177. 

1154. Henry the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), 
restored by the emperor Frederick Barba- 
rossa, but afterwards expeUed by him ; see 
Mrunswick) ; d. 1195. 

1180. Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke; d. 
1183. 

1183. Louis ; son. 

Otho II., the Illustrious; son; assassinated 

1231. 
Louis II., the Severe ; son ; d. 1294. 

1294. Louis III. ; son (the palatinate separated) ; 
emperor ; d. 1347. 

1347. Stephen I. ; son ; d. 1375. 

137s. John ; brother ; d. 1397. 

1397. Ernest ; brother ; d. 1438. 

1438. Albert I. ; son ; d. 1460. 

1460. John II. (d.)and Sigismund ; sons ; resigned to 

1465. Albert II. ; brother ; d. 1508. 

1508. William I. ; son ; d. 1550. 

1550. Albert III. ; son; d. 1573. 

1579. William II. ; son; abdicated, 1596; d. 1626. 



1231. 



1253- 



1596. Maximilian the Great ; son ; the first Elector 
of Bavaria, 25 Feb. 1623 ; the palatinate 
restored, 1648 ; d. 27 Sept. 1651. 

1631. Ferdinand-Mary; d. 26 May, 1679. 

1679. Maximilian Emanuel ; son ; allies with France,. 
1702 ; defeated at Blenheim, 1704 ; restored 
to his dominions, 1714 ; d. 26 Feb. 1726. 

1726. Charles Albert ; son ; elected emperor 1742 ; 
defeated, 1744 ; d. 20 Jan. 1745. 

1745. Maximilian-Joseph I. ; son ; as elector ; d. 
30 Dec. 1777 ; end of younger line of Wittels- 
bach. 

1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of the 
Bbine since 1743): The French take Munich ; 
treats with them, 1796; d. 

1799. Maximilian- Joseph II. ; elector ; territories 
changed by treaty of Luneville, 1801 ; en- 
larged when made king, by treaty of Pres- 
bm-g, Dec. 1805. 

KINGS OF BAVARIA. 

1805. Maximilian-Joseph I. He deserted Napoleon, 
and had his enlarged territories confirmed 
to him, Oct. 1813 ; grants a constitutional 
charter, 1818 ; d. 13 Oct. 1825. 

1825. Louis I., 13 Oct. ; abdicated 21 March, 1848 ;* 
died 29 Feb. 1868. 

1848. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; son ; born 28 Nov. 
i8ti ; dies 10 March, 1864. 

1864. Louis II. (son) 10 March ; born 25 Aug. 1845 ; 
Heir : his brother Otho, born 27 April, 1848.. 



* The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused by his attachment to an intriguing woman, 
known throughout Europe by the assumed name of Lola Montes, who, in the end, was expelled the king- 
dom for her interference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering life. She delivered lectures in 
London, in 1859, and thence proceeded to the United States. She died at New York, 17 Jan. 1861. 



BAY 91 BE A 

BAY ISLANDS (the chief, Euatan), in the hay of Honduras, central America, helonged 
to Spain till 1821, then to Great Britain, which formed them into a colony in 1852, hut 
ceded them to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859 ; see Honduras. 

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, said to have heen wroun;ht by Matilda, queen of William T. It 
is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compartments showing the events, from 
the visit of Harold to the Norman court, to his death at Hastings ; it is now preserved in 
the public library of Bayeux near Caen. A copy, drawn by G. Stothard, and coloured after 
the original, was published by the Society of Antiquaries in 1821-3. 

BAYLEN (S. Spain), where on 20 July, 1808, the French, ; commanded by generals Dupont 
and Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Reding, Coupigny, and other generals 
whose force amounted to 25,000. 

BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end of fire-arms, said to have been invented At 
Bayonne, in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used at Killiecrankie in 1689, and 
at Marsaglia by the French, in 1693, "with great success, against the enemy unprepared for 
the encounter with so formidable a novelty." The ring bayonet was adopted by the British, 
24 Sept. 1693. 

BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It was held by the English from 1295 till it 
was taken by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France met here in 1565 the cruel 
duke of Alva, it is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Charles IV. of 
Spain abdicated here in favour of "his friend and ally" the emperor Napoleon, 4 May, and 
his sons, Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, Don Carlos and Don Antonio renounced their rights 
to the Spanish throne, 6 May, 1808. In the neighbourhood of Bayonne was much desperate 
fighting between the French and British armies, 10, 11, and 13 Dec. 1813. Bayonne was 
invested by the British, 14 Jan. 1814 ; on 14 April, the French made a sally, and attacked 
the English with success, but were at length driven back. The loss of the British was con- 
siderable, and lieut. -gen. sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. — A Franco-Spanish 
industrial and fine-arts exhibition was opened at Bayonne in July, 1864. 

BAYREUTH (N. Germany), a margraviate, held formerly hy a branch of the Branden- 
burg family, was with that of Anspach abdicated hy the reigning prince in favour of the 
king of Prussia, 1790. The archives were brought (in 1783) from Plassenhurg to the city of 
Bayreuth, which was incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. 

BAZAAR, or covered market, a word of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magni- 
ficent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order 
of battle. In London the Soho-square bazaar was opened hy Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve 
the relatives of persons killed in the war. The Queen's bazaar, Oxford-street, a very exten- 
sive one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the loss estimated at 50,000?., 27 May, 
1829. It was rebuilt, and converted into the Princess's Theatre, opened 30 Sept. 1841. 
The St. James's bazaar (built by Mr. Crockford) in 1832. The Pantheon made a bazaar in 1834. 
The London Crystal-palace bazaar, 1858. The most imposing sale termed a bazaar was opened 
for the benefit of the Anti-Corn-Law League, in Covent-garden theatre, 5 May, 1845 ; in six 
weeks 25,000?. was obtained, mostly by admission money. The Corinthian bazaar, Argyll- 
street, Oxford-street (to replace the bazaar at the Pantheon) was opened 30 July, 1867 ; 
see Pantheon. 

BEACH Y HEAD, a promontory, S.E. Sussex, near which the British and Dutch fleet, 
commanded by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a superior French force under admiral 
Tourville, 30 June, 1690 ; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch lost two admirals, 500 
men, and several ships — sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemy ; 
the Enghsh lost two ships and 400 men. The admirals on both sides were blamed ; ours, for 
not fighting ; the French, for not pursuing the victory. 
BEACONS, see Lighthouses. 

BEADS were early i^sed in the east for reckoning prayers. St. Augustin mentions them 
366. About 1090, Peter the Hermit is said to have made a series of 55 beads. To Dominic 
de Guzman is ascribed the invention of the Rosary (a series of 15 large and 150 small beads), 
in honour of the Blessed Virgin, about 1202. Beads soon after were in general use. The 
Bead-roll was a list of deceased persons, for the repose of whose souls a certain number of 
prayers was recited. Beads have been found in British barrows. 

BEAM AND Scales. The apparatus for weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so 
much at the king's beam." A public beam was set up in London, and all commodities 
ordered to be weighed by the city ofiicer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice 
between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 1309. Stow. Beams and scales, with weights and 
measures, were ordered to be examined by the justices at quarter sessions, 35 Geo. HI. I794> 
see Weights and Measures, 



BEA 92 BED 

BEANS, Black and White, were used by the ancients in gathering the votes df the 
people for the election of magistrates. A wliite bean signified absolution, and a black one 
condemnation. The precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, abstine a fahis, has been 
variously interpreted. " Beans do not favour mental tranquillity." Cicero. The finer kinds 
of beans were brought here with other vegetables, in Henry VIII. 's reign. 

BEAE-BAITING, an ancient popular English sport, prohibited by parliament in 1835. 

BEARDS. * The Egyptians did not wear beards ; the Assyrians did. They have been 
worn for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to mar their beards, 1490 B.C. Lev. 
xix. 27. The Tartars waged a long war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because 
they would not cut their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards 
till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest the beard should 
give a handle to their enemies, 330 B.C. Beards were worn by the Eomans, 297 B.C. The 
emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled " Misopogon'") against wearing beards, A.D. 362. — 
In England, they were not fashionable after the conquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and 
were discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great enjoined the Russians, even of rank, 
to shave, but was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. Since 185 1 
the custom of wearing the beard gradually increased. 

BEARN, S. France, anciently inhabited by the Beneharri, was held successively by the 
Romans, Franks, Goths, and Gascons, and became a hereditary viscounty in 819 ; under 
Centule I., son of Loup, duke of Gascouy. From his family it passed to the houses — of 
Gabaret, 1134 ; of Moncade, 1170; of Foix, 1290; and of Bourbon, 1550. It was united 
to France by Henry IV., 1594 ; edict issued 1620. 

BEAUGE, see Anjoxi. 

BEAULIEU, Abbey of, (reformed Benedictines) founded by king John, in the ISTew 
Forest, Hampshire, in 1204, and dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, had the privilege of sanc- 
tuary. It afforded an asylum to Margaret, queen of Henry VI., after the defeat of the earl 
of Warwick at Barnet, 14 April, 147 1 ; and also to Perkin Warbeck, 1497. 

BEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient Bellovaci, formerly capital of Picardy. When 
besieged by Charles the Bold, d^ike of Burgundy, with 80,000 men, the women iinder Jeanne 
Fourquet or Laind, also de la Hachette, from her using that weapon, particularly distin- 
guished themselves, and the duke raised the siege, 10 July, 1472. In memory of this the 
women of Beauvais walk first in the procession on the anniversary of their deliverance. 
Henault. 

BECKET'S MURDER.+ Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
the altar, 29 Dec. 11 70. The king was absolved of guilty knowledge of the crime in 11 72, 
and did penance at the tomb in 11 74. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and 
jewels in 1220 ; but were burned in the reign of Heniy VIII. 1539. The Merchant Adven- 
turers were at one time termed " the Brotherhood of St. Thomas k Becket." 

BED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were afterwards made of loose rushes, heather, 
or straw. The Romans are said to have first used feathers. Feather-beds were in use in 
England in the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the Egyptians and later Greeks, like 
modern couches, became common among the Roman upper classes. The ancient great bed 
at Ware, Herts, capable of holding twelve persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles Dickens, 
6 Sept. 1864. A bedstead of gold was presented to the queen on 2 Nov. 1859, by the 
Maharajah of Cashmere. Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manufacture of 
india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by Macintosh in 1823. Dr. Arnott's hydrostatic 
bed was invented in 1830. 

BED OF Justice, a French court presided over by the king, whose seat was termed a 
" bed." It controlled the ordinances of the parliament. The last was held by Louis XVI. 
at Versailles^ 19 Nov. 1787, to raise a loan. 

* A bearded woman was taken by the Eussians at the battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, 
Peter I. 1724 : her beard measiired ij yard. A woman is said to have been seen at Paris with a bushy 
beard, and her whole body covered'with hair. Din. de Trevovx. The great Margaret, governess of the 
Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black 
beard. Mdlle. Bois de Chene, born at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in London, in 1852-3, 
when, consequently, eighteen years of age ; she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black beard, large 
whisker.s, and thick hair on her arms and down from her neck on her back, and masculine features. 

+ Thomas Becket was bom in 1119. His father Gilbert was a London trader, and his mother is stated 
to have been a convert from Mahomedanism. He was educated at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theo- 
bald, archbishop of Canterbury, who introduced him to the king Henry II. He became chancellor in 1155, 
but on being elected archbishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned the chancellorship, to the great offence 
of the king. He opposed strenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, and fled the counfry ; and 
in n66, excommunicated all the clergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king met at Fretville, 
in Touraine, on July 22, 1170, and were formally reconciled. On his return he re-commenced his struggle 
with the king, which led to his tragical death. 



BED 93 BEH 

BEDER (Arabia). Here Maliomet gained his first victory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 
623. It was considered to be miraculous. 

BEDFORD, atownKN.W. London, renowned for its many free educational establish- 
ments chdowed in 1561 by sir Wm. Harpur, a London Alderman. Here John Buuyan 
preached, wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress," and died (in 1688). 

BEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great fen districts in the eastern counties, drained 
in the early part of the 17th centmy by the earl of Bedford, aided by the celebrated Dutch 
engineer, sir Cornelius Vermuyden, amid great opposition ; see Levels. 

BEDLAM, see Bethlehem. 

BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. They 
profess a form of Mahomedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descen- 
dants of Ishraael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting him, Gen. xvi. 12, 191 1 B.C. 

BEEF-EATERS, see Battle-axe. 

BEEF-STEAK SOCIETY, the members of which dine together in a room behind the 
Lyceum theatre, was founded in 1735 by John Rich, patentee of Coveut-garden theatre, and 
George Lambert, the scene-painter, in whose work-room the society originated. Beef-steak 
clubs existed in 1709 and 1733. 

BEER, see A le, Porter, Victuallers. 

BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferoiis flowers, thyme, and abundance of 
honey, has been poetically called the "empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, was also 
famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages ; and 
Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 B.C. There are 292 species of the bee or 
apis genus, and 1 1 1 in England. Bees were first inti'oduced into Boston, New England, by 
the English in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent. Mandeville's satirical 
" Fable of the Bees " appeared in 1723. Huber published his observations on bees in 1792. 
The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Muswell Hill, near London (1860-2). The 
Ligurian variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced into England in i860. 

BEES', ST., Cumberland. A monastery was founded here by St. Bega, 650; a grammar 
school by abp. Grindall, 1583 ; a clerical training college by bp. Law, 181 7. 

BEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in England. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for 
the table as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the ivhite beet-root in 1747. M. 
Achard produced excellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France, at the 
instance of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 60,000 tons of 
sugar, about half the consumption, are now manufactured in France from beet. It is also 
largely manufactured in other countiies. A refinery of sugar from beet-root has been erected 
at the Thames bank, Chelsea. 

BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, being often musicians and ballad-singers. In 
modern times severe laws have been passed against them. In 1572, by 14 Eliz. c. 5, sturdy 
beggars were ordered to be "grievously whipped and burnt through the right ear;" 
punished capitally for the 3rd otience. By the Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all 
public beggars are liable to a month's imprisonment. About 30,000 tramps in England and 
"Wales. Judicial statistics, 1865. See Four Laws mid Mendicity Society. The "Beggar's 
Opeea," by John Gay, a satire against the government of sir Robert Walpole, was produced 
at the Lincoln 's-inn-fields theatre, 1727, and had a run of 63 nights ; see Gueux. 

BEGUINES, a congregation of nuns first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, 
in 1207, some say 1226. The "Grand Beguinage" of Bruges was the most extensive. Some 
of these nuns imagined that they could in this life arrive at impeccability. The council of 
Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a branch of the order in 13 11. They still exist 
in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to the sick and wounded, &c. 

BEHEADING, the Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Normandy 
(as a less ignominious mode of putting high oriminiils to death) by William the Conqueror, 
1076, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and Northumberland, was first so 
executed. Since then this mode of execution became frequent, particularly in the reigns of 
Henry VIII. and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood thus perished.* 

BEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a rock containing important inscriptions in 
three languages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which were deciphered and 

* Lady .Jane Grey was beheaded Feb. 12, 1554. The venerable countess of Salisbury -was executed 
27 May, 1541. Wh-n directed to lay her head on the block, she refused to do it : sayiug that .she knew of 
no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminiil. The executioner pursued her round the scaffold, 
aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, after maughng the neck and shoulders in a horrifying 
manner. She was daughter of George, duke of Clarence. Hume. 



BEH 



94 



BEL 



translated by sir H. Eawlinson in 1844-6, and published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society. Each paragraph commences with " I am Darius the Great King." 

BEHRING'S STRAIT, discovered by captain Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the 
service of Russia. He thus proved that the continents of Asia and America are distant 
from each other about thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring' s island in 1741. In 
1788 captain James Cook accurately surveyed the coast of both continents. 

BELFAST, capital of Flster, IST. Ireland. Its castle, supposed to have been built by 
John de Courcy, was destroyed by the Scots under Edward Bruce, 1315 ; see Orange. 

Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur 
Chichester, then lord deputy, 1612 ; and 
erected into a corporation .... 1613 

The long bridge (21 arches, 2562 feet long) 
built 1682-6 

The first edition of the Bible published in Ire- 
land, printed here 1704 

The castle burnt . . . . ■ . April, 1708 

The bank built 1787 

The mechanics' institute established . . . 1825 

The Queen's bridge (5 arches) built on site of 
the long bridge 1841 

Of three colleges established in Ireland in 1845, 
one inaugurated in Belfast, (see Colleges) Oct. 1849 

BELGIUM, late the southern portion of the kingdom of the ISTetherlands, and anciently 
the territory of the Belgfe, who were finally conquered by Julius Ctesar, 51 B.C. Its size is 
about one-eighth of Great Britain. Its government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, 
founded in 1831. For previous history, see Flanders, Netherlands, and Holland. The 
population, 31 Dec. 1862, was, 4,836,566; 1865, 4,984,451. 



Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna's 

open-air preaching, . . July — Sept. 1857 

Victoria chambers were burnt down ; the loss 

was estimated at ioo,oooJ. . . i July, 1859 
Exciting religious revivals . . . Se^jt. „ 
Pierce conflicts between Bonian Catholics and 
Protestants on account of the foundation of 
the O'Connell monument at Dublin — 9 lives 
lost and 150 persons injured . 10-27 Aug. 1864 
Rioting again .... 30 April, 1865 
Election riots . . . . . July, ,, 
Visit of the lord lieutenant the inarq\iess of 
Abercorn 2-4 Oct. 1867 



The revolution commences at Brussels, 25 Aug. 1830 
The provisional government declares Belgium 

independent 4 Oct. ,, 

Antwerp taken (except the citadel) . 23 Dec. ,, 
Belgian independence acknowledged by the 

allied powers 26 Dec. „ 

Duke de Nemours elected king (his father, the 

French king, refused his consent) . 3 Feb. 1831 
Surlet de Chokier is elected regent 24 Feb. ,, 
Leopold, prince of Coburg, elected king, 12 July, 

enters Brussels .... 19 July, ,, 
The king of the Netherlands commences war, 

3 -^ug. „ 
France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, 

and an armistice ensues . . . Aug. „ 
Conference of ministers of the five great powers 

held in London : acceptance of 24 articles of 

pacification 15 Nov. ,, 

Convention between England and France 

against Holland .... 22 Oct. 1832 
Antwerp besieged, 30 Nov. ; and taken by the 

French . . . . . .23 Dec. ,, 

The French army returns to France 27 Dec. ,, 
Riot at Brussels (see Brusseh) . . 6 April 1834 
Ti-eaty* between Holland and Belgium signed 

in London 19 April, 1839 

Queen of England visits Belgium . . Aug. 1852 
The king and his son visit England . Oct. ,, 
Increase of army to 100,000 men voted 10 May, 1853 
Opposition to religious charities' bill t June, 1857 
A new ministry under M. Charles Rogier 9 Nov. ,, 
The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled 10 Dec. ,, 
The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the 

Italian war May, 1859 

Death of M. Potter .... 22 July, „ 
The king visits England . , . June, i860 
Vague rumours of annexation to Franceproduce 

warm loyal addresses to the king 13 June, ,, 
The octrois aboHshed . . . 21 July, ,, 



Successful military volunteer movement Aug. i860 

Commercial treaty with France signed i May, 1861 

Continued illness of the king ; with occasional 
amendment .... May, June, 1862 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted 
by the chamber .... 22 Aug, ,, 

Great distress through decay of trade Aug. ,, . 

Fierce dissensions between Roman Catholics, 
Jan. ; the ministry resigns, but resumes 
of&ce, 4 Feb. ; dissolution of the chambers, 
17 July; the Protestants superior in the 
election Aug. 1864 

Death of Leopold 1 10 Dec. 1865 

The new king and queen visit England, 5 July; 
and Ghent and other Belgian cities July, 1866 

National rifle meeting (tir) . . 12-16 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Phillips, lord-mayor of London ; iioo 
English volunteers visit Belgium under col. 
lord Lindsay ; and other foreigners attend ; 
grand banquet given by the king at Brussels, 

20 Oct. „ 

Opening of the chambers ; with a re-assuring 
speech from the king . . . 13 Nov. ,, 

Violent rioting in mining districts (Marchienne- 
au-Pont) ; on account of reduction in wages ; 
suppressed by the military . . 1-2 Feb. 1867 

About 2400 Belgians (of the garde civique and 
volunteers) visit England ; arrive, 10 July ; . 
received by lord mayor, 12 July ; by prince 
of Wales at Wimbledon, 13 July ; dine at 
Windsor, 16 July ; at a ball at Agricultural 
Hall, 18 July ; received by Miss Burdett- 
Coutts, 19 July; attend the review at Wim- 
bledon, 20 July ; leave London, 22 July, ,, 

KINGS. 

1831. Leopold,! first king of the Belgians ; boi'n 
16 Dec. 1790 ; inaugurated 21 July, 1831, at 



* This treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question ; by the decision of 
which, the treaty of 15 Nov. 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of 
francs offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared inadmissible. 

t At the revolution in 1830, the Roman Cathohc clergy lost the administration of the pubUc charities, 
which they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 1857, M. Decker, the head of the ministry, 
brought in a bill for this purpose ; the principle of which was carried. This led, however, to so much 
agitation, that the ministrj' were compelled to withdraw the bill, aiid eventually to resign. 

t Leopold married, in May, 1816, the princess Charlotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent, 
afterwards George IV. of England ; she died in childbed, 6 Nov. 1S17. 



BEL 95 BEL 

BELGIUM, continued. 

Bnissels ; married 9 Aug. 1832, Louise, 1 1S65. Leopold II., son ; bom 9 April, 1835 ; mar- 
eldest daughter of Louis Philippe, king of ried archduchess Maria of Austria, 22 Aug., 
tho French ; (she died ir Oct. 1850). He 1853. 
died 10 Dec. 1S65. 1 Heir. Leopold Ferdinand, born 12 June, 1859. 

BELGRADE, an ancient citj'- in Servia, on tlie right bank of the Danube. It was taken 
from the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, in 1086 ; gallantly defended by John 
Huniades against the Turks, under Mahomet IL, July to Sept. 1456, when the latter was 
defeated with the loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan Solynian, 1521, and 
retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by the Turks, 1690. It 
was besieged in May, 171 7, by prince Eugene. On 5 Aug. of that year, the Turkish_army, 
200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought at Petcr- 
waradein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after this battle Belgrade surrendered. In 
1739 it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been demolished. It Avas 
retaken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Eeichenbach, in 1790. The Servian insurgents 
had possession of it in 1806. In 1815 it was placed under prince Milosch, subject to Turkey. 
The fortifications were restored in 1820. On 19 June, 1862, the Turkish pacha was dis- 
missed for firing on the town during a riot. University established by private munificence, 
1863. The fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Servians aboiit Aug. 1867 ; see Servia. 

fJELGRAVIA, the south-western district of the metropolis, built between 1826 and 1852 
npon land belonging to the marquis of Westminster, who is also viscount Belgrave. 

BELL, Book, and Caxdle : in the Romish ceremony of excommunication {ivhich see), 
the bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extinguished ; the efi'ect being to exclude the 
excommunicated from the society of the faithful, divine service, and the sacraments. Its 
origin is ascribed to the 8tli century. 

BELL-ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in front of the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in 
Great Britain ; it is 115 feet high, is built upon a rock that measures 427 feet in length and 
200 feet in breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was erected in 1806-10 ; it is 
provided with two bells for hazy weather. 

BELLAIR, in north America. The town was attacked by the British forces under sir 
Peter Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, were repulsed with considerable loss ; 
their gallant commander was killed 30 Aug. 1814. 

BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of Brittanj'^, France, erected into a duchy for 
marshal Bellei.sle, in 1742, in reward of his militarj'- and diplomatic services, by Louis XV. 
Belleisle was taken by the British forces imder commodore Keppel and general Hodgson, 
after a desperate resistance, 7 June, 1761, but was restored to France, in 1763. 

BELLES-LETTRES or Polite Learning, sec Academies, and Literature. 

BELLMEiSr, appointed in London to proclaim the hour of the night before public clocks 
became general, were numerous about 1556. They were to ring a bell at night and cry 
"Take care of your fire and candle, be charitable to tlie poor, and pray for the dead." 

BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been theinventor of them, about 
569 B.C. ; to him is also ascribed the invention of tindei-, the potter's wheel, anchors for 
ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The production of the 
great leviathan bellows of our foundries (suggested by the diminutive domestic bellows) must 
have been early, but we cannot trace the time ; see Bloiuing- Machines. 

BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The responses of the Dodonajan 
oracle were in part conveyed by bells. Strabo. The monument of Porsenna was decorated 
by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Said to have been introduced by Pauliuus, 
bishop of Nola, iu Campagna, about 400 ; and first known in France in 550. The army of 
Clothaire 1 1., king of France, Avas frightened from the siege of Sens b}"- the ringing of the 
bells of St. Stephen's church. The second excerption of our king Egbert commands every 
priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. Bells were used in churches by 
order of pope John IX., about 900, as a defence, by ringing them, against thunder and 
lightning. First cast in England bj'^ Turketel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His 
successor improved the invention, and caused the first tuneable set to be put up at Croyland 
abbey, 960. Stotv. The celebrated "Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 1805), has been 
frequently translated. The following list is that given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison in his 
discourse on bells at the Royal Institution, 6 March, 1857. 

* Upon this rock, tradition says, the abbots of the ancient monastery of Aberbrothock fixed a bell (the 
Inchcape bell) in such a manner that it was rung by the impulse of the sea, thus warning mariner.s of their 
impending danger. Tradition also tells us that this apparatus was carried away by a Dutchman, who was 
afterwards lost upon the rock, with his ship and crew. 



BEL 



96 



BEN 



BELLS, continued. 

Weigh t— Tons Cwt. 
Moscow, 1736;* broken, 



1737 • 

Another, 1817 . 


. no ? 


Three others 


16 to 31 


Novgorod . 


. 31 


Olmiitz 


. . 1718 


Vienna, 1711 


■ 17 14 


Westminster, 1856,! ' 


'Big 


Ben " 


. . IS 8J 


Erfurt, 1497 


. 13 IS 


Westminster, 1858,! 


'St. 


Stephen " . 


. . 13 lOS 



Weight— Tons Cwt. 

Sens 13 ? 

Paris, 1680 . . . . 12 16 

Montreal, 1847 . . 12 15 

Cologne, 1448 . . . II 3 

Breslau, 1507 . . . 11 o 

Gorlitz 10 17 

York, 184s . . . 10 15 

Bruges, 1680 . . . 10 5 
St. Peter's, Rome . .80 

Oxford, 1680 . . . 7 12 

Lucerne, 1636 . . . 7 11 

Halberstadt, 1457 . . 7 10 



Weight— Ions Cwt. 
Antwei-p . 
Brussels 
Dantzio, 1453 . 
Lincoln, 1834 
St, Paul's, 1716 § . 
Ghent . 
Boulogne, new 
Exeter, 1675 
Old Lincoln, 1610 
Fourth quarter-bell, West- 
minster, 1857 . . . 



7 3 
7 i| 
6 I 
5 8 
5 4 
4 iS 
4 18 
4 10 5 
4 8 



Binding of Bells, in changes of regular peals, 
is almost peculiar to the English, who boast of 
having brought the practice to an art. There 
were formerly societies of ringers in London. 
Holden. A sixth bell was added to the peal of five, 
in the church of St. Michael, 1430. Stoio. Nell 
Gvrynne left the ringers of the bells of St. Martin's- 
in-the-fields money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, 
and many others have done the same. 



Baptism of Bells. — They were anointed and 
baptized in churches it is said from the loth century. 
Du Fres7ioy. The bells of the xjriory of Little Dun- 
mow, in Essex, were baptized by the names of St. 
Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, &c., 
in 1501. Weerer. The great bell of Notre Dame, of 
Paris, was baptized by the name of duke of Angou- 
Igme 1816. On the continent, in Roman Catholic 
states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with 
reUgious solemnity. Ashe. ' 

BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia (S. Asia). The capital was taken by the British 
in the Afghan war, in 1839 ; abandoned in 1840 ; taken and held for a short time in 1841. 

BELVIDERE EXPLOSION, see Gtmpuwder (note). 

BENAE.ES, in India, a holy city of the Hindoos, abounding in temples. It was ceded 
by the nabob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the Engli.sh in 1775. An insurrection took 
place here, which had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan, 1781. The 
rajah, Cheyt Sing, was deposed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, capt. Conway, 
and others, were assassinated at Benares, by vizier Alj'^, 14 Jan. 1799. In June, 1857, col. 
Neil succeeded in suppressing attempts to join the Sepoy mutiny ; see India. 

BENBUEB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here O'Neill totally defeated the English under 
Monroe, 5 June, 1646. Moore says that it was "the only great victory since the days of 
Brian Boru, achieved by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland. " 

BENCOOLEN (Sumatra). The English East India company made a settlement here 
which preserved to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had dispossessed them of Bantam, 
1682. Anderson. York fort was erected by the East India company, 1690. In 1693 ^ 
dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned by the town beiug built on a pestilent morass : 
among others the governor and council perished. The French, inider count D'Estaign, 
destroyed the English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced to a residency under the 
government of Bengal, in 1801, and was ceded to the Dutch, in 1824, in exchange for their 
possessions in Malacca ; see India. 

BENDEE, Bessarabia, European Eussia, was the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden, 
after his defeat at Pultowaby the czar Peter the Great, 8 July, 1709. The peace of Bender 
was concluded in 171 1. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, in Sept. 1770 ; was 
again taken by Potemkin in 1789, and again stormed in 1809. It was restored at the peace 
of Jass}'', but i-etained at the peace of 1812. 

BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded by St. Benedict (lived 480-543), who 
introduced the monastic life into western Europe, in 529, when he founded the monastery 
on Monte Casino in Campania, and eleven others afterwards. His J!leg2Ua Monachomm (rule 
of the monks) soon became the common rule of western monachism. No religious order has 
been so remarkable for extent, wealth, and men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. 

* The metal has been valued, at the lowest estimate, at 66,565!. Gold and silver are said to have been 
thrown in as votive offerings. 

t The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner 
of works), cast at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, under the superintendence of Mr. E. 
Becket Denison, and the rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 3343?. 14s. gd. The composition was 22 parts 
copper and 7 tin. The diameter was 9 ft. s\ in. ; the height 7 ft. 10^ m. The clapper weighed 12 cwt. 
Rev. W. Taylor. 

I The bell " Big Ben " having been found to be cracked on 24 Oct. 1857, it was broken up and another 
bell cast wiih the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, AVhitechapel. It is rath erditlerent in shape 
from its predecessor, " Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its diameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7ft. 10 in. 
It was struck for the first time, 18 Nov. 1858. The clapper weighs 6 cwt.— half that of the former bell. 
The note of the bell is E natural ; the quarter-bells being G, B, E, F. On 1 Oct. 1859, this bell was also 
found to be cracked. 

§ The clapper of St. Paul's bell weighs 180 lbs. ; the diameter of the bell is 10 feet, and its thickness 
10 inches. The hour strikes upon this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones ; see Clocks. 



BEISr 97 BER 

Among its "branches tlie oMef were the Cistercians, founded in 1098, and reformed by St. 
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 11 16; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux (hence 
Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 1084. The Benedictine order was introduced into 
England by Augustin, in 596 ; and William I. built au abbey for it on the plain where the 
battle of "Hastings Avas fought, io56 ; see BaUU-Abhcy. William de Warrenne, earl of 
Warrenne, built a convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. "At Hammersmith is a nunnery, 
whose inmates are denominated Benedictine dames." Leigh. Of this order it is reckoned 
that there have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 bishops, 
4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was 
canonised. Baroniits. The Benedictines have taken little part in politics, but have 
produced many valuable works : especially the congregation of St. Maur, who published the 
celebrated I'A rt dc Verifier Us Bates, in 1 750, and edited many ancient authors. 

BENEFICE (literaEy a good deed or favour), or Fief. Clerical benefices originated in 
the 12th centiny, when the priesthood began to imitate the feudal lay system of holding 
lands for performing certain duties : till then the priests were supported by alms and obla- 
tions at mass. Vicarages, rectories, perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed benefices, 
in contradistinction to dignities, bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a 
view, to a small part or to none. — All benefices that should become vacant in the space of 
six months, were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 1534. Notitia Monastica. 
Au act for the augmentation of poor benefices, by the sale of some of those in the presenta- 
tion of the lord chancellor, was passed in 1863. 

BENEFIT OF CLERGY, see Clercjij. BENEFIT SOCIETIES, see Friendly Societies. 

BENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient city in South Italy, said to have been 
founded by Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyrrhus of Macedon, during his 
invasion of Italy, was totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.C. Near it was erected 
the triumphal arch of Trajan, A.D. 114. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the 
Lombards, 571. At a battle fought here, 26 Feb. 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was 
defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who thus became virtually master of Italy. The 
castle was built 1323 ; the town .was nearly destroyed by an earthcjualce, 1688, when the 
archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed 
to its subsequent rebuilcling, 1703. It was seized by the king of Naples, but restored 
to the pope on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de Perigord, Bonaparte's 
arch-chancellor, had the title of prince of Benevento conferred upon him. Benevento was 
taken by the French, 1798, and restored to the pope in 1814. 

BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed 
by our Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied by Edward IV. 1473, by Richard 
lil. 1485 (although a statute forbidding them was enacted in 1484), by Henry VII. 1492 ; 
and by James I. in 16 13, on occasion of the marriage of the princess Elizabeth with the king 
of Bohemia. In 1615 Oliver St. John, M. P., was fined 5000Z., and chief justice Coke 
disgraced, for severely censuring such modes of raising money. Benevolences were declared 
illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. 

BENGAL, chief presidency of British India, containing Calcutta, the capital. Its 
governors Avere delegated by the sovereigns of Dellii, till 1340, when it became independent, 
it was added to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529 ; see India and Calcutta. 

The English first permitted to trade to Bengal 1534 | India Bill ; Bengal made chief j^residency _; 

They establish, a settlement at Hooghly about 1652 

Factories of the French and Danes set up . . 1664 

Bengal made a distinct agency . . . . 16S0 

The English settlement removed to Fort 'William 1698 

Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal 

in the company, by which, it gained the 

sovereignty of the country . . 12 Aug. 1765 

BENZOLE, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in oils (1825), 
and by C. B. Mansfield in coal tar (1849), the latter of whom unfortunately died in con- 
se(juence of being severely burnt while experimenting on it (25 Feb. 1855). Benzole has 
l)ecome useful in the arts. Chemical research has produced from it aniline (ivhich sec), the 
source of the celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, &c., and others. 

BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic poem, describing events which probably 
occurred in the middle of the 5th century, and supposed to have been written subsequent 
to 597. An edition by Kemble was published in 1833. It has been translated by Kemble, 
Thorpe, and Wackerbath. 

BERBICE (British Guiana, S. America), settled by the Dutch, 1626, who surrendered 
it to the British, 23 April, 1796, and 22 Sept. 1803 ; and finally in 18 14. 



supreme court of judicature established 

16 June, 1773 
Bishop of Calcutta appointed . . . 21 July, 1S13 

Eailvj-ay opened 15 Aug. 1S54 

Awful famine in Orissa, (icldck see) . . 1865-66 

Lieut.-govemor, Hon. Wm. Grey . . . 1867 



BER 98 BER 

BERENGARIANS, followers of Berengarms, arclideacon of Angers, who about 1049 
opposed the Romish doctrine of traiisubstaaitiation or the real presence in the Lord's supper. 
Several councils of the church condemned his doctrine. After much controversy he recanted 
about 1059, and died grieved and wearied in 1088. 

BEEESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the French main army after its defeat by the 
Russians, 25-29 Nov. 1812. The Freuch lost upwards of 20,000 men, and their retreat was 
attended by great calamity and suffering. 

BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of the line of its counts, in 1348, was incorporated 
with Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 1806. The principal j)art is now held 
by Prussia. 

BERGEN (in Germany), Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, 
13 April, 1759. — (In Holland). The allies under the duke of York were defeated by the 
French, under gen. Brime, with great loss, 19 Sept. 1799. In another battle, fought 2 Oct. 
same year, the duke gained the victory over Brune ; but on the 6th, the duke was defeated 
before Alkmaer, and on the 20th entered into a convention, by which his army was exchanged 
for 6000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, in Holland. This place, whose works were deemed impregnable, 
was taken by the French, 16 Sept. 1747, and again in 1795. An attempt- made by the 
British under general sir T. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), to carry the fortress by 
storm, was defeated ; after forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut oif, and a dreadful 
slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, 8 March, 1814. 

BERGERAC, France. Here the earl of Derby defeated the French, in 1344, and here a 
treaty of peace between the Catholics and Protestants, establishing liberty of conscience, 
was signed 17 Sept. 1577. It was only temporary. 

BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was begun by Henry I. in 1 108, and finished in 
the next reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by the contrivance of his queen 
Isabella (a princess of France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of March, 21 Sept. 1327. 
Mortimer was hanged at the Elms, near London, 29 Nov. 1330 ; and Edward III. confined ' 
his mother in her own house at Castle Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till her death. 

BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg), alleged to have been 
foiinded by the margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. Its five districts were united under 
one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia. It was taken 
by an army of Russians and Austrians in 1 760 ; but they were obliged to retire in a few 
days. Establishment of the Academy of Sciences 1702 ; of the University 1810. On 27 
Oct. 1806, after the battle of Jena (14 Oct.), the French entered Berlin; and from this 
place Napoleon issued the famous Berlin decree or interdict against the commerce of England, 
20 Nov. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and ordered all English- 
men found in countries occupied by French troops to be treated as prisoners of war. On 5 
Nov. 1808, Napoleon entered into a convention with Prussia, by which he remitted to Prussia 
the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew many of his troops to reinforce his armies in 
Spain. The raihvay to !Magdeburg was o})ened 10 Sept. 1841. The first constituent 
assembly was held here on 21 June, 1842. An insurrection commenced here in March 1848, 
and Berlin was declared in a state of siege, 12 Nov. 1848. The continuation of this state 
was declared to be illegal without its concurrence by the lower chamber, 25 April, 1849. A 
treaty of peace between Prussia and Saxony, was signed on 21 Oct. 1866 ; see Prussia. 

BERLIN WORK, see Emhroiderij. 

BERMUDAS or Somees' Isles a group in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by 
Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522 or 1527, but not inhabited until 1609, when sir George 
Somers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a stat. 9 James I. 1612. Among 
the exiles from England during the civil war, was "Waller, the poet, who wrote, while resi- 
dent here, a poetical description of the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, 3 1 Oct. 
1 780, and by another, a third of the houses was destroyed, and the shipping driven ashore, 
20 Julj', 1 8 13. Governor, sir Fred. E. Chapman, 1867. 

BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of taste and virtu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq., 
many years chairman of committees of Avays and means in the house of commons. He died 
26 Aug. 1854. The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enormous prices were given. 
The total sum realised Avas 62,68oZ. 6s. ?>d. 

BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a monastery founded on it by Bernardine 
Menthon in 962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, covered with j^erpetual 
snow. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass into Italy (218 B.C.) ; 
and by the same route, in May, 1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the battle of 



BEE 99 BHU 

Marengo, 14 June. Ou the summit of Great St. Bernard is a community of monks, who 
entertain travellers. 

BERJSTARDINES or "White Monks, a strict order of Cistercian monks, established by 
St. Bernard, of Clairvaux, about 11 15. He founded many monasteries. 

BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, joined the Swiss League 1352 ; the town 
Berne was made a free city by the emperor Frederick, May, 1218 ; it successfully resisted 
Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1288. It surrendered to the French under general Brune, 12 April, 
1798. The town has bears for its arms, and some of these animals are still maintained ou 
funds specially provided for the purpose. It was made capital of Switzerland, 1848. 

BERRY (the ancient Biturigum regis), central France, held by tlie Romans since the 
conquest by Cfesar (58-50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visigoths ; from whom it was 
taken by Clovis in a.d. 507. It was erected into a duchy by John in 1360, and was not 
incorporated into the royal domains till 1601. 

BERSAGLIERI, the sharpshooters of the Sardinian army, first employed about 1848. 

BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town on the north-east extremity of England, the 
theatre of many bloody contests while England and Scotland were two kingdoms ; it was 
claimed by the Scots because it stood on their side of the river. It was annexed to England 
in 1333 ; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to England 
in 1482. In 155 1 it was made independent of both kingdoms. The town surrendered to 
Cromwell in 1648, and aftenvards to general Monk in 1659. Since the union of the crowns 
(James I. 1603), the strong fortifications have been much neglected. 

BESSARABIA, a frontier province of European Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After 
being possessed by the Goths, Huns, &c., it was conquered by the Turks in 1474, and ceded 
to Russia in 18 12. 

BESSEMER STEEL, see Steel. 

BETHLEHEM (Syria) now contains a large convent, enclosing, as is said, the very birth- 
place of Christ ; a church erected by the empress Helena, in the form of ti cross, about 325 ; 
a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, Avhere they j^retend to show the manger in 
which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy 
Innocents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — The Bethlehemite monks existed in 
England in 1257. 

BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from having been originally the hospital of St. 
Mary of Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of lunatics, incorporated by Henry 
VIII. in 1547. The old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1675, pulled down in 
1814, was built in imitation of the Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. George's- 
fields was begun April, 1812, and opened in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were 
completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirke, costing between nine and ten 
thousand pounds. 

BETHUNE, France, an independent lordship since the nth century, was annexed to 
the monarchy by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, after several changes. 

BETTING-HOUSES, affording much temptation to gaming, and consequent dishonesty, 
in the lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119). 

BEYR.OUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was 
destroyed by an earthquake, 566 ; was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the 
Christians and Saracens ; and after many changes, fell into the power of Amurath IV., 
since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. 
The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, 
and evacuation of Beyrout (the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 
twenty pieces of cannon), took place 10 Oct. 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral 
engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence of the massacres in Syria in May i860. 
In Nov. i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger of starving ; see Syria. 

BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, vvith whom a treaty was made 25 April, 
1774. After fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by the British in Dec. 1864, in 
consequence of injurious treatment of an envoy; see hulia, 1864-5. 

BHURTPORE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, was besieged by the British, 3 Jan. 1805, 
and attacked five times up to 21 March, without success. The fortress was taken by general 
Lake, after a desperate engagement with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, 2 April, 1805. This 
defeat led to a treaty, by which the rajah of Bliurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, 
ceded territories that had been granted to him, and delivered his son as hostage, 17 April, 
1805. On the rajah's death, during a revolt against his sou, Bhurtpore was taken by storm, 
by lord Combermere, 18 Jan. 1826 ; see India. 

H 2 



BIA 



100 



BIB 



BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Florence, iu 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines 
or imperial party, headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the Neri (or Blacks), headed by 
Corso de' Donati. The latter banished their opponents, among whom was the poet Dante, 
in 1302. 

BIARGHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons, twins, Eury- 
sthenes and Procles ;- and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be given, 
placed both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 B.C. The descen- 
dants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. Herodotus. 

BIARRITZ, a bathing-place, near Bayonne. Here resided the comtesse de Montijo and 
her daughter Eugenie, now empress of the French, till her marriage, 29 Jan. 1853 ; since 
when it has been frequently visited by the emperor and empress. 

BIBERACH (Wurtemberg). Here Moreau twice defeated the Austrians, — under Latour, 
2 Oct. 1796, and under Kray, 9 May, 1800. 

BIBLE (from the Greek hiblos, a book), the name especially given to the Holy Scriptures. 
The Old Testament is said to have been collected and arranged by Ezra between 458 and 
450 B.C. The Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by the Roman Catholics, but 
not by the Jews and Protestants ; * see Apocrypha. 



OLD TESTAMENT, t 

Genesis contains the history 

of the world from b. c. 4004 — 1635 
Exodus .... 1635 — 1490 
Leviticus . . . . 1490 
Numbers . . . 1490 — 1451 
Deuteronomy . . .1451 
Job . . about 1520 

Joshua . . from 1451 — 1420 



Judges . 

Euth .... 

ist and 2nd Samuel . 
ist and 2nd Kings . . 
ist and 2nd Chronicles 
Book of Psalms (princi- 
pally by David) . . _ 
Proverbs written about 1000 — 700 
Song of Solomon about 1014 
Ecclesiastes . about 977 
Jonah . . . about 862 
Joel . . . about 800 



1425 — 1 1 20 
1322 — 1312 
1171 — 1017 
1015 — 562 
1004— 536 

1063 — 1015 



Amos 
Isaiah , 
Micah 
Nahum. 
Zephaniah 
Jeremiah 
Lamentations 
Habakkuk . 
Daniel 
Ezekiel . 
Obadiah . 
Ezra 

Esther . 
Haggai . 
Zechariah 
Nehemiah 
Malachi . 



. about 785 — 725 

. about 787 

. about 760 — 698 

. about 750 — 710 

. about 713 

. about 630 

. about 629 — 588 

. about 588 

. about 626 

. from 607 — 534 

. from S95— 574 

. about 587 

. about 536 — 456 

. about 521 — 495 

. about 520 

. about 520 — 51S 

. about 446 — 434 

. about 397 



NEW TESTAMENT. 

Gospels by Matthew, Mark, 



Luke, and John B.C. s — a.d. 33 

Acts of the Apostles . a.d. 33 — 65 

Epistles — ist and 2nd to Thes- 

salonians . . about 54 

Galatlans . , . . 58 

ist Corinthians . . 59 

2nd Corinthians . . . 60 

Romans .... 60 

Of James 60 

ist of Peter . . . .60 

To Ephosians, PhiUppians, 

Colossians, Hebrews, 

Philemon . ■ . . 64 

Titus, and ist to Timothy 65 

2nd to Timothy , . 66 

2nd of Peter . . . . 66 

Of Jude 66 

ist, 2nd, and 3rd of John 

after 90 

Revelation do 



The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures 
existed at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it 
was of very early date, probably of the 4th century 
after Christ, some say about 60 years before Christ. 
The copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made 
about noo. 

The oldest copy of the Old and New Testament in 
Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written 
in the 4th or 5th century, and published in 1586. 
The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred 
to the 5th century) iu the British Museum, pre- 
sented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 
1628. It has been printed in England, edited by 
Woide and Baber, 17S6 — 1821. — Codex Ephraemi, 
or Codex Begins, ascribed to the 5th century, in 
the Boyal Library, Paris : published by Tischen- 
dorf in 1843. 

The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. 
The complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by 
Sonoino in Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament 
(edited by Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus's 
edition was printed in 1518; Stephens' in 1546; 
and the textus receptits (or received text) by the 
Elzevirs iu 1624. 



translations. 

The Old Testament, in Greek, termed the Septuagint 
(which see), generally considered to have been made 
by order of Ptolemy PhUadelphus, king of Egypt, 
about 286 or 285 B.C. ; of this many fabulous ac- 
counts are given. 

Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in col- 
lating MSS., commenced his polyglot Bible at 
Csesarea in a.d. 231 ; it contained the Greek ver- 
sions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, all 
made in or about the 2nd century after Christ. 

The following are ancient versions : — Syriac, ist or 
2nd century ; the old LaLin version, early in 
the 2nd century, revised by Jerome, in 384 ; who, 
however, completed a new version in 405, now 
called the Vulgate, (lohich see) ; the first edition 
was printed (without date) about 1456; the first 
dated 1462; — Coptic, 2nd or 3rd century ; Ethiopic; 
Armenian, 4th or sth century ; Sclavonic, 9th 
century; and the Mceso-Gothic, by Ulfilas, the 
apostle of the Goths, about 360, a manuscript copy 
of which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at Upsal. 
The Psalms were translated into Saxon by bishop 
Aldhelm, about 706 ; and the Gospels by bishop 



•■■ In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising a fund for exploring Palestine in order to 
illustrate the Bible by antiquarian and scientific investigation. The first meeting was held 22 June, 1865, 
the archbishop of York in the chair ; see Palestine. 

t The division of the Bible into chapters has been ascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the nth, and to 
archbishop Langton in the 13th, century ; but T. HartweU Home considers the real author to have been 
cardmal Hugo de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th century. The division into sections was 
commenced by Rabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and completed by Athras, a Jew, in 
1661. The present division into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, Robert Stephens, in his 
Greek Testament (1551) and in his Latin Bible (1556-7). 



BIB 



101 



BIC 



^SiT. 



BIBLE, continued. 
Egbert, about 721 ; the whole Bible by Bede, in 
the 8th century. 

ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS.* 

lis. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the 
Bodleian Library, Oxford, dated by Usher . 1290 
ersions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliffe and 
his followers about 1380 

[Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; 
the whole by Madden and Forshall, pubhshed 
, at Oxford 1850.] 

William Tyn dale's version of Matthew and Mark 
from the Greek, 1524; of the whole New Testa- 
ment 1525 or 1526 

Miles Coverdale's version of the whole Bible ; 
printing finished 4 Oct 1535 



[Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir 
of every church, "for every man that would 
to look and read therein."] 

T. Matthews' (fictitious name for John Rogers) 
version (partly by Tyndale t and Coverdale) . 

Cranmer's Great Bible (Matthews' revised) 

Geneva version (the first with figured verses) 

1540- 

Archbishop Parker's, called "The Bishops' 
Bible " (eight of the fourteen persons em- 
ployed being bishops) 

King James' Bible, t the present authorised vei-- 
sion — Translation began 1604 ; published 

Roman Catholic authorised version : New Tes- 
tament, at Rheinis, 1582 ; Old Testament, at 
Douay i6( 

Dr. Benjamin Blayney's revised edition . 

Authorised Jewish English version . .18 



1537 
IS39 



1568 
1611 



Flemish . 

Spanish (Valencian) 

German 

EngUsh . 

French 

Swedish . 

Danish 

Dutch . 



N. TEST. BIBLE. 
. A.D. 1477 
1478 
1S22 
1526 
15T2 
1526 
1524 



1530 
153s 
1530 
I54I 
1550 



Italian . 
Spanish 
Russian (parts) 
Welsh . 
Hungarian 
Bohemian 
Polish 
Virginian Indians 



1 543 
1519 
1567 
1574 

1551 
1661 



BIBLE. 
I471 
■1569 
1822 



1561 
1663 



Irish 

Georgian . 
Portuguese . 
Manks 
Turkish . 
Sanscrit 
Modem Greek 
Chinese . 



N. TEST. 

1602 

1712 
• 1748 
. 1666 
. 1808 
. 1638 
. 1814 



1769 
851-61 

3IBLE. 
1686 
1743 
1748 
1767 
1814 
1822 
182I 
1823 



The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to make and print translations of the Bible 
in all the dialects of the world ; see Polyglot. 

BIBLE DICTIOlSrARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's " Dictionary of the Bible," 
1722-8; Kitto's "Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," 1843; and Smith's "Dictionary of 
the Bible," i860 ; see Concordances.X 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the 
dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following : — 



Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . 1698 
Society for Propagating the Gospel in Poreign 

Parts 1701 

Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian 

Knowledge 1709 

Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge 

among the Poor, 1750; Naval and Military 

Bible Society 1780 



Sunday School Society 1785 

French Bible Society 1792 

British and Foreign Bible Society,§ . . . 1804 

Hibernian Bible Society 1806 

City of London Auxihary Bible Society . . 1812 
A bull from the Pope against Bible 'Societies 

appeared in 1817 



BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the poor), consisting of engravings illustrating 
scripture history, -with tests, carved in wood, a "block book," printed early in the 15th 
century, was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. A fac- 
simile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 1859. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. 



Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and 

Dibdin. 
jE'nf/Zis/j, Watts' Bibliotheca Britannica . . 1S24 
Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual, 1834 (new 

ed. by Bohn) 1857-64 

British Catalogues, by Sampson Low . 1835-6 
French, Querard ...... 1828-64 



Gesner's " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared . 1545 

De Bure's "Bibliographie Instructive," . . 1763 

Peignot, Manuel 1823 

Home, Iiitroductiou to the Study of Biblio- 
graphy 1814 

Brunet's Manuel duLibraire,isted. 1810; 5thed.i862-5 

Scriptaral, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824; 
Darling, BibUographica .... 1854-8 

BIBLIOMANIA (or book-madness) very much prevailed in 181 1, when Dr. Dibdin's 
work with this title was published ; see Boccaccio. 

BICOCCA, N. Italy. Lautrec and the French were here defeated by Colonna and the 
Imperialists, 29 April, 1522, and Francis thereby lost his conquests in Milan. 

* " TJie Bible of Every Land," ed. i860, pubhshed by Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information 
respecting ancient and modern versions of tlie Bible. 

t He was strangled at Antwerp in 1536, at the instigation of Henry VIIT. and his council. His last 
words were, "Lord, open the king of England's eyes !" 14 editions of his Testament had then been 
pubhshed. 

I An "Index to the Persons, Places, and Subjects tDccurring in the Holy Scriptures," compiled by B. 
Vincent, editor of the present work, is sold by the queen's printers. 

§ This society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the Bible or parts of it up to Jan. 1851 : in May, 1863, the 
number had risen to 43,044,334 ; and in 1867 to 52,669,089. In 1857 they published a catalogue of their 
library, which contains a large number of remarkable editions of the Bible. The foundation-stone of their 
new Central hall was laid by the prince of Wales, 11 June, 1866. 



BID 



102 



BIL 



BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord Wellington, having driven the French from 
Spain, effected the passage of this river 8 Oct. 1813, and entered France. 

BIDDENDEN MAIDS. A distribution of bread and cheese to the poor takes place at 
Biddenden, Kent, on Easter Sundays, the expense being defrayed from the rental of twenty 
acres of land, the reputed bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named Chalkhurst. * 

BIGAMY. The Eomans branded the guilty party with an infamous mark ; and in 
England the punishment, formerly, was death. An act respecting it was passed 5 Edw. I. 
1276. Viner's StahUes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, i James I. 1603. 
Punishable as larceny, 35 Geo. III. 1794 ; by imprisonment or transportation. 

BIG BETHEL (Virginia, U.S.). On 10 June, 1861, the Federals were defeated in an 
attack on some Confederate batteries at this place. 

BILBO A (N.E. Spain), founded aboiit 1300 ; was taken by the French in 1795. It was 
delivered from the Carlists by'Espartero, assisted by the British, 24 Dec. 1836. 

BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The still existing right of tendering such a bill to a judge, 
either to his charge, his definition of the law, or to other errors of the court, at a trial 
between parties, was provided by the 2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. T. 1284. 

BILL OF PAINS, &c. ; see Queen Caroline's Trial. BILL OF EIGHTS, &c., see Rights. 

BILLIARDS. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist, about 
1571. Slate billiard tables were introduced in England in 1827. 

BILLINGSGATE, the fish-market in London, is said to have derived its name from 
Belinus Magnus, a British prince, the father of king Lud, 400 B.C., but Stow thinks from a 
former owner. Mortimer. It was the old port of Loudon, and the customs were paid here 
under Ethelred II., A.D. 979. Stoio. Billingsgate was made a free market, 1699. Chatrt- 
herlain. Fish by Jand-c&ma.g&, as well as seaborne, now arrives daily here. In 1849, the 
market was extended and improved, and a new one was erected in 1852, Mr. Bunning, 
architect. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by the Jews as a means of removing their 
property from nations where they Avere persecuted, 1160. Anderson. Bills are said to have 
been used in England, 1307. The only legal mode of sending money fi'om England, 4 
Richard II. 1381. Regulated, 1698; first stamped, 1782; duty advanced, 1797; again, 
June, 1801; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 
1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 
millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. The 
present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The man}'- statutes regarding bills of 
exchange were consolidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating bills of exchange 
passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great alterations were made in the law on the subject by 17 & 
18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855). 

BILLS OF MORTALITY foe, London. These bills were first compiled by order of 
Cromwell, about 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and recognised manner in 
1603, after the great plague of that year. No complete series of them has been preserved. 
They have been superseded by the weekly returns of the registrar-general, since 1837. The 
following show the numbers at decennial periods : — 





CJiristeningS! 


Burials. 


Christenings. Burials. 


Christenings. 


Burials. 


1780 . 


. 16,634 • 


. 20,507 


1810. . . 19,930 . . 19,892 


1840 . . 30,387 


■ 26,774 


1790 


. . 18,980 


. 18,038 


1820 . . 26,158 . . 19,348 


1850 . . 39,973- 


• • 36,947 


1800 , 


. 19,176 . 


. 23,068 


1830. . . 27,028 . . 23,524 

IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 








Births. 


Deaths. 


Births. Deaths. 


Births. 


Deaths. 


1840 . 


• 502,303 . 


■ 356,634 


1858 , . 655,481 . . 449,656 


1863 . . 727,417 . 


■ 473,837 


1845 


. . 543. 521 . 


• 349.366 


1859 . . 689,881 . . 441,790 


1864 . . 740,275 


• 495,531 


1849 . 


• 578,159 • 


■ 440,839 


i860 . . 684,048 . . 422,721 


1865 . . 748,069 . 


• 490,909 


1853 


. . 612,391 


• 421,097 


1861 . . 696,406 . . 436,114 


1866 . . 753,188 


• 500,938 


1856 . 


. 657.453 • 


• 390,506 


1862 . . 712,684 . . 436,573 

IN LONDON AND SUBURBS. 


1867 . . 767,997 • 


. 471,102 




mi 


'ths. 


Deaths. 




BiHhs. 


Deaths. 


1854 . 


. 84,684 


• 73.697 


1862 . 


■ 97,114 


. 66,950 


1856 


. . 86 


,833 • 


. . 57,786 


1864 


. . 102,187 • 


• 77,723 


1858 {Females, 43,400). 88 


620 (Fenia 


les, 31,319) 63,882 


1867 (Females, 54, 


362). 112,264 


. 70,588 



* Tradition states they -were bom joined together by the hips and shoulders, in iioo, and lived to the 
age of thirty-four, and died within six hours of each other. Cakes, bearing a corresponding impression of 
the figures of two females, are given. Hasted deems this tale fabulous, and states that the print on the 
cakes is of modern origin, and that the land was given by two maiden ladies named Preston. In 1656, 
Wm. Horner, the rector, was non-suited in an attempt to add the lands termed " Bread and Cheese lands " 
to his glebe ; see Siamese Twins. 



BIjST 103 BIR 

BINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the 
property of mimbers, and constructing tables, was invented by Baron Leibnitz of Leipsic, 
the celebrated statesman, pliilosopher, and poet, about 1703. For the Binary theory in. 
chemistry, see Compound Radical. Morcri. 

BINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of only two parts connected with the signs 
plus or minus ; a term first used by Recorda, about 1550, when he published his Algebra. 
The celebrated binomial theorevi of Newton was first mentioned in 1688. Hutton. 

BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek hios, life, and graphd, I write), defined as history teaching 
by example. The book of Genesis contains the biography of the patriarchs ; and the Gospels 
that of Christ. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Illustrious Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of 
Military Commanders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve CiBsars (all tliree in the first 
century after Christ) ; Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers (about 205). — Boswell's 
Life of Johnson (publislied in 1790) is the most remarkable English biography. 

BIOLOGY, a name given to the science of life and living things, by Treviranus, of 
Bremen, in his Avork on Physiology, published 1802-22. Biology includes zoology, anthro- 
pology, and ethnology (which see). Herbert Spencer's " Principles of Biolosy," published 
1865-67. 

BIRCH TREE. The black [Beticla nigra), brought from North America, 1736. The 
birch tree known as the Betula fumila, introduced into Kew-gardens, England, by Mr. 
James Gordon, from North America, 1762. The tree known as tlm Birch is now largely 
cultivated in all the countries of Europe. Hardy's Annals. 

BIRDS were divided by Linnteus into six orders (1735) ; by Blumenbach, into eight 
(1805) ; and by Cuvier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works are those published by 
John Gould, F.R.S. ; they are to consist of about 31 folio volumes of coloured pilates, &c. 
They include the birds of Europe, Asia, Australia, and Great Britain, besides mouograiDhs 
on the humming-bii-ds, &c. 

BIRKENHEAD (Cheshire), a modern town on the Mersey, opposite to Liverpool. The 
great dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, constructed by Mr. Rendell, and opened 
in Aug. 1847 by lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made a parliamentary borough, 
and Mr. Laird was elected first representative. Pop)ulation in 1831, 200 ; in 1861, 51,649 ; 
see Wrecks, 1852. 

BIRMAN EMPIRE or Empiee of Ava, see Biirmese Empire and India. 

BIRMINGHAM, formerly Bromwicham and Brummegem (Warwickshire), existed in the 
reign of Alfred, 872 ; and belonged to the Bermengehams, at Domesday survej', 1086. 
There were "many smythes " here in the time of Henry VIII. {Lelancl), but its great 
importance commenced in the reign of William III. It has been styled "the toyshop of 
Europe," 

Grammar school founded 1552 

Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . . . 1643 
Button manufactures established . . . 1689 
Soho works estabUshed by Matthew Boulton 

about 1764; and steam engine works about . 1774 
Birmingham canal was originated . . . 1768 
Riots against persons commemorating the 

French Revolution ... 14 July, 1791 
Theatre destroyed by fire . . . 17 Aug. 1792 

More commotions Nov. iCjo 

Theatre burnt 7 Jan. 1820 

Pohtical Union, headed by T. Attwood, foi-med, 

Feb. 1831 
Birmingham made a borough by Reform Act (2 

members) 1832 

Town-hall built 1833 

Pohtical Union dissolved itself . 10 May, 1834 

Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as 

the Grand Junction ... 4 July, 1837 

London and Birmingham I'aUway opened its 

entire length . . . . 17 Sept. 1838 j Great Reform meeting 
Great Chartist riot ; houses burnt . 15 July, 1839 Violent riots through the lectures of Murphy, 
Town incorporated, and Police Act passed • ,, an anti-popery orator, at a tabernacle 

Meeting of British Association . . 29 Aug. ,, 17, 18 June, 1S67 

Queen's College incorporated . . . . 1843 | An additional M.P. given to Birmingham by 

Corn Exchange opened . . . 27 Oct. 18471 Reform Act 15 Aug. ,, 

British Association (meet again) . 12 Sept. 1849 | 

BIRTHS. The births of children were taxed in England, viz., birth of a duke 30?., of a 
common person 2s., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children 
at a birth are numeroiis ; but it is recorded that a woman of Konisberg (3 Sept. 178A), 



Queen's College organised .... Jan. 1S53 
Public park opened (ground virtually given by 

Mr. Adderley) 3 Aug. 1856 

New music-hall opened ... 3 Sept. „ 
Another park opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
100,000 persons present (ground given by 
lord Calthorpe) .... i June, 1857 

Deathof G. F. Muntz, M.P. . . 30 July, ,, 
J. Bright elected M.P., 10 Aug. 1857, & April, 1859 
The queen and prince consort visit Birming- 
ham, Warwick, &c., for the first time, and 
open Aston park .... 14-16 June, 1858 
The Free Library opened . . ,4 AprU, 1861 
Factory explosion ; 9 killed . . 23 June, 1862 
People's park j^jurohased by corporation Sept. 1S64 
New Exchange opened ... 2 Jan. 1S65 
The bank of Attwoods and Spooner stop pay- 
ment and cause much distress 10 March, „ 
Meeting of British Association (3rd) 6 Sept. ,, 
Stoppage of the " Banking Company," 13 July, 1866 



BIS 



104 



BIS 



and the wife of Nelson, a tailor, of Oxford -market, London (Oct. 1800), had five children at 
a birth ; see Bills of Mortality and Registers. The queen usually presents a small sum of 
money to a poor woman giving birth to three or more children at one time. 

BISHOP (Greek c2nscopos, overseer), a name given by the Athenians to those who had 
the inspection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also like officers. St. Peter, styled 
tlie first bishop of Rome, was martyred 65. The episcopate became an object of contention 
about 144. Tlie title of pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and was exclusively 
claimed by Gregory VII. (1073-85). 

BISHOPS IN England * were coeval with the introduction of Christianity. The see of 
London is said to have been founded by Lucius, king of Britain, 179. 



Bishops made bai'ons 1072 

The Congd d'ELire of the king to choose a bishop 

originated in an arrangement by king John. 
Bishops were elected by the king's Conge 

d'£(i;-e, 2sHen. Vlll.t 1534 

Bishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. 

VIII 1540 

Seven were deprived for being married . . 1554 
Several suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, 

see Cramner 1555-6 

Bishops excluded from voting in the house of 

peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. . 1640 
Several committed for protesting against the 

legality of all acts of parliament passed while 

they remained deprived of their votes, 28 Dec. 1641 



The order of archbishops and bishops abolished 
by the parhament .... 9 Oct. 1646 

Bishops regain their seats .... Nov. i66i 

Seven bishops (Canterbury, Bath, Chichester, 
St. Asaph, Bristol, Ely, and Peterborough) 
sent to the tower for not reading the kmg s 
declaration for liberty of conscience (in- 
tended to bring the Roman Catholics into 
ecclesiastical and civil power), 8 June, and 
tried and acquitted . . . 29-30 June, 16 88 

The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Bancroft) 
and five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Glou- 
cester, Norwich, and' Peterborough) sus- 
pended for refusing to take the oaths to 
WiUiam and Mary, 1689 ; deprived . . 1690 



ENGLISH BISHOPRICS. 



Sees. Founded. 

London {alpc.) . (?) 179 
York (abpc.) . 4th cent. 
Sodor and Man 4th cent. 
Llandaff . . 5th cent. 

St. David's . . 5th cent. 
BangorJ . . about 516 



St. Asaph 
Canterbury 
London (see above) 
Rochester 



about 560 



609 



Sees. Founded. 

East Anglia (after- 
wds. Norwich, logi) 630 

Lindisfarne, or Holy 
Island (afterwards 
Durham, 995) . . 

West Saxons, after- 
wards Winchester, 
705) - 

Mercia (aftei-wards 
Lichfield, 669) 



634 



635 



656 



Sees. Founded. 


Sees. Founded. 


Hereford . . . 676 


Bath . 


1088 


Worcester . . . 680 


Ely . . . 


1108 


Lindisse (afterwards 


Carlisle . . , 


1132 


Lincoln, 1067) . ,, 


Peterborough . 


1541 


Sherborne (afterwds. 


Gloucester§ . 




Salisbury, 1042) . 705 


Bristol§ . 


1542 


Cornwall (afterwards 


Chester 




Devonshire, after- 


Oxford . 


,, 


wds. Exeter, 1050) gog 


Ripon . 


1836 


Wells . . . „ 


Manchester 


1847 



BISHOPS IN Ireland are said to have been 

Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the 

bishoprics in Ireland made, by cardinal Pa- 

paro, legate from pope Eugene III. 
Several prelates deprived by queen Mary . . 
Bp. Atherton suffered death ignnminously 
Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths 

to William and Mary .... 
Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the 

number of bishops in Ireland, 3 & 4 Will. IV. 

c. 37, passed 14 Aug. 



"SI 
I5S4 
1640 

1691 



consecrated in the 2nd centuiy. 

[By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of 
Armagh, Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last 
two were to be abolished on the decease of the 
then archprelates which has since occurred ; and 
it was enacted that eight of the then eighteen 
bishoprics should, as they became void, be 
henceforth united to other sees, which was ac- 
complished in 1850 : so that the Irish church 
establishment at present consists of two arch- 
bishops and ten bishops.] 



Ossory founded 402 
KiUala . about 434 
Trim . . . 432 
Armagh, 445 ; abpc. 1152 
Emly . . about 448 
Elphin . . . 450 
Ardagh . . . 454 
Clogher . before 493 
Down . . about 499 
Ardfert and Aghadoe 
before 



500 



about 
before 



Connor . about 
Tuam, about 501 ; 

abpc. 
Dromore 
Kildare 
Meath . 
Achonry . 
Louth . 
Clonmacnois 
Clonfert 
Ross . about 



500 

1152 
510 
519 
520 
530 
534 
548 
558 
570 



Ferns . 
Cloyne . 
Cork . 
Glandalagh 
Derry 



about 
before 

about 
before 
■before 



Kilmacduach, about 



Lismore 
Leighlin . 
Mayo . 
Raphoe , 



about 



about 
before 



598 Cashel, before 901 ; 

604 obpc. . . . 1 152 

606 Killaloe, abpc. . 1019 

612 Waterford . . . 1096 

618 Limei'ick before 1106 

620 Kilmore . . r i^S^ 

631 Dublin, abpc. . '. 1152 

632 Kilfenora before 1254 
665 (For the new combina- 
885 tions, see the sajja- 

' rate articles.) 

Episcopac}'' was abolished 



■ BISHOPS IN Scotland were constituted in the 4tli century, 
in 1638 ; restored by Charles II. 1661 ; again abolished, 1689. || 

* Bishops have the titles of Lord and RigJif Rev. Fatliev in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and 
York, taking jjlace of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester 
have precedence of all bishops ; the others rank according to seniority of consecration. 

t Retirement of Bishops. In 1856 the bishops of London and Durham retired on annuities. The new 
bishops held their sees subject to futm-e provision. In 1857 the bishop of Norwich also resigned. 

X An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next 
vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thereupon ; this order, as regarded the union 
of the sees, was rescinded 1846. 

§ The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 1856. 

II Bishop Rose connected the estabUshed episcopal church of Scotland with that form of itwliichisnow 
merely tolerated, he having been bishop of Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death. Dr. FuUarton 
became the first post-revolution bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrew's, so called in 1844) now unites 
the bishopric of Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dunblane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of 



BIS 



105 



BLA 



Orkney, founded. 


Caithness 


. about 1066 


Edinburgh . . .1633 


Uncertain. 


Brechin . 


before 11 55 




Isles . . . . 360 


Moray . 


. . 1115 


POST-REVOLUTION 


Galloway . before 500 


Ross 


. 1124 


BISHOPS. 


St. Andrew's, Soo ; 


Aberdeen 


. . 1125 


Edinburgh . . 1720 


abjjc. . . . 1470 


Dunkeld . 


• 1 1 30 


Aberdeen and the 


Glasgow, about 560 ; 


Dunblane 


. before 1153 


Isles . . . 1721 


abxic. . . . 1488 


Argyll . 


. 1200 


liloray (and Ross) . 1727 



BISHOPS IN ScoTLAKD, continued. 

Brechin . . .1731 

Glasgow (and Gallo- 
way) . • . „ 

St. Andrew's (Dun- 
keld, Dimblane, 
(fee.). . . . 1733 

Ai-gyll and the Isles 1847 

BISHOPS, American. The first was Samuel Seabuiy, consecrated bishop of Connecticut 
by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, 14 Nov. 1784. The bishops of New 
York and Pennsylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, 4 
Feb. 1787, and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. Several American bishops formed part of 
the Pan-Anglican sjmod, at Lambeth, 24-27 Sept. 1867. The first Roman Catholic bishop 
of the United States was Ur. Carroll of Marjdand, in 1780. 

BISHOPS, Colonial, &c.* By 15 and 16 Vict. c. 52 (1852), and 16 and 17 Vict. c. 49 
(1853), the colonial bishops may perform all eiiiscopal functions in the United Kingdom, but 
have no jurisdiction. 



Nova Scotia . 


■ 1787 


Huron 


1842 


Quebec 


• 1793 


Tasmania 


,, 


Calcutta . 


. 1814 


Colombo 


1845 


Barbadoes . 


. 1824 


Fredericton 




Jamaica . 


. 


Adelaide 


1847 


Madras 


• 1835 


Cape Town 




Australia 


• 1836 


Melbourne 


,, 


Montreal . 




Newcastle . 




Bombay . 


• 1837 


Sydney (formerly 




Newfoundland . 


• 1839 


Australia) . 


,, 


Toronto . 




Rupert's Laud . 


1849 


Gibraltar . 


. 1841 


Victoria . 




New Zealand . 


^ 


Sierra Leone 


1852 


Antigua 


. 1842 


Graham's-town 


I8S3 


Guiana . 


• J. 


Natal . 





Mauritius 


1854 


Otago . . . . 1866 


Labuan 


185s 


New Westminster 


Christchurch . 


1856 


(Columbia) . . ,, 


Perth . 


,, 




Wellington 


1S58 








MISSIONAEA' BISHOPS. 


Brisbane . 


1859 


Jerusalem, estab- 


British Columbia 




lished . . . 1 841 


Goulburn 




Melanesia . . i860 


St. Helena . 




Honolulu . . . 1861 


Waiapu . 




Central Africa, Orange 


Kingston, Canada 


1861 


River, 1863 ; Niger 


Ontario, Canada 




territory . . 1864 


Nassau, Bahamas 


J, 




Grafton, AustraUa 


1863 





BISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal by Agricola, in 1529. It is very fusible 
and brittle, and of a yellowish white coloui-. 

BISSEXTILE, see Calendar and Leap Year. 

BITHYNIA, a province in Asia Minor, previously called Behricia, is said to have been 
invaded by the Thracians under Bithynus, son of Jupiter, who gave it the name of Bithynia. 
It was subject successively to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. Most of 
the cities Avere rebuilt by Grecian colonists. 

Dydalsus revolted and reigned about . B.C. 430-440 

Botyras, his son, succeeds 378 

Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the 

Greeks 328 

Zipo3tas, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . . 326 

He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, 

Nicomedes I., succeeds (he invites the Gauls 

into Asia) 278 

He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . 264 
Zielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns, about . . . 250 
Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls 

at a feast, Zielas is detected in his design, 

and is himself put to death, and his son 

Prusias I. made king, about .... 228 
Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities . . 223 
Prusias aUies with Philip of Macedon, and 

marries Apamea, his daughter . . . 20S 

BITONTO (Naples). Here Montemar and the Spaniards defeated tlie Germans, on 26 
Majr, 1734, and eventually acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies for Don Carlos. 

BLACK ACT, 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1722), was passed to punish armed persons termed Uaclcs, 
going about in disguise with their faces blacked, robbing warrens and fish-ponds, cutting 

uncertain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed 
independently until 1847, having been conjoined to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously to that 
year. Galloway has been added to the see of Glasgow. 

* Between 1847 and 1859, Miss Burdett-Coutts gave 6o,oooL to endow colonial bi.shoprics. In 1866 she 
petitioned parliament, on account of some of the bishops professing independence of the church of 
England. Since then, colonial bishops have been appointed without intervention of the civil jjower. 
Much discussion took place in 1867, through the deposition of Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, by his 
metropolitan, Dr. Gray, bishop of Capetown, and the attempts of the latter to consecrate a new bishoi:), 
in oppo.sition to the law ; see under Africa, and Church of England. 



He receives and employs Hannibal, then a 

fugitive 1S7 

Who poisons himself to escape betrayal to the 

Romans 183 

Pru.sias II. succeeds ; 180 

Nicomedes II. kills his father Prusias and 

reigns 149 

Nicomedes III., surnamed Philopator . . 91 

Deposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus . . 88 
Restored by the Romans .... .84 

Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans . . 74 
Pliny the younger, pro-consul . . a.d. 103 
The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . .1231 
The Othman Turks take Pi-usa, th"e capital (and 
make it the seat of their empire tUl they 
possess Constantinople) 1327 



BLA 106 BLA 

down plantations, killing deer, &c. By this act, sending anonymous letters demanding 
money, &c., was made felony. 

BLACK ASSIZE, see under Oxford. 

BLACK BOOK* {Liber Niger), a book kept in the exchequer, which received the orders 
of that court. It was published by Hearn in 1728. 

BLACKBURISr, Lancashire, so called in Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth 
called Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was superseded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, 
James Hargreaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, for which he was eventually 
expelled from the country. About 1810 or 1812, the townspeople availed themselves of his 
discoveries, and engaged largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple trade. 

BLACK DEATH, see Plagues, 1340 and 1866. BLACK FPJAKS, see Dominicans. 

BLACKFEIAES BRIDGE, London. The first stone was laid 31 Oct. 1760, and it was 
completed by Mylne, in 1770. It was the first work of the kind executed in England, in 
which arches, approaching to the form of an ellipsis, were substitiited for semicircles. It 
was repaired in 1834, 1837, 1840. Since 1850 the bridge gradually sank. The old bridge 
was pulled down : and a temporary one opened for use in 1864. The foundation stone 
of the new bridge (erected according to a design by Mr. J. Cubitt) Avas laid by the lord 
mayor. Hale, 20 July, 1865. The first railway train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered 
the city of London over the new railway bridge, Blackfriars, 6 Oct. 1864. 

BLACK FEIDAY, 11 May, 1866, the height of the commercial panic in London, through 
the stoppage of Overend, Gurney, & Co. (limited), on 10 May. 

BLACKHEATH, Kent, near London. Here "Wat Tyler and his followers assembled 12 
June, 1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, i June, 1450; 
see Tyler and Cade. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated and Flannock's insm-rection 
quelled, 22 June, 1497. The cavern, on the ascent to Blackheath, the retreat of Cade, and 
the haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-discovered in 1780. 

BLACK-HOLE, see Calcutta. BLACK LEAD, see Grapliite. 

BLACK LETTEE, employed in the first printed books in the middle of the 15th century. 
The first printing types were Gothic ; but they were modified into the pi-esent Eoman type 
about 1469 ; Pliny's Natural History being then printed in the new characters. 

BLACK-MAIL, a compulsory payment for protection of cattle, &c, made in the border 
counties, was prohibited by Elizabeth in 160 1. It was exacted from the lowlanders by the 
highlanders, till 1745. It rendered agricultural improvement almost impossible. 

BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, 6 April, 135 1, "when the hailstones are said to 
have killed both men and horses, in the army of our king Edward III. in France." Bailey. 
" This was a memorable Easter Mondaj'', which in the 34th of Edward III. happened to Ido 
full dark of mist and hail, and so cold that many men died on their horses' backs with the 
cold," 1351. Sto%o. In Ireland, Black Monday was the day on which a number of the 
English were slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. 

BLACK MONEY, base money. BLACK MONKS, see Dominicans. 

BLACK EOD has a gold lion at the top, and is carried by the usher of the Order of the 
Knights of the Garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He also keeps the door when 
a chapter of the order is sitting, and during the sessions of parliament attends the house of 
lords and acts as their messenger to the commons, 

BLACK SEA, the Euxine (Pontus Euxinus of the Ancients), a large internal sea 
between the S. W. provinces of Eussia and Asia Minor, connected with the sea of Azoff by 
the straits of Yenikale, and with the sea of Marmora by the channel of Constantinople. 
This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and Italians, till it was closed to all nations by 
the Turks after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Eussians obtained admission by the 
treaty of Kainardji, 10 July, 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other 
traders, since which time the Eussians gradually obtained the preponderance. It was 
entered by the British and French fleets, 3 Jan. 1854, at the requisition of the Porte, after 
the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Eussians, 30 Nov. 1853. A dreadful 
storm in this sea raged from 13 to 16 Nov. 1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, 
and valuable stores for the allied armies. See Russo-Turlcish War. By the treaty of 1856 
the Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all nations. 

BLACKS, see BiancM. 

* A book was kept in the English, monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities practised 
in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Hen. VIII. 153s, in order to blacken 
them and hasten their dissolution : hence possibly the phrase, "I'll set you down in the black book." 



BLA 107 BLI 

BLACKWALL (London), the site of fine commercial docks and warehouses. See Docks. 
Tlie Blackwall railway was opened to the public, 4 July, 1840 ; the eastern terminus being 
at Blackwall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch-street. 

BLACK "WATCH, armed companies of the loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) 
employed to watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, when they were formed into the 
celebrated 42nd regiment, which was formally enrolled "The Royal Highland Black Watch. " 
Their removal probablj'' facilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark tartans, and 
hence were called Black Watch. 

BLACKWATER, Battle op, in Ireland, 14 Aug. 1598, when the Irish chief O'lSTeal 
defeated the English under sir Henry Bagnall. Pope Clement VIII. sent O'Neal a conse- 
crated plume, and granted to his followers the same indulgence as to crusaders. 

BLADENSBURG, see Washington, 18 14. BLANK VERSE, see Verse. 

BLANKETEERS. A mmiber of operatives who on 30 March, 181 7, met in St. Peter's 
field, near Manchester, many of them having blankets, rugs, or great coats rolled iip and 
fastened to their backs. Tliis was termed the Blanket meeting. They proceeded to march 
towards London, but were dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was 
to commence a general insurrection. See Darby. Eventuall}'' the ringleaders had an inter- 
view with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between the working classes and 
the government ensued. 

BLANKETS are said to have been first made at Bristol by Tlios. Blanket, in the I4tli 
century. 

BLASPHEMY was punished with death by the law of Moses {Lev. xxiv. ) 149 1 B.C. ; 
and by the code of Justinian, a.d. 529. It is punishable by the civil and canon law of 
England, regulated by 60 Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). JDaniel Isaac Eaton was tried and convicted 
in London of blasphemy, 6 March, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant clergyman, was tried 
twice for tlie same crime. He was sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and lai'gely fined, 
July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publishers of blasphemous writings were convicted. 

BLAZONRY. Bearing coats-of-arms was introduced and became hereditary in France 
and England about 1 192, owing to the knights painting their banners with different figures, 
thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. Dugdale. 

BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, India, and Gaul. Plini/. An improved 
chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, .who introduced it into England and Scotland in 
1768. There are large bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, and in the 
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching is due 
to BerthoUet about 1785. Its combination with lime (as chloride of lime) was devised by 
Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out a patent for the process in 1 798, and by his firm it 
is stm extensively manufactured. In 1822 Di-. TJre published an elaborate series of experi- 
ments on this substance. In i860 bleaching and dyeing works were placed under the regu- 
lations of the Factories Act. 

BLENHEIM, or Blindheim, in Bavaria, the site of a battle fought 2 Aug. (new style, 13), 
1 704, between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and 
the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. The latter 
were defeated with the loss of 27,000 kUled, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). 
Bavai'ia became the prize of the conquerors. The British nation gave Marlborough the 
honour of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him the house of Blenlieim.* 

BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine Haiiy, at 
Paris in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, 
in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the 
use of the blind was begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1 786. The whole Bible was printed at 
Glasgow in raised Roman characters about 1 848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, edited 
by the rev. W. Taylor, F. R. S. , so eminent for his forty years' exertions on behalf of these 
sufferers, was published in 1855-6. He aided the establishment of a college for the blind 
of the upper classes at Worcester, in 1866. There is hardly any department of human know- 
ledge in which blind persons have not obtained distinction, f Laura Bridgman, born in 

* On 5 Feb. 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which destroyed the "Titian Gallery" and the 
pictures ; the latter, a present from Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, to John, the great duke of 
Marlborough. 

t James Holman, the " hlind traveller" (born 1786, died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the 
world. His travels were published in 1825. In April, 1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was 
elected chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, and read the service, (fee, from embossed books. 
Viscount Cranbonme (blind) was the author of many interesting historical essays. He died in June, 
1865. On 13 July, 1865, Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of political economy at Cambridge, was elected 
M.P. for Brighton. 



BLl 108 BLO 

1829, became dumb and blind two years after ; slie was so well taught by Dr. Howe, of 
Boston, U.S., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb persons. By the census of 
1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 11,273 males; 10,214 females : 
about one blind in 975. 

BLINDHsTG, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment 
inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, -and thieves. In the middle ages the j)enalty 
was frequently changed from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A whole army was 
deprived of their eyes, by Basil, in the nth century. See Bulgarians. Several of the 
eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. 

BLISTERS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.), made, it is said, of cantharides {which see). 

BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports to all commerce ; a practice introduced by 
the Dutch about 1584. The principle recognised by the European powers is that every 
blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective. The Elbe was blockaded by Great 
Britain, 1803 ; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864 ; the gulf of Finland by the 
Allies, 1854 ; and the ports of the Southern States of North America by president Lincoln, 
April 19, 1 86 1. See Orders in Council, Rnd Berlin. 

BLOCK BOOKS, see Printing. 

BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were much improved in their construction by 
"Walter Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei invented a mode of making blocks 
which was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 was said to have saved the country 
20,000?. a year. 

BLOIS, France, the Roman Blesse. The count Guy II. sold it with his domains to Louis 
duke of Orleans in 1391, and eventually it accrued to the crown. The states-general were^ 
held here 1576 and 1588, on account of the religious wars ; and here Henry duke of Guise 
was assassinated by order of the king, Henry III., 23 Dec. 1588, The empress Maria Louisa 
retired here in 1814. 

BLOOD. The circulation of the blood through the lungs was known to Michael 
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Csesalpinus published an account of the general 
circulation, of which he had some confused ideas, improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. 
Paul of Venice, or Father Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves which serve 
for the circulation ; but the honour of the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to 
"William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628. Freind. 



Eating Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. vs.., to 
the Jews, Lev. xvii., &c., and to the Gentile con- 
verts by the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, 
A.D. 52, Acts XV. 

Blood-Drinking was anciently tried to give vigour 
to the system. Louis XI. , in his last illness, drank 
the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of 
restoring his decayed strength, 1483. Hdnault. 

In the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the 
declining vigour of the aged might bo repaired by 



TRANSFUSING Into their veins the blood of young 
jiersons. It was countenanced in France by the 
physicians about 1668, and prevailed for many 
years, till the most fatal effects having ensued, it 
was suppressed by an edict. It was attempted 
again in France in 1797, and more recently there, 
in a few cases, with success ; and in England (but 
the instances are rare) since 1823. Med. Journ. 
"An English physician (Louver, or Lower) prac- 
tised in this way ; he died in 1691." Freind. 



BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, 
with his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, intending to hang him, and 
had got him to Tyburn, when he was rescued by his friends, 4 Dec. 1670. Blood afterwards, 
in the disguise of a clergyman, attempted to steal the regal crown from the Jewel-office in 
the Tower, 9 May, 1671 ; yet, notwithstanding these and other offences, he was not only 
pardoned, but had a pension of 500L per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1671. He 
died in 1680, when in prison for a libel on the duke of Buckingham. 

" BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the 
defeat of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmoor. Upward of 300 persons were 
executed after short trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and lined ; and nearly 
1000 were sent as slaves to the American plantations. 

BLOOMER COSTUME, see a note to article Dress. 

BLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied to an influential political party in the 
reign of George III., in consequence of their meeting at Bloomsbury house, the residence of 
the duke of Bedford, the chief ; the marquess of Stafford, the last survivor, died 26 Oct. 1803. 

BLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), where 23 Sept. 1459, the earl of Salisbury and the 
Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord Audley, was slain with many 
Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates this conflict. 

BLO"WING- MACHINES, the large cylinders, used in blowing-machines, were erected 
by Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1760. One equal to the supply of air for forty 
forge fires Avas erected at the king's dock-yard, "Woolwich. The hot-air blast, a most 



BLO 



109 



BOG 



important improvement, causing great economy of fuel, was invented by Mi-. James B. 
Ifeilson, of Glasgow, and patented in 1828. He died 18 Jan. 1865. 

BLOW-PIPE. An Egyptian using one is among the paintings on the tombs at Thebes. 
It was employed in mineralogy, by Andrew Von Swab, a Swede, about 1733, and improved 
by Wollaston and others. In 1802, professor Robert Hare, of Philadel]ihia, increased the 
action of the blow-pipe by the application of oxygen and hydrogen. By the agency of 
Newman's improved blow-pipes, in 1816, Dr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, 
&c. The best work on the blow-pipe is by Plattuer and Muspratt, 1854. 

BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch covenanters in the i6th century. Blue 
and orange or yeUow, became the whig colom-s after the revolution in 1688 ; and were 
adopted on the cover of the whig periodical, the "Edinburgh Review," first published iu 
1802. The Prussian blue dye was discovered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine blues 
are now obtained from coal-tai', 1864 ; see Aniline. Blite-coat Schools, so called in 
reference to the costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in Newgate-street, London, 
was instituted by Edward VI. in 1552 ; see Christ's Hospitcd. Bltje-stocking, a term 
applied to literary ladies, was originally conferred on a society comprising both sexes 
(1760, et seq.). Benjamin Stillingfleet, the naturalist, an active member, wore blue worsted 
stockings ; hence the name. The beautiful Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue 
stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montagu. 

BLUMENAlJ, Lower Austria ; on 22 July, 1866, the Austrians in possession of this place 
were attacked by the Prussians on their march towards Vienna, a severe conflict was 
interrupted by the news of the armistice agreed to at ISTikolsburg ; and the same evening 
Austrians and Prussians bivouacked together. 

BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Control, Green-Cloth, Health, Tkade, &c., see 
under Admircdty, &c. 

BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats, made in England in the reign of "William I. ; again 
brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690 ; see Life-Boat. A mode of 
building boats by the help of the steam-engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson 
of New York in i860, and premises were erected for its application at Bow, near London, 
in 1861 ; see University. 

BOCCACCIO'S DECAMERONE, a collection of a hundred stories or novels (many 
very immoral), severely satirisiug the clergy, feigned to have been related in ten days, during, 
the plague of Florence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 1313 — 75. A copy of the first edition 
(that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was knocked down at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, to the duke 
of Marlborough, for 2260^., 17 June, 18 12. This copy was afterwards sold by public auction, 
for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819. 

BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. 
Bodley (died, 28 Jan. 1612). It is open to the public, and claims a copy of all works pub- 
lished in this country. For rare works and MSS. it is said to be second only to the Vatican. 

BCEOTIA, a division of Greece, north of Attica, known previously as Aonia, Messapia, 
Hyantis, Ogygia, and Cadmeis. Thebes, the capital, was celebrated for the exploits and 
misfortunes of its kings and heroes. The term Bceotian was used by the Athenians as a sj^no- 
nym for dulness ; but iinjustly, — since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminoudas, 
and Corinna, were Boeotians. The early dates are conjectural ; see Thches. 



447 



Amval of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea (Hales, 
1494; Clinton, 1313) .... B.C. 1493 

Keign of Polydore 1459 

Labdaohus ascends the throne .... 1430 

Amijhion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and de- 
throne Laius 1388 

(Edipus, not knowing his father Laius, kills 
him in an affray, confirming the oracle fore- 
telling his death by the hands of his son . 1276 

Oildipus resolves the Sphinx's enigmas . . 1266 

War of the Seven Captains . . . .1225 

Thebes besieged and taken 1213 

Thersander reigns 1198 ; slain .... 1193 

The Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity 
follow) about 1 120 

The Thebans fight with the Persians against 
the Greeks at Platsea 479 

The Spartans aiding the Thebans defeat the 
Athenians near Tanagra 456 

BOGS, probably the remains of forests, covered with peat and loose soil. An act for the 
drainage of Irish bogs, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 



Battle of Ooronea, in which the Thebans defeat 

the Athenians 

The Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopi- 

das, enrol their Sacred Baud, and join Athens 

against Sparta 377 

Epaminondas defeats the Lacediemonians at 

Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence 571 
Pelopidas killed at the battle of Cynocephalaj . 364 
Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, 

but is slain 362 

Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the Thebans 

and Athenians near Chasronea . . . 

Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares the 

house of Pindar 

Bo3otia henceforth partook of the fortunes of 

Greece ; and was conquered by the Turks a.d. 

imder Mahomet II 1456 



338 
335 



BOG 



110 



BOI 



3,000,000 acres ; that-of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England at near 
1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, Mr. Eees Eeece took out a patent for certain valuable 
products from Irish peat. Candles and various other articles produced from peat have been 
since sold in London. 

BOGOTA, Santa Fe de, capital of ISTew Grenada [wMcli see), 

BOHEMIA, formerly the Hercynian forest (Boiemum, Tacitics), derives its name from 
the Boii, a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes (Bozzivoi the first, 891) till Ottocar as- 
sumed the title of king, 1 198. The kings at first held their territory from the empire, but at 
length threw off the yoke : and the crown was elective till it came to the house of Austria, in 
which it is now hereditary. The original Bohemians term themselves Czechs, and, following 
the example of Hungary, now call for autonomy. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges and 
battles. Population in 1857 ,4,705,525 ; see Prague. 

The Czechs (Slavonians) seize Bohemia about . 550 

City of Prague founded 795 

Introduction of Christianity 894 

Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry 

III. who spreads devastation through the 

country 1041 

Ottocar (or Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia 1198 
Ottocar II., rules over A,ustria, and obtains 

Styria, (fee, 1253 ; refuses the imperial crown 1272 
Ottocar vanquished by the emperor Eudolph 

and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Car- 

niola, 1277 ; killed at Marchfeld. . 26 Aug. 1278 
King John {hlind), slain at the battle of Crecy 1346 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the 

first reformers, are burnt for heresy, which 

occasions an insurrection . . 1415, 1416 

.Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague 

1419 ; dies of the plague 142-4 

Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter 

of the late emperor and king, and receives 

the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary . . 1437 
The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of 

the king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a 

protestant chief. 1440-1458 

Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bo- 
hemia, on the death of Podiebrad . . . 1471 
The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister 

of Louis the late king, and obtains the crown 1527 
The emperor Ferdinand II., oppressing the 

protestants, is deposed, and Frederic the 

elector-palatine, elected king . 5 Sept. 1619 
Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flies to 

Holland 9 Nov. 1620 

Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . 1648 



Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . . . 1742 

Prague taken by the Prussians .... 1744 
The Prussians defeat the Austrians at Prague, 

6 May, 1757 

Revolt of the peasantry 1775 

Edict of Toleration promulgated . . . 1781 

The French occupy Prague 1806 

Insurrection at Prague, 12 June ; submission, 

state of siege raised . . . .20 July, 1848 
The Prussians enter Bohemia, which becomes 
I the seat of war (see Germany, 1866) 24 June, i856 
Agitation of theCzechs,whorequirethe emperor 
[ to be crowned king of Bohemia with the 
crown of St. Wenceslas at Prague, autumn, 1867 

KINGS. 

1198. Premislas I., or Ottocar I. 

1230. Weuceslas III. 

1253. Premislas II., or Ottocar II. 

1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 
i 1305. "Wenceslas V. 
' 1306. Rudolph of Austria. 
I 1307. Henry of Carinthia. 

1310. John of Luxembiu'g (killed at Crecy). 

1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 

1378. Wenceslas VI. , emperor. 

1419. Sigismund I., emperor. 

1437. Albert of Austria, emperor. 

1440. Ladislas V. 

1458. George von Podiebrad. 

1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). 

1516. Louis king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 

1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand . 
elected king. 



BOHEMIAN BPvETHPiEN", a body of Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated 
from the Calixtines {which see), a branch of the Hussites in 1467. Dupin says "They 
rejected the sacraments of the church, were governed by simple laics, and held the scriptures 
for their only rule of faith. They presented a confession of' faith to king Ladislas in 1504 to 
justify themselves from errors laid to their charge." They appear to have had communica- 
tion with the Waldenses, but were distinct from them. Luther in 1533, testifies to their 
purity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commends their severe discipline. They were doubt- 
less dispersed during the religious wars of Germany in the 1 7th century. 

BOII, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrated into Italy, and were defeated at the 
Yadimoniau lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scii)io Nasica, 191 B.C. 

BOILING OF LIQUIDS. Dr. Hooke, about 1683, ascei-tained that liquids were not 
increased in heat after they had once begun to boil, and that a fierce fire onlj^ made them 
boil more rapidly. The following boiling points have been stated : — 

. 187° Fahr. 
. 600 „ 
• 554 ,> 



Ether . 


. 94° Fahr. 


Alcohol . 


• • 173 .. 


Water . 


. 212 ,, 



Nitric acid 
Sulphuric acid 
Phosphorus 



Oil of turpentine. 


. 312° Fahr. 


Sulphur . 


. 822 „ 


Mercury 


. 662 „ 



BOILING TO DEATH, made a capital punishment in England, by stat. 22 Hen. VII L, 
1 53 1, repealed in 1547. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been poisoned 
by Eichard Roose, otherwise Coke, the bishop of Eochester's cook, two of whom died, 
Margaret Davy, a young woman, suffered in the same manner for a similar crime, 28 March, 
1542. Sloiv. 

BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a battle between the British and the French 
republican army, in which the British were defeated, and forced to abandon their position 



BOK 



111 



BOM 



and retreat to Schyndel, 14 Sept. 1794. This place was captured by the French, 10 Oct. 
following ; it surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. 

BOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after successively forming part of the empires of 
Persia, of Alexander, and of Bactriana, was conquered by the Turks in the 6th century, by 
the Chinese in the 7th, and by the Arabs about 705. After various changes of masters it 
was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its present possessors, in 1505. The British envoys, 
colonel Stoddart and captain Conolly, were murdered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, 
in 1843. In the war with Russia, begun in 1866, tiie emir's army was defeated several times 
in May, and seq. Peace was made 11 July, 1867. 

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, formerly part of Peru. Population in 1S58, 
1,987,352. 



I Succeeded by the dictator Jose Maria Linares, 
I 31 March, 1859 
j George. Cordova, constitutional president . . i860 
I Succeeded by Jose M. de Acha . . May, 1861 
j General Melgarej defeats the troops of president 
De Acha 28 Dec. 1864 

Becomes chief of the republic . . . Feb. 1865 
j Puts down an insurrection under Belzu, March, 1865 

Totally defeats Arguedas at Viacha and pub- 
lishes an amnesty .... 24 Jan. 1866 

Suppresses a revolt . . . .17 Oct. „ 



433 
1 167 



1506 
1513 



1653 



iSis 



A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . 1S31 

Rebellion 1848 

Bologna taken by Austrians . . 16 May, 1S49 
The Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardinal 
Ferretti departs : the citizens rise and form 
a provisional government . . 12 June, 1859 
Which decrees that all public acts shall be 
headed ' ' Under the reign of king Victor 
Emmanuel," &c. . . . . i Oct. i860 

He enters Bologna as sovereign . z May, ,, 



The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed 

by Tupac Amaru Andi-es, took place here, 1780-2 
The country declared its independence, 6 Aug. 1824 
Secured by the victory of Ayacucho, 9 Dec. ,, 

Took the name of Bolivia, m honour of general 

Bolivar . . . '. . . n Aug. 1825 
First congress met . ... 25 May, 1826 

Slavery abolished 1836 

General Sucre governed ably .... 1826-8 

Santa Cruz ruled 1828-34 

Free-trade proclaimed 1853 

General Cordova, president .... 1855-7 

BOLLANDISTS, see Ada Sanctorum. 

BOLOGNA (central Italy) the ancient Felsiua, afterwards Bououia, a city distinguished 
for its architecture. 

University founded by Theodosius . 
Bolognajoins the Lombard League . . . 
Pope Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in 

triumph . . . . . .11 Nov. 

It becomes part of the states of the Church . 
In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for 

its pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line 

(over one drawn by Father Ignatius Daute 

in 157s) 

Bologna was taken by the French, 1796 ; by 
the Austrians. 1799 ; again by the French, 
after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 : and re- 
stored to the pope in 

BOMARSUND, a strong fortress on one of the Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by 
sir Charles Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided by the French military con- 
tingent under general Baraguay d'Hilliers, 16 Aug. 1854. The governor Bodisco, and the 
garrison, about 2000 men, became prisoners. The fortifications were destro3'ed. 

BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of our India!u presidencies, was visited by the 
Portuguese in 1509, and acquired by them in 1530. It was given (with Tangier in Africa, 
and 300,oooZ. in money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the infanta Catherine of 
Portugal, 1662. In 1668, it was granted to the East India company, who had long desired 
it, "in free and common socage," as of the manor of East Greenwich, at an annual rent of 
lol. Confirmed by William III. 1689. The two principal castes at Bombay are the Parsees 
(descendants of the ancient Persian fire-worshippers) and the Borahs (sprung from earlj'- con- 
verts to Islamism). They are both remarkable for commercial activity. 

First British factory estabUshed at Ahmednug- ; His son sir Cursetjee, visits England . . i860 

gur 1612 ' Rioting against the income-tax suppressed 

Mr. Gyfford, deputy -governor, 100 soldiers, and j Nov. & Dec. ,, 

other English, perish through the climate. Sir Henry Bartle Frere appointed governor 

Oct. 1675— Feb. 1676 '. March, 1862 

Captain Keigwin usurps the government . 1681-84 Greatly increased prosperity through the cot- 
Bombay made chief over the company's settle- I ton trade, leads to immense speculation, 

1687 , Nov. 

j Reported failure of Mr. Byramjee Cama, a Par- 
i6go j .see, for 3,300,000?. ; other failures, and gi-eat 
1708 I depression ; the projected international ex- 
] hibition in 1S67 abandoned . . . May, 
1775 , Recovering from commercial crisis . Auf 



ments 
The whole island, except the fort, seized and 

held for a time by the mogul's admiral 

ombay becomes a distinct presidency 
Additions to the Bombay territory: — Bancoot 

river, 1756 ; island of Salsette 

Bishopric established 1833 

Population of the presidency, 12,034,483 . . 1858 
The benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a 

Parsee (who erected several hospitals, &c.) 

dies 15 April, 18591 



1864 



Mr. W. R. Seymour Fitzgerald, appointed 

governor ' Nov. 

Arrived 28 Feb. 



1 366 
1867 



BOMBS (ii'on shells filled with gunpowder), said to have been invented at Venlo, in 



BON 



112 



BOO 



1495, and used by the Turks at the siege of Khodes in 1522. They came into general use 
in 1634, having heen previously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards. Bomb-vessels were 
invented in France in 1681. Voltaire. The shrapnel shell is a bomb iilled with balls, and 
a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen-inch bomb-shell 
weighs 198 lbs. 

BONAPARTE FAMILY, &c., see France, 1793, note. 

BONDAGE, see Villanage. 

BONES. The art of softening bones was discovered about 1688, and they were used in 
the cutlery manufacture, &c., immediately afterwards. The declared value of the bones of 
cattle and of other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) imported into the United 
Kingdom from Eussia, Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c., amounts annually to more than 
300,000?. (in 185 1 about 32,000 tons). Bone-dust has been extensively employed in manure 
since the publication of Liebig's researches in 1840. 

BONE-SETTING cannot be said to have been practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. 

BONHOMMES, hermits of simple and gentle lives, appeared in France about 1257 ; in 
England about 1283. The prior of the order was called le ion homme, by Louis YI. 

BONN, a town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna) was in the electorate of Cologne. It 
has been frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia in 18 14. The academy founded 
by the elector in 1777, made a university, 1784 ; abolished by Napoleon ; re-established find 
enlarged 1818. Here Albert, our late prince consort, was entered as a student, May 1837. 

BOOK (Anglo-Saxon, hoc; German, buch). Books were originally made of boards, or 
the inner bark of trees : afterwards of skins and parchment. Papyrus, an indigenous plant, 
was adopted in Egypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented by Attains, king of 
Pergamus, about 198 B.C., at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in 
Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred and matted together by the fire, and 
are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate 
treatise. The most ancient books are the Pentateuch of Moses and the poems of Homer and 
Hesiod. The first Pkinted Books (see Printing) were printed on one side only, the leaves 
being pasted back to back. 

earliest ornanieutal book, is supposed to have 
been bound about 650 

A Latin Psalter, was bound in oak boards, the 
9th century. 

A MS. copy of the four Evangelists, the book 
on which our kings from Henry I. to Edward 
VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in 
oaken boards, nearly an inch thick . . iioo 

Velvet was the covering in the 14th centiu:y ; 
and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced 
early in the 15th century; it was stamped 
and ornamented about 1510 

Leather came into use about the same time. 

The rolling machine, invented by Mr. Wm. 
Burr, was substituted for the beating-ham- 
mer, and gas stoves began to take the place 
of the charcoal fires used to heat the gilder's 
finishing tools about 1830 

Cloth binding superseded the common boards 
generally about 1S31 

Caoutchouc, or India-rubber, backs to account- 
books and large volumes, were introduced in 1841 



Books of astronomy and geometry were or- 
dered to be destroyed in England as being 
infected with magic, 6 Edw. VI. Stow . .1552 

2032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new 
editions, were published in London ii^ . . 1839 

3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, exclu- 
sive of 908 pamphlets, were published in . 1852 

3553 volumes were published in . . . 1864 

In Paris, 6445 volumes were published in 1842 ; 
and 7350 in 1851. See Bibliography. 

Peices of Books. — Jerome (who died 420) states 
that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the 
works of Origen. A large estate was given by 
Alfred for a book on cosmography, about 872. The 
Roman de la Rose was sold ior aboiit 30?. ; and a 
homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quar- 
ters of wheat. Books frequently fetched double or 
treble their weight in gold. They sold at prices 
varying from loi. to 40I. each in 1400. A copy of 
Maclclin's Siblc, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, was 
declared worth 500 guineas. Bv.tlev. A yet more 
supex-b copy was insured in a London office for 3000^. 
See Boccaccio' a Becamerone. 

Book-Binding. — The book of St. Cuthbert, the 



Book-Hawking Societies (already in Scotland) 
begun in England in 1851 by archdeacon 
Wigram (since bishop of Kochester). Tlie 
hawkers vend moral and rehgious books in 
a similar manner to the French colporteurs. 



BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book-keeping, 
was taken from the course of Algebra published by Burgo, in the 15th century, at Venice. 
John GoAvghe, a printer, published a treatise "on the kepyng of the famouse reconynge 
. . . Debitor and Creditor," London, 1543. This is our earliest work on book-keeping. 
James Peele published his Book-keeping in 1569. Jolui Mellis published " A Briefe Instruc- 
tion and Manner how to Keepe Bookes of Accompts," in 1588. Improved systems were pub- 
lished by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by Edw. Thos. Jones in 1821 and 1831. 

BOOK OF SPORTS, see Sports. 

BOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like hawkers, became known as stationarii, from 



BOO 



113 



BOR 



tlieir practice of having booths ov stalls at the comers of streets and in markets. They 
were long subject to vexations restrictions, from which they were freed in 1758.* 

BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, the jST.W. point of America, discovered by sir 
John Ross in 1830, and named after sir Felix Booth, who had presented him with 20,oooZ, 
to fit out his Polar expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. 

BOOTS, said to have been the invention of the Carians, were made of iron, brass, or 
leather. Leather boots were mentioned by Homer 907 B.C., and frequently by the Roman 
historians. A variety of forms maybe seen in Fairholt's "Costume in England." An 
instrument of torture termed " the boot" was used in Scotland so late as 1690. 

BORAX (Boron), known to the ancients, is used in soldering, brazing, and casting gold 
and other metals, and v/as called chrysocolla. Borax is jiroduced naturally in the mountains 
of Thibet, and was brought to Europe from India about 17 13. Homberg in 1702 discovered 
in borax boracic acid, which latter in 180S was decom[iosed by Gay-Lussac, Tlienard, and H. 
Davy, into oxj-gen and the previously unknown element, boron. Borax has lately been 
found in Saxony. It is now largely manufactured from the boracic acid found by Hcefer to 
exist in the gas arising from certain lagoons in Tuscany ; and an immense fortune has been 
made by their owner M. Lardarel since 1818. 

BORDEAUX, see Bourdeaux. 

BORISTEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Australia, was 
discovered by the Portuguese about 1520, 



The Dutch trade here in 1604 ; and establish 
factories 1609 1776 

The pirates of Borneo chastised by the British 
in 1813, and by captain Keppel in March, 1S43 

By a treaty with the sultan, the island of La- 
booan, or Labuan (N. W. of Borneo), and its 
dependencies, incorporated with the British 
empire, and formally taken possession of in 
presence of the Bornean chiefs . 2 Dec. 1846 

James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak, by whose 
exertions this island was annexed to the 
British crown, governor of Labuan and 
consul-general of Borneo, visits England and 
receives many honours . . . Oct. 1S47 

He destroys many of the Bornean pirates . 1849 

Labuan made a bishopric ; the bishop was con- 



secrated at Calcutta, the first EngUsh bishop 
consecrated out of England . .18 Oct. 1855 

The Chinese in Sarawak rise in insun-ection 
and massacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. 
Brooke escapes by swimming across a creek ; 
he speedily returns with a force of Malays, 
&c., and chastises the insurgents, of whom 
2000 were killed . . . . 17, 18 Feb. 1857 

He comes to England to seek help from the 
government, without success .... 1858 

His health being broken up, an appeal for a 
subscription for him made „ 

Deputation of merchants waits on the earl of 
Derby recommending the purchase of Sara- 
wak, which is declined ... 30 Nov. , , 

Sir J. Brooke returns to Borneo . . 20 Nov. 1S60 



BORNOU, an extensive kiugdom in central Africa, explored by Denham and Clapperton, 
who were sent out by the British Government in 1822. The population is estimated by 
Denliam at 5,000,000, by Barth at 9,000,000. 

BORODIJSTO, a Russian village on the river Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was 
fought, 7 Sept. 1 812, betAveen the French under Kaj^oleon, and the Russians under Kutusoff ; 
240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory ; but the Russians retreated, 
leaving Moscow, which the French entered, 14 Sex:)t. ; see Moscow. 

BOROiSr, see Borax. 

BOROUGH or Bukgh, anciently a company of ten families living together, now such 
towns as send members to parliament, since the election of burgesses in the reign of Henry 
III. 1265. Charters were granted to towns by Henry I. 1132 ; which were remodelled by 
Charles II. in 1682-4, but restored in 1688. 22 new English boroughs were created in 1553. 
Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish Parliament bj'^ Robert Bruce, 1326 ; and 
into the Irish, 1365. Acts to amend the Representation of the People in England and Wales 
passed 7 June, 1832, and 15 Aug. 1867 ; and the Act for the Regulation of Municipal Cor- 
porations, 9 Sept. 1835 ; see Constititcncy. 

BOROUGH-BRIDGE (W. R. of York), the site of a battle between the earls of Hereford 
and Lancaster and Edward II., 16 March, 1322. The latter, at the head of 30,000 men, 
pressed Lancaster so closely, that he had not time to collect his troops together in sufficient 
force, and being defeated and made prisoner, was led, mounted on a lean horse, to an 
eminence near Pontefract, or Pomfret, and beheaded by a Londoner. 



* Booksellers' Association. In 1829 a number of eminent publishers in London formed themselves 
into an association for the regulation of the trade, and fixed the amount of discount to be aUowod, 29 
Dec. 1829, and for some years restricted the retail booksellers from seUing copies of works under the full 
publishing price. A dispute afterwards arose as to the right, maintained by the latter, to dispose of books 
(when they had once become thens by purchase) at such less profit as they might deem sufficiently 
remunerative. The dispute was referred to lord chief justice Canapbell, before whom the parties argued 
their respective cases, at Stratheden House, 14 April, 1852. His lordship gave judgment in effect against 
the association, which led to its immediate dissolution, 19 May following. 

I 



BOR 



114 



BOT 



BOROUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure by which the younger son inherits, is men- 
tioned as occurring 834. It was abolished in Scotland by Malcolm III. in 1062. 

BOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire, where Charles II. concealed himself after his 
defeat at Worcester {ivliich see), 3 Sept. 1651.* The " Boscobel Tracts" were first pub- 
lished in 1660. In 1 86 1 Mr. F. Manning publislied " Views," illustrating these tracts. 

BOSNIA, in European Turkey, formerly pai't of Pannonia, was governed by chiefs till a 
brother-in-law of Louis king of Hungary was made king, 1376. He was defeated by tlie 
Turks in 1389, and became their vassal. Bosnia was incorporated with Turkey in 1463. 
Many efforts have been made by the Bosnians to recover their independence. The last rebel- 
lion began in 1849, and was quelled by Omar Pasha in 1851. 

BOSPHORUS, Thracian (now Channel of Constantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw a 
bridge of boats over this strait when about to invade Greece, 493 b. c. See CoTistantinopU. 

BOSPORUS (impropei-ly Bosphokus), now called Circassia, near the Bosphorus 
Cimmerius, the straits of Kertch or Yenikale. The history of the kingdom is involved in 
obscurity, though it continued for 350 ^i-ears. It was named Cimmerian, from the Cimmeri, 
who dwelt on its borders, about 750 e.g. 



The ArclisenactidEe from Mitj'lene rule, B.C. 502-480 

They are dispossessed by Spartacus I. . . 438 

Seleucus, 431 ; Satyrus 1 407 

Leucon, 393; Spartacus II., 353 ; Parysades . 348 
Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- 
rus II., is defeated ; but Satyrus is killed . 310 
Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the throne, 

but is murdered by Eumelus . . . 310-9 

Eumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; 

and is killed 304 

The Scythians conquer Bosporus . . . 285 

Mithridates VI. , of Pontus, conquers Bosporus 80 
He poisons himself ; and the Romans make his 

son, Pharnaces, king 63 



Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Cfesar over 
Pharnaces II. (Cajsar writes home, Veni, vidi, 
vici, "I came, I saw, I conquered") . B.C. 47 

Asander usurps the crown ,, 

Csesar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king . ,, 
Polemon conquers Bosporus, aud, favoured by 

Agrippa, reigns 14 

Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus 

Mseotis A.D. 33 

Polemon II. reigns, 33 ; Mithridates II. reigns 41 
Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Borne, by 

order of Claudius 49 

A list of obscure kings given by some writers 
ends with Sauromates VII. . . , . 344 



BOSTON, a N. city in the United States, built about 1627. Here originated that 
resistance to the British authorities which led to American independence. The act of parlia- 
ment laying duties on tea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, 1767), so excited the indigna- 
tion of the citizens of Boston, that they destroyed several hundreds of chests of tea, Nov. 
1773. Boston seaport was shut by the English parliament, until restitution should be made 
to the East India Company for the tea lost, 25 March, 1774. The town was besieged by the 
British nest year, and 400 houses were destroyed. A battle between the royalists and 
independent troops, in which the latter were defeated, took place on 17 June, 1775. The 
city was evacuated by the king's troops, April, 1 776. The inhabitants were very zealous 
against slavery. An industrial exhibition was opened here in Oct. 1856, and lasted two 
weeks. 

BOSWORTH FIELD, Leicestershire, the site of the thirteenth and last battle between 
the houses of York and Lancaster, 22 Aug. 1485, when Richard III. was defeated by the 
earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., and slain. Sir Wm. Stanley at a critical moment 
changed sides, and thus caused the loss of the battle. It is said that Henry was crow^ned on 
the spot with the crown of Richard found in a hawthorn bush near the field. 

BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the science (about 347 B.C.). Historia 
Plantarum of Theophrastus was written about 320 b.c. Authors on botany became 
numerous at the close of the 15th century. FucJisius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpinus, and 
others, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system and arrangement of the great Linnseus 
was made known about 1750 ; and Jussieu's system, founded on Tournefort's, and called 
"the natural system," in 1758. At Linnseus's death, 1778, the species of plants actually 
described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of species now recorded cannot fall 
short of ioo,ooo.i" J. C. Loudon's " Encyclopaedia of Plants," a most comprehensive work, 
first appeared in 1829. De Candolle's " Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis " 
(of which Vol. I. appeared in 1818), is nearly completed (1868). An International Botanical 
Congress was opened in London, 23 May, 1866, professor A. de CandoUe president. 



* The king, disguised in the clothes of the PendriUs, remained from 4 to 6 Sept. at White Ladies ; od 
7 and 8 Sept. he lay at Boscobel house, near which exists an oak, said to be the scion of the Koyal Oak in 
which the king was part of the time hidden with col. Careless. Sharpe. 

t Robert Brown, who accompanied Flinders in his survey of New Holland in 1803, died 10 June, 1858, 
aged 85. He was acknowledged to be the chief of the botanists of his day (facile princei^s). 



BOT 115 BOU 


BOTANY, continued. 


BOTANIC GARDENS. 


'Established about 
Padua . . . 1545 
Leyden . . . 1577 
Leipsic . , . 1580 
Paris (Jardin des 

Plantes) . . . 1624 
Jena . . . 1629 
Oxford . . . 1632 


Established about 
Upsal . . . 1657 
Chelsea . . . 1673 
Edinburgh . . 1680 
Vienna . . . 1753 
Madrid . . . „ 
Kew (greatly im- 
proved, 1841-65) . 1760 


Established about, 
Cambridge . . 1763 
Coimbra . . . 1773 
St. Petersburg . 1785 
Calcutta . . . 1793 
Dublin . . . 1800 
Horticultural Soci- 
ety's, Chiswick . 1821 


Eslahlished 
Royal Botanic So- 
ciety's, Regent's 
Park . . .1839 
Royal Horticultural 
Society's, S. Ken- 
sington . . . i860 



BOTANY BAY, Australia, was discovered by captain Cook, 28 April, 1770, and took 
its name from the great variety of plants which abounded on the shore. It was fixed on for 
a colony of convicts from Great Britain. The first governor, capt. Arthur Phillip, who sailed 
from England in May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in Jan. 1788. The colony was 
eventually established at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the bay ; see 
Neiv South Wales, and Transportation. 

BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshire. The Scotch covenanters, who took i;p arms 
against the intolerant government of Charles II., and defeated the celebrated Claverhouse at 
Drumclog, i June, 1679, were totally routed by the earl of Monmouth at Bothwell Bridge, 
22 June, 1679, and many prisoners were tortured and e.'^ecuted. 

BOTTLE-CONJURER. A conjurer having advertised that he would jump into a quart 
bottle at the Haymarket theatre, on 16 Jan. 1749, the house was densely crowded and 
besieged by thousands anxious to gain admittance. The rogue carried off the receipts, the 
pickpockets had a rich harvest, and the duped crowd nearly pulled down the edifice. 

BOTTLES in ancient times were made of leather. The art of making glass bottles and 
driuking-glasses was known to the Romans at least before 79 ; for these articles and other 
vessels have been found in the ruins of Pompeii. Bottles were made in England about 
1558. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scot- 
land, in Jan. 1747-8 ; see Glass. 

BOUILLON, Belgium, formerly a duchj', was sold by Godfrey, its ruler, to Albert, 
bishop of Li^ge, to obtain funds for the crusade, 1095. It was seized by the French in 
1672, and held by them till 1815, when it was given to the king of the Netherlands, as duke 
of Luxemburg. It was awarded to Belgium after the Revolution of 1830. 

BOULOGNE, a seaport in Picardy, N. France, was taken by the British under Henry 
VIII. on 14 Sept. 1544, but restored at the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, 
disabling ten vessels and sinking five, 3 Aug. 1801. In another attemj)t he was repiilsed 
with great loss, and captain Parker of the Medusa and two-thirds of his crew were killed, 
18 Aug. following. In 1804 Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, and a 
ilotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and 
Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult 
population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French 
armament served merelj'^ for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended 
the invasion. Sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to biu-n the flotilla with fire- 
machines called catamarans, 2 Oct. 1804. Congreve-rockets were used in another attack, 
and they set the town on fire, 8 Oct. 1806. The army Avas removed on the breaking out of 
war with Austria in 1805. Louis Napoleon (now emperor) made a descent here with about 
50 followers, 6 Aug. 1840, without success. On 10 July, 1854, as emperor, he reviewed the 
French troops destined for the Baltic, and on 5 Sept. following he entertained Prince 
Albert and the king of the Belgians ; see France. 

BOUNDARY COMMISSIONERS appointed by the Reform Bill, passed 15 Aug. 1S67. 
Viscount Eversley, Russell Gurney, sir John T. B. Duckworth, sir Francis Crossley, and 
John "Walter, first sat 16 Aug. England and Wales were divided into 18 districts, and 
other arrangements made. 

BOUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, exporter, or importer of certain articles ; 
a principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. The first granted on corn, 
in 1688, were I'epealed in 1815. They were first legally granted in England for raising naval 
stores in America, 1 703, and have been granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. 

BOUNTY MUTINY, took place on board the Bountij, an armed ship which quitted 
Otaheite, with bread-fruit trees, 7 April, 1789. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and 
nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Isles, 28 April, 1789 ; 
these reached the Island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in Jime, after a voj^age of nearly 
4000 miles. Some of the mutineers were tried 15 Sept. 1792; six were condemned and 
three executed. For the fate of the others, see Pitcairn's Island. 

I 2 



BOU 



116 



BOX 



Bourbon Family Compact (a defensive alliancs 
between France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies) 
concluded by M. de Choiseul) . . 15 Aug. 1761 

The Bourbons expelled France, 1791 ; restored 
1814 ; again expelled on the return of Bona- 
parte from Elba, and again restored after the 
battle of Waterloo, 1815. The elder branch 
was expelled once more, in the person of 
Charles X. and his family, in 1830, in conse- 
quence of the revolution of the memorable 
days of July in that year. 

Orleans branch ascended the throne in the per- 
son of the late Louis-Philippe, as " king of 
the French," 9 Aug. 1830 ; deposed 24 Feb. 
1848 ; and his family also was expelled. 

The Bourbon family fled from Naples, 6 Sept. 
i860 ; and Francis II. lost his kingdom ; see 
France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, Parma, Conde, 
and Legiiimists. 



BOURBON, House of (from which, come the royal houses of France, Spain, and Naples), 
derives its origin from the Archambauds, lords of Bourbon in Berry. 

Eobert, count of Clermont, son of Louis IX. 

of France, married the heiress Beatrice in 

1272; died 1317 ; their son Louis I. created 

duke of Bourbon and peer of Prance by 

Charles IV 1327 

The last of the descendants of their elde)~ son 

Peter I., Susanna, married Charles, dukciof 

Montpensier, constable of Bourbon, who, 

offended by his sovereign Francis I., entered 

into the service of the Emperor Charles V. , 

and was killed at the siege of Eome, 6 May, 1527 
From James, the younger son of Louis I., de- 
scended Antony, duke of Vend6me, who mar- 
ried (1S4S) Jean d'Albret, daughter of Henry, 

king of Navarre. Their son, Henry IV. born 

at Pau, 23 Dec. 1553, became king of France, 

31 July, 1589 
The crown of Spain was settled on a younger 

branch of this family, 1700, and guaranteed 

by the peace of Utrecht (Rapin) . . . 1713 

BOURBOlSr, Isle of (in the Indian Ocean), discovered by the Portuguese about 1545. 
The French are said to have first settled here in 1642. It surrendered to the British, under 
admiral Rowley, 21 Sept. 1809, and was restoi'ed to France in 181 5. Alison. An awful 
hurricane in Feb. 1829, did much mischief. Bourbon was named "He de la Reunion " in 
1848 ; see Mauritius. 

BOURDEAUX, or Bordeaux (W. France), was united to the dominions of Henry II.' 
of England by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1151. Edward the Black Prince 
brought John, king of France, captive to this city after the battle of Poictiers in 1356, and 
here held his court eleven years : his son, oi;r Richard II. , was born at Bourdeaux, 1366, 
Bourdeaiix finally surrendered to Charles VII. of France, 14 Oct. 1453. The fine equestrian 
statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious British 
army after the battle of Orthes, fought 27 Feb. 1814. 

BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Antoinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the 
Augustine habit and travelled in France, Holland, England, and Scotland ; in the last she 
made many converts about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith 
and practice, but in inward feeling and supernatural impulse. A disciple named Court left 
her a good estate. She died in 1680, and her works, 21 volumes 8vo, were published 1686. 

BOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded garment worn in Algeria, which has been 
introduced in a modified form into England and France since 1847. 

BOUVINES (S. France), the site of a desperate battle, 27 July, 1214, in which Philip 
Augustus of France was victorious over the emperor Otho and his allies, consisting of more 
than 150,000 men. The counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken prisoners. 

BOWLS or Bowling, an English game as early as the 13th century. Charles I. played 
at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. Grammont. 

BO"W-STREET, see Magistrates. BOWS and Aekows, see Archery. 

BOXING, or Prize-Fighting, the pugilatus of the Romans, once a favourite sport with 
the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, which gives them superiority 
in battles decided by the bayonet, A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and 
a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court : — 



Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, 

built 1742 

Schools opened in England to teach boxing as a 

science in 1790 

Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in . 1791 
Boxing was much patronised from about 1820 to 1830 
John Gully, originally a butcher, afterwards a 
prize-fighter, acquired wealth and became 
M.P. for Pontefract in 1835, died 9 March, 1863 
Desperate conflict at Parnborough between 
Thomas Sayers, the Champion of England, a 
light Sussex man, about 5 feet 8 inches high, 
and John Heenan, the " Benecia Boy," a 
huge American, in height 6 feet i inch. 
Strength, however, was matched by skill ; 



and eventually the fight was interrupted, 
17 Api-il, i860. Both men received a silver 
belt on 31 May following. 

Tom King beat Mace, and obtained the cham- 
pion's belt, &c. .... 26 Nov. 1862 

He beat Goss, i Sept., and Heenan (nearly to 
death) 10 Dec. 1863 

A trial, in consequence of the last fight, ensued : 
the culprits were discharged, on promising 
not to ofiend again ... 5 April, 1864 

Wormald obtained the championship after a 
contest with Marsden ... 4 Jan. 

Contest for championship between Mace and 
O'Baldwin, a giant ; prevented by the arrest 
of Mace 15 Oct. 



1865 



1867 



BOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the British and allied army, commanded by the 
duke of York, was defeated by the French republicans, who took 2000 prisoners and eight 
pieces of cannon, Sept. 17, 1794. 



BOX 117 BRA 

BOX-TREE, indigenous to this countiy, and exceedingly valuable to wood-engravers. 
In 1815 a large box-tree at Box-bill, Surrey, was cut down, and realised a large sura. 
MaccuUoch says, that "the trees were cut down in 1815, and produced upwards of io,oooZ." 
About 1820 the cutting of all the trees on the hill produced about 6000?. 

BOYDELL'S LOTTERY for the Shakspeare gallery of paintings was got up in 179 1 by 
alderman Boydell, lord mayor of London. Every ticket was sold at the time the alderman 
died, 12 Dec. 1804, before the decision of the wheel. 

BOYLE LECTURES, instituted in 1691 by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of Cork), 
a philosopher, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and benevolence. Eight lectures (in 
vindication of the Christian religion) are delivered at St. Mary-le-bow church, London, on 
the first Monday in each month, from January to May and September to November. 

BOYNE, a river in Kildare, Ireland, near which "William III. defeated his father-iir-law, 
James II., i July, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) men ; the Protestant army 
lost about a third of that number (out of 30,000). James fled to Dublin, thence to Water- 
ford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed, shot by mistake by his 
own soldiers as he was crossing the river, and here also was killed the rev. George "Walker, 
who defended Londonderry, in 1689. Near Drogheda is a splendid obelisk, 150 feet in 
height, erected in 1 736 by the Protestants of the empire in commemoration of this victory. 

BOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, destroyed by fire at Portsmouth, 4 May, 1795, by the 
explosion of the magazine ; numbers perished. Portions were recovered June, 1840. 

BRABANT, part of Holland and Belgium, an ancient duchy, part of Charlemagne's 
empire, fell to the share of his son Charles. It became a separate ducliy (called at first 
Lower Lorraine) in 959. It descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, and in regular succession 
to the emperor Charles V. In the 1 7th century it was held by Holland and Austria, as 
Dutch Brabant and the Walloon provinces, and underwent many changes through the wars 
of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French in 1 746 and 1 794. It was 
united to the Netherlands in 1814, but South Brabant was given to the kingdom of Belgium, 
under Leopold, 1830. The heir of the throne of Belgium is styled duke of Brabant ; see 
Belgium. 

BRACELETS were worn by the ancients, and armillce were Roman military rewards. 
Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies. 

BRADFIELD RESERYOIR, see Slieffield, 1864. BRADFORD, see Poison. 

BRADSHAW'S RAILWAY GUIDE was first published by Mr. G. Bradshaw in Dec. 
1 84 1. He had previously published occasionally a Railway Companion. 

BRAGANZA, a city in Portugal, gave title to Alfonso, natural son of Pedro I. of Portugal 
(in 1422), founder of the house of Braganza. When the nation, in a bloodless revolution in 
1640, threw off the Spanish yoke, John, duke of Braganza, was called to the throne as 
John lY., and his descendants reign over Portugal and Brazil {tvJiich see). 

BRAHMINS, the highest of the four castes of the Hindoos. Pythagoras is thought to 
have learned from them his doctrine of the Metempsychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of 
the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. The modern 
Brahmins derive their name from Brahmah, one of the three beings whom God, according 
to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. The modern 
Indian priests are still the depositaries of the sacred learning of India ; see Vedas. 

BRAINTREE CASE (in Essex), was decided in 1842 by Dr. Lushington, who deter- 
mined that a minority in a parish vestry cannot levy a church rate. 

BRAMHAM (W. R. York) : near here the earl of Northumberland and lord Bardolf were 
defeated and slain by sir Thomas Rokeby, the general of Henry lY., 19 Feb. 1408; and 
Fairfax was defeated by the royalists under the duke of Newcastle, 29 March, 1643. 

BRANDENBURG, a city in Prussia, founded by the Slavonians, who gave it the name 
of Banher, which signified Guard of the Forest, according to some ; others explain the name 
as Burg, or city, of the Brenns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, after defeating the 
Slavonians, fortified Brandenburg, 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and bestowed the 
government on Sigefroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, or protector of 
the marches or frontiers. The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick lY, 
of Nuremburg, of the house of HohenzoUern, ancestor of the royal family of Prussia, made 
elector in 1417. For a list of the Margraves since 1134, see Prussia. 

BRANDENBURG HOUSE, Hammersmith, see Queen Caroline. 

BRANDY (German Branntwcin, burnt wine), the spirit distilled from wine. It appears 
to have been known to Raymond Lully in the 13th century, and to have been manufactured 
in France early in the 14th. It was at first used medicinally, and miraculous cures were 



BRA 



118 



BRA 



ascribed to its influence. In 1852, 3,959,452, and in 1866, 5,621,930 gallons were imported 
into the United Kingdom, It is now largely manufactiired in Britain. 

BRAND YWINE, a river in E". America, near whicli a battle took place between the 
British and the revolted Americans, in which the latter (after a day's fight) were defeated 
with great loss, and Philadelphia fell into the possession of the victors, 11 Sept. 1777. 

BRASS was known among all the early nations. Usher. The British from the remotest 
period were acquainted with its use. Whitakar. When Lucius Mummius burnt Corinth 
to the ground, 146 B.C., he found immense riches, and during the conflagration, it is said, 
all the metals in the city melted, and I'unning together, formed the valuable composition 
described as Corintliian Brass. This is well doubted, for the Corinthian artists had long 
before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold and silver with copper ; and 
the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple 
of Corinthian brass. J)u Fresnoy. Some of the English sepulchral engraved brasses are 
said to be as old as 1277. 

BRAURONIA, festivals in Attica, at Brauron, where Diana had a temple. The most 
remarkable that attended these festivals were young virgins in j^ellow gowns, dedicated to 
Diana. They Avere about ten years of age, and not under five ; and therefore their consecra- 
tion was called " deJcateuein," from deka, ten ; 600 B.C. 

BRAY, THE ViCAB OF. Bray, in Berks, is famous in national song for its vicar, the 
rev. Symon Symonds, who is said to have been twice a papist and twice a protestant — in 
four successive reigns— those of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, between 
the years 1533 and 1558. Upon being called a turn-coat, he said he kept to his principle, 
that of "living and dying the vicar of Bray. " Fuller'' s Church History. The modern song 
refers to the political changes of the 17th and i8th centuries, ^ 

BRAZEN BULL, traditionally said to have been contrived by Perillus, at Athens, for 
Phalaris, tja'ant of Agrigentum, 570 B.C. It had an opening in the side to admit the 
victims, and a fire was kindled underneath to roast them to death ; the throat was so con- 
trived that their gi'oans resembled the roaring of a bull. Phalaris admired the invention, 
but said it was reasonable the artist should make the first experiment, and ordered his exe- 
cution. The Agrigentes revolted against Phalaris, cut his tongue out, and roasted him in 
the brazen bull, 549 b. c. 

BRAZIL, an empire in South America, was discovered by Vincent Pinzon in Feb., and 
Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its coasts by a tempest, April, 1500, 
He called it the land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil, on account 
of its red wood. The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and nobles 
embarked for Brazil, and landed 7 March, 1808. The dominant religion is Roman Catholic ; 
but others are tolerated. Population in 1867, 10,780,000 ; see Portugal. 



Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about . 1504 
Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal 1530 
Martin de Souza discovers Rio, and founds the 

first European colony at San Vincente . . 1531 
Jews banished from Portugal to BrazU . . 1548 

San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thom^ de 

Souza 1549 

French protestants occupy bay of Bio Janeiro . 1555 

Expelled 1567 

Sebastian founded ,, 

Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain 1580 
James Lancaster captures Pernambuco . . 1593 
The French establish a colony at Maranham . 1594 
Belem founded by Caldeira .... 1615 

The French expelled ,, 

The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, and hold 

Pernambuco 1630 

Defeated at Guararapfes . . ... 1646 

Give up Brazil 1661 

Gold mining commences 1693 

Destruction of Palmares 1697 

The French assault and capture Rio Janeiro 1710-11 
Diamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio . . 1729 

Jesuits expelled 1758-60 

Capital transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro 1763 
Royal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, 7 Mar, 1808 
First printing-press established . . . . ,, 

Brazil becomes a kingdom 1815 

King John VI. returns to Portugal, and Dom 

Pedro becomes regent 1821 

Brazil declares its independence . 7 Sept. 1822 
Pedro I. crowned emperor . . .1 Dec. ,, 
New constitution ratified . .25 March, 1824 



Independence recognised by Portugal 29 Axig. 

Revolution at Rio Janeiro ; abdication of Dom 
Pedro I. .... 7 April, 

Reform of the constitution . . . . 

Accession of Pedro II 

Steam-ship line to Europe commenced 

Suppression of the slave-trade ; railways com- 
menced 

Rio Janeiro lit with gas 

The British ship "Prince of Wales " wrecked 
at Albardaa, on coast of Brazil, is plundered 
by some of the natives, and some of the crew 
killed, about 7 June, 

Reparation long refused ; reprisals made ; five 
Brazilian merchant ships being seized by the 
British 31 Dec. 

The Brazilian minister at London pays 3,200^. 
as an indemnity, under protest . 26 Feb. 

The Brazilian government request the British 
to express regret for reprisals ; declined ; 
diplomatic intercourse suspended 5-28 May, 

Dispute between the governments respecting 
the arrest of some British officers at Rio 
Janeiro (17 June, 1862) referred to the arbi- 
tration of the king of Belgium, who decides 
in favour of Brazil ... 18 Jime, 

New ministry formed ; F. J. Furtado, presi- 
dent — prospect of reconciliation with Great 
Britain 30 Aug. 

U. S. war-steamer " Wachusett " seizes the 
Confederate steamer "Florida," in the port 
of Bahia, while iinder protection of Brazil, 
7 Oct. ; after remonstrance, Mr. Seward, 



182s 

1831 
1834 
1840 
1850 

1852 
1854 



1861 
1862 



BRA 



119 



BEE 



BRAZIL, continued. 

II. S. foreign minister, apologises. [The 
" Florida " (inadvertently ?) sunkj 26 Dec. 

The comte d'Eu and princess Isabella (on mar- 
riage tour) land at Southampton 7 Feb. 

War witti Uruguay — the Brazilians take Pay- 
sandCi, and roarch upon Monte Video 2 Feb. 

Lopez, president of Paraguay, declares war 
against the Argentine Repubhc . April, 

Treaty between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Ar- 
gentine Republic against Paraguay, governed 
by Lopez, signed . . . .1 May, 

Scientific expedition under Agassiz favoured by 
the emperor .... . July, 

Amicable relations with England restored Aug. 

The emperor joins the army against Lopez Aug. 

The allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans 
at Santayuna on the Uruguay, . . Sept. 

Uruguayaua surrenders to the allies 18 Sept. 

Indecisive battle between the allies and the 
Paraguayans, at Paso de la Patria ahout 

25 Feb. 

Paraguayans defeated on the Parana 

16, 17 April, 

Victory of the allies at Estero Velhaco 2 May ; 
indecisive battle there . . .24 May, 

Bombardment of the aUied camp on the Parana 

14 June, 



1 Two days' fight ; allies defeated 16, 18 July, 1S66 
1864 Fruitless meeting of president Lopez with the 

chiefs on proposals of i)eace . 12 Sept. ,, 

The allies attack the fortress of Curupaiti ; de- 
feated with severe loss . 17-19. 22 Sept. 
The allies' camp bombai-ded, 18 Oct; the Para- 
guayans repulsed at Tuyuty . . 30 Oct. „ 
The Brazilians take Corumba, . 13 June, 1S67 
; The duke of Edinburgh visits Rio de Janeiro 
i 15-22 July, ,, 
,, i The Paraguayans victors 24 Sept. ; severely de- 

I feated 3 and 21 Oct. „ 

! Proposals for jieaoe by Lopez declined Oct. „ 
,, I Freedom decreed to slaves belonging to the 
,, i nation who shall become soldiers 6 Nov. ,, 

,, ! EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 

,, ' 1822. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) abdicated in favour 

I of his infant son, 7 April, 1831 ; died 24 Sept. 

I 1834. 
1866 ; 1831. Dom Pedro II. (bom 2 Dec 1825) : assumed 

j the government 23 July, 1840 ; crowned 18 July, 
„ 1841 ; maiTied 4 Sept. 1843, princess Theresa of 

I Naples. 
„ ' Heiress : Isabella, bom 29 July, 1846 ; married to 

i Louis comte d'Eu, son of the due de Nemours, 
,, ' 15 Oct. 1864. 



BREAD. Clung-lSronng, the successor of Eolii, is reputed to have been the first who 
taught men (the Chiuese) the art of husbandry and the method of making bread from wheat, 
and wine from rice, 1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal 
ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. It became a profession at Rome, 170 B.C. After the conquest of 
Macedon, 148 B.C., numbers of Greek bakers came to Rome, obtained special privileges, and 
soon obtained the monopoly of the baking trade. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., 
OOTUg to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for 
a crown a pound, Avas at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy 
Innocents, a.d. 1594. Henault. In the time of James I., barley bread was used by the 
poor ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread ; potato-bread is 
used in Ireland. The London Bakers' Company was incorporated in 1307. Bread-street 
was once the London market for bread. Until 1302, the London bakers were not allowed 
to sell any in their own shops. Stow. Bread was made with yeast by the English bakers in 
1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. Dauglish patented a mode of making "aerated bread," in 
which carbonic acid gas is combined with water and mixed with the flour, and which is said 
to possess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, and uniformity. In 1862 a company was 
formed to encourage Stevens' bread-making machinery.* An act for regulating bakehouses 
was passed in July, 1863. "We give the prices of bread in various years : — 



Quartern Loaf {4b 


Sloz.) 


1810 . . . . i^id. 


1840 




173s 


5id. 


i8i2(Aug.) . . 2l| 






1745 , . . . 


4* 


1814 . . . . 12-J 




June. 


1755 


5 


1820 . . .11 


184s . 


. 7kd. 


1765 . . . . 


7 




iSso 


■ 7 


1775 


6i 


Four-pound Loaf (best.) 


i8s4 • 


. 10 


T78S . . . . 


6i 


1822 . . . lod. 


185s 


. II 


1795 


I2i 


1825 . . . . II 


1856 . 


. II 


1800 . . 


17^ 


1830 . . . 105 


1857 


• 9^ 


1800 [For 4 weeks. 


22hd.'] 


183s . . ■ ■ 7' 


1858 . 


. 8 


1805 


12'i 









gd. 
Dec. 


1859 
i860 . 


7irf. 


1861 


6i 


1862 . 


II 
103 


1863 
1864 . 
1865 


8i 
7 


1866 . 
1867 
1868 . 



June, 


Dec. 


8d. 


7¥- 


8i 


9 


9 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


84 


9, 


10 


lOJ 



March 

BREAD-FRUIT TREE, a native of the South Sea islands. A vessel_ under captain 
Bligh was fitted out to convey some of these trees to various British colonies in 1789 (see 
Bounty), and again in 1791. The number taken on board at Otaheite was 115 1. Some 
were left at St. Helena, 352 at Jamaica, and Hve were reserved for Kew Gardens, 1793. The 
tree was successfully cultivated in French Guiana, 1802. 

BREAKWATERS. The first stone of the Plymouth breakwater was lowered August 12, 
1812. It was designed to break the swell, and stretches 5280 feet across the sound ; it is 
360 feet in breadth at the bottom and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 

* Assize of Bread. The first statute for the reafulafcion of the sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The 
chief justiciary, and a baker commissioned by the king, had the inspection of the assize. MaUhevi Paris. 
The assize was further regulated by statute in 51 Hen. HI. 1266, and S xVnne, 1710. Bread Act, Ireland, 
placing its sale on the same footing as in England, i Vict. 1838. Bread was directed to be sold by weight 
in London in 1822 ; the statute " Assessa Panis" was repealed in 1824 ; and the sale of bread throughout 
the country was regulated in 1836. 



BRE 120 BRE 

tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841, and cost a million and 
a half sterling. The architects were Mr. John Eennie and his son sir John. The first stone 
of the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid i Feb. 1841. Breakwaters have been 
constructed at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, &c. 

BREAST-PLATE. One was worn by the Jewish high priest, 149 1 B.C. (Exod. xxxix.). 
Goliath "was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 B.C. (i Sam. xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled 
to the diminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are mentioned as made of gold and silver. 

BRECHIN", Scotland; sustained a siege against the army of Edward III., 1333. The 
battle of Brechin was fought between the forces of the earls of Huntly and Crawfard ; the 
latter defeated, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by David I. in 1150. One of its 
bishops, Alexander Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 1556. The bishopric, dis- 
continued soon after the revolution in 1688, was revived in 1731. 

BREDA, Holland, was taken by prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590 ; by the Spaniards, 
under Spinola, in 1625 ; and by the Dutch, in 1637. The " Compromise of Breda " was a pro- 
posal to Philip II., deprecating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, presented and refused 
in 1566. Our Charles II. resided here at the time of the restoration, and here he issued 
his declaration of a free general pardon, 4 April, 1660 ; see Restoration. Breda was taken 
by the French in 1793. The French garrison was expelled by the bm-gesses in 1813. 

BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was worn by the 
Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, was worn in the 
time of Augustus Csesar. In the reign of Honorius, about 394, the hraccarii, or breeches- 
makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in 
other countries, and at length became general. 

BREECH-LOADERS, see under Cannon and Firearms. ' 

BREHONS, ancient judges in Ireland, are said to have administered justice with religious 
impartiality, but in later times with a tendency to love of country. It was enacted by the 
statute of Kilkenny, that no English subject should submit to the Brehonlaws, 40 Edw. IIL, 
1365. These laws, however, were recognised by the native Irish till about 1650. A trans- 
lation of them was proposed in 1852, and a commission appointed. 

BREITENFELD, see Lei'psic. 

BREMEN" (N". Germany), said to have been founded in 788, and long an archbishopric 
and one of the leading towns of the Hanseatic league, was allowed a seat and a vote in the 
college of imperial cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and erected into a duchy and 
held by Sweden till 1712, when it was taken possession of by Denmark in 1731, bj' whom 
it was ceded to Hanover. It was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the 
Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; 
but its independence was restored in 1813, and aU its old franchises in 1815. It became a 
member of the North German Confederation in 1866. Population of the province, Dec. 
1864, 104,091 ; see Hanse Towns. 

BRENNEVILLE, N". W. France. Here Henry I. of England defeated Louis YL of 
France, who had embraced the cause of William Cliton, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, 
20 Aug. 1 1 19. 

BRENTFORD, county town of Middlesex. Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, 
May, 1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp fight, 12 Nov. 1642. 

BRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), became important under the Lombards, and 
suffered by the wars of the Italian Republics, being attached to Venice. It was taken by 
the French under Gaston de Foix in 15 12, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were 
massacred. It surrendered to the Austrian general Haynau, 30 March, 1849, on severe 
terms ; annexed to Sardinia in 1859. 

BRESLAU", in Silesia, was burnt by the Mongols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick 
II. of Prussia, in Jan. 1741. A fierce battle took place here between the Austrians and 
Prussians, the latter under prince Bevern, who was defeated 22 Nov. 1757. Breslau was 
taken : but was regained, 2 1 Dec. the same year. It was besieged by the French, and sur- 
rendered to them Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. 

BREST, a sea-port, N."W. France, was besieged by Julius Cfesar, 54 B.C. — possessed by 
the English, a.d. 1378— given up to the duke of Brittany, 1390. Lord Berkeley and a 
British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadfiU loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, 
to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1 744. The marine hospitals, with fifty 
galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1784. From 
this great dep8t of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England 
during the late war, among them the fleet which lord Howe defeated on i June, 1794. 
England maintained a large blockading squadron off the harbour from 1793 to 1815 ; but 



BEE 121 BRI 

with little injury to France. It is now a chief naval station of that country, and from the 
fortifications and other vast works of late construction it is considered impregnable. The 
British fleet visited Brest, Aug. 1865. 

BRETAGNE, see Brittany. BRETHRElSr, see JBohemian and Plyviouth Brethren. 

BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France, 8 May, 1360, by which England retained 
Gascony and Guieune, and acquu-ed other provinces ; renounced her pretensions to Maine, 
Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy ; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, 
long a prisoner. The treaty not being carried out, the king remained and died in London. 

BRETON, see Cape Breton. 

BRETWALDA (wide-ruling chief), one of the kings of the Saxon heptarcby, chosen by 
the others as a leader in war against their common enemies. The following are mentioned 
by Bede (500 to 642), Ella, king of Sussex ; Ceawlin of "Wessex ; Ethelbert of Kent ; Red- 
wald of East Anglia ; Edwin, Oswald, and Oswy of Northumberland. The title was bestowed 
upon Egbert, 828 ; see Britam. 

BREVIARY (so called as being an abridgment of the books used in the Roman Catholic 
Service), contains the seven canonical hours, viz. : matins or lauds (began about 3 a.m.), 
primes (about 6), tierce (about 9), sexte (about 12), nones (about 2 p.m.), vespers (about 4), 
complines (about 7). The breviary is ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. It was first 
called the custos, and afterwards the breviaiy ; came into use among the ecclesiastical orders 
about 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., 
Urban VIII., and other popes. The quality of tyi:)e in which the breviary was iirst printed 
gave the name to the printing type called brevier (in which this page is printed). 

BREWERS are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. 
Tindal. " One William Murle, a rich maltman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all 
trapped with gold, 1414." Stoiv. In Oct. 1851, there were 2305 licensed brewers in England, 
146 in Scotland, and 97 in Ireland ; total 2548 : these are exclusive of retail and inter- 
mediate brewers. There were 40,418 licensed brewers in the United Kingdom in 1858; 
the revenue from whom to the state ^vas in that year 81,030^. In 1858 in England there 
were 205 great brewers ; see Ale, Porter. 

BRIAR'S CREEK (N. America), near which the Americans, 2000 strong, tinder general 
Ashe, were totally defeated by the English under general Prevost, 3 March, 1779. 

BRIBERY forbidden, Beut. xvi. 19. Samuel's sons were guilty of it, 11 12 B.C. (i Sam. 
viii. 3.) Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished for bribery in 1288 ; he was chief 
justice of the common Pleas. William de Thoii^e, chief justice of the king's bench, was 
hanged for bribery in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,oooZ. for the like offence, 1616. 
Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the Tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford 
was suspended from voting in the Irish house of lords, for soliciting a bribe, Jan. 1784. 

BRIBERY AT Elections. In 1854 an important act was passed consolidating and 
amending previous acts relating to this offence, from 7 Will. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184.* 

Messrs. Sykes and Kumbold fined and im- j Sudbui-y disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Alban's also . 1852 

prisoned for bribery . . .14 March, 1776 : Elections at Derby and other places declared 



■ Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping, im- 
prisoned for bribery at Ilchester . 28 April, 1804 

Mr. Swan, M.P. for Penryn, fined and im- 
prisoned, and sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced 
to a fine of 10,000?. and to two years' im- 
prisonment for bribery at Grampound, Oct. 1819 

The membei's for Liverpool and Dublin un- 
seated in 1831 

The friends of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cam- 
bridge, convicted of bribery . 20 Feb. 1835 

Elections for Ludlow and Cambridge made void 1840 



void for bribery, in 1853 

Gross bribery practised at Gloucester, "Wake- 
field, and Berwick, in 1859 

Mr. Edward Leatham convicted of bribery at 
Wakefield 19 July, i860 

Government commissions of inquiry respecting 
bribery, sat at Great Yarmouth, Totnes, Lan- 
caster, and Reigate ; and disgraceful disclo- 
sures were made .... Aug.-Nov. 1866 

The boroughs were disfranchised by the Keform 
bill, passed 15 Aug. 1867 



BRICKS were used in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome ; in England by the Romans 
about 44. Made under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. Saxon Chron. The 
size regulated by order of Charles I., 1625. Taxed 1784. The number of bricks which 
paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000; in 1830, above 1,100,000,000; in 1840, 
1,400,000,000 ; and in 1850, 1,700,000,000. The duties and drawbacks of excise on bricks 
were repealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and Cunningham brought out their machinery 
by which, it is said, 18,000 bricks may be made in ten hours. Messrs. Dixon and Corbett, 
near Newcastle, in 1861, were making bricks by steam at the rate of 1500 per hour. The 
machinery is the invention of Clayton & Co. , London. 

* In the case of Cooper v. Slade, it was i-uled that the payment of travelling expenses was bribery, 17 
April, 1858. An act passed permitting candidates to provide conveyances for voters, but forbiddmg pay- 
ment of travelling expenses ; see Elections. 



BRI 



122 



BEI 



BRIDEWELL, originally a palace of king Jolin, near Fleet-ditch, London, was rebuilt 
by Henry VIII., 1522, and given to the city for a workhouse by Edward VI., 1553. The 
New Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled down in 1864 ; that of TothUI-fields was 
rebuilt in 1831. 

BRIDGES were iirst of wood. The ancient stone bridges in China are of great magni- 
tude. Abydos is famous for tlie bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont, 
480 B.C. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built 
in A.D. 105. Brotherhoods for building bridges existed in S. France about 11 80.* 



Triangular bridge at Croyland Abbey referred 
to ill a charter dated 943 

First stone bridge erected at Bow, near Strat- 
ford, by queen Matilda . . about 1100-18 

Bishop's bridge, Norwich 1295 

London Bridge : one existed about 978 ; one 
built of wood 1014 ; one by Peter of Cole- 
church 1 1 76-1 209 ; new London Bridge 
finished 1831 

The first large iron bridge erected over the 
Severn, Shropshire 1777 

Sunderland bridge by Wilson, 100 feet high, an 
arch, with a span of 236 feet . . . . 1796 



The fine chain suspension bridge at the Menai 
Strait 1825 

Westminster, opened, 1750; Blackfriars, 1769; 
Waterloo, 1817 ; Southwark, 1819 ; Hunger- 
ford, 1845; Chelsea, 1858; Vauxhall, 1816. 

A railway bridge 2^ miles long projected over 
the Pirth of Forth (not executed) . Dec. 1864 

Probably the widest bridge in the world at pre- 
sent is the Victoria bridge over the Thames 
(by which the London, Chatham and Dover 
railway enters the Victoria station, Pim- 
lico) ; founded by lord Harris . 22 Feb. 1865 

For details see separate articles, and also Tubu- 
lar bridge, Niagara, Victoria bridge, (Sic. 

BRIDGEWATER, Somersetshire, was incorporated by king John, in 1200. In the war 
between Charles I. and the parliament, the forces of the latter reduced part of the town 
to ashes, 1643. Here stood an ancient castle in which the ill-advised duke of Monmouth 
lodged when he was proclaimed king in 1685. , 

BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by 
the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in this country, in 1759, and 
opened 1761. James Brindley was the engineer. It commences at Worsley, seven miles from 
Manchester ; and at Barton Bridge is an aqueduct which, for i^pwards of 200 yards, conveys 
the canal across the river Irwell. The length of the canal is about twenty-nine miles. 

BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The rev. Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 
1829, leaving by will 8000L to be given to eight persons, appointed by the president of the' 
Royal Society, who should write an essay "on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as 
manifested in the creation. " The essaj'^s (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, 
William Buekland, William Front, Peter M. Roget, and the revs. WiUiam Whewell and 
William Kirby) were published 1833-35. 

BRIEF, a written instrument in the Roman Catholic church, of eai'ly uncertain origin. 
Briefs are tlie letters of the pope despatched to princes and others on public affairs, and are 
usually written short, hence the name, and without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in 
which particulars they are distinguished from hulls. The latter are ample, and are always 
written on parchment. Briefs are sealed with red wax and the seal of the fisherman, or St. 
Peter in a boat, and always in the presence of the pope. The Queen's letter authorising 
collections in churches for charitable purposes are called "briefs." 

BRIENNE (N. E. France). Here the allied armies of Russia and Prussia were defeated 
by the French, 29 Jan. 1814. 

BRIGHTON, formerly Brighthelmstone, Sussex, once inhabited chiefly by fishermen, 
now a place of fashionable resort. 

Here Charles II. embarked for Fi-ance after the 

battle of Worcester 1651 

The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) 

founded the Pavilion 1784 

Greatly enlarged and made to resemble the 

Kremlin at Moscow, 1784-1823; it was sold to 

the town for 53,000?. 1849 

The Block-house swept away . . 26 March, 1786 



Pai-t of the cliff fell ; great damage 16 Nov. 1807 
Chain-pier, 1,134 feet long, 13 wide, completed 1823 
Brighton made a parliamentary borough . . 1832 
The railway to London opened . 21 Sept. 1841 
Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 per- 
sons killed and many wounded . 25 Aug. 1861 
Volunteer reviews here on Easter Mondays 1862-6 



BRILL or Briel, Holland. A seaport, seized by the expelled Dutch confederates, 
became the seat of their independence. Brill, given up to the English in 1585 as security 
for advances made by Queen Elizabeth to Holland, was restored in 161 6. 

BRISSOTINS, see Girondists. 

* The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built on two high 
rocks ; and many stories have been invented to account for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordinary bridge 
was built over The Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the middle of the i-iver, but 
it is doiibtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter 
imder him, yet waggons heavily laden passed over without danger. The bridga was destroyed by the 
French in 1799. 



BRI 



123 



BRI 



BRISTOL (W. England), built by Brenmis, a British prince, 380 B.C., is mentioned in 
A.D. 430 as a fortified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in the valley of Bath ; and 
sometimes Caer Brito, the British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, pleasant place. 
Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in the 5th and 7th centuries. 

Taken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defence 

of his sister Maud, the empress, against king 

Stephen 1138* 

Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, son 

of Henry I.) dies in the castle after 39 years' 

imprisonment ....... 1241 

St. Mary's church built 1292 

Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III. 1373 
Bishopric founded by Henry VIII. . . . 1542 

A new charter obtained 1581 

Taken by prince Rupert, 26 July, 1643 ; by 

Cromwell Sept. 1645 

Edwd. Colston's hospital, a free school, and 

other charities established [his birthday, 

14 Nov. kept annually] 1708 

Act passed for new exchange, 1723; erected . 1741 

Bread riots 1753 

Bridge built May, 1760 

Attempt to set the shipping on fire . 22 Jan. 1777 



Riot on account of a toll ; the troops fire on the 
populace, and many are wounded . 25 Oct. 

Docks built I 

Riot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, 
the recorder, into the city, he being opposed 
to the reform bill, and thus obnoxioiis to 
the lower classes. The mansion house, the 
bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, 
some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), 
nearly 100 houses burned, and above 500 per- 
sons killed by the military or perished 
29-31 Oct. 

Trial of rioters, 2 Jan. (four executed and 
twenty-two transported). Suicide of col. 
Brereton, during his trial by court-martial 

9 Jan. 

Meeting of British Association . . Aug. 

Railway to London completed . 30 Jime, 

Clifton suspension-bridge opened . 8 Dec. 

Industrial Exhibition opened . 19 Sept. 



1793 
804-9 



i83r 



1832 
183& 



1865 

BRISTOL, See of, one of the six bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils 
of the monasteries and religious houses which that monarch had dissolved, 1.S42. The 
cathedral was the church of the abbey of St. Austin, founded here by Robert Fitz-Harding, 
son to a king of Denmark, and a citizen of Bristol, 1148. It is valued in the king's books 
at 338Z. 8s. 4^ Paul Bushe, provincial of the Bons-hommes, was the first bishop, in 1542 — 
deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bristol was united by an order in council 
■with that of Gloucester, in 1836, and they now form one see under the name of Gloucester 
and Bristol. The cathedral (under repair since 1844) was reopened in 186 1. 



1827. Robert Gray, died . . .28 Sept. 1834 
1834. Joseph Allen, the last bishop, translated 
to Ely in June, 1836. (lu October the 
diocese was united with Gloucester.) 



BISHOPS OF BKISTOL. 

1803. Hon. G. Pelham, translated to E-xeter . 1807 

1807. John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford 1808 

1808. Wm. Lort Mansell, died . 27 June, 1820 
1820 John Kaye, translated to Lincoln . .1827 

BRITAIN (called by the Romans Britannia, f from its Celtic name Prydhain, Camden). 
The earliest records of the history of this island are the manuscripts and poetry of the Cam- 
brians. The Celts, the ancestors of tlie Britons and modern Welsh, were the first inhabi- 
tants of Britain. It is referred to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by Herodotus, 450 B.C. ; 
as Albion and lerne (England and Ireland) by Aristotle, 350 B.C., and Polj^bius, 260 B.C. 
Britain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of 
Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to only one. Pliny ; see 
Albion, England, Scotland, and Wales. 



Divitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, 
said to have supremacy over part of Britain 

First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under 
Julius Csesar 

He defeats Cassivelaunus, British general . . 

Cymbeline (CunobeUn) king of Britain 

Aulus Plautus defeats the Britons, a.d. 43 ; he 
and Vespasian reduce S. Britain . . . 

Caractacus defeated by Ostorius, 50 ; carried in 
chains to Rome ...... 

Romans defeated by Boadicea ; 70,000 slain, 
and London burnt : she is defeated by Sue- 
tonius ; 80,000 slain 

Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesey, and 
overruns Britain in seven campaigns, and 
reforms the government .... 

He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; 
surrenders the islands 

The emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120; and 
builds a wall from the Tyne to the Solway . 

Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent 



B.C. 

57 

SS-S4 
54 
4 

47 

51 



an embassy on religious affairs to pope 

Eleutherius, aboiit 

The Britons (allies of Albums) defeated at 

Lyons by Severus 

Southern Britain subdued and divided by the 

Romans into two provinces . . . . 
Severus keeps his court at York, then called 

Eboracum, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies 

at York 4 Feb. 

Carausius usurps the throne of Britain . . 
He is killed by Alectus, another usurper 
Constantius recovers Britain from Alectus . . 
St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bale) 304 
Con.stantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York, 

25 July, 306 
British bishops at the council of Aries . . 314 
Scots and Picts invade Britain, 360 ; routed by 

Theodosius 368 

Romans gradually withdi-aw from Bi-itain 402-436 
The Saxons and Angles aid in expelling the 

Picts and Scots 4^9 



181 



197 



204 



294 
296 



* From the period of Henry II. in the 12th to the middle of the i8th century, Bristol ranked next to 
LDndon, as the most populous, commercial, and flourishing place in the kingdom ; but since then it has 
been surpasse i by Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, and Glasgow. 

t The Romans eventually divided Britain into Britannia Primi (country south of the Thames and 
Severn) ; Britannia Secunda (Wales) ; Flavia Caisarlensis (between the Thames, Ssvern, and Humber) ; 
Maxima Ccesariensis (between the Humber and Tyne) ; and Valentia (between the Tyne and Firth of Forth). 



BRI 



124 



BRI 



BRITAIN, continued. 

The Anglo-Saxons attack the Britons, driving 
them into Wales 449-455 

Many Britons settled in Armorioa (Brittany) 388-457 

Ella invades South Britain, 477 ; founds king- 
dom of Sussex 491 

The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into 
seven or more kingdoms 457 

Supposed reigns of Vortigern, 446 ; Vortimer, 



KINGS OF THE HEPTA 
Kent. [Tlie shire of Kent.'\ 
454. Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 
488. M&c, Bsca, or Escus, son of Hengist ; in honour 

of whom the kings of Kent were for some 

time called iEsoings. 
512. Octa, son of iEsc. 
542. Hermenric, or Brmenric, son of Octa. 
560. St. Ethelbert ; first Christian king (styled JRex 

Anglorum). 
616. Badbald, son of Ethelbert. 
640. Ercenbert, or Ercombert, sou of Eadbald. 
664. Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 
773. Lother, or Lothair, brother of Esbert. 

685. Edric ; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject 

to various leaders.] 
694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 

It Ithelbert II., l«°^^ °f Yi,^*'^tf ''''^^"^^^ 
760. Alric, [ each other. 

794. Bdbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 
796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 

805. Baldred ; who in 823 lost his life and kingdom 
to Egbebt, king of Wessex. 

South Saxons. [Sussex and Surrey.} 
491. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 
514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peace- 
ful, exceeding 70 years. 
[The South Saxons then fell into an almost total 
dependence on the kingdom of Wessex.] 
648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. 

686. Authun and Berthun, brothers ; reigned jointly; 

vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689; 
kingdom conquered in 725. 

West Saxons. [Berks, Southampton, Wilts, Somerset, 

Dorset, Devon, and part of Cornwall.'i 
519. Cerdicus. 

534. Cynric, or Kenric, son of Cerdic. 
560. Ceawlin, son of Cynric ; banished ; dies in 593. 
591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 
597. Ceolwulf. 
611. } Cynegils, and in 
614. ( Cwichelm, his son reigned jointly. 
643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 
672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of 

Mercia ; of gi-eat qualities ; probably deposed. 
674. Escwine ; in conjunction VTith Cent wine ; on 

the death of Escwine, 
676. Centwine rules alone. 
685. Ceedwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds 

of blood, and died there. 
688. Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed 

to Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 
728. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 
740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 
754. Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his 

friend Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, was 

compelled to fly. He was slain by one of bis 

victim's retainers. 
7S5- Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble 

youth of the line of Cerdic ; murdered by a 

banished subject. 
784. Bertric, or Beorhtric ; poisoned by drinking of 

a cup his queen had prepared for another. 
Soo. Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of England, 

and Bretwalda. 



464 ; Vortigern again, 471 ; Aurelius Ambro- 
sius, 481 ; and Arthur Pendragon . . . 500 
The renowned king Arthur said to reign . 506-542 
Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re- 
establishment of Christianity . . . 597 
Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns . 678 
Lindisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen 794 
The Saxon Heptarchy ends, and Egbert, king 
of Wessex, becomes king ob England . . 828 

ECHY,* see Bretwalda. 
East Saxons. [Essex, Middlesex, and part of /fe-is.j 
526, 527, or 530, Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 

587. Sledda ; his son. 

597. St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son of the preceding : 
first Christian king. 

614. Saxred or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sige- 
bert and Seward ; all slain. 

623. Sigebert II. sumamed the little : son of Seward. 

655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good ; brother of 
Sebert : put to death. 

661. Swithelm(or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 

663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, 
who became a monk. 

693. Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 

700. OSa ; left his queen and kingdom, and became 
a monk at Rome. 

709. Suebricht, orSelred. 

738. Swithred, or Swithed ; a long reign. ^ 

792. Sigerio ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 

799. Sigered. 

823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. 

NoRTHTJMBEiA. [Lancaster, TorJe, Cumberland, West- 
morland, Durham, and Northumherland.l 
^.j* Northumbria was at first divided into two go- 
vernments, Bernicia and Deira ; the former 
stretching from the Tweed to the Tyne, and the 
latter from the Tyne to the Humber. 
S47. Ida ; a valiant Saxon. 
560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bernicia. 
„ EUa, kingof Deira; afterwards the sole king of 

Northumbria (to 587). 
567. Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea : Bernicia. 

572. HeodwuH ; Bernicia. 

573. PreodvTulf ; Bernicia. 
580. Theodoric ; Bernicia. 

588. Ethelric ; Bernicia. 

593. Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 

617. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590. The 

greatest prince of the heptarchy in that age. 

Hume. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 

634. The kingdom divided ; Eanfrid rules in Ber- 

nicia, and Osric in Deira ; both put to death. 

635. Oswald slain in battle. 

642. Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 

670. Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 

685. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 

705. Osred, son of Ealdferth. 

716. Cenric ; sprung from Ida. 

718. Osric, son of Alcfrid. 

729. Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 

737. Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 

757. Oswulf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 

759. Edilwald, or Mollo ; slain by Aired. 

765. Aired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed. 

774. Ethelred, son of Mollo ; expelled. 

778. Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 

789. Osred, son of Aired ; fled. 

790. Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 
794. Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. 

806. Alfwold. 

808. Erdulf restored. 

809. Eanred. 

841. Kingdom annexed by Egbert. 

East Angles. [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, EIt/.} 
526. Ufia lands. 



* The term "Octarchy" is sometimes used ; Northumbria being 
separate kingdoms. 



divided into Bernicia and Deira, 



BKI 



125 



BRI 



BEITAIISr, continued. 

S/i or 575. Uffa ; a noble German, said to be first 593. 

kin?. 597. 

578. Titilus, or Titulus ; son of Uffa. 615. 

599. Redwald, son of Titilus; the greatest prince 626. 

of tbe East Angles. 655. 

624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 656. 
627. Richbert. 

629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 675. 

632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 704. 
635. Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. 

654. Ethelric, or Bthelhere ; slain in battle. 709. 

655. Ethelwald ; his brother. 716. 
664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. 
713. Selred, or Etheh-ed. 

746. Alphwuld. 755. 

749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. ,, 
758. Beorna alone. 

761. Ethelred. 794. 

790. Ethelbert, or Bthelbryht ; treacherously pvit ,, 

to death in Mercia in 792, when Ofifa, king of 819. 

Mercia, overran the covmtry, which was finally 

subdued by Egbert. 

870. St. Edmund (vassal king) slain by the Danes. ,, 

821. 

Mercia. [Gloucester. Hereford, Chester, Stafford, ^^^_ 

Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwich, Derliy, ggc] 

Leicester, Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, 3,3' 

Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, and part of 3^2,' 

Herts.] 37^; 
586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain. 

BEITANNIA TUBULAR BEIDGE, see Tubular Bridge. 

BRITANNY, see Brittany. 

BRITISH AMERICA (see America) comprises Lower and Upper Canada, Ifova Scotia, 
New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward's Island, Labrador, British Columbia and 
Vancouver's Island. Population about 3,334,000. 

Delegates from the first six provinces met at Quebec 

on 10 Oct., and agreed to the basis of a Federal 

union, with the queen as the executive (represented 

by the governor-general), a legislative council of 

g6 members for life, and a house of commons of 

194 members, 20 Oct. 1864. 
The secretary for the colonies, Mr. CardweU, ex- 
pressed his approval of the plan, 3 Dec. 1864. 
The plan was opposed by New Brunswick, 7 March, 

186s. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATIOlSr for the Advancement of Science, was established b}' sir 
David Brewster, sir R. I. Murchison, &c. in 1831. Professor John Phillips was secretary till 
1863. It holds annual meetings ; the first of which was held at York on 27 Sept. 1831. 
One of its main objects is "to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science with 
each other." It appoints commissions and makes pecuniary grants for scientific research ; 
and publishes annually a volume containing Reports of the proceedings. Kew observatory 
was presented to the association by the Queen in 1842. Superintendents, Francis Ronalds ; 
the lirst ; John Walsh, 1852 ; Balfoitr Stewart, 1859. 



[Interregnum — Ceolric] 
Wibba, a vahant prince, his son. 
Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. 
Penda ; fierce and cniel ; killed in battle. 
Peada, son of Penda ; kiUed to make way for 
Wulfhere (brother) ; he slew his two sons with 

his own hand. 
Ethelred ; became a monk. 
Cenred, Cendred, or Kendred ; became a monk 

at Eome. 
Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. 
Ethelbaid ; slain in a mutiny by one of his own 

chieftains, his successor, after a defeat in 

battle. 
Beornred, or Bemred ; himself slain. 
Offa ; he formed the great dyke on the borders 

of Wales known by his name. 
Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Offa ; died suddenly. 
Cenulph, Cenwulph, or Kenulph ; slain. 
Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor ; reigned five 

mouths ; killed by his sister Quendreda, from 

the hope of reigning. Hume. 
Ceolwulf , uncle to Kenelna ; expelled. 
Beomulf ; killed by his own subjects. 
Ludeoan ; a valiant ruler ; slain. 
Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 
Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
Burhred, or Burdred. 
Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes 877. 
[The kingdom merged into that of England.] 



Messrs. Cartier and Gait came to England, to advo- 
cate it, April, 1865. 

Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
Brunswick, under the name of Canada, brought 
into parhament by the earl of Carnarvon, 19 Feb., 
passed 29 Mai'ch, 1867. 

(The British government guaranteed a subsidy of 
3,ooo,oooJ. to complete the intercolonial railway.) 



1. York Meeting 

2. Oxford . 

3. Cambridge 

4. Edinbm-gh . 

5. DubUn 

6. Bristol . 

7. Liverpool . 

8. Newcastle 

9. Birmingham 

10. Glasgow 



• 183s 
. 1836 

• 1837 



1840 



n. Plymouth . . 1841 

12. Manchester . . 1842 

13. Cork . . . 1843 

14. York (2nd time) 1844 

15. Cambridge (2nd) 1845 

16. Southampton . 1846 

17. Oxford (2nd) . 1847 

18. Swansea . . 1848 

19. Birraingham(2d) 1849 

20. Edinburgh (2nd) 1850 



21. Ipswich 

22. Belfast . 

23. Hull . 

24. Liverpool (2nd) . 

25. Glasgow (2nd) . 

26. Cheltenham 

27. DubUn (2nd) 

28. Leeds 

29. Aberdeen . . 

30. Oxford (3rd) 



1853 
1854 
185s 
1856 
1857 



31. Manchester (2d) 1861 

32. Cambridge (3rd) 1862 

33. Newcastle (2nd) 1863 

34. Bath . . . 1864 

35. Birmingham (3d) 1865 

36. Nottingham . 1866 

37. Dundee . . 1867 

38. Norwich/or . 1868 



BRITISH, see Architects; Antiquities; BanTcs, Joint Stocl: ; Guiana, Honduras, 
National. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA (K America). In June, 1858, news came to California that in 
April gold had been found in abuudaace on the mainland of North America, a little to the 
north and east of Vancouver's Island. A great influx of gold-diggers (in a few weeks above 
50,000) from all parts was the consequence. Mr. Douglas, governor of Vancouver's Island, 
evinced much ability in preserving order. The territory with adjacent islands was made a 
British colonj'- with the above title, and placed under Mr. Douglas. The colony was 



BRI 



126 



BEI 



nominated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 1858), and a bishop 
nominated in 1859. — For a dispute in July, 1859, see United States. The colony in 1866 
■was said to be flourishing ; and fresh gold discoveries made. 

BRITISH mSTITUTIOlSr (for the encouragement of British artists, Pall Mall, founded 
in 1S05) opened 18 Jan. 1806, on a plan formed by sir Thomas Bernard. In the gallery 
(erected by alderman Boydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for his edition of Shaks- 
peare), were annually exhibited pictures by the old masters and deceased British artists, 
till 1867, when the lease of the premises expired. 

BRITISH LEGION, raised by lord John Hay, col. De Lacy Evans, and others to 
assist queen Isabella of Spain against the Carlists in 1835, defeated them at Hernani, 5 May, 
1836, and at St. Sebastian's, i Oct. 

BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the grant by parliament (5 April, 1753) of 20,oooZ. 
to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his fine library, and vast collection of 
the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,000^. The library contained 50,000 
volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the catalogue. 
Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for their reception. The museum 
was opened 15 Jan. 1759, and has since been enormously increased by gifts, bequests, and 
pm'chases ; viz. the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries : the Townley marbles (1805 
and 1814) ; by the Elgin marbles (1816) ; the Lycian marbles, obtained by sir C. Fellows 
(1842-6, ; the Assyi'ian antiquities, collected by Mr. Austin Layard between 1847 and 1850 ; 
the antiquities brought from Halicarnassus (now Budrum), including remains of the celebrated 
tomb of Mausolus, by Mr. C. T. Newton (Nov. 1858) ; antiquities from Carthage (i860), 
Gyrene, Rhodes, and the Farnese palace (1864) ; and the purchase of the Blacas collection 
(1867). George II. presented the royal library in 1757 ; and in 1823, George IV. j.iresented 
the library collected at Buckingham-house by George III., consisting of 65,250 volumes, 
and about 19,000 pamphlets. In 1846 the right hon. Thos. Grenville bequeathed to the 
museum his library, consisting of 20,240 volumes. Great additions to, and improvements 
in, the buildings have since been made, independently of the annual grant.* The fine iron 
railing enclosing the frontage, was completed in 1852. The magnificent reading-room, 
erected by Mr. Sydney Smirke, according to a plan by ilr. Antonio Panizzi, the librarian,_ 
at a cost of about 150,000^., was opened to the public, 18 May, 1857. The height of the 
dome is 106 feet, and the diameter 140 feet. The room contains about 80,000 volumes, and 
accommodates 300 readers. — The daily increasing library contained in i860 above 562,000 
volumes, exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. In 1861 the incorporation of the four library 
catalogues into one alphabet began — three copies being made. The Blacas collection of 
ancient gems, &c. (collected by the due de Blacas, about 50 years ago) purchased for 48,000?. 
by parliamentary vote 18 Feb. 1867. The proposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, 
and scientific collections, was disapproved by a commission in i860 ; and a bill to remove 
the natural history collections to South Kensington was rejected by the commons on 19 May, 
1862. A refreshment room for readers was opened 21 Nov. 1864. Mr. Panizzi the librarian 
resigned and was succeeded by Mr. John Winter Jones, 1866. 

BRITISH SOCIETIES, see Societies, Architects, National. 

BRITTANY, or Bretagne (N. "W. France), the ancient Armorica, {which see,) formed 
part of the kingdom of the Franks. 



Nomenoi revolts and 'becomes the first count . 841 

Geoffrey I., the first duke 992 

Alan V. , 1008 ; Conan II 1040 

HoelV., 1066; AlanVI 1084 

Conan III 1112 

Hoel VI. expelled; Geoflfroy of Anjou elected 

duke iiSS 

Conan IV. duke, 1156; on the death of Geof- 
frey, cedes Brittany to Heni-y II. of England, 
and betroths his daughter, Constance, to 
Henry's son, Geoffrey (tooth infants) . .1159 
Geoffrpy succeeds, 1 171 ; killed at a tournament 11 85 
His son, Arthur, murdered by his uncle, John 
of England ; his daughter, Eleanor, impri- 
soned at Bristol (for 39 years) . . April, 1203 
Alice, daughter of Constance, and her second 
. husband, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 
1203 ; marries Peter of Dreux, made duke . 1213 



John I., duke, 1237 ; John II. . . . . 1286 
John III., 1312 ; dies ■without issue . . . 1341 
The succession disputed between John of 
Montfort (John IV.) supported by Edward 
of England, and Charles of Blois, made duke 
by Philip VI. of France. John is made pri- 
soner ; his wife, Jane, besieged at Henne- 
bonne, holds out, and is relieved by the 
English, 1343 ; John of Montfort dies . 
Charles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, 

29 Sept. : John V. , son of Montfort, duke 
John VI., duke, 1399 ; Francis I. . . , 

Peter II. , 1450 ; Arthur III 1457 

Francis II., 1458; takes part with the Orlean- 
ists in France; defeated at St. Aubin, 28 July, 

1488 ; dies 1488 

Anne, his daughter, and heiress, man-ies ist., 
Charles VIII. of France, 1491 ; 2nd., Louis 



1345 

1364 
1442 



* The total expenditure by the government on the British Museum for the year ending 31 March, i860, 
■was 78,445?. ; 1861, 92,776?. ; 1864, 95,500?. ; 1867, 110,756?. : the number of visitors to the general collection 
in 1851 (exhibition year), 2,524,754; in 1859, 517,895; in 1862 (exhibition year), 895,007; in 1863, 440,801 ; 
in 1866, 516,550. 



BEI 127 BEU 

BRITTANY, continued. 



XII., 1499: lier eldest daughter, Claude, 
(born 1499) marries Francis, count of Angou- 
leme, 1514 ; king of France . . i Jan. 1515 
Brittany formally united to the monarchy . 1532 



Brittany held by the Spaniards, 1591 ; re- 
covered by Henry IV 1594 

The Bretons take part in the Vendean insur- 
rection (see La Vendde) in 1791 



BRITTON, an ancient treatise on English law written in French hj or in the name of 
king Edward I. about 1291. Coke attributed the work to John le Breton, bishop of Here- 
ford, who died in 1275. An edition of "Brittou," with a translation iii English by Mr. F. 
Nicholls, was published in 1865. 

BROAD ARROW, a mark for goods belonging to the royal dockyards or navy, is said to 
have been ordered to be used in 1698, in consequence of robberies. 

"BROAD BOTTOM" ADMINISTRATION. The Pelham administration (which sec) 
was so called because it formed a coalition of parties, Nov. 1744. 

BROCADE, a silken stuft', variegated with gold or silver, and enriched with flowers and 
figures, originally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture was established at Lyons in 1757. 

BROCOLI was brought to England from Italy in the 17th century. 

BROKERS, both of money and merchandise, were known early in England. See 
Appraisers. They are licensed, and their dealings regulated by law in 1695-6, 1816, and 
1826. The dealings of stock-brokers, were regulated in 1719, 1733, and 1736, and subse- 
quently ; see Pawnbroker, and Barnard's Act. 

BROMINE (from the Greek bromos, a stink), a poisonous volatile liquid element dis- 
covered in salt water by M. Balard in 1826. It is found in combination with metals and 
mineral waters, but not as yet in the free state. 

BRONZE was known to the ancients, some of whose bronze statues, vessels, &c. are in 
the British Museum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place 
"Vendome at Paris (demolished 10 Aug. 1792), the most colossal ever made ; it contained 
60,000 lbs. Bronze is composed of copper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and lead. 
Ure. The present bronze coinage, penny, halfpenny and farthing (composed of 95 parts of 
copper, 4 tin, i zinc), came into circulation Dec. i860. 

BROUGHAM, a popular vehicle said to have been invented in 1839, and so named in 
consequence of its adoption by lord Brougham. 

BROWNIAN MOTION. So called from Robert Brown, the celebrated botanist, who 
in 1827, by the aid of the microscope, observed in drops of dew a motion of minute particles 
which at first was attributed to rudimentary life, but was afterwards decided to be due to 
currents occasioned by inequalities of temperature and evaporation. 

BROWNISTS or Bareowists, the first Independents (ivhich see), began with Robert 
Brown, a schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. In 1592 there were said to be 20,000 
Brownists. Henry Penry, Henry Barrow, and other Brownists, were cruelly executed for 
alleged sedition, 29 May, 1593. 

BRUCE'S TRAVELS. James Bruce, the "Abyssinian Traveller," set out in June 1768, 
to discover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, 
thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, passed some months in 
Arabia Felix, and after various detentions reached Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia, in Feb. 
1770. On 14 Nov. 1770, he obtained a sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He returned 
to England in 1773, and died 27 April, 1794. 

BRUGES, Belgium, in the 7th century was capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th 
centuries had become almost the commercial metropolis of the world. It suffered much 
through an insurrection in 1488, and the consequent repression. It was incorporated with 
France in 1794, with the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. 

BRUMAIRE REVOLUTION, see Directory. 

BRUNANBURG (supposed by some to be near Ford, Northumbei'land). Anlaf, with an 
army of Northmen from Ireland and Constantine III. king of Scots landed at the mouth of 
the Humber ; and were defeated with very great slaughter at Brunanburg by Athelstan 937. 

BRUNN, capital of Moravia, since 1641 ; was entered by the French imder Murat 18 Nov. 
1805 ; and by the Prussians 13 July, 1866. 

BRUNSWICK CLUBS, established to maintain the house of Hanover and the Protestant 
ascendancy in church and state, began in England at Maidstone, 18 Sept. 1828 ; in Ireland 
at the Rotunda in Dublin, 4 Nov. same j^ear. Other cities formed similar ckibs. 

RUNSWICK, HotisE of. The duchy of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered 
by Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts and dukes. Albert-Azzo II. marquis of 
Italy and lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph, 



BRU 



128 



BUB 



duke of Cariuthia in Bavaria), a son, Guelpli, wlio was invited into Germany by Imitza, his 
mother-in-law, and invested with all the possessions of his wife's step-father, Guelph of 
Bavaria ; see Bavaria. His descendant, Henry the Lion, married Mand, daughter of Henry 
II. of England, and was the founder of the Brunswick family. His dominions were very 
extensive ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war against 
pope Alexander III., through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed at the diet at 
Wurtzburg, in iiSo. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho of Wittelsbach ancestor of 
the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of 
Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to England ; but at 
the intercession of our Henry II. Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored to him. The 
house of Brunswick in 1409 divided into several branches. Brunswick was included by 
Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 181 5. — 
Population of the dachy of Brunswick in 1858, 273,400 ; 1864, 293, 388. 

from the battle of Leipsic in Oct., 1813 ; fell 
at Quatre-Bras, commanding the avantgarde 
■under the duke of Wellington, 16 June, 1S15; 



DUKES OF BRUNSWICK. 

1 136. Henry, duke of Bavaria. 

1 139. Henry the Lion (son). 

1195. Henry the Long and WiUiam (sons). 

1213. Otho I. (son of William). 

1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). 

1278. Albert II. (son). 

1318. Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 

1368. Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL. 
First Branch. 
1409. Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 
1416. William I. and Henry II. (sons). 
1482. Frederic and William II. ) ^ WiUiam I. 

149s. Henry III. and Eric. ) 

1514. Henry IV. (son of Henry II.) 
1568. Julius (son of preceding). 
1589. Henry Julius (son). 
1613. Frederic-Ulric (son), died without issue. 

Second Branch. 
1634. Augustus (son of Henry of Luneburg). 
1666. Eodolph-Angustus ; who associated his next 

brother, Anthony-Ulric, in the government, 

from 1685 ; died, 1704. 
1704. Anthony-Ulric now ruled alone ; became a 

Eoman Catholic in 1710 ; died in 1714. 
1714. Augustus-William (son). 
1731. Lewis-Eodolph (brother). 
1735. Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswick-Bevem, 

married Antoinette- Amelia, daughter of 

Lewis-Rodolph, and succeeded him. 
1735. Charles (son). 

1780. Charles -William- Ferdinand (son); a great 
■ general (served under his uncle Ferdinand 

in the Seven Years' War, 1756-1763); married 

princess Augusta of England ; was killed at 

the battle of Auerstadt, 14 Oct. 1806; suc- 
ceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being 

blind, abdicated) 
1806. WiUiam-Frederick, whose reigu may be dated 

BRUNSWICK THEATRE, Well Street, East London, built to replace the Royalty, 
(burnt down 11 April, 1826), was opened 25 Feb., 1828. On the 29th the building was 
destroyed by the falling in of the walls, too much weight being attached to the heavy iron 
roof. Fortunately the catastrophe happened in the day-time (during a rehearsal of " Guy 
Mannering "), and only twelve persons perished. 

BRUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, now of Belgium (since 1831), was 
founded by St. Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It is celebrated for its fine lace, 
camlets, and tapestry. The Hotel de Ville has a turret 364 feet in height ; and on its top is 
a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the wind ; see Belgium. 

Maritime conference to obtain uniform me- 
teorological observations held here . . . 1853 
International philanthropic congress . Sept. 1856 
International association for social science 
meet 22-5 Sept. 1862 



succeeded by his eldest son, 

1815. Charles-Frederick- WiUiam ; assumed govem- 
naent 30 Oct. 1823. [Revolution at Bruns- 
wick ; the duke retu-es to England, 7 Sept. 
1830.] 

1830. William, brother ; born 25 April, 1806 ; suc- 
ceeded provisionally, 7 Sept. 1830 ; and, on 
the demand of the Germanic diet, definitively, 
25 AprU, 1831 ; the PRESENT duke ; iinynarried. 
(His magnificent palace was destroyed by fire, 
24 Feb. 1865.) 

DUKES OF BRUNSWIOK-LUNEBURG. 

1409. Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Bruns- 
wick, see above). 

1434. Otho and Frederic (his sons). 

1478. Henry (son of Otho). 

1532. Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were 

1546. Henry (founder of second branch of Brunswick- 
Wolfenbuttel) and WiUiam, whose seven sons . 
cast lots to determine who should marry. 
The lot fell on George, sixth son. Pour of 
the brothers reigned, viz : — 

1592. Ernest II. "\ 

1611. Christian L^ issue. 

1633. Augustus. t 

1636. Frederic II. J 

1648. Christian-Lewis (son of the George above-men- 
tioned). 

1665. George- William (brother of Christian-Lewis), 
dies in 1705; leaving as heiress Sophia- 
Doeothea, his daughter, who married in 
1682 her cousin, prince George-Lewis of 
Hanover, afterwards George I. of England 
(son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest son of 
the above-mentioned George.) 

(See Hanover, and England.) 



Bombarded by marshal Villeroi, 14 churches 

and 4000 houses destroyed . . Aug. 1695 

Taken by the French, 1746; and by Dumouriez 1792 

The revolution commences . . 25 Aug. 1830 

The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished 

in consequence of a display of attachment to 

the house of Orange . . .5 April, 1834 

BRUTTIUM (now Calabria Oltra), S. Italy. 
slew Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 b. c. 



The Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and 
They were conquered by Rome, 277 B.C. 



BUBBLE COMPANIES, see Companies, Lag/fs Bubble, and South-sea Bubble. 



BUG 129 BUD 

BUCCANEERS,* piratical adventurers, chiefly French, English, and Dutch, who com- 
menced tlieir depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after the latter had taken 
possession of that continent and the West Indies. Their numbers were much increased by a 
twelve years' truce between the Spaniards and Dutch in 1609, when many of the discharged 
sailors joined tlie Buccaneers, and extended the range of their ravages. Tlie first levy of 
ship-money in England in 1635 was to defray the expense of chastising these pirates. The 
principal commanders of the first Buccaneers were Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, 
said to have murdered thousands and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of 
Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont in 1685 ; and that of Pointis in 1697. 

BUCENTAUR, the vessel in which the doge of Venice used to proceed to wed the 
Adriatic, from the 12th to the i8th century. 

BUGHAlSriTES (in Scotland) : followers of Mrs. Buchan, who about 1779 promised to 
conduct them to the new Jerusalem, prophesied the end of the world, &c. She died in 1791, 
when her followers dispersed. 

BUCHAREST (in Wallachia). Preliminaries of peace were ratified at this place between 
Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier of the two 
empires ; signed 28 May, 1812. The subsequent war between these powers altered many of 
the provisions of this treaty. Bucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turks, and Austrians 
successively in the Crimean war. The last quitted it in 1856. 

BUCKINGHAM PALACE, the London residence of the sovereign. Old Buckingham- 
house was built on the " Mulberry -gardens," by John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 
1703. In 1761 it was bought by George III., who in 1775 settled it on his queen, Charlotte. 
She made it her town residence ; and here all her children, except the eldest, were born. 
Here were married the duke of York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; the duke 
of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816 ; the prince of Hesse-Homburg and princess Elizabeth, 
1818 ; and the duke of Cambridge and princess of Hesse the same year. The house was 
pulled down in 1825, and the present palace commenced 011 its site. After an expenditure of 
nearly a million sterling, it was completed, and occupied by queen Victoria, 13 July, 1837. 
Further improvements were made in 1853. The marble arch, taken down from the exterior 
of this palace, was re-erected at Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park, 29 March, 1851. 

BUCKLERS, used in single combat, are said to have been invented by Proetus and 
Acrisius of Argos, about 1370 B.C. "When Lucius Papirius defeated the Samnites, he took 
from them bucklers of gold and silver, 309 B.C. The light cuirass of the horse-soldiers called 
cuirassiers is something akin to the ancient buckler. 

BUCKLES were first worn instead of shoe-strings in the reign of Charles II. , and soon 
became fashionable and expensive from the richness of their material ; aboirt 1791 they had 
fallen out of iise. Buckles continue to be used in court dress and by j)ersons of rank in most 
countries of Europe. 

BUDA (or Ofen), the ancient Aquincum, on the W. bank of the Danube opposite Pesth, 
and with it, the capital of Hungary. It was taken by Charlemagne in 799 ; and sacked by 
SolymanlJ. after the battle of Mohatz, when the Himgarian king, Louis, was killed, and 
200,000 of his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when 
the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 
1541. Retaken by the Imperialists, under the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans 
delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. It suffered much in 1848, and was entered 
without resistance, by the Austrians 5 Jan. 1849. Here the emperor Francis Joseph was 
crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1 867 ; see Hungary. 

BUDDHISM, the religion formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia beyond the 
G-anges and Japan. Buddha (also Bud, Bot, and Poot), or the Wise, flourished about 1000 
or 800 B. c. The Buddhists believe that the soul is an emanation from God, and that if it 
continue virtuous it will return to him on the death of the body ; but if not so, that it will 
undergo various degrees and changes of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India about 
A.D. 956. 

BUDE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Cornwall, the residence of Mr. Goldsworthy 
Gurney, its inventor), consists of two or more concentric argand gas-burners, one rising above 
another, which produce a most brilliant flame, like the petals of a rose. The illuminating 
powers were increased by subjecting manganese, &c. , to the action of the flame, in order to 
produce oxygen and hydrogen gas. This light was patented 1839 and 1841. 

BUDGET (from the French lougcUe, Latin, hulcja, a small bag), a term applied to the 

* Eaynal asserts that the name is derived from a Caribbee word houcan, signifying the place where 
the native savages dried their food by smoke ; a custom necessarily adopted by the pirates from their 
mode of life. 

K 



BUE 



130 



BUL 



English clianccllor of exchequer's annual statement of the finances of the country, from the 
documents having been formerly presented in a leather hag. The budgets of sir E. Peel 
ill 1842 (iiichiding the income-tax) and 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone in i860 (in 
connection with the treaty with France), are the most important in recent times. 

BUENOS AYEES, a republic of S. America. The country was explored by Sebastian 
Cabot in 1526, and the capital, Buenos Ayres, founded by Don Pedro de Mendoza in 1535. 
In 1585 the city Avas rebuilt and recolonised, after several abandonments. Population in 
1859 about 350,000 ; see Argentine Confederation. 

A Britisli fleet and araiy, under sir Home Pop- 
ham and general Beresford, take the city 
with slight resistance, 27 June ; it is re- 
taken 12 Aug 1806 

Monte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel 
Auchmiaty, 3 Feb. ; evacuated 7 July . . 1807 

General Whitelook and 8000 IBritish enter 
Buenos Ayres ; severely repulsed . 5 July, ,, 

Independence of the province declared, 19 July, 1816 

Recognised as forming part of the Argentine 
confederaticn . . . . . Feb. 1822 

[A prey to civil war through the violent in- 
trigues of Eosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, 
for many years.] 

Oribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom 
Buenos Ayres capitulates . . 3 Feb. 1852 

Bosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . 25 April, „ 

Urquiza deposed, 10 Sept. ; invests the city ; 
after some successes he retires . Dec. 1852 

BUFFOOISrS were originally mountebanks in the Eoman theatres. Their shows were 
discouraged by Doniitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98 ; see Jesters. 

BUILDING. In early times men dwelt in caves ; wood and clay were the first building 
materials. Building with stone was early among the Tyrians ; in England it may be referred 
to Benedict the monk, about 670. In Ireland a castle was built of stone at Tuam by the 
king of Connaught, in 1161 ; and it was "so new and iincommon as to be called the 
Wonderful Castle. " Building with brick was introduced by the Eomans into their provinces. 
Alfred encouraged it in England in 886. It was adopted by the earl of Arundel, about 1598, 
London being then almost wholly built of wood ; see Arehitecture. 



Constitution voted ...» 23 May, 1853 
Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine con- 
federation, and is recognised as an inde- 
pendent state ; the first governor. Dr. D. 
Pastor Obligado, elected ... 12 Oct. ,, 
Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . May, 1857 
War breaks out ; Urquiza, general of the forces 
of the Argentine confederation, has an inde- 
cisive conflict with the Buenos Ayres general 

Mitre 23 Oct. 1859 

A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re- 
united with the Argentine confederation 

II Nov. 1859 
Fresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza in an 
almost bloodless contest at Pa von; Urquiza 

retires 17 Sept. 1861 

National congress at Buenos Ayres . 25 May, 1862 
Mitre installed president 



to purchase a house by paying money 
periodically to a society for a certain number 
of years, instead of paying rent to a landlord, 
began about 1S36, when an act was passed for 
their regulation. 



Building acts were passed by Elizabeth in 1562, 
1580, and 1592; and by Charles II. in 1667. 
Becent acts are very numerous. The Building- 
Act for the Metropolis, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 
(1844), was amended in 1855 and i860. 

Building societies, formed to enable a person 

BULGAEIA, anciently Mojsia, now part of European Turkey. The Bulgarians were a 
Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire and Italy from 499 to 678, when they 
established a kingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687 ; but Avere subdued, after several 
conflicts, by the emperor Basil, in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, having taken 15,000 
Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their ej'es to be put out, leaving one eye only to every 
hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen home. The kingdom was 
re-established in 1086 ; but after many changes was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1396. 
In Jan. 1861, it was stated that the Bulgarians had seceded from the Greek to the Eoman 
church. 

BULL, or Edict of the Pope. The bulla is properly the seal, either of gold, silver, 
lead, or wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other the name of 
the pope, and year of his pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued by Gregory IX. in 
1 23 1. Pius V. published a bull against Elizabeth, 25 April, 1570; in 1571 bulls were 
forbidden to be promulgated in England. The bull Unigenitus (beginning with this word) 
against the Jansenists was issued by Clement XL, 1713 ; confirmed by Benedict XIIL, 1725. 
The Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV., so called from its golden seal, was made the 
fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, 1356 ; see Brazen Bull. 

BULL-BAITING, or Bull Fiqhttng, was an amusement at Stamford in the reign of 
John, 1209; and at Tutbury, 1374. In the Sjjorts of England, we read of the "Easter 
fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were 
baited with dogs ; " and near the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated 
in the time of Elizabeth for the exhibition of bear baiting, then a fashionable amusement. 
A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out in the commons, chiefly through the influence 
of the late Mr. Windham, who made a speech in favour of the custom, 24 May, 1802. It 
was made illegal in 1835 ; see Cruelty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain 



BUL 131 EUR 

about 1260 ; abolisliecl there, " except lor fjwtis and pairiolic purposes," in 1784. In June, 
1833, ninety-nine bulls were killed at bull-fights at Madrid, ladies present. A bull-fight 
at Lisbon, attended by 10,000 spectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840. 

BULLETS of stone were in use, 15 14. Iron ones are mentioned in the Fcedera, 1550. 
Leaden bullets were made before the close of the i6th century. The cannon-ball in some 
eastern countries was long of stone. Ashe.' The conoidal cup rifle-ball wa« invented by 
capt. Minie, about 1833 ; a modification of this (conoidal but without cup), by Mr. Pritchett 
(1853), is used with the Enfield rifle. Other bullets have been since devised. 

BULLION, uncoined gold and silver. The " Bullion Report" of a parliamentary com- 
mittee in 1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. (afterwards sir R.) Peel, established 
the conclusion, that paper money is always liable to be over-issued and consequently depre- 
ciated, unless it be at all times immediately convertible into gold. This princij^le has been 
adopted in British monetary arrangements. 

BULL RUN BATTLES, see Manassas. 

BULWER-CLAYTON TREATY, ratified 4 July, 1850, by which sir Henry Lytton 
Bulwer on behalf of the British, and Mr. Clayton on behalf of the American government, 
declared that neither should obtain exclusive control over the proposed ship canal through 
Central America, or erect any fortification on any part of the country. Dis]>utes afterward.s 
arose with respect to this treaty, and the connection -of Great Britain with the Mosquito 
territory {which see), which were settled in 1857. 

BUNDSCHUH, see Jacquerie. 

BUNHILL-FIELDS (originally Bonhill-Eield), a burial-ground near Finsbury- square, 
E. London, termed by Southey the " Campo Santo of the Dissenters ; " first used in 1665. 
Here were interred Thomas Goodwin (1679), John Owen (1683), Isaac Watts, John Bunyan 
(1688), George Fox, the quaker (1690), general Fleetwood, son-in-law of Cromwell (1692), 
and Daniel De Foe (1731). Cionningham. After some agitation an act for the preservation 
of the ground as an open space was passed, 15 July, 1867. 

BUNKER'S HILL (near Boston, U.S.). Here the British (nearly 3000) compelled the 
revolted Americans (about 2000) to retreat, 17 June, 1775. It was one of the . earliest 
actions in the war, and the Americans refer to it with pride, on account of their heroic 
resistance. Ralph Farnham, who was present at the battle, died on 28 Dec. i860, aged 
104I years. He was introduced to the prince of Wales when in America. 

BUONAPARTE, see France, 1793, &c. 

B URFORD CLUB, the appellation given (according to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a con- 
spirator, see Layer) by the Pretender and his agents to a club of Tory lords and others, of 
which lord Orrery was chairman, and lord Strattbrd, sir Henry Goring, lord Cowper, Mr. 
Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester, sir Constantiue Phipps, general Webb, lord liingley, 
lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord Bathurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Gower, 
were members. This club was said to meet at the members' houses, to form designs against 
the government. This story was set aside by the solemn declarations of lord Cowper and lord 
Straff'ord, that they did not know of its existence. The list of this pretended club was 
published in the WeeMy Journal, printed in Whitefriars ; but when Read, the printer of the 
paper, was ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he absconded. March, 1722. Salmon. 

BURGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with its corpo- 
rations. They were called to parliament in England, 1265 ; in Scotland in 1326 ; and in 
Ireland about 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places they represented in parliament, 
I Hen. V. (1413) ; see Borough. 

BURGHERS and Anti-Bueghers. In 1732 Ebenezer Erskine and others seceded 
from the church of Scotland. Differing in regard to the interpretation of the burgess oath, 
they divided into two sections with the foregoing names in 1747. In 1820 they were reunited 
as the United Associate Synod of the Secession church, Avhich, on 13 May, 1S47, joined the 
Relief church, together forming the United Presbyterian church. 

BURGLARY was a capital off'ence till 1829. Formerly, he who convicted a burglar was 
exempted from parish offices, 1699 ; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, 1706 ; and 6 Geo. I. 1720. 
Receivers of stolen plate and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. Persons 
having upon them picklock-keys, &c., to be deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 
1772-3. The laws with respect to burglary were amended by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) 
Peel's acts between 1823 and 1829 ; and by the criminal laws of 186 1. 

BURGOS (Spain), the burial place of the Cid, 1099. Lord AVellington entered Burgos 
on 19 Sept. after the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812). The castle was besieged 
by the British and allied army, but the siege Avas abandoned 21 Oct. same year. The forti- 
fications were blown up by the French, 12 June, 1813. 

k2 



BUR 132 BUR 

BURGUNDY, a large province in France, derives its name from the Burgundians, a 
Gothic tribe who overran Gaul in 275, but were driven out by the emperor Probus : they 
returned iu 287, and were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established a Kingdom, com- 
prising the present Burgundy, large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence, &c. 
Gondicar, their leader, the first king. It was conquered by the Franks, 534. — The second 
kingdom, consisting of a part of the first, began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, 
in 561. The kingdom of Aries, Provence, and Transjurane Burgundy, were formed out of 
the old kingdom. — In 877 Charles the Bald made his brother-in-law Richard the first Duke 
of Burgundy. In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, founder of the house of Capet, 
obtained the duchy. His descendant, Henry, on becoming king of France, conferred it on 
his brother Robert, in whose family it remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, without 
issue, in 1361. In 1363, king John of France, made his fourth son," Philip, duke ; see 
Austria and Germany. 



1467. Charles the Bold ; mamed to Margaret of 

York, sister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468; 

invaded France, 1472 ; Switzerland, 1476 ; 

killed in an engagement with the Swiss, 

before Nancy, 4 Jan. 1477. 
1477. Mary (daughter) ; married, 19 Aug. 1477, to 

Maximilian of Austria ; died 27 March, 1482. 
1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The 

other dominions fell to Austria. 



DUKES. 

1363. Philip the Bold ; marries Margaret, heiress of 

Flanders, 1369. 
1404. John the Fearless (son) ; joined English in- 
vading France ; supposed to have been privy 

to the assassination of the duke of Orleans 

in 1407 ; was himself assassinated at Mon- 

tereau, in the presence of the dauf)hin, Sept. 

1419. 
1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke 

in the world. | 

BURIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Machpelah, i860 B.C., Gen. sxiii. Places of 
burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in a.d. 210. Eusehius. The Greeks had 
their burial-places at a distance from their towns ; the Romans near the highways ; hence ' 
the necessity for inscriptions. The first Christian burial-place, it is said, was instituted in 
596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in churchyards, 758. Many of the 
early Christians are buried in the catacombs at Rome ; see Gatacomhs. "Vaults were 
erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds only were permitted to be 
used in England, 1666. Linen scarfs were introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729 ; and 
woollen shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1783. The acts relating to 
metropolitan burials were passed 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1857 ; see Cemeteries. Parochial 
registers of burials, births, and marriages, were instituted in England by Cromwell, lord 
Essex, about 1538. Stoiv. A tax was enacted on burials in England — for the burial of a 
duke 50Z., and for that of a common person 4s. — under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. 1783 ; 
see Bills of Mortality. 

BURKING, a new species of murder, committed in Britain, thus named from Burke, the 
first known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His victims were killed by pressure or 
other modes of sufibcation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were sold 
to the surgeons for dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, 28 Jan. 1829. A monster 
named Bishop was apprehended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London, 5 Dec. with 
Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy named 
Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other similar murders. 

BURLINGTON HEIGHTS. Here a fierce contest took place between the British and 
the United States American forces, 6 June, 18 13. The British carried the heights. 

BURLINGTON" HOUSE, Piccadilly, London, was built by Denham for lord Burlington, 
about 1664 ; and rebuilt by lord Burlington, the architect, about 1731. It was bought for 
140,000?. by the government, authorised by vote of the house of commons, on 27 July, 1854. 
In 1857, it became the home of the Royal, Linnean, and Chemical societies. In 1866, sites 
for buildings for the University of London and the Royal Academy were granted, in the 
grounds of Burlington House. 

BURMESE, or BIRMAN", EMPIRE, founded in the middle of the iSth century by 
Alompra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. Our first dispute with this formidable 
power in 1795, was amicably adjusted by general Ei'skine. Hostilities were commenced by 
the British in 1824, and they took Rangoon on May 11. The fort and pagoda of Syriam 
were taken in 1825. After a short armistice, hostilities were renewed, i Dec. same year, 
and pursued until the successive victories of the British led to the cession of Arracan, and to 
the signature of peace, 24 Feb. 1826. For the events of this war, and of the war in 1851, 
see India. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire, 20 Dec. 1852. The war ended 20 
June, 1853. In Sept. 1866, the Burmese sovereign was said to have been deposed; there 
being four claimants for his throne. Rebellion soon suppressed. 

BURNETT PRIZES, to be awarded every 40 years to the authors of the two best essays, 
on * ' The evidence that there is a Being all powerful, wise, and good, by whom everything 



BUR 133 BUS 

exists, &c.," were founded by Mr. Burnett, a Scottish gentleman, who died 1784, bequeathing 
monies for the purpose. Various amounts have beenpaid.* 

BURNING ALIVE was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, and other nations, and was 
countenanced by bulls of the pope ; see Witches. Many persons have been biirned alive as 
heretics. Sir William Sawtre, priest of St. Osyth, London, si^ffered 9 Feb. 1401. In the 
reign of Mary, numbers were biirned ; among others, Ridley, bishop of London, Latimer, 
bishop of Rochester, and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, at Oxford, in 1555 and 1556.+ 
Bartholomew Leggatt and Edward Wightman were burned for heresy in 1612, by warrant 
of James I. 

BURNING THE DEAD was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and Homer 
gives descriptions. It was very general about 1225 B.C., and was revived by Sylla about 78 
B.C. It is still practised in parts of the East Indies ; see Suttees, Barrows. 

BURNING-GLASS and Concave Mireoes. Their power was known to Archimedes, 
and it is even asserted that by their aid he burnt a fleet in the harbour of Sjn-acuse, 214 B.C. 
Their powers were increased by Settalla ; Tscbirnhausen, 1680; Buff'on, 1747; and Parker 
and others more recently. The following experiments were made about 1800, with Mr. 
Parker's lens or burning mirror, which cost 700^., and is said to have been the largest ever 
made. It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, who took it to China, and left it at Pekin. 



Substances fused. Weight. Time. 

Pure gold 20 grains 4 seconds. 

Silver 20 „ 3 „ 

Copper 33 ,, 20 ,, 

Platlna 10 ,, 3 ,, 

Cast iron (a cube) . . . . 10 „ 3 ,, 

Steel 10 ,, 12 „ 

A topaz 3 )) 45 J. 

An emerald . . . . 2 ,, 25 „ 



Substances fused. Weight. Time. 

A crystal pebble . . . . 7 grains 6 seconds. 

Flint 10 ,, 30 ,, 

Cornelian 10 ». 75 » 

Pumice stone . . . . 10 ,, 24 ,, 
Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils 
immediately ; bones are calcined ; and things not 
capable of melting at once become red-hot, Uke 
iron. 



BURSE, see Exchange. 

BURWELL EIRE. A number of persons assembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at 
Burwell near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727. A candle having set lire to a heap of straw, 
seventy-six individuals perished, and others died of their wounds. 

BURY ST. EDMUND'S, Suff"olk, named from St. Edmund, king of East Auglia, who 
was murdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried here, and to whom its magnificent 
abbey was founded. It shares with Runnymede the honour of producing Magna Charta in 
1215 ; it having been prepared here by the barons on 20 Nov. 1214. Henry VI. summoned 
a parliament in 1447, when Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it 
is supposed by poison. It was almost consumed by fire in 1608 ; and was desolated hj plague 
in 1636. 

BURYING ALIVE. In Boeotia, Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be 
buried alive, 1225 b.c. The Roman vestals were subjected to it for any levity that excited 
suspicion of their chastity. The vestals buried alive on a charge of incontinence, were Mi- 
nutia, 337 B.C. ; Sextilla, 274 B.C. ; Cornelia, a.d. 92. Lord Bacon gives instances of the 
resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; Duns Scotus being of the number. The 
two assassins of Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, were sentenced to be immured in brick 
walls built aroimd them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this species of tor- 
ture until they died, Oct. 183 1. 

BUSACO, or BuzAco (Portugal). Here the British, under lord "Wellington, repulsed the 
French, under Massena, 27 Sept. 1810. The latter losing one general and 1000 men killed, 
two generals and about 3000 men, wounded, and several hundred prisoners ; the loss of the 
allies did not exceed 1300 ; the British retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, which were 
too strong for Massena to force, and the two armies remained in sight of each other to the 
end of the year. 

BUSHEL. This measure was ordered to contain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII. 
1520; the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. III. 1697 ; the imperial corn 
bushel of 22i8'i92 cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2i50'42 as 32 to 31. Regulated by 
act 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, which act came into operation i Jan. 1826. 

* To Dr. W. L. Brown, and to rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards archbisliop of Canterbury, 1815 ; to rev. 
K. A. Thompson, and to Dr. J. Tulloch, 1855. 

t It is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign, there were 277 persons brought to the 
stake ; besides those who were punished bj' imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who 
suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, 
and labourers, 55 women, and 4 childien. The principal agents of the queen were the bishops Gardiner 
and Bonner. The latter is said to have derived a savage pleasure from witnessing the torture of the 
sufferers. 



BUS 



134 



BYZ 



BTJSHIRE (on the Persian Gulf), attacked by sea by sir H. Leeke, and by land by 
general Stalker, was taken lo Dec. 1856. The place j)roved stronger than was expected, 
and was bravely defended. Brigadier Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous 
attack on the fort at Eeshire, 9 Dec. The loss of the British Avas four officers killed, and 
one wounded ; five men killed and thirty-five wounded. 

BUSSORAH, see Bassorah. 

BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same 
with the hennce of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds, from 
which he cast Avax figures. 328 B.C. Pliny. Busts from the face in plaster of Paris were 
first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A.D. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are now 
accurately produced from larger ones by machinery. 

BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii provided hogs, 
the Boarii or Pecuarii oxen, which the Lanii or Carnifices killed. The butchers' company iu 
London is ancient, although not incorporated till 1604. 

BUTE ADMINISTRATION. John earl of Bute, tutor of prince George (afterwards 
George III.), formed an administration in May, 1762, which, after various changes, resigned 
April, 1763. It was severely attacked by Junius and John Wilkes. 



John earl of Bute, first lord of the treasury 
Sir Francis Dasliwood, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord Grenville, president of the council. 
Duke of Bedford, privy seal. 
Earl of Halifax, admiralty. 

Earl of Egremont and George Grenville, secretaries of 
state. 



Lord Ligonier, ordnance. 

Henry Fox, afterwards Lord Holland, paymaster- of 

the forces. 
Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the Navy. 
Lord Sandys, first lord of trade. 
Duke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon, 

lord North, <&c. 



BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early 
Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Christians of Egypt burnt 
butter in their lamps instead of oil, in the 3rd century. Butter forming an important article 
of commerce as well as food in these countries, various statutes have passed respecting its 
package, weight, and sale ; the principal of which are the 36th & 38tli Geo. III. and 10 Geo. 
IV. 1829. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from tlie fruit of the shea tree, and is of 
richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from cow's milk. Mungo Park. The import 
duty of 5s. per cwt. on foreign butter (iiroducing in 1859, 104,587^. on 421,354 cwts.) was 
repealed in i860. 

BUTTONS, an early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were prohibited, 
to encourage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 1721. 

BUXAR, a town in Bengal near which, on 23 Oct. 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector 
Monro (with 857 Europeans and 6215 sepoys) gained a great victory over the troops of the 
nabob of Oude, &c., 50,000 in number ; 6000 of these were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon 
were taken. The loss of the English was trifling. 

BY-LAWS, or Bye-Laws (from Danish, hye, a town), private ordinances made by sub- 
ordinate commimities, such as corporations. These laws must not militate against the law 
of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, those made by corporate bodies become valid, if not 
disallowed by the king's council Avithin forty days after their enactment. 

BYNG, HoK. Admieal John, was charged with neglect of duty in an engagement with 
the enemy off Minorca, 20 May, 1756, condemned for an error of judgment, and shot on 
board the Monarch at Spithead, 14 March, 1757. 

BYRON'S -VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England on his voyage round the globe, 
21 June, 1764, and returned 9 May, 1766. He discovered the populous island in the Pacific 
Ocean which bears his name, 16 Aug. 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his 
general ill-fortune at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet "Foulweather Jack." 

BYZANTIUM, now Constantinople, in the ancient Thrace, founded by a colony of Me- 
garians, under Byzas, 667 B.C. ; but various dates and persons are given. It was taken 
successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spartans. In 340 B.C., in alliance with the 
Athenians, the Byzantiijes defeated the fleet of Philip of Macedon. During the wars with 
Macedon, Sj^ria, &c., it became an ally of the Romans, by whom' it was taken, A.D. 73. 
Rebelling it was taken after two years siege and laid in ruins by Severus in 196. Byzantium 
wa,s refounded by Constantine in 324, and dedicated on 22 May, 330, all the heathen temples 
being destroyed ; from him it received the name of Constantinople ; see Constantinople. 
Byzantine Art flourished from the time of Constantine to about 1204. The Byzantine or 
Eastern emx^ire really commenced in a.d. 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman empire ; 
see East. 



CAABA, a sacred black stone, in a temple at Mecca venerated by the Arabs, long before 
tlie Christian era. Its guardians, the tribe of Koreish, were defeated by Mahomet and the 
worship abolished, 623-630. 

CABAL (from Italian and Spanish cahala, secret knowledge). In English history the 
term has been applied to the cabinet of Charles II. in 1670 ; the word Cabal being formed 
from the initials of their names : sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford (C) ; the lord Ashley 
(A), (afterwards earl of Shaftesbiiry) ; George Villiers, duke of Buckingham (B) ; Henry, 
lord Arlington (A) ; and John, duke of Lauderdale (L). 

CABBAGES were brought to England from Holland about 15 10, it is said by sir Arthur 
Ashlej' of Dorset, and introduced into Scotland by Cromwell's soldiers. 

CABBALA, a Jewish system of philosophy or theosophy, deriving its name from a Hebrew 
word, signifying reception or tradition, said to have been given by God to Adam, and trans- 
mitted from father to son by his descendants. It is said to have been lost at the Babylonian 
captivity (587 B.C.), but to have been revealed again to Ezra.* 

CABEIRA (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, king of Pontus, was defeated by LucuUus, 
71 B.C. 

CABINET COUlSrCIL. There were councils in England as early as the reign of Ina, 
king of the West Saxons, 690 ; Otfa, king of the Mercians, 758 ; and in other reigns of the 
Heptarchy. State councils are referred to Alfred the Great. Spelman; see Adminislrations.-\ 

CABLES. A machine was invented in 1792, for making the largest, by which human 
labour was reduced nine-tenths. Chain cables were introduced into the British navy about 
1812. 

CABOCHIENS, an armed Burgundian faction, including 500 butchers, named from 
their leader Simonet Caboche, a skinner. They ruled Paris with violence, and constrained 
the doctors of the Sorbonne to become their allies and the dauphin to recognise them as the 
"White Hoods," and reformers of the state. They were eventually exterminated by the 
indignant citizens, in 141 8. 

CABPiIOLETS {vulcjo Cabs), one-horsed vehicles, were introduced into the streets of 
London in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 1831 they had increased to 165, 
and then the licences were thrown open. The number in 1862 running in the metropolis 
exceeded 6000 (of which about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to thowing open the 
trade, the number of hackney carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few omnibuses. 

Cah Tra.fiedy.—^. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler 
and jiaoCullocli's, seedsmen, Covent-garden, 
Londun, poisoned his wife and children in a 
cab, on 7 Nov. 1863 ; and himself on 9 Nov. 
at his own house, just before his appre- 
hension. 



Cah Strike. — On 28 June, 1853, an act (called 
Mr. FitzRoy's act) was passed for "the bet- 
ter regulation of metropolitan stage and 
hackney carriages, and for prohibiting the 
use of advertising vehicles," by which the 
cab fares were reduced to 6d. a mile. It came 
into operation 11 July, and on the 27th a 
general strike of the London cabmen took 

place. Much inconvenience was felt, and . o- , 

every kind of vehicle was employed to sup- 23 June, 1S65 

ply the deficiency. Some alterations (pre- 
viously agi-eed on) having been made in the 
act, the cabs re-appeared on the stands on 
the 30th. 

Cabmen's clubs began at Paddington in . "Feb. 1859 

A London General Cab Company published its 
prospectus, professing a reformed sj'stem, 

July, 1862 

Cabs running in London ; in 1855, 3296 ; in 
1867, 6149. 

CABUL, or Cabool, a city of Afghanistan, taken 977 by Subuctajeen, grandfather of 
Mahomed, founder of the Gaznevide dynasty, and by JN^adir Shah in 1738. It was the 

* Its supporters assert that the cabbalistic book "Sohar," or "Splendour," a mystic commentary on the 
Pentateuch, was first committed to writing by Simon Ben Jochai, a. d 72-1 10. The true date of the books 
containing the cabbala is now considered to range from gth to the 14th centuries and then- origin to be the 
minghng of talmudism with the Greek jahilosophy termed Neo-PIatonism. Some of their dogmas are akin 
to Christian tenets, such as the trinity, the incarnation, &,c. The cabbala exercised much infiiience upon 
the mental development of the Jews, and even captivated the greatest thinkers of the i6th and 17th 
centuries. 

t Cabinet Noir, or " Dark Closet," a name given to the chamber in which letters entrusted to the French 
post, were opened for state purposes. The system, which began with Louis XI, , was organised under Louis 
XV.,' who derived much entertainment from'it ; and it is said has been only discontinued within the last 
few years (1868). 



The cabmen in Paris strike against a company ; 
above 3000 vehicles stopiped, 16 June ; fierce 
attack on men who give in ; strike subsides, 

23 June, 

Second Cab S^j-ite.— Metropolitan Streets Act, 
30 & 31 Vict. c. 17 (passed 20 Aug.), required 
hackney carriages to carry lamjis ; and 
changed lowest fere from 6d. to i.s. The cab- 
proprietors and drivers struck at 4 p.m., 3 
Dec. ; but by the intervention of lord Elcho, 
an arrangement was made with Mr. Gathorne 
Hardy, the home secretary, and the strike 
ceased 4 Dec. 



CAC 



136 



C^S 



capital of the Durani empire at the end of the last centuiy. In 1809 the sovereign Shah 
Soojah was expelled by Fntteli Khan ; and in 1818 Cabiil came into the hands of Dost 
Mahomed, a clever and ambitions chieftain. In 1839 the British restored Shah Soojah ; 
but in Nov. 1841 a dreadful outbreak took place. The chief British civil officer, sir Wm. 
M'ISraghten, was massacred, and the British commenced a most disastrous retreat. Of 3849 
soldiers, and about 12,000 camp followers, only one European, Dr. Dry den, and four or five 
natives escaped. In the same year (16 Sept.) general afterwards sir George Pollock retook 
the town, and rescued lady Sale aud many of the prisoners. After destroying many public 
buildings, he left Cabul 12 Oct. 1842. 

CACHET, see Lctircs cle Cachet. 

CADDEE, or League of God's House, the league of independence in Switzerland, 
formed by the Grisons to resist domestic tyi'anny, 1400 to 1419. A second league of the 
Grisons was called the Grise or Gray League, (Graubiindten), about 1424. A third league, 
the League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 1436 ; see Grisons. 

CADE'S IlSrSUERECTIOlSr. Jack Cade, a fugitive Irishman, assumed the name of 
Mortimer, aud headed about 20,000 Kentish men, who armed "to punish evil ministers, 
aud procure a redress of grievances." He defeated and slew sir Humphrey Stafford, at 
Sevenoaks, 27 June, 1450, entered London in triumph, and beheaded the lord treasurer, lord 
Saj'e, and several other persons of consequence, 3 July. The insurgents losing ground, a 
general pardon was proclaimed, and Cade, deserted by his followers, fled. A reward was 
offered for his apprehension ; he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by 
Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 11 July. 

CADETS' COLLEGE, see Sandhurst. 

CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Roman Gades ; said to have been built by the 
Phcenicians, about iioo B.C. 



a frigate surrender to the Spaniards and 
British 14 June, 

Besieged by the French, but the siege was 
raised after the battle of Salamanca . July, 

Insurrection, 1S19 ; massacre of many inhabi- 
tants by the soldiery . . 9, 10 Mai-ch, 

Taken by the French in Oct. 1823, and held till 1 

Declared a free port i 



1812 
1820 



One hundred vessels of the Spanish armada 

destroyed in the port by sir Francis Di-ake . 1587 
Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl 

of Essex, and plundered . . 15 Sept. 1596 

Vainly attacked by sir George Rooke . . 1702 
Bombarded by the British . . . July, 1797 
Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years 1797-9 
Again bombarded by the British . . Oct. 1800 
A French squadron of five ships of the line and 

CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer and Hermann in 1818. 

CAEN (N. France), a jilace of importance before 912, when it became the capital of the 
possessions of the Normans, under whom it flourished. It was taken by the English in 1346 
and 141 7 ; but was finally recovered by the French i Jul}', 1450. Here were buried William 
the conqueror, (1087) and his queen (1083). 

CAERNARVON (N. Wales). In the castle (founded in 1283 or 1284) Edward II. was 
born, 25 April, 1284; and the town was chartered by Edward I. in the same year. The 
town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but was finallj'' retained for the parliament. 

CjESAREA, the Roman capital of Judea, built by Herod the Great, 10 B.C. Eusebius 
the historian was bishop about 315. 

CESAREAN SECTION, which, it is said, first gave the name of Cfesar to the Roman 
family, is performed by cutting the child out of the womb.* 

C J^ISARS, see Rome ; Emperors. The Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, is reckoned 
from I Jan. 38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was 
much used in Africa, Spain, anil the south of France ; but by a synod held in 11 80 its use 
was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon abolished 
the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used 
in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months and days of this era are identical with 
the Julian calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the 
year ; but if before the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 

CJ5SIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen 
in 1861, by means of the "Spectrum analysis," which see. 

* The case of Alice O'Neal, an Irishwoman, who s\n-vived the section, which was performed by a 
female, is authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King, of Armagh, and surgeon Duncan Stewart, of Dungannon. 
lu Jan. 1847, the operation was performed in St. Bartholomew's hospital, London, on a young woman of 
diminutive stature, under the influence of ether : but she died the next day. On 9 Dec. i860, a similar 
operation was successfully performed hy Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On tbe continent the 
operation is said to have been more frequent and more successful. Cooper's Surgical Dictionary (ed. 1861) 
contains a table, which, out of 2009 cases, gives a mortality of 55 '4 per cent, of the mothers and 29"45 per 
cent, of the children. 



GAF 137 CAL 

CAFFRARIA, and Caffee War, see Kaffraria. CAGLIARI, see Naples, note. 

CAGOTS, an outcast race in the Pyrenees supposed to be descendants of the ancient 
'Goths. Tliey have been subjected to superstitious persecution so hxtely as 1755- 

CA IRA ! the burden of a poindar song, during the French revolution, 1791 : 
* ' Ah ! (ja ira, ga ira, ?a ira ! Les Aristonrates ii la lanterne ! " ("It will proceed ! &c. Hang the aristocrats ! ") 

CAI-FOISTG (China), was besieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander of the 
relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its embankments. All the 
besiegers and 300, 000 of the citizens perished. 

CAIRO, or Grand Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for the minarets of 
its mosques, and the sepulchres of its caliphs ; see Egypt. 



Partially built by the Saracens . . . 969 

Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans 151 7 
Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, 

when 40,000 persons perished . . June, 1754 



parte ; they enter the city . . 23 July, 1798 
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 

French capitulated ... 27 June, 1801 
Massacre of the Mamelukes . . i March, 1811 



Taken by the French under Napoleon Bona- | Visit of the prince of Wales . . . March, 

CALABRIA (the ancient Messapia, S.E. Italy), was conquered by the Romans, 266 B.C. 
It formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, A.D. 493 ; was re-con- 
quered (for the Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the Lombards and joined to 
the duchy of Benevento, 572. After various changes, it was conquered by Robert Guiscard, 
the Norman, 1058, who obtained the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually that of 
king of Naples ; see Naples. 

CALAIS (iST. W. France), taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It 
was retaken by the duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. 1558, and its loss so deeply 
touched the queen's lieart, as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, which occurred 
soon afterwards, 17 Nov. same year. "When I am dead," said the queen, " Calais will be 
found written on my heart." It was taken by the Spaniards, April 1594, restored, 1598. 
Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile from France, April 1814. 

CALATRAVA, see Kniglitlwod. 

CALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, was discovered at the Royal Institution, London, 
by Humphry Davy in 1808. 

CALCULATING MACHINES. To avoid errors in computing and printing logarithms 
and tables of figui'es, machines to calculate and print have been devised. Pascal, when 
nineteen years of age, invented one about 1650. The construction of Mr. C. Babbage's 
machine was commenced at the expense of government, in 1821, and continued till 1833, 
when the work was suspended after an expenditure of above 15,000?. The portion com- 
pleted is in the library of King's College, London. In 1857, Messrs. E. and G. Scheutz, 
two Swedish engineers, published in London specimen tables, calculated and printed by 
machinery constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of the account of Mr. Babbage's 
machine. Messrs. Scheutz brought their machine to England in 1854. It Avas bought for 
1000?. by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an American merchant, to be presented to Dudley observatory 
in his own town, Albany. In 1857, Messrs. Scheutz were engaged to make one for the 
British government, which is now completed. Mr. Wiberg's machine, exhibited at Paris, 
Feb. 1863, was much commended. Tables constructed by means of Scheulz's machine, and 
edited by Dr. W. Farre, were published by the government in 1864. 

CALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British India, the first settlement of the English 
here was made in 1689. 

Purchased as a zemiiidary, and Fort "William ' College founded 1801 

built I . 169S Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act . July, 1813 

Made the head of a separate presidency . . 1707 i An industrial exhibition held in . .Jan. 1855 
The fort attacked and taken by an army of j Great cyclone, followed by a "bore" or spring 

70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 1 tide in the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; 

of the British crammed into the " Black-hole I immense damage done to shipping and 

pi-ison," a dungeon, about 18 feet square, j houses; {sqq Cyclone) .... 5 Oct. 1864 

from whence 23 only came forth the next I Another cyclone ; about 30,000 small houses 

morning alive) .... 20 June, 1756! unroofed, much small shipping injured ; aud 
Calcutta retaken by Clive ... 2 Jan. 1757 | the crops in Lower Bengal destroyed i Nov. 1867 
Supreme court of judicature established . . 1773 ' Population in 1850, 413,582. 
Asiatic Society founded 1784 I Q&q Bengal o.nA IwJ.ia. 

CALEDONIA (now Scotland). The name is supposed by some to be derived from Gael, 
or Gael-men or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died 99, distinguishes 
this portion of Britain by the appellation of Caledonia. Venerable Bede says that it 
retained this name until 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. 
The ancient inhabitants appear to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, 



CAL 138 CAL 

who passed over from the opiDosite coast of Gaul. About the beginning of the 4th 
century of the Christian era they were invaded (as stated by some authorities) by the 
Scuyths or Scythins (since called Soots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled 
in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. Hence the remarkable 
distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons between the Highlanders and the 
southern inhabitants ; see Scotland. 



Caledonian monarchy, said to have been 

founded by Fergus I. , about . . .B.C. 330 
The Picts from England settle in the south . 140 
Agricola carries the Roman arms into Cale- 
donia, in the reign of Galdus (Corbred II.) 

A.D. 79 

He defeats Galgacus, and builds a waU between 

the Forth and Clyde 84 

Wall of Antoninus built 140 

Ulpius Marcellus repels their incursions . .184 
Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald I. 201 



The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; a.d. 
repelled by the emperor Severus, who ad- 
vances to the Moray Frith .... 209 

Caledonia invaded by the Scuths, or Scotti, 
from Ireland, about 306 

Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . 404 

After many wars, Kenneth II., king of the 
Scotti, subdues the Caledonians and Picts, 
and unites the country under one monarchy, 
then named Scotland .... 838 to 843 



CALEDONIAN ASYLUM for children of indigent respectable Scotch parents, Islington, 
London, established in 1813. 

CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its 
construction received the royal assent 27 July, 1803 ; and the works were commenced same 
year. The nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain and those also of 
Ireland to the North Sea and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others 1000 
miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling Avas granted by parliament from time to time ; 
and the safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was opened i Nov. 1822. It has 
not paid. Annual income from tonnage, i May, 1859, 5080?. ; expenditure, 6951?. ; annual 
income, 1866-7, 6541^. ; expenditure, 6698?. 

CALENDAR, see Jeiuish Era and calendar. The Eoman calendar, was introduced by 
Eomulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 304 days, 738 B.o. This year 
was of fifty days' less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, 
and its commencement did not correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 
B.C., added two months ; and Julius Csesar, 45 B.C., to make it more correct, fixed the solar 
year at 365 daj'-s 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile or leap year ; see Lea-p year. 
This calendar was defective, as the solar year consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 
not of 365 days 6 hours. This difference, in the i6th century amounted to 10 entire days, 
the vernal equinox falling on nth instead of 21st March. To obviate this error, pope 
Gregory XIII. ordained, in 1582, that that j'ear should consist of 356 days only (5 Oct. 
became 15 Oct.) ; and to prevent further irregularity, it was determined that a year 
beginning a century should not be bissextile, with the exception of that beginning each 
fourth century ; thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so : but the 
year 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, 
because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the 
calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year, and 
future errors of chronology are avoided ; see New Style and French Revohitionary Calendar. 

COEEESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1 868. 

Year of the world (Jewish civil year) Sept. 1867 I Foundation of Eome (Varro) 2621 

-Sept. 1868 5628 I United States' Independence . . . . 92-93 

JuUan period 6581 I Year of Queen Victoria 31-32 

Eegira,(begansMay, 1867; ends May, 1868) . 1284 | Year of Napoleon III. .... 16-17 

CxiLENDER, a machine used in glazing various kinds of cloth, was introduced into 
England by the Huguenots, who were driven by persecution from France, Holland, and the 
Netherlands to these countries, about 1685. Anderson. 

CALENDS were the first day of the Roman months. The Nones of March, May, Juty, 
and Oct., fell on the 7th ; and their Ides on the 15th. The other months had the Nones 
on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, "on the Greek 
Calends," ad Grcecas Calendas, meant never, 

CALICO, cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a city of India, visited by the Portuguese in 
1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East India Companj' in 1631. Calico- 
printing and the Dutch loom engine were first used in 1676, when a Frenchman established 
a factory at Richmond, near London. Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to be printed or 
worn in 1700 ; and again in 1721, a penalty of 5Z. was laid on the wearer, and 20I. on the 
seller of calico. In 183 1, by the exertions of Mr. Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord 
Sydenham, and others, the consolidated duty of 2>i<^- on the square yard of printed calico 
was taken off. Since 1834, the manufacture has been greatly increased by the applications 



GAL 139 CAL 

of science. Cylinders for printing are now engraved by galvanism, and new dyes have been 
Introduced by the discoveries of Liebig, Hofmaun, Perkin, &c. ; see Cotton and Dyeing. 

CALICUT, (now Kolikod) S.W. India, the first Indian port visited by Yasco de Ganxa, 
20 May, 1498. It was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766, and taken by the English 1790. 

CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, Cali&ntc Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the 
climate) was discovered by Cortez in 1537 ; others say by Cabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by 
sir Francis Drake, who named it New Albion, in 1579. California was admitted into the 
United States in 1850. It is advancing rapidly in wealth and importance, but society is 
still in a very disorganised state. The population in 1856 was 506,067 ; in i860, 700,000. 

Gold discovered in great abundance by capt. 

Sutter and Mr. Mavsball .... Sept. 1847 

Ceded to the United States 1848 

Made a sovereign state 1850 

Numerous murders in San Francisco — Lynch 

law prevailing 1853-60 

I Adhered to the union 1861-2 



The Spanish establish missionary and military 
stations i6g8 

California becomes subject to Mexico . . 1823 

After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtu- 
ally independent 1836 

Occupied by the army of the United States . 1846 



CALIPER COMPASS, whereby the bore of cannon, small arm.s, &c. is measured, is said 
to have been invented by an artificer of Kui'emberg in 1540. 

CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Apostle, the title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as suc- 
cessor of Ali, and, since 1517, by the sultan of Turkey, as successor of Mahomet. The 
caliphat began with Abubeker, the father of the prophet's second wife. 

Caliphs of Arabia. 655. Ali. 

632. Abubeker. 661. Hassan. 

The Ommiades ruled 661-750. 
The Abbasides ruled 750-1258. 



634. Omar I 
644. Othman, 



In 775 they were styled caliphs of 

Bagdad. 
Haroun-al-Raschid ruled 786-809. 
See Ommiades and Abb'xsides. 



CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, about 330 B.C., to correct the Metonic 
cycle, consists of four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expiration of which he incorrectly 
imagined the new and full moons return to the same day of the solar year. This period 
began about the end of June, third year of 112th Olympiad, year of Rome 424, and 330 B.C. 

CALIXTIlsTS, a sect derived from tho Hussites, about 1420 demanded the cup (Greek, 
Kalix) in the Lord's suj^per. They were also called Utraquists as partakmg of both elements. 
They were reconciled to the Roman church at the council of Basle, 1433. Also the followers 
of George Calixtus, a Lutheran, who died in 1656. He wrote against the celibacy of the 
priesthood, and proposed a re-union of Catholics and Protestants based on the Apostles' creed. 

CALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, dates from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 
3102), and begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo sign Aswin, now on 11 April, 
N.S. In 1600 the year began on 7 April, IST.S., from which it has now advanced four days, 
and from the precession of the equinoxes is still advancing at the rate of a day in sixty years. 
The number produced \>y subtracting 3102 from any given year of the Call Yuga era will be 
the Christian year in which the given year begins. 

CALLAO (Peru). Hei'e, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned 
in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and on 28 Oct. 1746. The attempt 
of the Spanish admiral Nunez to bombard Callao on 2 May, 1866, was defeated by the 
Peruvians. 

CALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Callicrates is said to have written an elegant 
distich on a sesamum seed, 472 B.C. In the i6th century Peter Bales wrote the Lord's 
Prayer, Creed, and Decalogue, two short Latin prayer.s, his own name, motto, day of the 
month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented them 
at Hampton court), all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of 
gold, and covered with crystal, so accurately done, as to be plainly legible. IJolinshed. 

CALMAR, Union of. The treaty whereby Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united 
under one sovereign, Margaret of Waldemar, queen of Sweden and Norway, "the Serairamis 
of the north ; " June, 1397, see Sweden. This union was dissolved by Gustavus Vasa in 1523. 

CALMUCKS, see Tartary. 

CALOMEL ("beautiful black"), a compound of mercnr}', sulphuric acid, and chloride of 
sodium, first mentioned by CroUius early in the 17th century. The first directions given for 
its preparation were by Beguin in 1608. 

CALORESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the 
spectrum of the electric light visible by causing them to impinge on a plate of platinum, 
which they raised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon Calorescence ; see Fluorescc7ice. 

CALORIC, see Heat. 



CAL 



140 



CxlM 



CALOTYPE PKOCESS (from the Greek kalos beautiful), by which negative photographs 
are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry Fox Talbot about 1840. 

CALOYERS (meaning good old men). The monks of the Greek church, of the order of 
St. Basil. Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount Sinai, endowed by Justinian 
(died 565) ; the European one is at Mount Athos. 

CALVARY Mount, the place where the Redeemer suffered death, 5 April, a.d. 30 ; 
{Hales, 31 ; Clinton, 29 ; others 38) ; see Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, at the time of his per- 
secution of the Christians, erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of 
Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 142. The empress Helena built a church here about 
326 ; see Holy Places. 

CALVES' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and gentlemen, who exposed raw calves' heads at the 
windows of a tavern, 30 Jan. 1735, the anniversary of the execution of Charles I. An 
incensed mob was dispersed by soldiers, and the club was suppressed. 

CALVI (Corsica). The British forces besieged the fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. 
After fifty-nine days it surrendered on 10 Aug. It surrendered to the French in 1796. 

CALVIlSriSTS, named after John Calvin (or Chauvin), who was born at Noyon, in 
Picardy, 10 July, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines he fled to Angoul6me, where he 
composed his Instituiio Christiance Edigionis in 1533 ; published in 1536. He retired to 
Basle, and settled in Geneva, where he died, 27 Maj', 1564. He was instrumental in burn- 
ing Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553. A formal separation between the Calvinists 
and Lutherans took place after the conference of Poissy in 1561, where the former expressly 
rejected the tenth and other articles of the confession of Augsburg, and took the name of 
Calvinists. In France (see Huguenots) they took up arms against their persecutors. Henry 
IV., originally a Calvinist, on becoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of Nantes 
in 1598 {which see). Calvinistic doctrines appear in the articles of the Church of England 
and in the confession of the Church of Scotland, and are held by many protestant sects. 

CAMALDULES or Camaldolites, a religious order founded at Camaldoli near Florence, 
by Romuald about 1012. 

CAMBIUM REGIS ; see Royal Exchange. 

CAMBRAY (]Sr. France), in the middle ages, the capital of a prince bishop subject to the 
emperor. Its gives its name to cambric. 



Taken by Charles V. 1544 

By the Spaniards 1595 

By the French and annexed .... 1667 

Fenelon archbishop 1698 

It was invested by the Austrians, 8 Aug. when 

the republican general, Declay, replied to the 

summons to surrender, that " he knew not 

how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to 

fight. " It was taken by Clairfait, the Austrian 

general, on . • . . . lo Sept. 1798 
The French were defeated at Cesar's camp, in 

the neighbourhood, by the allied army under 

the duke of York . . . .24 April, 1794 

CAMBRIA, ancient name of Wales (v^hich see). 

CAMBRIC first made atCambray ; worn in England, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. 
Stow. Its importation was restricted in 1745; and prohibited in 1758 ; re-admitted in 1786. 

CAMBRIDGE, the Roman Camhorieum and the Saxon Granta, frequently mentioned by 
the earliest British historians, was burnt by the Danes in 870 and loio. Roger de Mont- 
gomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus. 



Cambray seized by the British, under sir 
Charles Colville 24 June, 1815 

League of Cambray against the republic of 
Venice, comprising pope Julian II., the em- 
peror Maximilian, and Louis XII. of France, 
and Ferdinand of Spain, entered into 10 Dec. 1508 

Treaty between Francis I. of France, and 
Charles V. of Germany, (called Paix cits 
Dames, because negotiated by Loui-sa of 
Savoy, mother of the French king, and Mar- 
garet of Austria, aunt of the emperor) . . 1529 

Treaty between the emperor Charles VI. and 
Philip V. of Spain 1724-S 



The university, said to have been commenced 
by Sigebert, king of the East Angles, about 
A.D. 630; lay neglected during the Danish 
invasions, from which it suffered much ; was 
restored by Edward the elder in 915 ; and 

began to revive about 11 10 

Henry I. bestows many privileges . . . ,, 
Henry III. granted a charter to the university, 

1230 or 1231 
In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the 
rebels enteied the town, seize the university 
records and burn them in the market-place . 1381 
University press was set up ... . 1534 
Letters patent granted by Henry VIII. . . ,, 

Incorporated by Elizabeth in . . . . 1571 
The university authorised to send two members 

to parliament 1603 

The tmi versify refuses the degree of M.A. to 



father Francis, a Benedictine monk, recom- 
mended by the king ; and the presidency of 
Magdalen college to Fai-mer, a Roman Catho- 
lic, notwithstanding the king's mandate . 1687 
CamlDridge Philosophical Society established 

in 1819, and chartered in .... 1832 
Railway to London opened . . . June, 1845 
Commissioners were ajipointed for the govern- 
ment and extension of this university and 
Eton college, by 19 <fe 20 Vict. c. 88 . . 1856 
New statutes confirmed by the Queen . . . 1858 
British Association met here, 1833, 1845,1862 
Fitzwilliam museum, endowed 1816 ; founded 
1837 ; completed 1847 

FOURTEEN COLLEGES. 

Peterhouse College, by Hugo de Balsham, 
bishop of Ely, foimded 1257 



CAM 



141 



CAM 



St. Catherine's College or Hall, founded . . 
{Cambridge University CalerLdar.'\ 

CHANCELLORS. 

Charles, duke of Somerset, elected . 

Thomas, duke of Newcastle 

Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton 

H. R. H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester 

John, marquess Camden 

Hugh, duke of Northumberlaud 

The Prince Consort [died Dec. 14, 1861.] 28 Feb. 

Duke of Devonshire .... 31 Dec. 

PROFESSORSHIPS FOUNDED. 

Divinity (Margaret) 1502 ; Eegius 

Laws, Hebrew, and Greek 

Arabic 

Mathematics 

Music 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 1704) 

Anatomy 

Modern History, Botany 

Natural and experimental Philosophy . . . 

Mineralogy 

PoUtical Economy 



1847 
1861 



1632 
1663 
1684 
1702 

1749 
1707 
1724 
1783 



CAMBEIDGE, continued. 

Pembroke College, founded by the countess of 

Pembroke 1347 

Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville . . 1348 
Enlarged by Dr. John Caius in . . . . 1558 

Corpus Christi, or Benet 1352 

King's College, by Henry VI 1441 

Christ's College, founded 1442 ; endowed by 

Margaret, countess of Richmond, mother of 

Henry VII 1305 

Queen's College, by Margaret of Anjou . . 1448 
Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely . 1496 
St. John's College, endowed by Margaret, 

countess of Richmond 1511 

Magdalen College, by Thomas, baron Audley . 1519 
Trinity College, by Henry VIII. . . . 1546 

Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . 1584 
Sidney-Sussex College, founded by Frances 

Sidney, countess of Sussex . . . . 1598 
Downing College, by sir George Downing, by 

will, in 1717 ; its charter .... 1800 

THREE HALLS. 

Clare Hall, or College, first founded by Dr. 

Richard Baden, in 1326; destroyed by fire 

and re-estabUshed by Elizabeth de Bourg, 

sister to Gilbert earl of Clare . . about 1342 
Trinity Hall, by Wm. Bateman, bp. of Norwich 1350 

CAMBUSKENNETH (Central Scotland). Here 'Wallace defeated the English under 
Warrenne and Cressingham, 10 Sept. 1297. 

CAMDEIST (N. America). Here 16 Aug. 1780, lord Cornwallis defeated the revolted 
Americans, under Gates. At a second battle, between general Greene and lord Eawdon, the 
Americans were again defeated, 25 April, 1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the 
British, 13 May, 1781. 

CAMEL, Day of the, 4 Nov. 656 (according to some 658 or 659) when Talha and Zobeii-, 
rebel Arab chiefs were defeated and slain by the Calipli Ali. Ayesha, Maliomet's widow, 
friend of the chiefs, was present in a litter on a camel, hence the name. 

CAMERA LUCID A, invented by Dr. Hooke about 1674 ; another by Dr. WoUaston in 
1807. Cameiia Obscuea, or dark chamber, constructed, it is said, by Eoger Bacon in 
1297 ; and improved by Baptista Porta, about 1500 ; and remodelled by sir Isaac Newton. By 
the invention of M. Daguerre, in 1839, the pictures of the camera are fixed ; ae,& Photography. 

CAMDEN SOCIETY, established 1838, publishes British historical documents. . 

CAMERONIANS, a name frequently given to the Reformed Presbyterian church of 
Scotland, the descendants of the covenanters of the 17th century, the established church, 
1638-50.* Charles II. signed the League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes of recovering his 
kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661, and revived episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1666, 
when many covenanters were slain in battle (in the Pentland hUls, &c.), and man}'- refusing 
to take the oaths required, and declining to accept the king's indulgence, died on the 
scaffold, after iindergoing cruel tortures. The name Cameronian is derived from Richard 
Cameron, one of their ministers, who was killed in a skirmish, in 1680. In 1689 they 
raised a body of soldiers to support William III., who enrolled them under the command 
of lord Angus, as the 26th regiment, since so famous. In 1712 they renewed the public 
covenants, and are described in one of their tracts as "the suffering anti-popish, and anti- 
prelatical, auti-erastian, true presbyterian church of Scotland." They have now between 
thirty and forty congregations in Scotland. — The 79th regiment {Cameron Highlanders), 
raised in 1793 by Allan Cameron, has no connection with the Cameronians. 

CAMISARDS (from chernise, Latin camisa, a shirt, which they frequently wore over their 
dress in night attacks), a name given to the more warlike French Protestants in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Cevennes (mountain chains in S. France), who defended themselves and 
attacked their enemies after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. They were 
suppressed in 1704. Their leader, Cavalier, is said to have been made governor of Jersey 
by AViUiam III. 

CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. 
Oriental camlet first came here from Portuguese India, in 1660. Anderson. 

* They were frequently called Mil-men or mountain-men, and i^ocieti/ people (from the places and modes 
of worship to which they were frequently reduced), and jMcMiUanites, from John McMillan, their first 
minister, after their secession from the church of Scotland on account of its subserviency to the English 
government, and its declining from its original rigid principles. 



CAM 



112 



CAN 



CAMP. The Hebrew encampment was first laid out by divine direction, 1490 B.C. 
(Niimhers ii.) The Eomans and Gauls had intrenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges 
of such exist to this day in England and Scotland, A camp was formed at Hyde Park in 
1745 and 1814 ; see Chohham and. Aldershoit. 

CAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Hannibal and various cities declared in his 
favour 216 B.C. ; conquered by the Puomans, 213. Its capital was Capua (which see). 

CAMPBELL'S ACT, introduced by lord Campbell, to compel railway companies to 
grant compensation for accidents, passed in 1846 ; amended in 1864. In accordance with it 
the family of a gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, obtained a verdict for 
13,000?. from the Great Northern Eailway Company. On appeal the sum was reduced. 

CAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central America), discovered about 15 17, and settled in 
1540 ; was taken by the English in 1659 ; by the buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free- 
booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last iDurnt the town and blew up the citadel. The 
English logwood-cutters made their settlement here about 1662. 

CAMPERDOWN : south of the Texel, Holland, near which admiral Duncan defeated 
the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, either 
taken or destroyed, 11 Oct. 1797. The British admiral obtained a peerage. He died sud- 
denly on his way to Edinburgh, 4 Aug. 1804. 

CAMPO EOEMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty was concluded between France and 
Austria ; the latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, 
Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic, 17 Oct. 1797. By a secret article the 
emperor gained the "Venetian dominions. 

CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected 
by archbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, which is celebrated for the frescoes painted on the walls 
by Giotto, Memmi, and others. 

CAMPS, see Alclershott and Choiham. 

CAMPUS EAUDIUS, near Verona, N. Italy. Here the Cimbri were defeated with 
great slaughter by Marcus and Catulus, loi B.C. 

CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C. 
(Clinton, 2088). The land was divided among the Israelites by Joshua, 1445 (Hales, 1602).- 

CANADA (N. America), was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, 24 June, 1497. 
In 1524, a French expedition under Yerazani formed a settlement named New France, and 
in 1535 Jacques Cartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. LaAvrence as far as where 
Montreal now stands ; see Montreal and Qiielec. 



First permanent settlement ; Quebec founded 1608 
Canada taken by the English 1628 ; restored . 1632 
War begins in 1756 ; Canada conquered by the 
English 1759 (see Quebec), confirmed to them 
by the treaty of Paris, signed . 10 Feb. 1763 

Legislative council established ; the French 
laws confirmed, and religious liberty given 

to Roman Catholics 1774 

The Americans under Montgomery invade 
Canada, and surprise Montreal, Nov. 1775; 
expelled by Carleton . . . March, 1776 
Canada divided into Upper and Lower . . 1791 
The "clergy reserves" established by parlia- 
ment — one seventh of the waste lands of the 
colony appropriated for the maintenance of 

the Protestant clergy ,, 

During the debates on this bill the quarrel 
between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. Mr. 
Fox seemed anxious for a reconciliation, but 
Mr. Burke rejected it with disdain . . „ 

Canada made a bishopric 1793 

United States army, under general Hull, invade 
Canada ; defeated at Brownstown, 8 Aug. ; 

surrender 16 Aug. 1812 

Americans take York 27 April ; Fort George 
27 May ; defeated at Chippewa 25 July; peace 
signed at Ghent .... 24 Dec. 1814 
Opposition to Canada clergy reserves . 1817 et seq. 
First railway in Canada opened . . July, 1836 
The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal 

by a body called Fils de la Libertd . . . 1837 
The rebels defeated at St. Eustace . 14 Dec. , , 
Eepulsed at Toronto by sir F. Head . 5 Jan. 1838 
^ari r/ DrtrAcoii appointed gov. -gen. 16 Jan. ,, 
Lount and Mathews (rebels) hanged . 12 April, ,, 
Lord Durham resigns his government . 9 Oct. ,, 



Eebellion appears in Beaiiharnais 3 Nov. ; the 
insurgents at NapierviUe, under Nelson, 
routed 6 Nov. ; rebellion suppressed 17 Nov. 

Sir John Colborne governor . . . Dec. 

Acts relating to Government of Lower Canada, 
passed in Feb. 1838, and . . . Aug. 

Chas. Powlett Thompson (afterwards lord Syden- 
ham) governor Sept. 

Upper and Lower Canada reunited 10 Feb. 

Sir Chas Bagot governor . . . Oct. 

Sir Chas. T. (aft. lord) Metcalfe governor Feb. 

Ea.rl Caihcari governor . . . March, 

Riots in Montreal; parliament house burnt 

26 April, 

Canada clergy reserves abolished by the British 
parliament 9 May, 

Earl of Elgin §0Y. -general . . . .Oct. 

Concluded an important treaty with United 
States 7 June, 

The grand ti'unk railroad of Canada, 850 miles 
long, from Quebec to Toronto, opened 

12 Nov. 

On reference having been made to the queen, 
Ottawa, formerly Bytown, appointed the 
capital ; this decision was unpopular ; a 
federal union of the N. American colonies 
has been since proposed . . . Aug. 

Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one 
of the line, and called the looth) . 

The prince of Wales presents the colours at 
Shorncliff 10 Jan. 

The prince of Wales, the duke of Newcastle, &c., 
arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, 24 July ; 
visit Halifax 30 July ; Quebec 18 Aug. ; Mon- 
treal 25 Aug. ; Ottawa i Sept. ; leave Canada 
20 Sept. ; after visiting the United States, 



1846 

1850 

i8s3 
1846 

1854 
1856 



CAN 



143 



CAN 



CANADA, continued. 

embark at Portland 20 Oct. : and arrive at 
Plymouth 15 Nov. 

lord Month assumes office as gov. -gen. 28 Nov. 

In consequence of the "Trent" affair (see 
United States, 1861), 3000 British troops were 
sent to Canada; and warlike preparations 
were made Dec. 

British N. American Association founded in 
London Jan. 

Cartier's ministry defeated on Mihtia bill ; Mr. 
J. Sandfield Macdonald premier . 20-23 M'^Y. 

The assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
serve towards the defence of the country ; 
this causes discontent in England . July, 

Political changes : Mr. J. Macdonald again pre- 
mier ....... 20 May, 

New militia bill passed .... Sept. 

Military measures in progress . . . Sept. 

Meeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates 
from N. American colonies at Quebec, to de- 
liberate on the formation of a confederation, 
10 Oct. ; agree on the bases . . 20 Oct. 

Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit 
Canada and enter the little town of St. Al- 
ban's, Vermont ; rob the banks, steal horses 
and stores, fire, and kill one man, and wound 
others, and return to Canada, ig Oct. ; 13 are 
arrested 21 Oct. ; but are discharged, on ac- 
count of some legal difiiculty, by Judge 
Coursol 14 Dec. 

Great excitement in United States, general Dix 
proclaims reprisals ; volunteers called out in 
Canada to defend the frontiers ; president 
Lincoln rescinds Dix's proclamation . Dec. 



1S60 
1 861 



1864 



Lord Monck opens the last Canadian parlia- 
ment 19 Jan. 1865 

The confederation scheme rejected by New 
Brunswick 7 March, „ 

The British parliament grant 50,000^. for de- 
fence of Canada . . . . 23 March, ,, 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Justice 
Smith 30 March, „ 

Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extra- 
dition April, „ 

Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advo- 
cate confederation .... April, „ 

The threatened invasion of the Fenians 9 March ; 
10,000 volunteers called out . 15 March, iS65 

The Canadian parliament opened, for the first 
time, at Ottawa ; the Habeas Corpus act sus- 
pended; many Fenians fly ; 35,000 men 
tmder arms (see Fenians) . . 8 June, „ 

Discovery of gold in Hastings county, Canada 
west Nov. „ 

Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and 
New Brunswick imder the name of Canada, 
with parhament, to consist of the Queen, a 
senate of 72 members, and a house of com- 
mons of 181 members, passed . 29 March, 1867 

Canada Kailway loan act passed . 12 April, ,, 

Lord Monck sworn in as viceroy of Canada, by 
virtue of the act for the union of the British 
provinces in North America . 2 July, „ 

New Canadian parliament meets at Ottawa 

6 Nov. ,, 

Reported agitation against the new ponfedera- 
tion in Nova Scotia .... Jan. 1868 

Population in 1857: Lower Canada, 1,220,514; 
Upper Canada, 1,350,923. 



CANALS (artificial watercourses). A canal in China, commenced in the 13th century, 
is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities ; see Ganges and Suez. 

The canal of Languedoc (Canal du Midi) which 

joins the ^Mediterranean with the Atlantic 

Ocean, was completed in i68r 

That of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine, 

commenced in 1675 

Burgundy canal 1775 

That between the Baltic and North Sea, at 

Kiel, opened 1785 

That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, 

commenced 1790 

Seine and Loire, opened 1791 

That from the Cattegat to the Baltic . 1794-1800 

The great American Erie canal, 363 miles in 

length, was commenced in .... 1817 
That of Amsterdam to the sea . . . 1819-25 
Ganges canal completed 1854 

(See Ganges, and Suez canal.) 



BRITISH CANALS. 

The first was by Henry I., when the Trent was 
joined to the Witham, 1134. 

Francis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Yarranton in 
1677, in vain strongly urged improvement in in- 
ternal navigation. 

In England there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 
miles of rivers, taking the length of those only 
that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. (Mr. Porter, 
in 1851, says 4000 miles.) 

In Ireland there are 300 miles of canals; 150 of navi- 
gable rivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navi- 
gable below Linaerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. 

The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked 
by the formation of railways, is now greatly re- 
vived. 



New river canal, commenced 
Brought to London . . 

Thames made navigable to 
Oxford .... 

Kennett navigable to Beading 

Lagan navigation commenced 

Caermarthenshire canal 

Droitwich to the Severn 

Duke of Bridgewater's navi- 
gation (first great canal), 
commenced (see Bridge- 
water) ..... 

Northampton navigation . . 

Dublin to the Shannon (the 
Gi-and) . . . 1765- 

Stafford and Worcester, com- 
menced 

Grand Trunk commenced by 
Brindley . . . . 

Forth to Clyde, commenced . 

Birmingham to Bilston . . 

Oxford to Coventry, com- 
menced 



P.EMAKKABLE CANAIS, 

Lea made navigable from 
1614 Hertford to Ware, 1739 ; to 

London .... 1770 
1624 Leeds to Liverpool . . . ,, 
1715 Monkland (Scotland), com- 
175s menced ....,, 
1756 EUesmere and Chester . . 1772 
Basingstoke canal begun . , , 
Liverpool to Wigan . . . 1774 
Stroud to the Severn . . 1775 
Staffordshire canal, begun . 1776 
1759 Stourbridge canal, completed ,, 
1761 Runcorn to Manchester . ,, 
Trent and Mersey, opened . 1777 
Chesterfield to the Trent . ,, 
Belfast to Lough Neagh . 1783 
Severn to the Thames, com- 
pleted 1789 

1766 Forth and Clyde, completed . 1790 
176S Bradford completed . . ,, 
Grand Junction canal . . ,, 
Birmingham and Coventry . ,, 
1769 I Monastercveu to Athy . . 1791 



Worcester and Birmingham . 1791 
Manchester, Bolton, and 

Bury ,, 

Warwick and -Birmingham . 1793 
Barnsley, cut . . . 1794 

Rochdale, act passed . . ,, 
Huddersfield, act passed . „ 
Derby, completed . . . ,, 
Hereford and Gloucester . 1796 
Paddington canal begun . 1 798 
Kennet and Avon, opened . 1799 
Peak -forest canal, completed 1800 
Thames to Fenny Stratford . „ 
Buckingham canal . . . 1801 
Grand Surrey, act i)assed . ,, 
Brecknock canal . . . 1802 
Caledonian canal begun . . 1803 
EUesmere aqueduct . . 1805 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, opened . ,, 
Aberdeen, completed . . 1807 
Glasgow and Ardrossan, 

opened iSii 

Leeds and Liverpool, opened i3i6 



CAN 



144 



CAN 



CANALS, continued. 

Wye and Avon . . . 1816 
Edinburgh an dGlasgowUnion 1 8 1 8 
Sheffield, conapleted . . . 1819 
Kegent's canal opened . , 1820 



Caledonian canal completed 

30 Oct. 1822 
Birmingham and Liverpool, 
begun 1826 



Gloucester and Berkeley, 
ship-canal completed . 1827 

Norwich and Lowestoft navi- 
gation opened . . . i83r 



CANAKY ISLANDS (N. "VV. Africa), known to the ancients as the Fortunate Ides. 
The first meridian was referred to the Canary Isles by Hipparchus, about 140 B.C. They 
were re-discovered by a Norman named Bethencourt, about 1400 ; his descendants sold them 
to the Spaniards, wlao became masters, 1483. The canary-bird, a native of these isles, 
brought to England about 1500. Teneriffe is the largest island. 

CANCER HOSPITAL, West Brompton, near London, was foimded by Miss Burdett 
Coutts, 30 May, 1859. A temporary hospital began in 185 1, 

CANDIA, tlie ancient Crete, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, celebrated for its loO' 
cities, its centre Mount Ida ; and the laws of its king Minos, and its labyrintli to secure the 
Minotaur (about 1300 B.C.). It was conquered by the Romans 68 B.C. 



Seized by the Saracens .... a.d. 

Ee-taken by the Greeks 

Sold to the Venetians 

Gained by the Turks, after a twenty-four years' 
siege, during which more than 200,000 men 
perished 

Ceded to the Egyptian pacha .... 

Eestored to Turkey 

Insurrections suppressed, 1841 ; by conciliation 

Persecution of the Christians . . 31 July, 

The Christians demand redress of grievances 

June, 

They establish a "sacred battalion" . 12 Aug. 

PubUsh an address to the powers protecting 
Greece 21 Aug. 

The Cretan general assembly proclaim the 
abolition of the Turkish authority in Candia, 
and union with Greece . . .2 Sept. 

Commencement of hostilities : the Tui-kish 
army commanded by Mustapha Pacha 

II Sept. 

Greeks victorious in several conflicts Sept. and 

Oct. 



823 
960 
1204 

1669 
1830 



The Greek steamer PanJiellenion begins to con- 
vey volunteers, &c., to Candia . . Oct. 

Monastery of Arkadi besieged ; blown up by 
the defenders ; gi-eat loss on both sides 26 Nov. 

Proposition of Austria, Prussia, Italy, and 
Switzerland to the sultan to give up Candia, 
28 March ; declined ... 31 March, 

Many defenceless villages said to be burnt June, 

Collective note from Russia and other powers 
urging the Porte to suspend hostilities 

15 June, 

The Arkadi Greek steamer after running the 
blockade 22 times, landing Greek volunteers, 
and bringing away women and children, de- 
stroyed by the Turkish vessel Izeddin ig Aug. 

Insurrection subsides ; the grand vizier pro- 
claims an amnesty, and promises reforms Oct. 

Successful blockade running by the Greeks ; 
Omar Pasha, the Turkish general, resigns his 
command in the island . . . Nov. 

The insurrection maintained; successful Greek 
blockade running Jan. 

Reported victories of the Candians . Jan. 



186& 



1867 



CANDLEMAS DAY, 2 Feb. is kept in the church in memory of the purification of the 
Virgin, wlio presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. From tlie number of candles lit (it 
is said in memory of Simeon's song, Luhe ii. 32, "a Light to lighten the Gentiles," &c.), 
this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. Its origin is ascribed by 
Bede to pope Gelasius in the 5th century. The practice of lighting the churches was for- 
bidden by order of council, 2 Edw. VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. 

CANDLES.* The Roman candles were composed of string surrounded by was, or dipped 
in pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light among the lower classes in England, 
about 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury ; dipped 
candles were usually burnt. The Wax Chandlers' company was incorporated 1484. Mould 
candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of Paris. Spermaceti candles are 
of modern manufacture. The Chinese make candles from wax obtained from the candle- 
beriy tree {myrica cerifera). The duty upon candles made in England, imposed in 1709, 
amounted to about 500,000?. annually, when it was repealed in 1831. Very great improve- 
ments in the manufacture of candles are due to the researches on oils and fats, carried on by 
"the father of the fatty acids," Chevreul, since 181 1, and published in 1823. At Price's 
manufactory at Lambeth, the principles involved in many patents are carried into execution ; 
including those of Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price, 1842), and Wilson in 1844, for candles 
which require no snufiing (termed ccnnposite). Palm and cocoa-nut oils are now extensively 
used. In i860, at the Belmont works 900 persons were employed, and in winter 100 tons 
(7000Z. worth) of candles are manufactured weekly. Candles are manufactured at Belmont 
from the mineral oil or tar brought from Rangoon in the Burmese empire and from Trinidad. 

CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with seven branches were regarded as emblematical 
of the priest's office, and were engraven on their seals, cups, and tombs. Bezaleel made 
"a candlestick of pure gold" for the tabernacle, B.C. 149 1 {Exod. xxvii. 17). Candlesticks 

* The custom of selling at public auctions ly inch of candle is said to have been borrowed from the 
church of Rome, where there is an excommunication by inch of candle, and the sinner is allowed to come 
to repentance before final excommunication, while yet the candle burns. 



CAN 



145 



CAN 



Lord Palmerston, secretary at war. 

Lord Bexley, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 

Duke of Clarence, lord high admiral 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, <Lx. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, without office; afterwards 

home secretary. 
Earl of Carlisle, woods and forests. 



■wore used in Britain in the clays of king Edgar, 959, ("silver candelabra and gilt candelabra 
well and honourably made ; ") but in 1388 they were not common. 

CANDY (Ceylon), was taken by a British detachment, 20 Feb. 1803, who capitulated 
23 June, following, anxious to evacuate the place on account of its unhealthiness : on the 
third day many were treacherously massacred at Colurabo. The war was renewed in Oct. 
1814 ; the king was made prisoner by general Brownrigg, 19 Feb. 1815 ; and the sovereignty 
vested in Great Britain, 2 March, 1815. 

CANICULAR PERIOD, see Dog-star. 

CANNjE (Apulia). Here, on 2 Aug. 216 B.C., Hannibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, 
and Spaniards, defeated Paulas ^Emilius andTerentius Varro, with 88,000 Romans, of Avhom 
40,000 were slain. The victor sent to Carthage three bushels of rings, taken from the 
Roman knights. The place is now denominated by some " the field of blood." 

CANNIBAL, an Indian term, thought to be a form of Carribal ; as Columbus, in 1493, 
found the Caribs of the West Indies gross cannibals. AnthropojAagi (man-eaters) are 
mentioned by Homer and Herodotus ; and the j^i'actice still exists in the South Sea islands 
and other savage countries. Cannibals were detected in Perthshire, Scotland, about 1339, 
and at Milan in 15 19. 

CANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The illness of lord Liverpool, Feb. led to the for- 
mation of this administration, 24-30 April, 1827. He died 8 Aug. following ; see Goderich, 

George Canning, first lord of the treasury and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Harrowby, president of the council. 

Duke of Portland, lord privy seal. 

Viscount Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges 
Bourne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. 

W. W". Wynn, president of the India, boo.rd. 

"Si 1x1. Huskisson, boaid of trade. | 

CANNON. Gibbon described a cannon employed by Mahomet II. at the siege of 
Adrianople 1453 ; the bore 12 palms wide; the stone balls each 600 lb. ; see Artillery. 

At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest 

forts in German}', opposite Coblentz on the 

Rhine, is a prodigious cannon, eighteen feet 

and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter 

in the bore, and three feet four inches in the 

breech. The ball made for it weighs iSolb., 

and its charge of pnwder 941b. The inscrip- 
tion on it shows that it was made by one 

Simon 1529 

In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen 

Elizabeth's pocket pistol, -which was pre- 
sented to her by the states of Holland ; this 

piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully orna- 
mented, having on it the arms of the states, 

and a motto in Dutch, importing thus — 

" Charge me well, and sponge me clean — I'll 

throw a ball to Calais green." 
Fine specimens in the Tower of London. 
A leathern cannon was fired three times in the 

King's park, Edinburgh — Phillips. 23 Oct. 1788 
The Turkish piece now in St. James's park, 

was taken by the French at Alexandria ; but 

was retaken, and placed in the park, March, 1803 
Messrs. Horsfall's monster wrought-iron gun 

was completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. 

Its length is 15 feet 10 inches, and its weight 

21 tons 17 cwt. I qr. 14H). Its cost was 

3,5ooi. "With a charge of 251b. it struck a 

target 2000 yards' distance. It has been 

since presented to government. 
Rifled ordnance committee appointed 20 Aug. 1858 
Recently great improvemeuts have been made 

in the construction of cannon, by Messrs. 

"Whitworth, Mallet, Armstrong, and others. 

Mr. Wm. G. Ai-mstrong knighted 18 Keb. 1859 
He had been working for four years on gun- 
making, and had succeeded in jiroducing " a 

hreech-loadiiig rifled wrought-iron gun of 

gi'eat durability and of extreme lightness. 



combining a great extent of range and ex- 
traordinary accuracy." The range of a 32-lb. 
gun, charged with 51b. of powder, was a 
little more than 5 miles. The accuracy of 
the Armstrong gun is said at equal distances 
to be fifty-seven times more than that of our 
common artillery, which it greatly exceeded 
also in destructive effects. The government 
engaged the services of sir W. Armstrong 
for ten years (commencing with 1855) for 
20,oooi., as consulting engineer of rifled ord- 
nance 22 Feb. 

A parliamentary committee on ordnance was 
appointed 20 Feb., and reported on 23 July, 

SirW. Armstrong resigned the appointmt. 5 Feb. 

The Armstrong gun was said to be very effec- 
tive in the attack on the Chinese forts at 
Taku 21 Aug. 

Mr. Whitworth's guns and rifles have also been 
greatly commended. 

An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated 
to be tlie largest in the world, cast in . 

Great endeavours made to improve the con- 
struction of cannon, to counterbalance the 
strength given to ships of war by iron plates ; 
and trials at Shosburyness, Essex. 

Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of 
the Warrior, three 5-inch plates of wrought 
ii'on bolted together, were pierced three times 
by 1561b. shot from an Armstrong gun 
smooth bore, 3001b., muzzle-loaded with 
charges of 401b. of powder, twice, and once 
of 5otb 8 April, 

The Horsfall gim mentioned above, with a 
charge of 751b. of powder and a shot of 2701b., 
smashed a Warrior target 16 Sept. 

Mr. Whitworth's shells were sent through 5J 
inch iron plates and the wood-work behind 
it 12 Nov. 



* George Canning was bom 11 April, 1770 ; became foreign secretary in the Pitt administration, 1807 ; 
fought a duel with Castlereagh and resigned in 1809 ; president of the council in 1S20 ; disapproved of the 
queen's trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor-general of India in 1822, but became soon after 
foreign secretary, and i-emained such till 1827, when he became premier. He died 8 Aug. same year. 

L 



CAN 



146 



CAN 



CANNON, continued. 

Armstrong's gun "Big Will" was tried and 
pronouiiced to be a perfect specimen of work- 
manship. It weighed 22 tons ; its length, 
IS feet; range with shot weighing 5101b., 
748 to 4187 yards . . . -19 Nov. 

Clark's target was destroyed . . 7 July, 

Eeed's target was tried successfully . 8 Dec. 

The competitive trial between the Armstrong 
and Whitworth guns began . . i April, 

Iron-plate commission experiments close 4 Aug. 

Capt. Pallisor, by experiment, has shown that 
iron shot cast in cold iron moulds instead of 
hot sand, is much harder aiid equals steel ; 
he also suggested the lining cast iron guns 
with wrought iron exits, which is stated to 
be successful 

The compi-titive trials of Armstrong's and 
Whit worth's cannon upon the Alfred target- 
ship at Portsmoith closed . . 15 Nov. 

"Hercules target," 4 ft. 2 in. thick, 11 J inches 
of iron, resists 300 pounders . . June, 



186s 



National Artillery Association (see Artillery) 1865 

Duel between a 12* ton g-inch rifled naval 
service gun with steel bolt (250^)), and powder 
charge of 481b., and the single gun turret of 
the "Royal Sovereign" by Capt. Cowper 
Coles : llie equilibrium of the turret base 
undisturbed by any amount of pounding, 

15 June, 1866 

At Shoeburyness Palliser's chilled metal shot* 
(25olh.) by 431b. of powder in a ginch muzzle- 
loading wi'ought-iron Woolwich rifle gun, is 
sent through a target of 8 inches rolled iron, 
18 inches teak, and % inch iron, and about 20 
feet beyond 13 Sept. ,, 

Many experiments made with cannon and 
targets at Shoeburyness in 1867 

The American 15-inch naval gun, with a cast- 
iron spherical shot 4S3Tb. , greatly damages an 
8-inch target ; other experiments at Shoe- 
buryness 23 July, ,, 



CANOE. In the " Eob Eoy " a very lightly constructed canoe, "giving the pleasure of a 
yacht without the expense," Mr. J. Macgregor, in 1865, travelled about a thousand miles on 
the rivers and lakes of Europe. His second cruise was on the Baltic. The "Octoroon" 
(16 feet long, 23 inches broad) crossed the channel from Boulogne to Dover, in 11 hours ; 
19 Aug. 1867. 

CANONICAL HOURS, see Breviary. 

CANON OF SCRIPTURE, see Bible. 

CANONISATION, of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted by pope Leo III., 
800. Tallent. Every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. The first canonisation was 
of St. Udalricus, Ulric, in 993. Htnault. On 8 June, 1862, the pope canonised 27 Japanese, 
who had been put to death on 5 Feb. 1597, near Nagasaki, and 25 others on 29 June, 1867. 

CANONS, Apostolical, ascribed by Bellarmin and Baronius to the Apostles ; by others 
to St. Clement, are certainly a forgery of much later date (since 325). The Greek church 
allows 85, the Latin 50 of them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promulgated 380. 
Usher. Canon law of the church was introduced into Europe by Gratian about 1140, and 
into England in 11 54. Stow ; see Decretals. The present Canons and Constitutions of 
the Church of England, collected from former ordinances, were established in 1603 by the 
clergy in convocation, and ratified by king James I., 1604.— An intermediate class of religious, 
between priests and monks, in the 8th century, were termed canons, as living by a rule. 

CANOPUS, see Alexandria. 

CANOSSA, a castle in Modena, celebrated on account of the degrading penance sub- 
mitted to by the emperor Heizry IV. of Germany, in deference to his greatest enemy, pope 
Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), then living at the castle, the residence of the great countess 
Matilda. Henry was exposed for several days to the inclemency of winter, Jan. 1077, till 
it pleased the pope to admit him, and grant absolution. Matilda greatly increased the 
temporal power of the papacy by bequeathing to it her large estates, to the injury of her 
second husband, Guelph, duke of Bavaria. 

CANTERBURY (Kent), the Durovcrnum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king 
of Kent, who reigned 560-616. He was converted to Christianity by Augustin, 596, upon 
whom he bestowed many favours, giving him land for an abbey and cathedral, which was 
dedicated to Christ, 602. + St. Martin's church was the first Saxon Christian church in 
Britain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, pi'oduced by a fanatic called Tom or Thom, 
who assumed the name of sir William Courtenay, occurred 31 May, 1838; see Thomites. 
The railway to London was completed in 1846. — The Ap^chbtshop is priuuite and metropo- 
litan of all England, and the first peer in the realm, having precedency of all ofiicers of state, 
and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, 

* His patent is dated 27 May, 1863. Mr. James Nasmyth had previously suggested the use of chilled 
iron. 

t The Cathedral was sacked by the Danes, ion, and burnt down 1067 ; rebuilt by Lanfrauc and Anselm, 
and the choir completed by the prior Conrad in 1130, and in which Becket was murdered, 1170, was burnt 
1174. It was rebuilt by William of Sens (1174-78), and by "English William," 117S-S4. A new nave was 
built and otiicr parts, 1378-1410. The great central tower was erected by prior Gold.stone ttbout 1495. The 
gorgeous shrine of Becket was stripped at the reformation, and his bones burnt. Here were interred 
Bdward the Black Prince, Henry IV., cardinal Pole, and otjaer distinguished persons. During the civil 
war, C omweU's dragoons used the cathedral as a stable. 



CAN 



147 



CAO 



1174-1104. 
1184-1190, 
1191. 



1193-1205. 



and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see has yielded to the Church of KoDie 18 
saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord 
treasurers. This see was made superior to York, 1073 ; see York. The revenue is valued 
in the king's books at 2816Z. 75. gd, Beatson. Present income, 15,000/. 

ArchbiKkops of Canterbitry. 
602-605. St. Augustine, or Aus- 
tin, died 26 May. 

St. Lawrence. 

St. MeDitus. 

Justus. 

St. HoDorius. 

Deusdedit (Adeodatiis). 

Theodoie of Tarsus. 

Berhtuald. 

Taetwine. 

Nothelna. 

Cuthbert. 

Breogwine. 

Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 

jEtbelheard. 

Wulfred. 

Fleogild. 

Ceolnoth. 

^thelred. 

Plegemund. 

JDtlielm. 

Wulfelm. 

Odo. 

St Dunstan, d. 19 May. 

.^thelgar. 

Sigeric. 
995-1006. jElfric. 

1006-1011. St. jElpliage, murdered 
by the Danes, 19 April. 
1013-1020. Lyfing, or ^ELfstun. 
1020-1038. -^Sthelnoth. 
1038-1050. St. Eadsige. 
1050-1052. Robert of Jumi^ges. 
1052-1070. Stigand : deprived. 
1070-1089. St. Lanfranc, d. 24May. 
1093-1 109. Anselm. 

[See vacant 5 years.] 
1114-1122. Radulphus de Turbine. 
1123-1136. William de Curbellio. 
1139-1161. Theobald. 



605-619. 
619-624. 
624-630. 

631-653- 

655-664. 

668-690. 

693-731. 

731-754- 

735-741- 

741-758. 

759-762. 

763-790. 

790-803. 

803-829. 

829. 

830-870. 

870-889. 

891-923. 

923 (?) 

928-941. 

941-958. 

959-9S8. 

988-989. 

990-995. 



1162-1170. Thomas Becket : mur- 
dered 29 Dee. 
[See vacant] 
Richard. 
Baldwin. 

Reginald Fitz-Joceline, 
died 26 Dec. 
rSee vacant.] 
Hubert Walter. [Regi- 
nald the sub-ijvior, and 
John Grey, bishop of 
Norwich, were succes- 
sively chosen, but set 
aside.] 
1206-1228. Stephen Langton, died 

6 July. 
1229-1231. Richard Weathershed. 
1233-1240. Edmund de Abingdon. 
1240-1270. Boniface of Savoy. 
1272-1278. Robert liilwarby (re- 
signed.) 
John Peckham. 
Robert Winchelsey. 
Walter Reynolds. 
Simon de Mepham. 
John Stratford. 
John de Ufford. 
Thomas Bradwardin. 
1349-1366. Simon Islip. 
1366-1368. Simon Langham (re- 
signed). 
1368-1374. Wm. Whittelsey. 
1375-1381. Simon Sudbury, be- 
headed by the rebels, 
14 June. 
1381-1396. William Courtenay. 
1397-1398. Thos. Pitzalan or Arun- 
del (attainted). 
1398. Roger Walden (ex- 

pelled) . 



1279-1292. 
1293-1313- 
I3I3-I327' 
I327-I333' 
1333-1348- 
1348- 1349- 
1349' 



1399-1414. Tho. Arundel frestd.). 
1414-1443. Henry Chicheley. 
1443-1452. John Stafford. 
1452-1454. John Kemp. 
1454-1486. Thomas Bouchier. 
1486-1500. John Morton. 
1501-1503. Henry Deane or Denny. 
1503-1532. Wm. Warham. 
1533-1556. Thos. Craumer (burnt 

21 March). 
1556-1558. Reginald Pole,d. 17 Nov. 
1559-1575. Matt. Parker, d. 17 May. 
1576-1583. Edm, Grindal, d. 6 July. 
15S3-1604. John Whitgift,d.29 Feb. 
1604-1610. Rd. Bancroft, d. 2 Nov. 
1611-1633. Geo. Abbot, d. 4 Aug. 
1633-1645. Wm. Laud (beheaded, 

10 Jan.) 
[See vacant 16 years.] 
1660-1663. Wm. Juxou, d. 4 June. 
1663-1677. Gilb. Sheldon, d. 9 Nov. 
1678-1691. Wm. Sancroft (deprived 

I Feb ), d. 24 Nov. 1693. 
1691-1694. JohnTillotson,d.22 Nov. 
1695-1715. Thos. Tenison, d.i4Dec. 
1715-1737. Wm. Wake, d. 24 Jan. 
1 737-1 747. John Potter, d. 10 Oct. 
1747-1757. Thos. Herring, d. 13 Mar. 
1757-1758. Matt. Hutton, d. 19 Mar. 
1758-1763. Thos. Seeker, d. 3 Aug. 
1768-1783. Fred. Cornwallis, died 

19 Mar. 
1 783-1 805. John Moore, d. 18 Jan. 
1805-1828. Chas. Manners Sutton, 

died 21 July. 
1828-1848. Wm. Howley, d. 11 Feb. 
1848-1862. John Bird Sumner, died 

6 Sept. 
1862. Chas.Thos. Longley, present 



CANTERBURY (New Zealand), a Church of England settlement founded in 1850. 

CANTERBURY TALES, by Geoffrey Chaucer, were written about 1364 ; and first 
printed about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton). 

CANTHARIDES, venomous green beetles (called Spanish flies), are used to raise blisters. 
This nse is ascribed to Aretseus of Cappadocia, about 50 B.C. 

CANTON, the only city in China with which Europeans were allowed to trade, till the 
treaty of 29 Aug. 1842. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of England 
surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Merchants arrived here in 151 7. English 
factory established, 1680. A fire destroying 15,000 houses, 1822. An inundation swept 
away 10,000 houses and 1000 persons, Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British in 1857 ; 
restored, 1861 ; see China 1835, 1839, 1856, 1861. Population estimated at 1,000,000. 

CANTOR LECTURES, courses given annually at the rooms of the Society of Arts. The 
expenses are defrayed by a legacy from Dr. Theodore Edward Cantor, of the Indian civil 
service ; who died about 1859. The lectures began 7 Dec. 1863. 

CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patricians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed 
at Rome 445 B.C. 

CAOUTCHOUC or India Rubber, an elastic resinous substance that exudes by inci- 
sions from several trees that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, the Hoevia caoutchouc 
and Siphonia elastica (vulgarly called syringe trees). It was first brought to Europe from 
South America, about 1 730. 



In 1770, Dr. Priestley said that he had seen "a 
substance excellently adapted to the pui-pose 
of wiping from paper the marks of a black 
lead pencil." It was sold at the rate of 3s. 
the cubic half-inch. 

India rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal 
and patented 1791 



Vulcanised rubber foi-med by combining India 
rubber with sulphur, which process removes 
the susceptibility of the rubber to change 
under atmospheric temperatures, was pa- 
tented in America, by Mr. G. Goodyear . . 

Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm 
of Mackintosh & Co.), and patented . 
L 2 



1843 



CAO 148 CAP 

CAOUTCHOUC, continued. 

Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber i was patented in England, on behalf of the 
(termed Ebonite) as a substitute for horn inventor, Mr. Henry Lee Norris, of New 

and tortoise-shell, for combs, paper-knives, | York _ . 1853 

veneer, walking-sticks, &c. . . . . 1849 : Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 

A mode of retaining India rubber in its natural 1856, 28,765 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 cwts. ; in 

fluid state (by applying to it liquid ammonia) I 1866, 72,176 cwts. 

CAPE BRETON, a large island, "W. coast of N. America, said to have been discovered 
by Cabot, 1497 ; by the English in 1584 ; taken by the French in 1632, but was afterwards 
restored; and again taken in 1745, and re-taken in 1748. The fortress Lonisburg was 
captured by the English, 26 July, 1758, when the garrison were made prisoners, and eleven 
French ships were captured or destroyed. The island was ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763. 

CAPE-COAST CASTLE (S. W. Africa). Settled by the Portuguese in 1610; but it 
soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes in 1661. All the British 
factories and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter, in 
1665. It was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667 ; see Ashantees, 

CAPE DE VEEDE ISLANDS (N. Atlantic Ocean), belonging to Portugal, were known 
to the ancients as Gorgades ; but not to the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a 
Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460. 

CAPE FINISTERRE (S. W. Spain). Off this cape admirals lord Anson and Warren 
defeated and captured a French fleet under De la Jonquiere, 3 May, 1747. 

CAPEL COURT, see under Stocks. 

CAPE LA HOGUE, see La Eogue. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on the S.W. point of Africa, called "Cabo^ 
Tormentoso" (the stormy cape), the "Lion of the Sea," and the "Head of Africa," dis- 
covered by Bartholomew de Diaz in i486. Its present name was given by John II. of 
Portugal, who augured favourably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the 
extremity of Africa. Population in 1856, 267,096 ; in 1865, 470,995. 



The cape was doubled, and the passage to 

India discovered by Vasco de Gama, 20 Nov. 1497 
Cape Town, the capital, planted by the Dutch, 1651 
Colony taken by the English under admiral 
Elphinstone and general Clarke . . Sept. 1795 

Eestored at the peace in 1802 

Taken by sir D . Baird and sir H. Popham, 9 Jan. 1806 
Finally ceded to England . . . Aug. 1814 
British emigrants arrive in . . March, 1820 

The Kaffres make irruptions on the British set- 
tlements, and ravage Grahamstown ; see 

Kaffraria Oct. 1834 

Bishopric of Cape Town founded . . . 1847 
The inhabitants successfully resist the attempt 

to make the cape a penal colony . 19 May, 1849 
The constitution granted to the colony promul- 
gated and joyfully received on . i July, 1853 



General Prastorius, the chief of the Trans-Vaal 

repubUc, died in Aug. 1853 

The British having given up its jurisdiction 
over the Orange river territory, a free state 
was formed ; see Oranc/e rivtr . 29 March, 1854 
The first parliament meets at Cape Town, i July, „ 
The Kaffres were much excited by a prophet 
named Umhla-kaza. By the exertions of sir 
George Grey, the governor, tranquilUty was 

maintained Aug. 1856 

The cape visited by Prince Alfred in . July, i860 
The first railway from Cape Town, about 58 

miles long, opened . . . about Dec. „ 
Governor, sir Philip E. "Wodehouso . . . 1861 
Disputes between bishops of Cape Town and 

Natal ; see Church of England . . 1863-5 

Cape Town visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 

17 Aug. 1867 



CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. AV". Portugal). Sir George Rooke, with twenty-three ships of 
war, and the Turkey fleet, was attacked by Tourville, with 160 ships, off Cape St. Vincent, 
when twelve English and Dutch men of war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or 
destroyed by the French, 16 June, 1693. — Sir John Jervis, with the Mediterranean fleet of 
flfteen sail, defeated the Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off this cape, taking 
foiu- ships and destroying others, 14 Feb. 1797. For this victory sir John was raised to the 
peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was engaged iu this battle. 

CAPETIANS, the third race of the kings of France, named from Hugo Capet, count of 
Paris and Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of Louis V., called the Indolent, 987. 
HenaioU. The first line of the house of Capet expired with Charles IV., in 1328, when 
Philij) VI. of Valois ascended the throne ; see France. 

CAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) 
is said to have been first observed by Niccolo Aggiuuti of Pasa, 1600-35. The theory has 
been examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. T. Young's theory was put forth in 
1805, and Mr. Wertheim's researches in 1857. 

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, see Death. CAPITATION TAX, see Poll-tax. 

CAPITOL, said to have been so called from a human head (cajxut) found when digging 
the foundations of the fortress of Rome, on Mons Tarpeius, on which a temple was built to 
Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation was laid by Tarquinius Priscus, 616 B.C. ; the building 
was continued by Servius Tullius ; completed by Tarquinius Superbus, but not dedicated till 



CAP 149 CAR 

507 B.C. by the Consul Horatius. It was burnt during the civil wars, 83 B.C., rebuilt by 
S}'lla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 69 B.C. The Eoman consuls made large 
donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed on it 2000 pounds weight of 
gold, of which metal the roof was composed : its thresholds were of brass, and its interior 
was decorated with shields of solid silver. It was destroyed by lightning 188 B.C. ; by fire, 
A.D. 70, and rebuilt by Domitian. The Ccqntolinc games, instituted 387 B.C. to comme- 
morate tlie deliverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian, A.B. 86. The Campi- 
doglio contains palaces of the senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by Michael Angelo 
soon after 1546. 

CAPITULARIES, the laws of the Prankish kiugs, commencing with Charlemagne (801), 
Collections have been published by Baluze (1677) and others. 

CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history is involved in obscurity. 

Phamaces said to have founded the kingdom B.C. 744 | Roman senate declares the country free, and 

Cappadocia conquered by I'erdiccas, regent of 1 appoints Aiiobarzanes I. king . .B.C. 93 

Macedon; the kmg, Ariarathes I., aged 82, | He is several times expelled by Mithridates, 

crucified 322 <fec. , b\it restored by the Romans ; dies _ . 64 

Recovers its independence 315 AriobMrzanes II. supports Pompey, and is slain 

Conquered by Mithridates of Pontus . . 291 by Crassus 42 

Held by Seleucus Nioator 280 ; Ariarathes VII. deposed by Antony ... 36 

Ariarathes v., Philopator, reigns, 162; dethroned i Archelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 B.C.; 

by Holophernes, 130, but restored by the 1 but accused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome 

Romans, 158 ; killed with Crassus in the war ! and dies there, oppressed with age and infir- 

against Aristonicus 130 1 mities _ . a.d. 17 

His queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons ; ! Cappadocia becomes a Roman province . . 15 

the sixth (Ariarathes VI.) is saved; she is Invaded by the Huns 515 

put to death ,, i And by the Saracens 717 

Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eu- 1 Recovered by the emperor Basil I. . . . 876 • 

pator; who sets up various pretenders. The I Conquered by Soliman 1074 

I Annexed to Turkish Empire .... 1360 

CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer Ulric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict 
between the catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 153 1. 

CAPRI (Caprese), an island near Naples, the sumptuous residence of Augustus, and par- 
ticularly of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he committed during the seven last 
years of his life, 27-37. Capri was taken by sir Sydney Smith, 22 April, 1806. 

CAPS AND HATS.* About 1738, Sweden was much distracted by two factious thus 
named, the former in the interest of the Russians, and the latter in that of the French. 
They were broken up and the names prohibited by Gustavus III. in 1771, who desired to 
exclude foreign influence. His assassination by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 1792, set aside all 
his plans for the improvement of Sweden. 

CAPSTAN, used to work ships' anchors, is said to have been invented, but more pro- 
bably was only improved by sir Samuel Morland, who died 30 Dec. 1695. 

CAPUA (Naples), capital of Campania, took the part of Hannibal when his army 
wintered here after the battle of Cannje, 216 B.C., and it is said became enervated througli 
luxury. In 211, when the Romans retook the city, they scourged and beheaded all the 
surviving senators ; the others had poisoned themselves after a banquet previous to the sur- 
render of the city. Only two persons escaped punishment, a woman who had prayed for 
the success of the Romans, and another who succoured some prisoners. During the middle 
ages Capua was successively subjugated by the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. 
It was restored to Naples in A.D. 1424, and was taken 2 Nov. i860, by Garibaldi. 

CAPUCHIN FRIARS, Franciscans, so named from wearing a Capuchon, or cowl hang- 
ing down upon their backs. The Capuchins were founded by Mattliew Baschi, about 1525. 

CAR. Tire invention is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, about i486 B.C. Covered 
cars (currus arcuati) were used by the Romans. The lectica (a soft cushioned car), next 
invented, gave place to the caiyenium, a two-wheeled car, witli an arched covering, hung 
with costly cloth. Still later were the carruccc, in which the officers of state rode. Tri- 
umphal cars, introduced hj Tarquin the Eldci', were formed like a throne. 

CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus 1498, It was 
reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, German merchants, by Charles 
Y, ; but for their tyranny, they were di.spossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. 

* None allowed to sell any hat for above zod. nor cap for above 2s. Sd., $ Henry VII. 1489. It was 
enacted in 1571 that every person above seven years of age should wear on Sundays and holidays, a cap of 
wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in England by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture 
of three farthings for every day's neglect, 1571. Excepted: maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and every 
lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of land, and their heirs, and such as had borne office of 
worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens of London companies. 



CAR 150 CAR 

The province declared its independence, 9 May, 1810. In the city Leon de Caracas, on 
26 March, 1812, nearly 12,000 persons perished by an earthquake ; see Ve7ieziiela. 

CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here on Jnne 15, 1567, lord Hume and the con- 
federate bai'ons dispersed the royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary queen of Scots 
prisoner. Bothwell fled. 

CARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained by the distillation of pit-coal, is a powerful 
antiseptic. It is largely manufactured for medical purposes, and has been advantageously 
tised at Carlisle and Exeter in the deodorisation of sewage (1860-I) ; and as a disinfectant 
during the prevalence of cholera in London in 1866. 

CARBON was shown to be a distinct element by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the 
diamond to be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic acid gas by combustion, 

CARBONARI (charcoal-burners), a powerful secret society in Italy, which derived its 
origin, according to some, from the Waldenses, and which became prominent early in the 
present century. It aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and the establishment 
of civil and religious liberty. In March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the society, 
and an insurrection soon after broke out in Naples, general P^p^ taking the command. The 
king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the allied sovereigns at Laybach assisted 
Ferdinand to suppress the liberal party, Jan. 1821, and the Carbonari were denounced as 
traitors. The society spread in France, and doubtless hastened the fall of the Bourbons in 
1830 and 1848. It has been frequently confounded with freemasonry. 

CARBONIC ACID GAS, a compound of carbon and oxygen, found in the air, and a 
product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. The Grotto del Cane yields 200, 000 lbs. 
per annum. No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of champagne, beer, &c., is 
due to its presence. It was liquefied by atmospheric pressure by Faraday in 1823. On exposing 
the liquid to the air it becomes solid, resembling snow. 

CARDIFF CASTLE (S. Wales). Here Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William 
I., is said to have been imprisoned from 1106 till his death, 1135. 

CARDINALS, ecclesiastical princes in the church of Rome, the council of the pope, and 
the conclave or sacred college, at first were the principal priests or incumbents of the 
parishes in Rome, and said to have been called cardinalcs in 853. They began to assume 
the exclusive power of electing the popes about 1 181. They first wore the red hat to remind 
them that they ought to shed their blood for religion, if required, and were declared princes 
of the church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. In 1586 Sixtiis V. fixed their number at 70 ; 
but there are generally vacancies. In i860 there were 69 cardinals ; in 1864, 59 ; in Nov. 
1867, 52. Nine cardinals (one a Bonaparte) were made, 13 March, 1868. Paul II. gave the 
scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1623 or 1630.* Ducange. 

CARDROSS CASE, see Trials, 1861. 

CARDS (referred to the Chinese, Hindoos, and Romans), are said to have been invented 
in France in 1391, to amuse Charles IV. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder. 
Piquet and all the early names are French. — Cards first taxed in England 1710. 428,000 
packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2S. 6d. 
per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced 
to IS., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs in the year 
ending 5 Jan. 1840 ; and on near 300,000, year ending 5 Jan. 1850. By an act xjassed in 
1862 tiie duty on cards was reduced to 3d per pack, and the sellers were required to take 
out a licence. 

CARIA, Asia Minor, was conquered by Cyrus, 546 B.C. ; hj Dercyllidas, a Lacedsemo- 
nian, 397 ; his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C. ; for his son Mausolus the 
Mausoleimn was erected {which sea). Caria was absorbed into the Turkish empire. 

CARIBBEE ISLANDS, see West Indies. 

CARICATURES. Bufalmaco, an Italian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put 
labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. The modern caricatirres of Gilray, Row- 
landson, H. B. (John Doyle ™=H3), Richard Doyle, John Leech, and John Tenniel are 
justly celebrated. The well-known ' ' Punch " was first published in 1841. The most eminent 
writers of fiction of the day and others (Douglas Jerrpld, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. 
Forbes, &c.) have contributed to this amusing periodical. 

CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, was annexed to the territories of the duke of Austria, 
1336. 

CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), said to have been a British and Roman 

* English Cardinal!^: Henry Stuart, created 1747 ; Charles Erskine, 1801 ; Thomas Weld, 1830; Charles 
Acton, 1839; Nicholas Wiseman, 30 Sept. 1850 ; Henry Manning, 1865. 



CAR 



]51 



CAR 



fortress, was taken 530, by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the "West Saxons. Its 
Norman character has been ascribed to William Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford in William 
I.'s time. Here Charles I. was imprisoned in 1647. Here died his daughter Elizabeth, 
aged fifteen, too probably of a broken heart, Sept. 8, 1650. 

CARIZMIANS (fierce shepherds living near the] Caspian), having been expelled by the 
Tartars, invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus 
were insufficient to stem the torrent, and the Cliristian military orders were nearly 
exterminated in a single battle, in 1244. In Oct. they took Jerusalem. They were totally 
defeated in 1247. 

CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), taken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of 
a contemporary poem published, with illustrations, by sir Harris Nicolas in 1828. 

CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of England, wherein for many ages a strong 
garrison was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' wall began, which crossed the 
whole island to JSTewcustle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. Of 
the great church, called St. Mary's, a large part was built by David, king of Scotland, who 
held Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Northumberland, from the crown of England. The 
castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 1092 by William 11., was the prison of 
Mary queen of Scots in 1568. — Taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645, and by the young 
Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745 : retaken by the duke of Cumberland, 30 Dec. same year. — The see 
was erected by Henry 1. in 1132, and made sulfragan to York. The cathedral had been 
founded a short time previously, by Walter, deputy in these parts for William Rufus. It 
was almost ruined by Cromwell, 1648, and has never recovered its former beauty, although, 
repaired after the Restoi-ation. It has been lately renovated at a cost of 15,000/., and was 
reopened in 1856. The see has been held by one lord chancellor and two lord treasurers ; it 
is valued in the king's books at 530/. 4s. iid. per annum. Present income 4500/. 

BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 1856. Hon. H. Moutagu Villiers, trans, to Durham 
1791. Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1S07. May, i860. 

180S. Samuel Goodeuoug-h, died 12 Aug. 1827. 1S60. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave (present bishop). 
1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 

CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION, see Halifax. 

CARLISTS, see Spain, 1830. 

CARLO VINGIANS, the second dynasty of the French kings, 752-987. Charles Martel 
(715-741) and Pepin, his son (741-752), were mayors of the palace. The latter became king 
752 ; see France. 

CARLO W (S. E. Ireland). The castle, erected by king John, surrendered after a desperate 
siege to Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577 ; again to the parliamentary forces, in 1650. Here the 
royal troops routed the insurgents, Alay, 1798. 

CARLSBAD (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, the celebrated springs, said to have been 
discovered by the emperor Charles IV. in 1370. — On i Aug. 1819, a congress was held here, 
when the great powers decreed measures to repress the liberal press, &c. 

CARLSRUHE, capital of Baden, built by the margrave Charles William, 1 715. A 
revolution here was suppressed by Prussian aid, and the grandduke returned 18 Aug. 1849. 

CARLTON CLUB, Pall Mall (Conservative), established by the duke of Wellington and 
others, 183 1-2. 

CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and dance, popular in France during the reign of 
terror, 1793-4. The chorus was " Dansons la Carmagnole : vive le son du canon ! " 

CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Carmath, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title 
of "the guide, the director," &c., including that of the representative of Mahomet, St. 
John the Baptist, and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued Balu'ein in 900, and overran 
the east. Dissensions arose amongst themselves, and their power soon passed away. 

CARMELITES or White Friars, of Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendicants 
with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 1156, and settled in France in 1252. HenaiiU. 
Their rules were moderated "about 1540. They claimed descent from Elijah. They had 
numerous monasteries in England, and a precinct in Loudon without the Temple, west of 
Blackfriars, is called Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their order, founded 
there in 1245. 

CARNATIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, extending along the whole coast of Coro- 
mandel. Hj^der Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, in 1780, and was defeated by 
the British under sir Eyre Coote, i July, and 27 Aug. 1781 ; and decisively overthrown, 
2 June, 1782. The Carnatic was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British have possessed 
entire authority over the Carnatic since 1801; see India. 



■ CAR 152 . CAR 

CARNATION, so called from the original species Tjeing of a flesh colour (carnis, of 
flesh). Several varieties were first planted in England by the Flemings, about 1567. Stow. 

CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (instituted 
about 675 B.C. in honour of Apollo, siirnamed Carneus), lasted nine days. 

CARNIVAL {Carni vcclo, Italian, i.e. Flesh farewell /), a festival time in Italy, particularly 
at Venice, about Shrove-tide, or beginning of Lent. 

CAROLINA (N. America). Said to have been discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or 
by De Leon in 15 12. Raleigh formed a settlement at Roanoke in June, 1585, which was 
broken up in 1586. About 850 English settled here about 1660 ; and Carolina was granted 
to lord Clarendon and others in 1663. The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor 
Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. A constitution drawn up by John Locke was 
abandoned. The province was divided into North and South in 1729 ; see America. The 
Carolinas were slave states. Great excitement x^revailed in them in Nov. i860, on account 
of Mr. Abraham Lincoln's election to the presidency of the United States, he being strongly 
opposed to slaveiy. South Carolina began the secession frDm the United States, 20 Dec. 
i860: North Carolina followed, 21 May, 1861 ; see United States, 1861-5. 

CAROLINE ISLANDS were discovered by the Spaniards in the reign of Charles II. 1686. 
. CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is said, first brought to these countries about 
1525. Walton. It is mentioned by lady Juliana Berners in 1496. 

CARPETS are of ancient use in the East. The manufacture of woollen carpets was 
introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. 
Some artisans who had quitted France in disgust established the English carpet manufac- 
ture, about 1750. A cork-carpet company was formed in 1862. x 

CARPI (N. Italy). Here prince Eugene and the Imperialists defeated the French, 9 July,' 
1701. 

CARRACK or Kakrack (Italian, Caracca), a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa 
Anna, the property of the knights of St. John, of about 1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was 
built at Nice about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and aided Charles V. in taking 
Tunis in 1535. It contained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. 

CARRIAGES. Erich thonius of Athens is said to have produced the first chariot about 
i486 B.C. Rude carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. a.d. 1547 ; in 
England in 1555 ; Henry IV. of France had one without straps or springs. Thej' were made 
in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and then called whirlicotes. The duke of Bucking- 
ham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. 
Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre : hence the name, fiacre ; 
see Car, Cabriolets, and Coaches. 

CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its castle is supposed to have been built by 
Hugh de Lacy in 11 78. The. town surrendered to the duke of Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. 
The castle, surrendered to the French admiral Thurot, 1760 ; see Thurot. 

CARRON IRON-WORKS, on the banks of the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 
1760. The works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. Here since 1776 have been made the 
pieces of ordnance called carronades. 

CARROTS and other edible roots were imported from Holland and Flanders, about 1540. 

CARTES DE VISITS. The small photographic portraits thus termed are said to have 
been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier,'in 1857. The duke of Parma had his portrait placed 
upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon followed in Paris and London. 

CARTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated by Rene des Cartes, the French philosopher, 
in 1637. His metaphysical pi'inciple is, "I think, therefore I am ; " hisph)'sical principle, 
"Nothing exists but substance." He accounts for all physical phenomena on his theory of 
vortices, motions excited by God, the source of all motion. He was born 1596, and died at 
Stockholm, the guest of queen Christina, in 1650. 

CARTHAGE (N. coast of Africa, near Tunis), founded by Dido or Elissa, sister of 
Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 878 B.C., (869, Blair; 826, Niehuhr). She fled from that tyi-ant, 
who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage became a great com- 
mercial and warlike republic, and disputed the emjiire of the world with Rome, which 
occasioned the Punic wars. The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless people, 
hence the term Punic faith. Cato the censor (about 146 B.C.) ended his speeches in the 
senate with Cathago delencla! " Carthage must be destroyed ! " Many councils held here, 
A.D. 200-535. 

They enlarge their territories . . B.C. 410 



First alliance of Carthaginians and Romans B.C. 509 
The Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera 
by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes . . 480 



They send 300,000 men into Sicily . . . . 407 
Tcxke Agvigentuna 406 



OAK 



153 



CAS 



Trcbia, 218; at the lake Thrasymenus, 217 ;b.c. 

and at Cannaj (ichich see) . . .2 Aug. 216 
Publius Scijaio carries war into Spain and takes 

New Carthage 210 

Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, arrives with 

an army, and is defeated and slain at the 

Metaiirus 207 

Carthaginians expelled Spain by Scipio . _ . ro6 
Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica 204 

Hannibal recalled from Italy 203 

Hannibal totally defeated at Zama (which see) . 202 

I'jUd of the second Punic war 201 

The third Punic war : Scipio invades Africa 
Carthage taken and burned, by order of the 

Senate 

Colony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus . . 
Its rebuilding planned by Julius Caisar 

And executed by his successors. 
An important Christian bishoiDric . . a.u. 215 
Cyprian holds a council here . . . .252 
Taken by Genseric the Vandal . . . . 439 

Retaken by Belisarius 533 

Taken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic 

governor of Egj'pt 698 

Carthaginian antiquities brought to the British 

Museum 1861 



149 

146 
122 
46 



CARTHAGE, continued. 

The siege of Syracuse .... B.C. 396 
The Carthaginians land in Italy .... 379 
Their defeat by Timoleon at the Crimesus . .339 
Defeated by Agathocles, they immolate their 

children on the altar to Saturn . . .310 

I'hQ first Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) . . 264 
The Cai-th:iginians defeated by the Roman con- 
sul Duilius in a navaJ engagement . . . 260 

Xantippus defeats Regulus 255 

Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus . 251 

Regulus put to death 250 

Romans defeated before Lilybaeum . . . 250 

The great Hannibal born 247 

Knd of first Punic war; Sicily lost by Carthage 241 
War between the Carthaginians and African 

mercenaries 241 

Hamiloar Barcas is sent into Spain : he takes 

with him his son, the famous Hannibal, at 

the age of nine years, having first made him 

swear an eternal enmity to the Romans . . 237 
Hasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) . 229 

Hasdrubal is assassinated 220 

Hamiibal conquers Spain, as far as the Iberus . 219 
The *ft'o)id Punic war begins (lasts 17 years) . 218 
Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy with 

100,000 men ....... 21S 

He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and 

CARTHAGEISrA, or Xew Cakthage (S.E. Spain), built by Hasdrabal, the Carthaginian 
.ircneral, 242 B.C. ; taken by Scipio, 210. The modern Carthagena was taken by a British 
foi'ce nnder sir John Leake in 1706 ; retaken by the duke of Berwick, 1707. — Cahthagena, 
ill Columbia, South America, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; pillaged by the 
French of i,200,oooZ. in 1697 ; bombaixled by admiral Vernon in March, 1740 ; and 
unsuccessfully besieged, April, 1741. 

CARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing from the l^enedictiues) founded by Bruno 
of Cologne, who retired with six companions from the world about loSo, to Chartreuse 
(tvhich sec), in the mountains of Dauphine. Their austere rules were formed by Basil VII., 
general of the order. Tiiey appeared in England about 1180, and a Carthusian monastery 
was founded by sir William Manny, 1371, on the site of the present Charter-house, London ; 
.see Charter-liouse. The Carthusian powder, of father Simon, at Charti'euse, was first com- 
pounded about 1715. 

CARTOONS. Those of Raphael (twenty-five in number) were designed (for tapestries) 
in the chambers of ttie Vatican under Julius II. and Leo X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven 
preserved were purcliased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton- 
court palace in 1629.* They were removed to South Kensington 28 April, 1865. — The 
tapestries executed at Arras from these designs are at Rome. They were twice carried away 
by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were restored in 1815. — The Cartoons for the British 
Houses of Parliament were exhibited in 1843. 

CARVING, see Sculptures. CASH-PAYMENTS, see Banh of England. 

CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuillinan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the 
reputed founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152, bishop Douat O'Danergan was 
invested with the pall ; see Pallium. Ca.shel was valued in the king's books, 29 Henry 
VIII. at 661. 13s. 4d Irish money. By the Church Temporalities act, 1833, it ceased to be 
archicpiscopal, and was joined to Waterford and Lismore. 

CASHMERE, in the Himalayas ; was subdued by the Mahometans in the i6th century ; 
by the Aifghans in 1752 ; by tlie Sikhs in 1819 ; and ceded to the British in 1846 ; who 
gave it to the Maharajah Gliolab Singh, with a nominal sovereignty. The true Cashmere 
.shawls were first brought to England in 1666 ; and are well imitated at Bradford and 
Huddersfield. Shawls of Thibetian wool, for the omrahs, cost 150 rupees each, about 1650, 

CASSANO (N. Italy). Site of an indecisive conflict between prince Eugene of Savoy 
and the French, 16 Aug. 1705. 

CASSATION, CouKT of, tlie highest com-t of appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 
1790, by the national assembly. 

CASSITERIDES ; see Scilhj Isles. 



* They represent — i, the Miraculous draught of Fishes ; 2, the Charge to Peter ; 3, Peter and John 
healing the Lame at the Gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ananias ; 5, Elymas the Sorcerer, struck 
with blindness ; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. 



CAS 154 CAT 

CASTEL FIDARDO, near Aiicona, Central Italj'. Near here general Lamorieiere and 
the papal army of ii,ooomen were totally defeated by the Sardinian general, Cialdini, i8 
Sept. i860. Lamorieiere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, then besieged. On 29 Sept. 
he and the garrison surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. 

CASTES, a distinct section of society in India. In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the 
Hindus are divided into the Brahmans, or sacerdotal class ; the Kshatrya or Chuttree, 
military class ; the Vaisya, or commercial class ; and the Sudras, or sooders, servile class. 

CASTIGLIONE (E". Italy). Here the French under Augereau defeated the Austrians, 
commanded by Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796. 

CASTILE (Central Spain). A Gothic government was established here about 800. — 
Ferdinand, count of Castile, became king, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Arragon, married 
Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed one monarchy, 1479 ; see Spain. 

CASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here on i Jan. i860, was fought the first decisive action 
in the war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, after a vigorous resistance, repulsed 
the Moors under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. 

CASTILLOIST, Guienne (S. France). Here the army of Henry VI. of England was de- 
feated by that of Charles YII. of France, and an end put to the English dominion in 
France, Calais alone remaining, 20 or 23 July, 1453. Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, was killed. 

CASTLEBAR (Ireland). French troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and assisted 
by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king s troops under Lake to retreat, 27 Aug. 1798 ; 
but were compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck. 

CASTLEPOLLARD (Ireland). At an affray at a fair here between some peasantry and a 
body of police, thirteen persons lost their lives, and many were wounded, 23 May, 1831. 
The latter escaped punishment. 

CASTLES. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon was a tower keep, either round or square, 
and ascended by a flight of steps in front. "William I. erected 48 strong castles. Several 
hundreds, built by X)ennission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, were demolished by 
Henry II. 11 54. Many were dismantled in the civil wars. 

CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the dead. The first Christians at Rojne met 
for worship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have been the tombs of the apostles 
Peter and Paul. Belzoni in 1815-18 explored many Egyptian catacombs, built 3000 years 
ago. He brought to England the sarcophagus of Psammetichus, formed of oriental 
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries), 
human remains from the cemetery of the Innocents were deposited in 1785 ; and many of 
the victinis of the revolution in 1792-4, are interred in them. 

CATALOiSriA (W. Spain), was settled by the Goths and Alani, about 409 ; conquered by 
the Saracens, 712 ; recovered by Pepin and Charlemagne. It formed part of the Spanish 
marches and the territory of the count of Barcelona {which sec). The natives were able 
seamen : being frequently unruly, their peculiar privileges were abolished in 17 14. 

CATALYTIC FORCE. The discovery in 1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of 
jieroxide of hydrogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in 1 825 of its property to ignite a 
mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the doctrine of Catalytic Force, 
also termed "action of contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and Mitscherlich. 
Their view has not been adopted by Liebig and other chemists. 

CATAMARAN'S (or carcases), fire-machines for destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir 
Sydney Smith, '2 Oct. 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined by Bonaparte to invade England. 

CATANIA (the ancient Catana), a town near Etna, Sicily, Avas founded by a colony 
from Chalcis, about 753 B.C. Ceres had a temple here, open to none but women. Catania 
was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669 and in 1693 was nearly 
swallowed up by an earthquake : in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were 
buried in the ruins. An earthquake did great damage, 22 Feb. 1817. In Aug. 1862, the 
towuAvas held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian government. He 
was captured on 29 Aug. 

CATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the second century, who followed the errors of Mon- 
tanus. Tliey are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden marriage, and mingled the 
bread and wine in the Lord's supper with the blood of young children. 

CATAPULTiE, military engines of the cross-bow kind, for throwing huge stones as well 
as darts and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syraciise, 399 B.C. 

CATEAU CAMBRESIS (N. France), where, on 2, 3 April, 1559, peace was concluded 
between Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of England. France ceded 
Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries to Philip. 



CAT 



155 



CAU 



CATECHISMS. The catechism of the church of England in the first book of Edward 
VI. 7 March, 1549, contained merely the baptismal vow, the creed, the ten commandments, 
and the Lord's prayer, with explanations ; but James I. ordered the bishops to enlarj^e it 
by adding an explication of the sacraments, 1612. The catecliism of the council of Trent 
was published in 1566 ; that of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster in. 1648. Luther's 
German catechisms appeared 1529. 

CATHARI (from the Greek hatharos, pure), a name given to the Novatians (about 251), 
Montanists, and other early Christian sects. 

CATHAY, an old name for China. 

CATHERINE. The order of knights of St. Catherine M-as instituted in Palestine 1063. 
An order of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was founded by Peter the Great, 1714, in 
honour of the bravery of his empress Catherine. They were to be distinguished, as the name 
implied (from katharos, pure), for purity of life and manners ; see Docks. 

CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso L 
of Spain, 739. Licenciado. The title was also given to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 
by Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for the Roman Catholic religion, and their 
establishment of the Inquisition in Spain. 

CATHOLICS, see Rovian Catlwlics. CAT ISLE, see Salvador. 

CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. L. Sergius Catiline, a Roman of noble family, having 
dissolutely squandered his fortune, and having been refused the consulship (65 B.C. ), con- 
spired with many of the aristocracy to kill the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome 
on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered and frustrated. A second plot (in 63), was 
detected by the consul Cicei'o, whom he had resolved to murder. Catiline's daring appear- 
ance in the senate-house, after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's celebrated invective, 
" Quousque tandem, Catilina ! " on 8 Nov. On seeing five of his accomplices arrested, 
Catiline lied to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished the 
conspirators at home, and Petreius routed Catiline's forces ; the conspirator was killed 
in the engagement, Jan. 62 B.C. 

CATO, Suicide of, at the "era destructive of the liberties of Rome." This Roman 
philosopher, considering freedom as that which alone "sustains the name and dignity of man, " 
unable to survive the independence of his country, stabbed himself at Utica, 46 B.C. 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY : a gang of desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistle- 
wood, assembled in Cato-street, Edgware-road, and proposed the assassination of the minis- 
ters of the crown, at a cabinet dinner, and the overthrow of the government. They were 
betrayed by one of their number, arrested 23 Feb. 1820, and Thistlewood, Brunt, Davidson, 
Ings, and Tidd, were executed as traitors, on i May. 

CATTI, a German tribe, attacked but not subdued by the Romans ; absorbed by the 
Franks, 3rd century. 

CATTLE. The importation of horned cattle from Ireland and Scotland into England 
was prohibited by a law, 1663 ; but the export of cattle from Ireland became very extensive. 
In 1842 the importation of cattle into England from foreign countries was subjected to a 
moderate duty, and in 1846 they were made duty free ; and since then tlie numbers im- 
ported have enormouslj' increased. Horned cattle imported into the United Kingdom 
1849, 53,480; 1853, 125,523; 1855 (war), 97,527; i860, 104,569; 1865, 283,271; 1866, 
237,739 ; see Smilhficld and Metropolitan Cattle-market. 

(in conformity witli the act of 1850), 23 Nov. 
and 16 Deo. 1865 ; and . . 20 Jan. 1866 

Disease still raging ; official roporh ; cattle at- 
tacked, 120,740; killed, 16,742; died, 73,750; 
recovered, 14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086, 

I Feb. „ 

Cattle disease acts passed, 20 Feb. and 10 Aug. „ 

Orders in council making uniform repre-sive 
measures thi'oughout tbe country 27 March, ,, 

The disease materally abates . . April, ,, 

Privy council return : cattle attacked, 248,965 ; 
killed, 80,597; died, 124,187; recovered, 
32,989 ; unaccounted for, 11,192 . 22 June, ,, 

The disease nearly "stamped out " — Times, 

27 Oct. „ 

Order in council directing that foreign cattle be 
landed only at certain parts (after 13 Nov.), 
thei-e to be subjected to quarantine 10 Nx)v. „ 

Cattle plague re-appears in Cheshire and Lan- 
cashire and Yorkshire . . . Dec. „ 



A severe cattle plague raged in England . 1745-56 

The privy council ordered diseased beasts to be 
shot, and their skins destroyed ; granting 
moderate compensation . . 12 March, 1746 

Great disease among foreign cattle ; excluded 
from this country by prohibitions April, 1857 

The cattle plague appears at Laycock's dairy, 
Bamsbury, London, N., and rapidly spreads, 
about 24 June, 1865 

A royal oommi.ssion to inquire into the causes 
of cattle plague and suggest remedies met 
first, 10 Oct. ; report of majority consider the 
disease to have been imported, and recom- 
mend slaughter of animals, and stringent pro- 
hibition of passage of cattle across public 
roads, <fec., 31 Oct. 1865; second report, Feb. 6 ; 
3rd report i Mny, 1866 

27,432 beasts had been attacked; 12,680 died ; 
8,998 slaughtered, up to . . .21 Oct. 

Orders in council for regulating the cattle trade 



1865 



CAT 156 CAY 



Re-appearance of the plague in various places, 

June, July, 1867 
No case reported to the privy council 3 Aug. ,, 



CATTLE, continued. 
Ee-appears at Barnsbury (see 24 June 1865), 

46 animals slaughtered . . . 2 Feb. 
Contagious diseases (animals) act amended and 

continued Aug. 

CAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the 
Euxine and Caspian seas. In Mytholog)', Prometheus was said to have been tied oh the top 
of Caucasus by Jupiter and continually devoured by vultures {1548 B.C.). The passes near 
the mountain were called Caucasioe Portcc, and it is supposed that through them the Sarma- 
tians or Huns invaded the provinces of Rome, A.D. 447 ; see Circassia. 

CAUCUS. An American term applied to a private meeting of the leading politicia.ns of 
a party to agree upon the plans to be putsued during an election or session of congress. 
This institution is now a very powerful antagonist to public opinion. The word is said to 
be derived from " ship "-caulkers' meetings. A "caucus club," is mentioned by John 
Adams, in 1763. Bartlett. 

CAUDINE FORKS, according to Livy, the Furculce Cmidincs (in Samnium, S. Italy), 
were two narrow defiles or gorges, united by a range of mountains on each side. The 
Romans went through the first pass, but found the second blocked up ; on returning they 
found the first similarly obstructed. Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the 
command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discretion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, 
according to Cicero). The Roman senate broke the treaty. 

CAULIFLOWER, said to have been brought from Cyprus to England about 1603. 

CAUSTIC IN Painting, a method of burning colours into wood or ivory, invented by 
Gausias of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting on the ground making garlands 
with flowers ; the picture was hence named Stephanuplocon. It was bought by Lucullus for 
two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny. 

CAUTIONARY TOWNS (Holland), (the Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), 
were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security for their repa3'ing her for assistance in 
their struggle with Spain. They were restored to the Dutch republic by James I. in 1616. 

CAVALIER. The appellation given to the supporters of the king during the civil war, 
from a number of gentlemen forming themselves into a body-guard for the king in 1641. 
They were opposed to the Roundheads, or friends of the parliament. Hiome. 

CAYALRY. The Romans were celebrated for the discipline and efficiency of their 
cavalry. Attached to each Roman legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turmse ; the com- 
mander always a veteran. — The Persians had 10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C. ; and 10,000 
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 B.C. Plutarch. In the wars with 
Napoleon I. the British cavalry reached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry force, in 1840, was, 
in household troops, 1209; dragoons, hussars and lancers, 9524; total, 10,733. ^^ 1^67, 
horse guards 131 7; cavalry of the line, 10,023 ; in depots, 838;in India, 5421 ; total 17,599 ; 
see Horse Guards, <tc. 

CAVENDISH EXPERIMENT. In 1798 the E[on. Henry Cavendish described his 
experiment for determining the mean density of the eartli, by comparing the force of terres- 
trial attraction with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of known magnitude and 
densitj^, by means of the torsion balance. Brande. The Cavendish Society, for the publica- 
tion of chemical works, was established 1846. 

CAWNPORE, a town in India, on the Doab, a peninsula between the Ganges and 
Jumma. During the mutiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by native troops under sir Hugh 
Wheeler. These broke out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa Bajee Rao, 
Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, came apparently to their 
assistance, b\it joined the rebels. He took the place after three weeks' siege, 26 June ; and 
in spite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the British, without respect to age or sex, in 
the most cruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana Sahib, 16 July, at Futtehpore, 
and retook Cawnpore, 17 July. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the rebels here on 6 Dec. 
following. A column was erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by their relatives of the 
32nd regiment. In Dec. i860. Nana was said to be living at Thibet ; and in Dec. 1861 
was incorrectly said to have been captured at Kurrachee ; see India, 1857. 

CAXTON SOCIETY, established for the publication of chronicles and literature of the 
Middle Ages, published sixteen volumes, 1844-54. 

CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), settled by the French 1604-35. It afterwards 
came successively into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were 
expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, 12 Jan. 1809, but was 



CEC 



157 



CEF 



restored to the French in 1814. Here is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne pepper. 
Many French political prisoners were sent here in 1848. 

CECILIAN SOCIETY, see under ilfwszc. 

CEDAR CREEK and MOUNTAIISr, Virginia, U.S. On 19 Oct. 1864, gen. Sheridan 
arrived here, and converted the defeat of the Federals by the Confederates under Longstreet 
into a complete victory. At Cedar Mountain gen. Stonewall Jackson defeated Banks, 
9 Aug. 1862. 

CEDAR TREE. The red cedar (Jimijjcrus Virginiana) came from North America 
before 1664 ; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 1683 ; the cedar of Lebanon {Pinus 
Cedrus) from the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of venerable cedars, about 40 feet 
high, remained on Lebanon. The cedar of Goa (Cupressus Lusitanica) was brought to 
Europe by the Portuguese about 1683 ; see Cypress. 

CELERY is said to have been iutroduced into England by the French marshal, Tallard, 
during his captivity in England, after his defeat at Blenheim by Marlborough in 1704. 

CELESTIAL GLOBE, see Globes. 

CELIBACY (from ccelcbs, unmarried), was preached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. 
His early converts lived in caves, &c., till monasteries were founded. The doctrine was 
rejected in the council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined to bishops only in 692. The 
decree was opposed in England, 958-978. The Romish clergy generally were compelled 
to a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory VII. in 1073-85. Its observance was finally esta- 
blished by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. The privilege of marriage was restored to 
the English clergy in 1547. The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but negatived at the 
council of Trent {1563). 

CELL THEORY (propounded by Schwann in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles 
of all animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some of the lowest forms of animal and 
vegetable life are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the germinal vesicle in the 
egg and the red-snow plant. 

CELTIBERI, see Numantine War. CELTS, a group of the Aryan family, see Gauls. 

CEMETERIES. The burying-places of the Jews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their 
towns (Matt, xxvii. 60). Public cemeteries resembling " Pere La Chaise "* at Paris, have 
been opened in all parts of the kingdom ; see Catacombs, Bunhill-fields. 



Nunhead cemetery, about 50 acres ; conse- 
crated 29 July, 18 

City of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery, 
30 acres ; consecrated 18 

London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, 
at Woking, SuiTcy, 2000 acr- s ; the company 
incorporated in July 1852 ; I'pened . Jan. 

City of London cemetery, llford ; opened 

24 June, 1856 



185s 



Kensal-green cemetery, 53 acres; consecrated 

2 Nov. 1832 

South Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery, 40 
acres ; consecrated .... 6 Dec. 1837 

Highgateand K'ntish-town cemetery, 22 acres ; 
opened and consecrated . . 20 May, 1839 

Abney Park cemetery. Stoke Newington, 30 
acres ; opeued by the lord mayor . 20 May, 1840 

Westminster, or West London cemetery, Ken- 
sington-road ; consecrated . . 15 June, 1840 

CENIS, Mount, see under Alps. 

CENSORS, Roman magistrates, who survey and rate the property, and correct the 
manners of the people. The two first censors were appointed 443 n.c. Plebeian censors 
were first appointed 131 B.C. The ofiice, abolished by the emperors, was revived by Decius, 
A.D. 251 ; see Press. 

CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by Moses, 1490 e.g. ; and by David, 1017 B.C. ; 
Demetrius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of Attica, 317 B.C. Servius Tullius 
enacted that a general estimate of every Roman's estate and personal effects, should be 
delivered to the government upon oath every five years, 566 B.C. In the United Kingdom 
the census is now taken at decennial periods, of which the latest were in 1801, 181 1, 1821, 
1831, 1841, 1851 and 1861 (7 April). For the latest census of other countries, see Table, 
facing page i. 

CENTRAL AMERICA, see America. A large American steamer of this name was 
wrecked during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sejit. 1857. Of about 550 persons only 152 
were saved ; several of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. The loss of about 
2\ million dollars in specie aggravated the commercial panic at New York shortly after. 
The captain and crew behaved heroicallJ^ 

CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, established in 1834. Commissions are issued to the 
fifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in rotation at the Old Bailey) for the 

* Pfere La Chaise was the favourite and confessor of Louis XIV., who made, him superior of a great 
establishment of the Jesuits on this ."pot, then named M^nt Louis. The house and grounds were bought 
for a national cemetery, which was laid out by M. Brongniart, and first used on 21 May, 1804. 



CEN 158 CHA 

periodical delivery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of offences of greater degree, com- 
mitted in Middlesex and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey ; the new district is considered 
as one county. 

CENTRAL HALL OF SCIENCES, see imdev Albert. 

CENTURION, the captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Roman legion 
which consisted of loo men, and was called a ceniuria. By the Roman census each hundred 
of the people was called a centuria, 556 B.C. 

CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the 
Koman church by Indictions, the first of which began 24 Sept., a.d. 312. The method of 
computing time by centuries commenced from the incarnation of Christ, and was adopted in 
chronological history first in France. Dupin. 

CEPHALONIA, one of the Ionian islands, was taken from the ^Etolians by the Romans, 
189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian, A.D. 135 ; see Ionian Isles. 

CEPHISUS, a river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was 
defeated and slain by the Catalans, 13 11. 

CERBERE, a French gun-brig, with a crew of 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbour 
of L' Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was captured in a most daring manner by 
lieut. Jeremiah Coghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by two boats, one of which 
was commanded by midshipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under a heavy but 
ineffectual fire from the batteries, 26 July, 1800. Nicolas. 

CEREMONIES, Master of the, an office instituted for the more honourable reception 
of ambassadors and persons of quality at court, i James I. 1603. The order maintained 
by the master of the ceremonies at Bath, " Beau Nash," the " King of Bath," led to tjie 
adoption of the office in ordinary assemblies : he died in his 88th year, 1761. AsJie. 

CERES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, i Jan. 
1801 ; he named it after the goddess highly esteemed by the ancient Sicilians. 

CERESUOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de Bourbon, count d'Enghien, defeated tlie 
imperialists under the marquis de Guasto, 14 April, 1544. 

CERIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards, 
defeated the due de Nemours and the French, 28 April, 1503. 

CERINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a Jew, who lived about a.d. 80, are said to have 
combined Judaism with pagan philosophy. 

CERIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by Klaproth and others in 1803. 
CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient 
Abyla, the soutliern pillar of Hercules. It Avas taken from the "Vandals by Belisarius for 
Justinian 534 ; by the Goths 618 ; by the Moors (about 709), from whom it was taken by 
the Portuguese 1415. With Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which power still 
retains it. 

CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), an island in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives 
the seat of paradise. It was invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505 ; but it was known 
to the Romans in the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602 ; they 
captured the capital, Colombo, in 1603. Frequent conflicts ensued between the Candians 
and the Europeans, and peaceful commercial relations were established only in 1664. Inter- 
course with the British began in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken by them 
in 1782, but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements w^ere seized by the British; 
Trincomalee, 26 Aug. 1795, and Jeffnapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to 
Great Britain by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously 
massacred or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, 26 June, 1803. The com- 
plete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. The bishopric of Colombo 
founded 1845. The governor, lord Torrington, was absolved from a charge of undue severity 
in suppressing a rebellion, May, 185 1. The prosperity of Ceylon gi'eatly increased under 
the administration of sir H. Ward, 1855-60. Sir J. E. Tennent's work, "Ceylon," appeared 
in 1859. Sir Hercules G. Robinson was appointed governor of Ceylon 7 March, 1865. 

CHiERONEA (Boeotia). Here Greece was ruined by Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians 
defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c., 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. Here Archelaus, lieutenant 
of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cai^padocians were slain, 86 B.C. ; see 
Coronea. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that 
at Kingtung, in China, Avhere it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to the 
top of another. Mr. Telford constructed the first chain-bridge on a grand scale in England, 
over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, 1818-25 ; see Menai Straits. 



CHA 159 CHA 

CHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, and Shot. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a 
people intimately connected with the Belga?. of Britain in the time of Caesar, 57 B.C. These 
cables came into use, generally in the navy of England, in 1812. An Act for the proving 
and sale of chain-cables and anchors was passed in 1864. — Chain-shot, to destroy the 
rigging of an enemy's ship, were invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, in 1666. — Chain- 
Pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

CHAINS, Hanging in. By 25 Geo. II. 1752, it was enacted that the judge should 
direct the bodies of pirates and murderers to be dissected and anatomised, or hung in chains. 
The custom of hanging in chains was abolished in 1834. 

CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonised by Megarians, about 684 B.C. 
It was taken by Darius, 505 B.C. ; by the Romans, 74 ; plundered by the Goths, a.d. 259 ; 
taken by Cliosroes, the Persian, 609 ; by Orchan, the Turk, 1338. Here was held the 
" Synod of the Oak, " 403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled the act of the 
" Eobber Synod," 8 Oct. 451. 

C HALO IS, see Euhcea. 

CHALD^^A, the ancient name of Bab3'lonia, but afterwards restricted to the S.W. portion. 
The Chaldseans were devoted to astronomy and astrology ; see Dan. ii. &c. — The Chald^ean 
Eegisters .of celestial observations, are said to have been commenced 2234 B.C., were 
brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (1903 years). These registers 
sent to Aristotle by Callisthenes.- — CHALDiEAN Chauacters : the Bible M'as transcribed from 
the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, b}' Ezra, about 445 B.C. 

CHALGPtOVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish here with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, 
John Hampden, of the parliament party, was mortally wounded. A column was erected to 
his memory 18 June, 1843. 

CHALONS-SUE-MARNE (N.E. France). Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, 
the last of the pretenders to the throne, termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 
Aetius defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannouia. 

CHAMBERLAIN, early a high court officer in France, Germany, and England. The office 
of chamberlain of the exchequer was discontinued in 1834. The chamberlain is also a civic 
officer, as in London, of ancient origin. 

Loud Great Chamberlain of England. — The i knight, who, if his majesty approved of him, might 
sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among j oiBciate accordingly. Beatson. The officfe is now 
others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. 1 held by the present lord Willoughby d'Eresby (1868). 
The office was long held by the De Veres, earls of Lord Chamberlain of the Household. — Au 
Oxford, granted by Henry I. in iioi. On the death 1 ancient office The title is from the French Cham- 



bellan, in Latin Camerarius. He has the oversight 
of the king's chaplains, the officers of the standing 
and removing wardrobes, beds, tents, revels, music, 
hunting, and of all the physicians, surgeons, apo- 
thecaries, messengers, tradesmen, and artisans re- 
tained in his majesty's service. Sir William Stanley, 
knt., afterwards beheaded, was lord chamberlain, 
I Henry VII. 1485. A vice-chamberlain acts in the 
absence of the chief; the offices are co-existent. 



of John De Vere, the sixteenth earl, Mary, his sole 

daughter, marrying lord Willoughby d'Bresby, the 

right was established in that nobleman's family by 

a judgment of the house of peei-s, 2 Charles I. 1625. 

On the death of his descendant, nnmarried, in July 

1779, the house of lords and twelve judges concurred 

that the office devolved to lady Willoughby d'Eresby, 

and her sister the lady Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as 

heirs to their brother Robert, duke of Ancaster, 

deceased ; and that they had powers to appoint a 1 BcaUon. 

deputy to act for them, not under the degree of a 1 

CHAMBERS, see Commerce,, Agriculture. 

CHAMBERS' JOURNAL was first published at Edinburgh in Feb. 1832. 

CHAMBRE ARDENTE (fiery chamber), an extraordinary French tribunal so named 
from the punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. in 1535, and Henry II. in 1549, 
employed it for the extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war with the Huguenots in 
1560 ; and in 1679- Louis XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning cases which arose 
after the execution of the marchioness Brinvilliers. 

CHAMBRE INTROUVABLE, a name given to the chamber of deputies elected in France 
in 181 5, on account of its ignorance, incapacity, and bigoted reactionary spirit. 

CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N.E. France, once part of the kingdom of Burgundy, 
was governed by counts from the lotli centmy till it was united to Navarre, count Thibaut 
becoming king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married Philip V. of France in 1284 ; and 
in 1 36 1 Champagne was annexed by their descendant king John. 

CHAMP DE MARS,* an open square in front of the Military School at Paris, with 
artificial embankments on each side, extending nearly to the river Seine. Here was held, 
14 July, 1790 (the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile), the "federation," or solemnity 

* The ancient assemblies of the Frankish people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in March, 
received this name. In 747, Pepin changed the month to May. 



CHA 



160 



CHA 



of sweariug fidelity to the "patriot iiing " and. new constitution : great rejoicings followed. 
On 14 July, 1 79 1, a second great meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to 
sign petitions on the " altar of the country," praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A 
commemoration meeting took place 14 July, 1792. Another constitution was sworn to here, 
imder the eye of Napoleon I., i May, 1815, at a ceremony called the Champ da Mai. The 
prince pr-esident (now JSTapoleon III.) had a grand review in the Champ de Mars, and 
distributed eagles to the army, 10 May, 1852. Here also was held the International 
Exhibition of 1867, opened i April. 

CHAMPIOlSr OF THE King of England, an ancient office, since 1377 has been attached 
to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by the Marmion family. Their descendant, sir Henry 
Dymoke, the seventeenth of his family who has held the office, died 28 April, 1865, and 
was succeeded by his brother John. At the coronation of the English kings, the champion 
used to challenge a.\\y one that should deny their title. 

CHAMPLAIlSr, see Lake Champlain. 

CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, Lord High, after the princes of the blood royal the 
first lay subject. Anciently the office was conferred upon some dignified ecclesiastic termed 
cancellarius, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the sovereign's presence. Arfastus or 
Herefast, chaplain to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of Elmham, was lord 
chancellor in 1067. Hardy. Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 11 54. The first 
person qualified by education, to decide causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas 
More, appointed in 1529, before which time the officer was rather a state functionary than a 
judge. Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on 
which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588. The great seal has been 
frequently put in commission ; in 18 13 the office of Vice- Chancellor was established ; see 
Keeper, and Vice- Chancellor. 



1487. 
1504. 
1515- 
1529. 

1532- 
1533- 

1544- 
IS47- 

1551- 
1552- 
1553- 
1556. 
1558. 
1579- 
1587. 
1591- 
1592. 
1596. 
1603. 
1617. 
1618. 
1621. 
1625. 



1640. 
1641. 

1643. 

1645. 
1646. 
1649. 
1653. 
1654. 
1660. 

1667. 
1672. 

1673. 
1675. 



LORD HIGH CHANCELLOES. 

Jolin Moreton, arclibishop of Canterbury. 

William Warham, aft. archbslip. of Canterbury. 

Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York. 

Sir Thiomas More. 

Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 

Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. Id. Andley. 

Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 

William, lord St. John, keeper. 

Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. 

Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 

The same ; now lord chancellor. 

Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 

Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 

Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 

Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 

Sir Christopher Hatton. 

The great seal in commission. 

Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 

Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. 

Sir T. Egerton, lord Ellesmere, chancellor. 

Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper. 

Sir Francis B;icon,cr. Id. Verulam, Id. chancellor. 

The great seal in commission. 

John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 

Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coven- 
try, lord keeper. 

Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. 

Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lyttel- 
ton, lord keeper. 

The great seal in the hands of commissioners. 

Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. 

In the hands of commissioners. 

In commission for the commonwealth. 

Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. 

In commission dui-ing the commonwealth. 

Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards 
created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. 

Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 

Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord 
chancellor. 

Sr Heneage Pinch, lord keeper. 

Heneage, now lord Pinch, lord chancellor, 
afterwards earl of Nottingham. 

Sir Francis North, cr. loi-d Guilford, Id. keeper. 

Francis, lord Guilford ; succeeded lay 

Geori^e, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 



1690. 



1693. 
1697. 
1700. 



1707 
1710. 

1713- 
1714. 
1718. 



1725- 

1733- 
1737- 
1756. 
1757- 

1 761. 

1766. 
1770. 



1778. 
1783. 



1792. 
1793- 



1827. 
1830. 



Sir John Trevor, knt. , sir William Rawlinson, 
knt., and sir George Hutchins, knt., commis- 
sioners or keepers. 

Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 

Sir John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. 

Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief 
justice C. P., and chief baron sir Edward 
Ward, lord keepers. 

Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 

Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
wards lord Cowper. 

William, lord Cowi^er, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 

Sir Simon Harcourt, cr. lord Harcourt, keeper. 

Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor. 

William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 

Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor ; after- 
wards earl of Macclesfield. 

In commission. 

Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. 

Charles Talbot, created lord Talbot, chancellor. 

Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 

Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, 
last lord keeper. 

Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl 
of Northington. 

Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 

Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. 
[Created lord Moi'dan ; died within three days, 
and before the seals were put to his patent of 
peerage.] 

In commission. 

Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded as 
earl Bathurst. 

Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow. 

Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, 
commissioners. 

Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 

In commission. 

Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughborough, 
lord chancellor. 

John Scott, lord Eldon. 

Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord Erskiue. 

John, lord Eldon, again. 

John Singleton Cojiley, created lord Lyndhurst, 

Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 



CHA 



161 



CHA 



CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, Lord High, continued. 



1834. Lord Lyndhurst, again. 

1835. Sir Cliarlos Cliristoplier Pepys, master of tlie 

rolls, vioe-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. 

justice Bosanquet, 0. P., commissioners. 
1S36. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord 

Cottenham, lord chancellor. 16 Jan. 
1S4T. Lord Lyudhm'st, a third time. 3 Sept. 
1846. Lord Cuttenham, again lord chancellor, 6 July. 
[His lordship on signifying his intention to 
• retire, ig June', 1850, was created earl of 

Cottenham.] 
1850. Lord Langdale, master of the rolls, sir Laun- 

celot Shadwell, vice-chancellor of England, 

and su- Robert Monsey Rolfe, B.B., commis- 

sionei's of the great seal, ig June. 

CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND, Lord High. The earliest nomination was by Ricliard L , 
1 1 89, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was 
known in Ireland in 1232, Geoftrey Tnrvillo, archdeacon of Dnbliu, being so named. The 
Chancery and Common Law Offices (Ireland) act was passed 20 Ang. 1867. 



1850 Sir ThoTnas "Wilde, lord Tniro. 15 July. 
1852! Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonards. 27 Feb. 
,, Bobt. Monsey Rolfc, lord Cranwortli. 28 Dec. 

1858. Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Chelmsford. 26 Feb. 

1859. John, lord Campbell, 18 June ; died 23 June, 

1861. 
1861. Richard Bethell, lord Westbury. 26 June. 
Resig-ned 4 July, 1865. 

1865. Thomas, lord Cranwortli, again. 6 July. 

Resigned Jiane, 1866. 

1866. P. Thesiger, lord Chelmsford, again. 6 July. 

Resigned Feb. 1868. 
1868. Hugh, lord Cairns. 29 Feb. 



Patent. 

1789. 20 Jmie. John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards 

earl of Clare ; died 28 Jan. 1802. 
1802. 15 March. John, baron Redesdale ; resigned 

Feb. 1806. 
1806. 25 Mar. George Ponsonby ; resigned Ap. 1807. 
1S07. May. Thomas, lord Manners, previously an 
■ English baron of the exchequer ; resigned 

Nov. 1827. 
1827. s Nov. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice- 
chancellor of England ; resigned Nov. 1S30. 
1830. 23 Dec. WiUiam, baron Plunket ; resigned 

Nov. 1834. 
1835. 13 Jan. Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden, 

resigned April, 1835. 
„ 30 April. William, baron Plunket, a second 

time ; resigned June, 1841. 
1841. June. John Campbell ; resigned Sept. 1841. 
„ Oct. Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. 

Leonards, a second time ; resigned July, 1846. 
1846. 16 July. Maziere Brady ; resigned Feb. 1S52. 

1852. March. Francis Blackburn ; resigTied Dec. 

1853. Jan. Maziere Brady, agam. 

1858. Feb. Joseph Napiei-. 

1859. June. Maziere Brady, again. 

1 865. July. Francis Blackburn ; resigd. March, 1867. 
1867. 24 March. Abraham Brewster. 



LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 

V Client. 

1690. 29 Dec. Sir Charles Porter. 

1697. 12 Jan. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, 

and Nehemiah DoneUan, lords keepers. 
,, II March. J. Methuen. 
,, 21 Dec. Edward, earl of Meath, Fr.incis, earl 

of Longford, and Mm-rough, viscount Bles- 

sington, lord keepers. 
1702. 26 Aug. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 
1705. 6 Aug. Sir Richd. Cox, bart. ; resigned in 1707. 
1707. Juno. Richard Freeman. 

1710. 28 Nov. Robert, earl of Kildare, archbishop 

(Hoadley) of Dublin, and Thomas Keightley, 
commissioners. 

1711. 22 Jan. Sir Constantino Phipps ; resig-ned 

Sept. 1714. 
1 714. II Oct. Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount 
Middleton ; resigned May, 1725. 

1725. June. Richard West. 

1726. 21 Dec. Tliomas Wyndham, afterwards lord 

"Wyndham of Finglas. 

1739. 7 Sept. Robert Jocel3m, afterwards lord New- 
port and visct. Jocelyn ; died 25 Oct. 1756. 

1757. 22 March. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes 
of Clonlyon ; died 1767. 

1768. 9 Jan. James Plewitt, afterwards viscount 
LifEord ; died 28 April, 17S9. 1 

' CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND, Lorb. The laws of Malcolm II. (1004) say :— " The 
chancellar sail at al tymes assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor the rest 
of the nobility. . . The chancellar sail be ludgit neir imto the kingis grace, for keiping 
of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and nicht, at the kingis 
command." Sir James Balfour. Evan was lord chancellor to Malcolm III., Canmore, 
1057 ; and James, earl of Seafield, afterwards Findlater, was the last lord chancellor of 
Scotland, the office having been abolished in 1708 ; see Keeper. 

CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER, see Exchequer. 

CHANCELLOR'S AUGMENTATION ACT, passed 1863, enabled the lord chancellor to 
sell the advowson of certain livings in his gift for augmenting poor benefices. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U.S., a large brick hotel, once kept by a Mr. 
Chancellor, was the site of severe sangiiinary conflicts between the American federal army of 
the Potomac under general Hooker, and the confederates under general Lee. On 28 April, 
1863, the federal army crossed the Rappahannock ; on 2 May, general "Stonewall " Jackson 
furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party 
firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on 3 
and 4 May, with great loss to both parties, the federals were compelled to recross the 
Rappahannock. The struggle was compared to that at Hougomont during the battle of 
"Waterloo. Jackson died 10 May. 

CHANCERY, Court of. Said to have been instituted either in 605, or by Alfred, 887 ; 
refounded by William I., 1067 (Stou-) or 1070. This court had its origin in the desire to 
render justice complete, and to moderate the rigour of other coiu'ts that are bound to the 
strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; 



CHA 



162 



CHA 



and to or against married women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, 
breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress at common law, are relievable 
here. Bladcdonc ; see Chancellors of England. The delays in chancery proceedings having 
long given dissatisfaction, the subject was brought before parliament in 1825, and frequently 
since ; which led to the passing of important acts in 1852, 1853, 1855, 1858, and 1867, to 
amend tlie practice in the court of chancery ; see Coionty Courts. 

CHANDOS CLAUSE, see Counties. 

CHANTING the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pagan ceremonies of the 
Eomaus, about 350. Lenglet. About 602, Gregory the Great added tones to the Ambrosian 
chant, and established singing schools. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters about 1859. 

CHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of the 
donors ; see Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England in 1545. 

CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of ease, the chapel royal, &c. Cowell. The 
gentlemen pensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who were instituted by the direc- 
tion of Henry VIII. in his testament, 1546-7) were called knights of the chapel ; see Poor 
Knights of Windsor. — The place of conference among printers, and the conference itself, are 
by them called a chapel, it is said because the first work printed in England by Caxtou was 
executed in a ruined chapel in Westminster-abbey. 

CHAPLAIN, a clergyman who performs divine service in a chapel, for a prince or 
nobleman. About seventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. The chief pei-sonages 
invested with the privilege of retaining chaplains are the following, with the number that 
was originally allotted to each rank, by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) : — 



Archbishop . 


. 8 


Earl 


• 5 


Knight of the Garter 


3 


Baroness 


Duke 


. . 6 


Viscount . 


• ■ 4 


Duchess 


. 2 


Master of the Rolls 


Bishop . 


. 6 


Baron . 


• 3 


Marchioness . 


2 


Almoner 


Marquess . 


• ■ 5 


Chancellor 


• 3 


Countess 


2 


Chief Justice . 



CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the Roman Catholics in reciting the Lord's 
prayer, Ave Maria, &c. ; see Beads. 

CHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist 
the former in performing holy offices and governing the church, until the reign of Henrj' VIII. 
The chapter is now an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or cathedral. Cowell. 
The chapter-house of Westminster-abbey was built in 1250. By consent of the abbot, the 
commoners of England held their parliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when Edward VI. 
granted them the chapel of St. Stephen. 

CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised by Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853. 
About the end of the last century Luwitz, a German chemist, discovered that charcoal 
(carbon) possessed the property of deodorising putrid substances, by absorbing effluvia and 
gases. Air-filters, based on this propert}'-, have been successfully applied to public build- 
ings, &c. Dr. Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. 

CHARING CROSS. At the village of Charing stood the last of the memorial crosses 
erected in memory of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in conformity with her will. She died 
28 Nov. 1390. The cross remained till the civil wars in the reign of Charles I., when it was 
destroyed as a monument of popish superstition. It was restored by the South Eastern 
Railway Company in 1865. The houses at Charing-cross were built about 1678 ; alteration 
began in 1829. The first stone of Charing-cross hospital was laid by the duke of Sussex, 15 
Sept. 1 83 1. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) was opened i May, 1S45 ; taken 
down July, 1862, and the materials employed in erecting Clifton suspension bridge, 
beginning March, 1863 ; see Clifton. — Charing-Cross Railway. The first train passed 
over it 2 Dec. 1863, and it was opened to the public on 11 Jan. 1864. The new railway 
bridge, built of iron with brick piers, was constructed by Mr. Hawkshaw. 

CHARIOTS. Chariot racing was a Greek exercise. The chariot of an Ethiopian officer 
is mentioned Acts viii. 27. Caesar relates that Cassibelaunus, after dismissing his other 
forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war-chariots about his person ; see Carriages, &c. 

CHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards for their recovery were constituted in 1764 
and 1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates of the established church), in 1825. The 
Roman Catholic Charitable Bequests act passed in 1844, and an act for the better adminis- 
tration of Charitable Trusts in 1853, when commissioners were appointed, who have from 
time to time published voluminous reports. The law relating to the conveyance of land for 
Charitable Uses was amended in i86r. 

CHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order founded by St. John of God, and approved by 
pope Pius V. 1572 ; introduced into France, 1601 ; settled at Paris, 1602. Ilenault. 



CHA 163 CHA 

CHARITIES AND Ohakity Schools are very numerous in this country. The Charity 
Commission reported to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain 
amounted to 1,500,000?. annually, in 1840. Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted in 
London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James 
II., 1687-8. Rapin ; see Education. Mr. Low's " Charities of London" (2ud edition) was 
published 1862. 

CHARLEROI, in Belgium. Several great battles have been fought near this town, 
especially in 1690 and 1794 ; see Fhunofi. Charleroi was besieged by the prince of Orange, 
1672, and 1677 ; but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked 
the Prussian line, making it fall back upon Wavres, 16 June, 1815. 

CHARLES ET GEORGES. Two French vessels of this name, professedly conveying 
free African emigrants (but really slaves), •were seized by the Portuguese, in Conducia bay, 
29 Nov. 1857, sent to Lisbon, and condemned as slavers. They were haughtily demanded 
by the French government, who, on the hesitation of the Portuguese, sent two ships of war 
to the Tagus. The vessels were then surrendered under protest ; and the emperor of France 
gave rip the free emigration scheme. 

CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt by the British forces under general Gage, 
17 June, 1775. Chai'leston taken by the British, 7 May, 1779. 

CHARLESTON (South Carolina). The English fleet here was repulsed with great loss, 
28 June, 1776. It was besieged by the British troops at the latter end of March, 1780, and 
surrendered 13 May, following, with 6000 prisoners ; it was evacuated 14 April, 1783. Great 
commotion arose here in Nov. i860, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the presidency, 
he being opposed to slavery. On 12, 13 April, 1861, the war began by the confederates bom- 
barding Fort Sumter ; see United States. In Dec. 1861, the federals sank anumber of vessels 
laden with stone in order to choke up the entrance to Charleston harbour. Unsuccessful 
attacks were made on Charleston by the federals between March 1863 and 17 Feb. 1865, when 
the confederates were compelled to retire ; and the federals replaced their standard on fort 
Sumter, 14 April, the day on which president Lincoln was assassinated. 

"CHARTE CONSTITUTIONNELLE," the French political constitution acknowledged 
by Louis XVIII., 4-10 Jime, 1814. The infraction of this constitution led to the revolution 
of 1830. The amended " Cliarte " was promulgated by Louis-Philippe, 14 Aug. 1830; and 
set aside by the revolution of 1848. 

CHARTER-HOUSE (a corruption of Chartreuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthu- 
sian monastery, founded in 1371 by sir Walter de Mannj-, one of the knights of Edward III., 
now an extensive charitable establishment. The last prior, John Houghton, was executed 
as a traitor, for denying the king's supremacj', in May, 1535. After the dissolution of 
monasteries in 1539, the charter-house passed through various hands till i Nov. 161 1, when 
it was sold by the earl of Suffolk to Thomas Sutton for 13,000?., who obtained letters patent 
directing that it should be called "thehospitalof king James, founded in the Charter-house," 
and that "there should be for ever 16 governors," &c. On the foundation are 80 poor 
brothers, and 44 poor scholars. Sutton died 12 Dec. 161 1. The expenditure for 1853-4 was 
22,396?. ; the receipts 28,908?. The school is to be removed toGodalming, Surrey : the last 
"founder's day " kept in London was 12 Dec. 1867. 

CHARTER-PARTY, a covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the 
ship and cargo, said to have been first used in England about 1243. 

CHARTERS, gi-anted to corporate towns to protect their manufactures by Henry II. in 
1 132 ; called in and modified by Charles II. in 1682 ; the ancient charters restored in 1698. 
Alterations were made by the Municipal Reform Act in 1835 ; see Magna Charta, and 
Boroughs. Ancient Anglo-Saxon charters are printed in Kemble's "Codex Diplomaticus," 
1829. 

CHARTISTS, the name assumed by large bodies of the lower classes, shortly after the 
passing of the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demanding the people's Charter, the six points 
of which were Universal Suffrage, Vote hy Ballot, Annual Parliaments, Payment of the 
Members, the abolition of the Property Qualification (which was enacted, June, 1858), and 
Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the chartists assembled in various parts of the country, 
armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and carrying torches and flags. A proclamation 
was issued against them, 12 Dec. Their petition (agreed to at Birmingham, 6 Aug. 1838) 
was presented by Mr. T. Attwood, 14 June, 1839. They committed great outrages at Bir- 
mingham, 15 July, 1839, and at Newport (which see), 4 Nov. 1839. They held for some 
time a sort of parliament called the " National Convention," the leading men being Fergus 
O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. Stephens, &c. On 10 April, 1848, they proposed to hold a 
meeting of 200,000 men on Kennington common, London, to march thence in procession to 

M 2 



CHA 



164 



CHA 



"Westminster, and present a petition to parliament; but only about 20,000 came. The bank 
and other establishments were fortified by military ; successful preventive measures adopted 
by the government ; and the chai'tists dispersed after slight encounters with the police. The 
monster petition, in detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house of commons, and not less 
than 150,000 ]Dersons of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, now emperor) were voluntarily 
sworn to act as special constables. From this time the j)roceedings of the chartists became 
insignificant. 

CHARTREUSE, La Grande, chief of the monasteries of the Carthusian order, situated 
among the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France, was founded by Bruno of Cologne, 
about 1084. At the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and their valuable library 
destroyed. They returned to the monastery after the restoration of 18 14. 

CHARTS AND MAPS. Anaximander of Miletus is said to have been the inventor of 
geographical and celestial charts, about 570 B.C. Modern sea-charts were brought to Eng- 
land by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western conti- 
nent 1489. The first tolerably accurate map of England was drawn by George Lilly, who 
died in 1559. Gerard Mercator published an atlas of maps in 1595 ; se6 Mercator. 

CHASSEPOT RIFLE, a breech-loader (named after its inventor M. Chassepot), and 
adopted by the French government in 1866. In April, 1867, 10,000 had been issued to the 
troops. In his report on the battle of Mentana {which see), 3 Nov. 1867, gen. De Failly said, 
"the chassepot has done wonders." 

CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self or relatives ; 
and our laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence of her chastity ; and a husband or 
a father in taking the life of him who attemjDts to violate his wife or daughter. In loop 
years from ISTuma, 710 B.C., to Theodosius, A.D. 394, only eighteen Roman vestals had been, 
condemned for incontinence ; see Vestals, Acre, and Goldingham. 

CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the royal navy, the dockyard, commenced by 
queen Elizabeth. The Chatham Chest, for the relief of wounded and decayed seamen, 
originally established here by the queen and admirals Drake and Hawkins, in 1588, was 
removed to Greenwich in 1803. In 1667, on the loth June, the Dutch fleet under admiral 
De Ruj'ter, sailed up to this town and burnt several men-of-war ; but the entrance into the ' 
Medway is now defended by Sheerness and other forts, and additional fortifications were 
made at Chatham. On 8 Feb. 1861 a violent outbreak of the convicts Avas suppressed by the 
military, and many rioters flogged. About 1000?. worth of property was destroyed, and many 
persons were seriously hurt. 

CHATHAM ADMINISTRATIOlSr,* succeeded the first Rockingham administration in 
Aug. 1766 : after several changes it terminated Dec. 1767. 

Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by sir Edward 

Hawke), admiralty. 
Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
Lord Hillsborough, Jirsi lord of trade. 
Lord Barrington, secretary at viar. 
Lord North and sir George Cooke, joint paymasters. 
Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
Duke of Ancaster, lord le JDespenser, (fee. 

CHATILLOISr (on the Seine, France). Here a congress was held by the four great powers 
allied against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for Napoleon, 5 Feb. 1814 : the nego- 
tiations for peace were broken off on 19 March, following. 

CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog twelve miles square, in most places so soft as to 
be incapable of supporting a man or horse, over which George Stephenson, the railway 
engineer, carried the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after overcoming difficulties con- 
sidered invincible. The road (literally a floating one) was completed by i Jan. 1830, when 
the first experimental train, drawn by the Rocket locomotive, passed over it. 

CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Near here the federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, 
defeated the confederate general Bragg, after storming the entrenchments, 25 Nov. 1863. 
The result was very injurious to the confederates. Bragg retreated into Georgia, and Long- 
street into Virghiia. 

CHAUMONT, (on the Marne, France), Treaty of, entered into between Great Britain, 
Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively, i March, 1814. This 

* William Pitt, earl of Chatham (the "great commoner"), born 15 Nov. 1708, entered parliamentin 1735 ; 
became secretary of state (virtually the premier) in the Devonshire administration, Nov. 1756, secretary in 
the Newcastle administration,. Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became premier, lord privy seal, and afterwards eaii 
of Chatham, which lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed the taxation of the American colonies, 
but protested against the recognition of their independence, 7 April, 1778, and died 11 May following. 



Earl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. 
Duke of Grafton, first lord of the treasury. 
Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Northington, lord -president. 
Earl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of 
state. 



CHE 165 CHE 

treaty was succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, ii April, following, by wliicli 
Ifapoleon reuoimced liis sovereignty over France ; see Paris. 

CHEATS were punishable by pillorj'', imprisonment, and fine, i Hawk. L.C. i88. A 
rigorous statute was enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning at 
any time more than \ol. or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were to suffer 
j)unishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 171 1. Blackstonc, 

CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned cheese- 
making from the Eomans about the Christian era. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire make 
vast quantities; the last alone, annually, about 31,000 tons. In 1840 we imported from 
abroad about 10,000 tons; in 1855, 384,192 cwt. ; in 1866, 872,342 cwt. The duty on 
foreign cheese, producing annually about 50,000^., was taken off in i85o. 

CHELSEA (Middlesex). A council held here 27 July, 816. Nicolas. On the site of a 
theological college founded by James I. in 1609 for theological disputatious against popery, 
but converted by Charles II. in 1682 to its present purpose, stands Chelsea college, an asylum 
for wounded and sujjerannuated soldiers. The erection was carri'ed on by J ames 11., and com- 
pleted by William III. in 1690. The real projector was sir Stephen Fox, grandfather of the 
orator C. J. Fox, The architect was sir Christopher Wren, and the cost 150,000^. In 1850 
there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-pciisioncrs. — The body of the duke of AVellington lay here 
in state, 10-17 Nov. 1 852. — The physic garden of sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, Avas given to the 
Apothecaries' company 1721 — The Chelsea waterworks were incorporated 1722. — The iirst 
stone of the Military Asj'lu»n, Chelsea, was laid by Frederick, duke of York, 19 June, 1801. — 
The bridge, constructed by Mr. T. Page to connect Chelsea with Battersea-park, was opened 
in the spring of 1858. The parliamentary borough of Chelsea, created by the Eeform act, 15 
Aug. 1867, consists of Chelsea, Kensington, Fulham, and Hammersmith. 

CHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Its celebrated mineral spring was discovered in 
1 718. The king's- well was sunk in 1778; and other wells by Mr. Thompson in 1806. 
Magnesian salt was first found in the waters in 181 1. The theatre was erected in 1804. 

CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in London in 1780, did not long continue. 
The present Chemical society was established in 1841 ; that at Paris was in 1857. 

CHEMISTEY was introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, about 1150 ; they had 
learned it from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt they had, in 
very early ages, extracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine ; 
and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaint- 
ance with chemistry. The first chemical students in Europe were the Alchemists (see 
Alchemy) ; but chemistry could not be said to exist as a science till the 17th century ; 
during which its study was promoted by the writings of Bacon and the researches of Hooke, 
Mayow, and Boyle. In the early part of the i8th century, Dr. Stephen Hales laid the 
foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his contemporary Boerhaave combined the study of 
chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded by Black, Bergman, Stahl, &c. In 1772, 
Priestley published his researches on air, having discovered the gases oxygen, ammonia, &c. ; 
and thus commenced a new era in the history of chemistry. He was ably seconded by 
Lavoisier, Cavendish, Scheele, Chaptal, &c. The 19th century opened with the brilliant 
discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, Thomson, &c. Organic Chemistry has 
been very greatly advanced by the labours of Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, Hofmann, 
Cahours, Frankland,* &c., since 1830; see Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanism. For the 
analytical processes termed " S2xctrtim analysis," invented by Kirchhoff and Bunseu (1861), 
'^Dialysis" (1861), and " Atmolysis" (1863), invented by Mr. T. Graham, see those 
articles. — The Poyal College of Chemistry, Oxibrd Street, London, was established in 1845. 
— The publication of Henry Watts' great " Dictionary of Chemistry" began in April, 1863. 

CHEQUES, see Drafts. 

CHEEBOUEG, the great naval fortress and arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, 
about 60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and Plymouth. It was captured by our 
Henry V. in 1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of Louis XIV., some works were 
erected here by the great • Vauban, which with some shipping, &c., were destroyed by the 
British, 6, 7 Aug. 1758. The works Avere resumed on a stupendous scale by Louis XVI. ; 
but their progress was interrupted by the revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 1783, 
resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and completed in 1813, forms a secure harbour, affording 
anchorage for nearly the whole navy of France, and protected by strong fortifications, 

* In 1S28 Wohler succeeded in producing- artificially urea, a body hitherto known only as a product of 
the animal organism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, grape sugar, various essential oils, similar to those 
of the pine apple, pear, garlic, ifec, have been formed by combinations of the gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and 
carbonic acid. The barrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic bodies is thus broken down, 
though the names are stiU retained. 



CHE 



166 



CHI 



increased by the present emperor. On 4, 5 Aug. 1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon 
docks were opened, the latter in the presence of the queen of England and court. The 
British fleet visited Cherbourg, 15-17 Aug. 1865, and the officers and men were treated with 
much liospitality. 

CHERITON DOWN (Hants). Here sir Wm. Waller defeated the royalists under lord 
Hopton, 29 May, 1644. 

CHERRY, the Primus Cerasiis (from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, whence the tree was 
brought by Lucullus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), first planted in Britain, it is said, about loo. 
Pine kinds were brought from Flanders, in 1540, and planted in Kent. 

CHERSON, see Kherson. CHERSONESUS, see Crimea. 

CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river a contest took place between the British 
admiral Greaves and the French admiral De Grasse, aiding the revolted states of America ; 
the former was obliged to retire, 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by 
the British fleet in the American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that period, the scene of 
great hostilities of various results. — The Ohesapeahe American frigate, commanded by capt. 
Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck to the »S'/m?wio?i British frigate (38 guns, 330 men), com- 
manded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe action of eleven minutes, i June, 1813. 
Eleven minutes elapsed between the firing of the first gun and the boarding, and in four 
minutes more the Clusnpe.ake, was the Shannon^ s prize. Capt. Lawrence died of his wounds. 

CHESS, a game attributed to Palamedes, 680 B.C. ; Hyde and sir WiUiam Jones refer 
the origin of chess to India. Caxton printed "the Game and Haye of the Chesse," 1474. 
The automaton chess-player (a piece of machinery) was exhibited in England in 1769.* A 
chess congress was held at New York in 1857, and an international one in London in June 
and July, 1 862. ^ 

CHESTER (England, N. W.), the British Caerleon and the Roman Deva, the station of 
the twentieth legion, Valeria Victrix, quitted by them about 476. Tlie city wall was first 
built by Edelfleda, about 908 ; and Hugh Lupus, the earl, nephew of William I., rebuilt the 
Saxon castle in 1084, and the abbey of St. Werburgh. Chester was incorporated by Henry 
III. and made a distinct county. The see was anciently part of Lichfield, one of whose 
bishops, Peter, removing the seat hither in 1075, occasioned his successors to be styled 
bishops of Chester ; but was not erected into a distinct bishopric until Henry VIII. in 
1541 raised it to this dignity, and allotted the church of the abbey of St. Werburgh for 
the cathedral. This see is valued in the king's books at 420Z. is. ?,d. per annum. Present 
income 4500Z. 

Chester ravaged by Danes 980 recent bishops of Chester. 

Nearly destroyed by a fire 1471 1800. Henry Wm. Majendie, trans, to Bangor, i8og. 

Taken, after 3 months' siege, for the parliament 1645 1810. Bowyer Edward Sparkle, trans, to Ely, 1812. 

Patal gunpowder explosion .... 1772 1812. George Henry Law, translated to Bath, 1824. 

Exchange and town hall barnt . 30 Dec. 1862 1824. Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to London, Aug. 1828. 

A projected attack of Fenians on Chester castle 1828. John Bird Sumner, trans, to Canterbury, 1848. 

was defeated by the vigilance of the authori- 1848. John Graham, died 15 June, 1865. 

ties and the arrival of the military 11,12 Feb. 1867 1865. William Jacobson (present bishop). 

CHESTER LE STREET, see DurMm. 

CHEVALIER D'EON, see D'Eon. CHEVY CHASE, see Otterhurne. 

CHICAMAUGA ("the stream of death"), near the Chattanooga, Tennessee, North 
America. Near here the confederates under general Bragg, aided by Longstreet, totally 
defeated the federals under Rosencrans, 19, 20 Sept. 1863. The loss was severe on both 
sides. The credit of the victory was attributed to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness to Bragg. 

CHICHESTER (Sussex), built by Cissa, about 540. The cathedral was completed 
about 1 108, burnt with the city in 11 14, and rebuilt by bishop Sefl'rid about 11 87. The 
present cathedral was erected during the 13th century. The spire fell 20 Feb. 1861, the 
foundation of a new one was laid 2 May, 1865, completed June 1866. The cathedral re- 
opened after repairs 14 Nov. 1867. The bishopric originated thus : Wilfrida, archbishop of 
York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northumberland, preached the gospel in this 
country, and built a church, in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In 681 Selsey became a bishopric, 
and so continued until it was ren)oved to Chichester, then called Cissan-Caester, from its 
builder, Cissa, by Stigand, 1070. This see has yielded to the church two saints, and to the 
nation three lord chancellors. It is valued in the king's books at 677^. is, 3c?. per annum. 
Present income, 4200Z. 

* A chess-club was formed at Slaughter's coffee-house, St. Martin's lane, in 1747. M. F. A. Danican, 
known as Phillidor, played three matches blindfolded at the Salopian ; he died in 1795. The London 
Chess-club was founded in 1807, and St. George's in 1833. In Dec. 1861 Herr Paulsen played 10 games at 
once, of which he won five, and lost one ; three were di-awn, and one not played out. 



CHI 167 CHI 



CHICHESTER, continued. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTER. 

1798. John Buckner, died 2 May, 1824. 

1824. Robert. J. CaiT, trans, to VVorcester, Sept. 1831 

1831. Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836. 



1836. Charles Otter, died 20 Aug-. 1840. 

1840. Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died? Jan. 1842. 

1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert (present bishop). 



CHICKAHOiiliSrY BATTLES, see Fairoaks, and United States, June, 1862. 

CHICORY, the wild endive, or Ciclwrium Tntyhus of Linnseus, grows wild in calcareous 
soils. It has been raised to some extent in England as herbage, its excellence iu this respect 
having been much insisted upon by Arthur Young. * 

CHlGISrOlSr, French for the "back-hair" of ladies. In directions for full dress in 1783, 
it is said : ' ' The hair large and the chignon low behind. " Lady's Magazine. Large chignons 
began to be worn in England in 1866. 

CHILDERMAS DAY, 28 Dec, of ancient observance by the Roman Cmuxh, in memory 
of the slaughter of the Holy Innocents. {Matt. ii. ) 

CHILD REISr. Many ancient nations exposed their infants,— the Egyptians on the banks 
of rive'rs, and the Greeks on highways, — when they could not support or educate them ; \xi 
such cases, they were protected by the state. The old custom of English parents selling their 
children to the Irish for slaves, was prohibited by Canute, about 1017. Mat. Paris ; see 
Foundling, and Factory Acts. 

CHILI (S. America), discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, 
1535. When Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, the natives, regarding the Spaniards on 
their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected for them gold and silver amounting to 
290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. 
Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. Population in 1865, 1,819,223. 

Chili declares its independence of Spain, | Disputes with Spain respecting Peru settled by 

■ '" ■ ' the Spanish minister, 20 May, disavowed by 

his government .... 25 July, 1864 
Religious toleration enacted . . . July, 1S65 
Perez again proclaimed president, vigorous 

prosecution of the war .... Oct. ,, 
The Spanish admiral Pareja appears before Val- 
paraiso claiming satisfaction for Chilian inter- 
vention in the war with Peru, 17 Sept. ; 
refused, 21 Sept. ; he declares a blockade, 

24 Sept. „ 



18 Sept. 

War with varying success; decisive victory 
gained by San Martin over the royal forces, 
12 Feb. ; the province was declared inde- 
pendent 1817 

Present constitution established in . . . 1833 

Manuel Muntt elected president . 18 Ocb. 1856 

Insurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec. 
1858, suppressed .... April, 1859 

Jose Perez, jsre-sident . . . 18 Sept. 1861 . _ , 

Conflagration of the Jesuits' church at San- j Chili declares war against Spain, 29 Sept. ; joins 

tiago (see Santiago), more than 2000 persons i _ Peru'. . . .^ ^^ . •_ ■ 5,-'^''^ 

perished 8 Dec. 1863 ' " . - . - ■. -.r ■. .•_- 

Rupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting 
the " Guano " isles . . . .1 March, 1864 



The Spaniards bombard Valparaiso 31 March, 
End of the blockade ... 14 April, 

Perez re-elected president . . 18 Sept. 



CHILLED SHOT, see Cannon, 1864-6. 

CHILLI AN WALLAH, Battle of, India, between the Sikh forces in considerable 
strength, and the British commanded by lord (afterwards viscount) Gough, fought 13 Jan. 
1849. The Sikhs were completely routed, but the loss of the British was very severe : 26 
officers were killed and 66 wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 wounded. The 
Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 4000 wounded, f On 21 Feb. lord Gough attacked the Sikh 
army, under Shere Singh, in its position at Goojerat, with complete success ; and the whole 
of tire enemy's camp fell into the hands of the British. 

CHILTERN HUNDREDS (viz. Burnham, Desborough, and Stoke), an estate of the 
crown on the chain of chalk hills that pass from ea.st to west through the middle of 
Buckinghamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, with a salary of 20s., conferred 
on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office 
under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his con- 
stituents. The strict legality of the practice is questioned. 

CHIMNEY-TAX, see FTearth. 

CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chimneys, which 
were first introduced into these countries, in 1200, when they were confined to the kitchen 
and large hall. The family sat round a stove, the funnel of Avhich passed through the 
ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 13 10. Act to regulate 

• Chicory had been for many years so largely mixed with coffee in England, that it became a matter 
of serious complaint, the loss of revenue being estimated at 100,000?. a year. An excise order was issued, 
3 Aug., 1852, interdicting the mixture of chicory with coffee. The admixture, however, has since been 
permitted, provided the word " chicory " be plainly prmUd on each parcel sold. In i860 a duty of 3.5. per. 
cwt. was put upon English-grown chicory until April 1S61 ; after that date to be 5.--. 6d. per cwt. 

t The duke of Wellington (commander-in-chief) did not think the victory complete. Gough was 
superseded, and sir C. Napier sent out (March 1849), who did not arrive iu India till Gough had redeemed 
Ms reputation. 



CHI 



1( 



CHI 



chimney-sweeping, 28 Geo. III. 1789. The chimney-sibecpmg inacMne was invented by 
Smart in 1805. A statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship of children, the 
eonstruction of flues, preventing calling " sweep " in the streets, &c., passed 1834. By 
5 Vict. 1840, it is not lawful for master sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years 
of age : and since i July, 1842, no individual under twenty-one may ascend a chimne}''. In 
1864, the enforcement of this law was made more stringent, it having been neglected. 
Joseph Glass, inventor of the sweeping machine now in general use, not patented, died 29 
Jan. 1868. At the chemical works, Glasgow, is a chimney (there termed a stalk) 420 feet in 
height ; the height of the monument in London being 202 feet ; of St. Paul's, 404 feet. 

CHINA, the " Celestial Empire," in Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim 
an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is allowed to have commenced about 
2500 B. 0. ; by others to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah" of the Bible, 
2240 B.C. We are told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357 
B.C. Towards the close of the 7th century B.C. , the history of China becomes more distinct. 
Twenty-two dynasties have reigned, including the present. The population of China was 
estimated at 190,348,228 in 1757 ; at 414,607,000 in i860 ; and at 450,000,000 in 1867. 



The Chinese state their first cycle to have com- 
menced B.C. 2700 

The first dates fixed to his history, by Se-ma- 

tsien, begin . 651 

Supposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the 

Chinese philosopher 550 

Stupendous wall of China completed 298 or 211 
The dynasty of Han .... 202 or 206 
Literature and the art of printing encouraged (?) 202 
Battle between Phraates and the Scythians : 
the Chinese aided the latter, and ravaged the 
coasts of the Caspian : their first appearance 

in history. (Lenglet.) 129 

Eeligion of Tao-tse commenced . . . . 15 
Religion of Fo commenced . about A. d. 60 

Pretended embassy from Rome . . . . 166 
Nankin becomes the capital .... 420 
The atheistical philosopher, San- Shin, flourishes 449 
The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach . 635 
They are proscribed and extirpated . . . 845 
China ravaged by Tartars, 9th to nth centuries. 
Seat of government transferred to Pekin . . 1260 
Marco Polo introduces missionaries . . . 1275 
Yuen or Mongol dynasty . . . . ' , 12S0 

Ming dynasty 1368 

Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed . about 1400 
Europeans first arrive at Canton . . .1517 
Macao is granted to the Portuguese . . . 1536 
Jesuit missionaries are sgnt from Rome . . 1575 
The country is conquered bj' the eastern or 
Mantchou Tartars, who establish the present 

reigning Tsin dynasty 1616-44 

Tea brought to England 1660 

An earthquake throughout China, buries 

300,000 persons at Pekin alone . . . . 1662 
Commerce with East India Company begins . 1680 

Jesuit missionaries iDreach 1602 

Commercial relations with Russia. . 1719-27 

The J esuits expelled 1724-32 

Another general earthquake destroys 100,000 

persons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb . 1731 
In a salute by one of our India shijjs in China, 
a loaded gun was inadvertently fired, which 
killed a native ; the government demanded 
the gunner to be given up; he was soon 

strangled 1785 

Earl Macartney's embassy* arrives at Pekin ; 

his reception by the eropei-or . . 14 Sept. 1793 
He is ordered to depart . . . . 7 Oct. 

And arrives in England ... 6 Sept. 1794 
The aiiair of the Company's ship Neptune, when 
a Chinese was killed . . . ... 1807 

Edict against Christianity ....'. 1812 



Lord Amherst's embassy ; f he leaves England, 

8 Feb. 1816 

Exclusive rights of the E.I. Co. cease, 22 April, 1834 

Opium dispute begins ; the trade prohibited by 
the emperor Nov, ,, 

Free-trade ships sail for England . 25 April, ,, 

Lord Napier arrives at Macao to superintend 
British commerce . . . .15 July, ,, 

Affair between the natives and two British 
ships of war ; several Chinese killed, 5 Sept. ,, 

Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by Mr. ^ 

(afterwards sir John) Davis . . n Oct. „ 

Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, 7 Nov. ,, 

Chinese seize the Argyle and ci'ew . 31 Jan. 1835 

Opium burnt at Canton by the Chinese, 

23 Feb. „ 

Captain EUiot becomes chief British commis- 
sioner 14 Dec. 1836 

Admiral Maitland arrives at Macao . 12 July, 1838 

Connnissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 
18 March ; British and other residents for- 
bidden to leave Canton, 19 March ; the fac- 
tories suiTounded, and outrages committed, 

24 March, 1839 

Captain Elliot requires British subjects to sur- 
render to him all opium, promising them fiill 
value of it, 27 March ; half of it is given up 
as contraband to the Chinese, 20 April ; the 
remainder (20,283 chests) surrendered, 21 
May; captain Elliot and the British mer- 
chants leave Canton, 24 May ; the opium de- 
stroyed by the Chinese . . 3 June, ,, 

Affair between the British and American sea- 
men and the Chinese ; a native killed, 7 July, 

Hong-Kong taken . . . .23 Aug. 

The British boat Black John attacked, and the 
crew murdered, 24 Aug. ; the British mer- 
chants retire from Macao . . 26 Aug. 

Affair at Kow-Iung betvi^oen British boats and 
Chinese junks 4 Sei^t. 

Attack by 28 armed junks on the British 
frigates Volage and Hyacinth: several junks 
blown up 3 Nov. 

The British trade with China ceases, by an 
edict of the emperor, and the last servairt of 
the company leaves this day . . 6 Dec. 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and 
intercourse with England for ever . 5 Jan. 

The JHfiUas ship attacked by armed junks, 22 
May ; blockade of Canton by a British fieet, 
by orders from sir Gordon Bremer, 28 Jmie ; 
the Blonde with a flag of truce fired on at Amoy, 
2 July; Ting-hai, in Chusan, surrenders, 5 



_ * This embassj' threw some light on the political circmnstances of the empire ; it appeared to be 
divided into 15 provinces, containing 4402 walled cities; the population of the whole was given at 
333,000,000: its annual revenues at 66,000,000?. : and the army, including the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry 
and 800,000 cavalrj'- ; the religion Pagan, and the government absolute. Learning, and the arts [and 
sciences, were encouraged, and ethics studied. 

+ His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, having refused to make the prostration of the i:ou- 
tru, lest he should thereby compromise the majesty of England. 



CHI 



169 



CHI 



CHINA, continued. 

July ; block.ade established along tlie Chinese 
coast, lo July ; Mr. Staiuiton carried off to 
Canton 6 Aug. 

Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, 
enters the Peiho river, near Pekhi, 1 1 Aug. 

The ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the cap- 
tain's wife and apart of the crew are captured 
by the natives, and confined in cages, 15 Sept. 

Lin finally degraded; Keshin appointed iro- 
perial commissioner, 16 Sept. ; capt. Elliot's 
truce with him 6 Nov. 

British plenipotentiaries off Macao . 20 Nov. 

Admiral Elliot's resignation announced, 29 Nov. 

Mr. Staunton released . . . .12 Dec. 

Negotiations cease, owing to breaches of faith 
on the part of the Chinese emperor 6 Jan. 

Chuen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some 
sent to England) captured . . 7 Jan. 

Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, 
and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within 
ten da3's to the British authorities 20 Jan. 

Hong-Kong taken possession of . 26 Jan. 

The emperor rejects Keshin's treaty, 11 Feb.; 
hostilities resumed, 23 Feb. ; Chusan evacua- 
ated, 24 Feb. ; rewards proclaimed at Canton 
for the bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 
50,000 dollars to be given for chiefs 25 Feb. 

Bogue forts taken by sir G. Brenrer ; admiral 
Kwan killed ; 459 guns captured . 26 Feb. 

The British squadron proceeds to Canton, i 
March ; sir H. Gough takes command of the 
army, 2 March ; hostilities again suspended, 
3 March ; and again resumed, 6 March ; 
Keshin degraded by the emperor, 12 March, 

Flotilla of boats destroyed, Canton threatened, 
the foreign factories seized, and 461 guns 
taken by the British forces . 18 March, 

New commissioners from Pekin an-ivc at 
Canton 14 April, 

Hong Kong Gazette first published . i May, 

Capt. Elliot prepares to attack Canton, 17 May, 

Heights behind Canton taken . 25 May, 

The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; 
5,000, ooo"paid down ; hostilities cease, 31 May, 

British forces withdrawn, i June ; and British 
trade re-opened . . . .16 July, 

Arrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, 
as plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of 
his mission ; capt. Elliot superseded, 10 Aug. 

Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed, 27 Aug. 

The Bogue forts destroyed . . 14 Sept. 

Tuig-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan 
re-occupied by the British, i Oct. ; they take 
Chin-hae, 10 Oct. ; Ning-po, 13 Oct. ; Yu-yaou, 
Tsze-kee, and Foong-hua . . .28 Dec. 

Chinese attack Ning-po and Chin-hae, and are 



1840 



repulsed with great loss, 10 March ; Sooo 
Chinese are routed near Tsze-kee, 15 March, 

Cha-pou attacked; defences destroyed, 18 May, 

The British squadron enters the river Kiang, 
13 June; capture of Woosung and of 230 
guns and stores, 16 June ; Shang-hae taken, 
19 June ; the British armament anchors near 
the "Golden Isle," 20 July; Chin-Keang 
taken ; the Tartar general and many of the 
garrison commit suicide, 21 July ; the ad- 
vanced ships reach Nankin, 4 Aug. ; the whole 
fleet arrives, and the disembarkation com- 
mences, 9 Aug. ; Kejnng arrives at Nankin, 
witli full powers to treat for peace . 12 Aug. 

Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board 
the Cornwallis by sir Henry Pottinger for 
England, and Keying Elepoo * and Neu-Kien 
on the part of the Chinese emperor— [Con- 
ditions : lasting peace trnd friendship between 
the two empires ; China to pay 21,000,000 of 
dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foochoofoo, Ning- 
po, and Shang-hae to be thrown open to the 
British, and consuls to reside at these cities ; 
Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to Eng- 
land, (fcc. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-suto be held 
by the British until the provisions are f ul- 
filledf 29 Aug. 

The ratification signed by Queen Victoria and 
the emperor formally exchanged . 22 July, 

Canton opened to the IJritish . . 27 July, 

Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir 
Henry Pottinger 16 Feb. 

Bogue forts captured by the British . 5 Ax^ril, 

Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood visited by 
a violent typhoon ; immense damage done to 
the shipping ; upwards of 1000 boat-dwellers 
on the Canton river drowned . . Oct. 

H.M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate 
junks in the Chinese seas . . 4 March, 

RebelHon breaks out in Quang-si . . Aug. 

Appearance of the pretender, Tien-teh,t March, 

Defeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and 
destruction of half the ai'my . .19 June, 

Successful progress of the rebels ; the emperor 
applies to the Europeans for help, without 
success .... March and April, 

The rebels take Nankin, 19, 20 March ; Amoy, 
19 Blay ; Shang-hae ... 7 Sej^t. 

And besiege Canton without success, Aug.-Nov. 

The scanty accounts are unfavourable to the 
rebels, the imperialists having retaken Shang- 
hae, Amoy, and many important places 

Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton 
river. § 8 Oct. 

After vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, 
Canton forts attacked and taken . 23 Oct. 



1842 



1S43 

1844 
1847 



1B50 
1851 
1852 

1S53 

1854 

185s 
1856 



* He took part (it was said without authority) in arranging the treaty of Tien-sin in June, 1858. He 
was in consequence condemned to death — by suicide. 

t The non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the war of 1856-7. 

t The emperor Taou-Kwang, who 'died 25 Feb. 1S50, during the latter part of his reign, became liberal 
in his views, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; but his son, the late emperor, a rash and 
narrow-minded prince, quickly departed from his father's wise policy, and adopted reactionary measures, 
particularly against English influence. An insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug. 1850, and quickly 
Isecame of alarming importance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel the Tartars ; but in March, 
1851, a pretender was announced among them, first by the name of Tieu-teh (Celesti.al Virtue), but after- 
wards assuming other names. He is stated to have been a native fof Quang-si, of obscure origin, but to 
have obtained some literary knowledge at Canton about 1S35, and to have become acquainted at that time 
with the princijales of Christianity from a Chinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the mis- 
sionai-y Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as the restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, 
but has derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He declared himself to be the monarch of all beneath 
the sky, the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, 
and demanded universal submssiion. He made overtures for alliance to lord Elgin in Nov. i860. His 
followers are termed Taejjijw/s, "princes of peace," a title utterl,y belied by their atrocious deeds. The 
rebellion was virtually terminated 18 July, 1S64, by the capture of Nankin, the suicide of the Tien-Wang, 
and the execution of the military leaders. 

_ § It was boarded by the Chinese ofiioers, 12 men out of the crew of 14 being carried off, and the national 
ensign taken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, being compelled to resort to hostiUties, 
applied to India and Ceylon for troops. On 3 March, 1857, the house of commons, by a majority of 19, 
censured sir John for the " violent measures " he had pursued. The ministry (who took his part) dissolved 
the parliament ; but obtained a large majority in the new one. 



CHI 



170 



CHI 



CHINA, continued. 

A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bom- 
barded, by sir M. Seymour . 3, 4 Nov, 

Imperialists defeated, qtiit Shang-hae 6 Nov. 

The Americans revenge an attack by capturing 
three forts .... 21-23 Nov. 

Rebels take Kuriking . . . .25 Nov. 

Other forts taken by the British . , . Dec. 

The Chinese burn European factories 14 Dec. 

And murder the crew of the Thistle . 30 Dec. 

A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 
poisoning the bread .... 2 Feb. 

Troops arrive from Madras and England ; and 
lord Elgin appointed envoy . . March 

No change on either side : Teh said to be 
straitened for money ; the imperialists seem 
to be gaining grovuid upon the rebels May, 

Total destruction of the Chinese fleet by com- 
modore Elliot, 25, 27 May ; and sir M. Sey- 
mour and commodore Keppel , . i June, 

Blockade of Canton ...... Aug. 

Stagnation in the war — lord Elgin dejjarts to 
Calcutta, with assistance to the English 
against the Sepoys, 16 July ; retm-ns to Hong- 
Kong 25 Sept. 

Gen. Ashburnham departs for India, and gen. 
Straubenzee assumes the command 19 Oct. 

Canton bombarded and taken by English and 
French, 28, 29 Dec. 1857 ; who enter its Jan. 

Teh* sent a prisoner to Calcutta . . Jan. 

The allies proceed towards Pekin, and take the 
Pel-ho forts 20 May, 

The expedition arrives at Tien-Sin . 20 May, 

Negotiations commence 5 June ; treaty of peace 
signed at Tien-sin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, 
and Keying (who signed the treaty of 1842)^ 
[Ambassadoi-s to be at both courts ; freedom 
of trade : toleration of Christianity ; expenses 
of war to be paid by China ; a revised tarifi ; 
term / {barbarian) to be no longer applied to 
Europeans] . . . .26, 28, 29 June, 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- 
portant treaty with the emperor . 28 Aug. 

The British destroy about 130 piratical junks 
in the Chinese seas . . Aug. and Sept. 

Lord Elgin proceeds up the Tang-tse-Kiang to 
Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, 

Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to 
Pekin, is stopped in the river Pei-ho {or Tien- 
sin); admiral Hope attempting to force a 
passage, is repiilsed with the loss of 81 killed, 
and about 390 wounded . . . 25 June, 

The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, 
and refusing to submit to degTading cere- 
monies, does not see the emperor . 29 July, 

Commercial treaty with America concluded, 

24 Nov. 

The English and French prepare an expedition 
against China Oct. 

Lord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April 
26 ; wrecked near point de Galle, Ceylon, 
23 May ; arrive at Shang-hae . 29 June, 

The war begins : the British commanded by sir 
Hope Grant, the French by general Montau- 
ban. The Chinese defeated in a skirmish 
near the Pei-ho .... 12 Aug. 

The allies repulse the Tae-ping rebels attack- 
ing Shang-hae, 18-20 Aug. ; and take the 
Taku-forts, losing 500 killed and wounded ; 
the Tartar general San-ko-hn-sin retreats 

21 Aug. 

After vain negotiations, the allies advance to- 
wards Pekin; they defeat the Chinese at 
Ohang-kia-wan and Pa-li-chiau 18 & 21 Sept. 

Consul Parkes, captains Anderson and Bra- 
bazon, Mr. De Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the 
Times' correspondent), and 14 others (Euro- 
peans and Sikhs), advance to Tung-chow, to 
arrange conditions for a meeting of the minis- 
ters, and are captured by San-ko-lin-sin ; 



1857 



capt. Brabazon and abbS de Luc beheaded, 
and said to be thrown into the canal ; others 
carried into Pekin ... 21 Sept. 

The alhes march towards Pekin ; the French 
ravage the emperor's summer palace, 6 Oct. ; 
Mr. Parkes, Mr. Loch, and others, restored 
alive, 8 Oct. ; capt. Anderson, Mr. De Norman, 
and others die of ill usage . 8- 11 Oct. 

Pekin invested ; surrenders, 12 Oct. ; severe 
proclamation of sir Hope Grant . 15 Oct. 

The bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby 
solemnly buried in the Russian cemetery, 
Pekin, 17 Oct. ; the summer palace (Tuen- 
ming-yuen) burnt by the British, in memory 
of the outraged prisoners . . 18 Oct. 

Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and 
the prince of Kung, by which the treaty of 
Tien-sin is ratified; apology made for the 
attack at Pei-ho (25 June, 1859) ; a large in- 
demnity to be paid immediately, and com- 
pensation in money given to the families of 
the murdered prisoners, &c. ; Kow-loon ceded 
in exchange for Chusan, and the treaty and 
convention to be proclaimed throughout the 
empire 24 Oct. 

Allies quit Pekin s Nov. 

Treaty between Russia and China — the former 
obtaining free trade, territories, <fec. 14 Nov. 

Mr. Loch arrives in England with the treaty 

27 Dec. 

First instalment of indemnity paid . 30 Nov. 

Part of the allied troops settled at Tien-sin ; 
consulate established . . .5 Jan. 

Adm. Hope examines Tang-tse-Kiang, &c.Feb. 

English and French embassies established at 
Pekin March 

The emperor Hienfung dies . . .24 Aug. 

Canton restored to the Chinese . 21 Oct. 

Ministerial crisis ; several ministers put to 
death, Nov. ; Kung appointed regent 13 Dec. 

Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate 
Ning-po and Hang-chow . . . Deo. 

They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed 
under protection of the EngUsh and French, 
and fortified Jan. 

Rebels defeated in two engagements April, 

English and French assist the government 
against the rebels — Ning-po retaken 10 May, 

French admiral Protet killed in an attack on 
rebels . . . . . . 17 May, 

Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the 
British government to organise a small fleet 
of gun-boats to aid the imperialists to 
estabhsh order July, 

Imperialists gaining ground, take Kah-sing, &;c. 

Oct. 

Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified 14 Jan. 

The imperialists under Gordon defeat the 
Taepings under Burgevine, &c. . Oct. 

Gordon, commanding the imperialists, captures 
Sow-chow (after a severe attack on 27, 28 
Nov. ); the rebel chiefs treacherously butchered 
by the Chinese . . . . 4, s Dec. 

Capt. Osborne came to China ; but retired in 
consequence of the Chinese government de- 
parting from its engagements . 31 Dec. 

Gordon's successes continue . Jan. to April, 

After a severe repulse he takes Chang-chow-f 00, 

23 March, 

He takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; the Tien- 
wang, the rebel emperor, commits suicide by 
eatmggold leaf; Chang- wang and Kan-wang, 
the rebel generals, are " cut into a thousand 
pieces " 18 July, 

Great mortality among British troops at Kow- 
loon Jan. 

The Taepings hold Ming-chow; the Mahome- 
tan rebellion (Dounganes) progressing in 
Honan Jan. -March, 



1865, 



* He died peacefully at Calcutta, 9 April, 1859. He is said to have beheaded above 100,000 rebels.. 



CHI 171 CHO 



CHINA, continued. 



Reported victory of the Nien-fei over the im- 
perialists Eec. 1867 



CHINESE EMPERORS. 

1627. Chwan{f-lei. 

1644. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). 

1662. Kang-he, an able sovereign ; consolidated the- 

empire, compiled a great Chinese dictionary. 
1723. Tuug-chiug. 
1736. Keen-lung, fond of art ; greatly embellished 

Pekin. 



Taepings evacuate Ming-chow . 23 May, 
A rebellion of the Nien-fei in the north ; Pekin 

in danger July, 

The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated 

and slain ; his son more successful . July 
Rebellion in the north advancing . June, 
Prince Kmig chief of the regency again 7 Nov. 
Sir Rutherford Alcock ambassador at Pekin 

26 Nov. 
Chinese newspaper, "Messenger of the Flying 

Dragon," appears in London . 14 Jan. 
Great victory over the Nien-fei announced at ' i79S' Kea-king. 

Canton 13 March, ,, 1820. Taou-Kwang. 

Chinese commissioners visit London . June, ,, 1850. Hieng-fung, 25 Feb. 

Rivalry of two great political chiefs in China, ' 1861. Ki-tsiaug, 22 Aug. ; born 5 April, 1855. 

Li-hung-ching and Tsen-kwo-fan . July, ,, 1 

CHINA POECELAIN, introduced into England about 1531 ; see Pottcnj. 

CHINA EOSE, &c. The Rosa inclim was brought from China, and succe.ssMly planted 
in England, 1786 ; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrus spcclabilis, about 1780. 

CHINCHA ISLES, see Peru, 1864-5. 

CHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archipelago, revolted against Athens, 412 e.g. 
It partook of the fortunes of the Greeks, being conquered by the Venetians, A.D. 1124 ; by 
the Crusaders, 1204 ; by the Greek emperor and Eomans, 1329 ; by the Genoese, 1329 ; and 
finally by the Turks in 1594. A dreadful massacre of the inhabitants by the Turks took 
place II April, 1822, during the Greek insurrection.* 

CHIPPAWA (N. America). Here the British under Eiall were defeated by the Ameri- 
cans under Browne, 5 July, 1814. The Americans were defeated by the British under 
Drummond and Eiall, 25 July following, but EiaU was wounded and taken prisoner. 

CHIVALEY arose out of the feudal system in the latter part of the 8th century 
(chevalier, or knight, being derived from the cahallarius, the equipped feudal tenant on 
horseback). From the 12th to the 15th century it tended to refine manners. The knight 
swore to accomplish the duties of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies, 
to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to practise courtesy, to 
fulfil obligations, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure his honour and character. 
Chivalry expired with the feudal system ; see Tournaments. By letters patent of James I. 
the earl-mar.shal of England had "the like jurisdiction in the courts of chivalry, when the 
office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did jointly exercise," 
1623 ; see Knighthood. 

CHLOEIISIE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas first obtained by Scheele in 1774, by 
treating manganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. Davy, in 1810, proved this 
gas to be an element, and named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it forms cominon 
salt (chloride of sodium), and combined with lime it forms the bleaching powder and disin- 
fectant, chloride of lime. The bleaching powers of chlorine were made known by BerthoUet 
in 1785. In 1823 Faraday condensed chlorine into a liquid. 

CHLOEOFOEM (the ter-chloride of the hypothetical radical formyl) is a compound of 
carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol, water, and bleaching powdey. 
It was discovered by Soubeiran in 1831, and its composition was determined by Dumas in 
1834. The term " chloric ether " was applied in 1820 to a mixture of chlorine and olefiant 
gas. Chloroform was first applied as an anjesthetic experimentally by Mr. Jacob Bell in 
London, in Feb., and Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh in Nov. 1847 ; and was administered in 
England on 14 Dec. 1848, by Mr. James Eobinson, surge on- dentist, f 

CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A military camp was formed here on 14 June, 1853, 
by a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong. The last field-day took place 17 Aug. i860. 
Only one serioirs case of misconduct was reported during all the time. 

CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, introduced into Europe (from Mexico and the 
Brazils) about 1520, was sold in the London coS"ee-houses soon after their establishment, 1650. 

* The slaughter lasted 10 days : 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the five, which 
raged \mtil every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the groimd. 7000 Greeks, who 
had fled to the mountains, wsre induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guaranteed by the consuls 
of England, France, and Austria : yet even they were all butchered ! The only exception made during the 
massacre was in favour of the young and more beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved 
for the markets. 

t A committee of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society in July, 1864, after examining statistics, 
reported that the use of anaisthetics had in no degree increased the rate of mortality. 



CHO 



172 



CHR 



CHOIE. This was sepai'atecl from the nave of the church in the time of Constantine, 
The choral service was first used in England at Canterbury, 677 ; see Chanting. 

CHOLERA MORBUS (Asiatic cholera) was described by Garcia del Huerto, a physician 
of Goa, about 1560. It appeared in India in 1774, and at other times, and became endemic 
in Lower Bengal in 181 7, wlience it gradually spread, till it reached Russia in 1830, and 
Germany in 183 1, carrjdng off more than 900,000 persons, in 1829-30. In England and 
Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 i)ersons died of cholera, and in 1854, 20,097. 



Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 
deaths, Aug. ; subsides after the great fire, 

6 Sept. 

Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton, 
end of Sept. 

Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, 
and Naples .... July-Oot. 

An international meeting at Constantinople, to 
consider preventive measures, proposed, Oct. 
1865, met 18 Feb. 1866. At the last sitting 
the conclusions adopted were that cholera 
may be propagated, and from great dis- 
tances ; and a number of preventive measures 
were recommended ... 26 Sept. 

Cholera appears at Bristol, 24 April ; at Liver- 
pool, 13 May ; at Southampton . July, 

Cholera severe in east of London : 346 deaths 
in week ending . . . . 21 July, 

House to house visitation ; Metropolitan Relief 
Association formed ; large subscriptions re- 
ceived (Queen's 500?.) . . July and Aug. 

Cholera subsides Sept. 

Very severe at Naples .... Sept. 

Cholera Relief Committee closes . 31 Oct, 

Cholera declared to be extinct in London i Dec. 

Cholera in Rome, Naples, and Sicily, Aug.- 
Sept. ; in Switzerland . . . Oct. 



S66 



Cholera appears at Sunderland . . 26 Oct. 1831 
And at Edinburgh .... 6 Feb. 1832 
First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, - 6 Sept. 1865 

London, 13 Feb ; and in DubUn . 3 March, ,, ' "~ "" ~ ' 

'The mortality very great, but more so on the 

Continent; 18,000 deaths at Paris, between 

March and Aug. ,, 
Cholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, 

Berlin, itec, in . . . July and Aug 1837 
Another visitation of cholera in England : the 

number of deaths in London, for the week 

ending 15 Sept. 1849, was 3183 ; the ordinary 

average 1008 ; and the number of deaths by 

cholera from 17 June to 2 Oct. in London 

alone, 13,161. The mortahty lessened and 

the distemper disappeared . . 13 Oct. 1849 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, 

and other northern towns, suffer much from 

cholera Sept. 1853 

It rages in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are 

said to have died at Naples ; it was also very 

fatal to the allied troops at Vai-na, autumn, 1854 
Cholera very severe for a short time in the 
, southern parts of London, and in Soho and 

St. James's, "Westminster . Aug. and Sept. ,, 
Raging in Alexandria, June ; abated . July, 1865 
Prevailing in Ancona (843 deaths) Aug., sub- Sept. ; in Switzerland ' . . .' Oct. 1867 

siding Sept. 

CHORAGUS, an ofScer who regulated the chorus in Greek feasts, &c. Stesichorus (or 
Tysias) received this name, he having first taught the chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C. 
Quintil. 

CHOEUS-SIlSrGIlSrG was early practised at Athens. Hjrpodicus, of Chalcides, carried 
oflf the prize for the best voice, 508 B. c. Parian marbles ; see Music. 

CHOUAISrS, a name given to the Bretons during the war of La Vendee in 1792, from 
their chief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Chat-haunt, or screech-owl, as a signal. He 
was killed in 1794. Georges Gadoudal, their last chief, was connected with Pichegru in a 
conspiracy against Napoleon when first consul, and was executed in 1804. 

CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the ceremonies of the Roman and Greek 
churches. Musk, safiron, cinnamon, roses, and franldncense, are mentioned as used with the 
oil, in 1 541. It was ordained that chrism should consist of oil and balsam only ; the one 
representing the human nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 1596. 

CHRIST, see Jesus Christ. Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat school) was established 
by Edward YI. 1553, on the site of the Grey Friars monastery. A mathematical ward was 
founded by Charles II., 1672. The Times ward was founded in 1841. Large portions of the 
edifice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt : in 1822 a new infirmary was completed, and 
in 1825 (25 April) the duke of York laid the first stone of the magnificent new hall. On 24 
Sept. 1854, the master. Dr. Jacob, in a sermon, in the church of the hospital, censured the 
system of education and the general administration of the establishment, and many 
improvements have since been made. The subordinate school at Hertford, for 416 younger 
boys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683. — Christ's-thoen, conjectured to be the plant of 
which our Saviour's crown of thorns was composed, came hither from the south of Europe 
before 1596. 

CHRISTIAN Era, see Anno Domini. Christian Knowledge Society was founded 
in 1698 to promote charity schools, and to disperse Bibles and religious tracts. It has an 
annual revenue of about ioo,oooZ. Most Christian King; Chrislianissimiis Rex, a title 
conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty Louis XL of France. 

CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built in 1624, by Christian lY. of Denmark, to 
replace Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haardrade, 1058), which had been de- 
stroyed by fire. On 13 April, 1858, Christiania sufi'ered by fire, the loss being about 250,000?. 
The university was established in 1811, New Storthing (parliament house) built 186 1-2. 



CHR ^ 173 CHR 

CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian was first given to' the disciples^ of Christ at 
Antioch, in Syria, 43 {Ads xi. 26 ; I Peter iv. 6). The first Christians were divided into 
episcopoi (bishops or overseers) or j^i'sshyteroi (elders), diaconoi (ministers or deacons), and 
2)istoi (believers) ; afterwards were added ccUccMvmens, or learners, and energumens, who 
were to be exorcised ; see Persecutions. 

Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about ' Into Eussia, by Swiatoslaf . . about 940 

64. ; and propagated with some success (B(?df>) 156 Into Poland, under Meicislaiis 1 992 

Chi-istianity said to be introduced into Scotland ! Into Hungai-y, under Geisa .... 994 

in the reign of Donald I. about . . . . 212 ; Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . . qqS 

Constantine the Great professes the Christian ; Into Sweden, between loth and nth centuries. 



religion 312 

Frumentius iweaches in Abyssinia . about 346 

Introduced among the Goths by Ulfilas . . 376 
Into Ireland in the second century, but with 

more success after the arrival of St. Patrick in 432 

Christianity established in France by Clovis . 496 

Con vei'sion of the Saxons * by Augustin . . 597 

Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries 643 
Into Flanders in the 7th century. 

, Into Saxony, by Charlemagne . . . . 785 

Into Denmark, under Harold .... 827 

Into Bohemia, under Borzivoi . . . . 804 



Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when 
they were returning from the holy wars . 1227 

Into Lithuania ; paganism was abolished about 12^6 

Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th 
century. 

Into China, where it made some progress (Ijut 
was afterwards extirpated, and thousands of 
Chinese Christians were put to death) . . 1575 

Into India and America, in the i6th century. 

Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549 ; 
but the Christians were exterminated in . 1638 

Christianity re-estabhshed in Greece . . . 162S 



CHRISTMAS-DAY, 25 Dec. (from Christ, and the Saxon racessc, signifying the mass 
and a, feast), a festival in commemoration of the nativity of our Saviour, said to have been 
first kept 98; and ordered to be held as a solemn feast, by pope Telesphorus, about 137. f 
In the eastern church, Christmas and the Epiphany (ivhicJi see) are deemed but one and the 
same feast. The holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said to be the remains of the 
religious observances of the Druids ; see Anno Do7nini. 

CHRISTMAS ISLAISTD, in the Pacific Ocean, so named by captain Cook, who landed 
here on Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas-day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On 
the shore of Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, a man foimd a piece of parchment 
insci'ibed : ^' Luclovico XV. Galliarum rege, ct d. Boynes regi a secretis ad res onaritimas, 
annis 1772 et 1773." On the other side captain Cook wrote : " Naves Resolution et Dis- 
covery cle rege Magnce Britannice, Dec. 1776," and placed it in a bottle. 

CHRISTOPHER'S, St. (or St. Kitt's), a West India Island, discovered in 1493, by 
Columbus, who gave it his own name. Settled by the English and French 1623 or 1626. 
Ceded to England by the peace of Utrecht, 17 13. Taken by the Erench in 1782, but 
restored the next year. The town of Basseterre suffered from fires, 3 Sept. 1776 ; also 3 
and 4 July, 1867, when the cathedral and nearly all the town were destroyed. 

CHROMIUM (Greek, cliromc colour), a rare metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It 
is found combined with iron and lead, and forms the colouring matter of the emerald. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY, see Printing in Colours. 

CHRONICLES. The earliest are those of the Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scrip- 
ture there are two " Books of Chronicles." Collections of the British chroniclers have been 
published by Camden, Gale, &c., since 1602 ; in the present centur^^ by the English Historical 
Society, &c. In 1858, the publication of " Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and 
Ireland during the Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of the Master of the RoUs. 
Macray's " Manual of British Historians " was published 1845. 

CHRONOLOGY (the science of time) has for its object the arrangement and exhibition 
of the various events of the history of the world in the order of their succession, and the 
ascertaining the intervals between them ; see Eras and Epochs. Valuable works on the 
subject are V Art de Verifier Ics Dates, compiled by the Benedictines (1783-1820). Play- 
fair's Chronology, 1784; Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by sir H. Ellis in 1844, 
and by Mr. Rosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas' 
Chronology of History, 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chronology, 2ud edition, 1830; 
Mr. H. Fynes-Clinton's Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Romani (1824-50). 

CHRONOMETER, see ClocTcs, and Harrison. 

'■' It is, traditionally, said that Gregoiy the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, passing 
through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some beautiful children set up for sale, inqviired abovit 
their country, and finding they were English pagans, he is said to have cried out, " Non Angli sed Angeli 
forent, si essent Chrisliani ; " that is, "They would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." 
From that time he ardently deshed to convert the nation, and ordered a monk named Austin, or Augustin, 
and others, to undertake the mission to Britain in the year 596. 

t Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomcdia, being informed that the Christians 
were assembled on this day in gi-oat multitudes to cele'orate Christ's nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, 
and the church to be set on fire, and 600 perished in the burning jiile. This was the commencement of the 
tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, 303. 



CHR 



174 



CHU 



CHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by professor Wheatstone in 1840, to measure 
small intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity of projectiles and of the electric 
current. A chronoscope was invented by Pouillet, in 1844, and by others since. 

CHUNAR, Treaty of, concluded between the nabob of Oude and governor Hastings, 
by which the nabob was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, on condition of 
Ms seizing the property of the begums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to 
the English, 19 Sept. 1781. This treaty enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola 
Khan, a Bohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under guarantee of the English. The 
nabob presented to Mr. Hastings ioo,oooZ. 

CHURCH (propably derived from the Greek Tcyriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios), 
now signifies a collective body of Christians, and also the place where they meet. In the New 
Testament, it signifies "congregation," in the original ekklesia. Christian architecture 
commenced with Constantine, who, after he was settled in his government, erected, at Rome, 
churches (called basilicas, from the Greek hasilPAis, a king) ; St. Peter's being erected about 
330. His successors erected others ; and adopted the heathen temples as places of worship. 
Several very ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland ; see Architecture; Choir and 
Chanting; Rome, Modern; Popes. 

CHURCH DISCIPLHSTE ACT (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86), passed 7 Aug. 1840, enables bishops 
to issue commissions of inquiry, and on conviction to inhibit clergymen from performing 
service, &c. 

CHURCH OF England.* The following are important facts in her history : for details, 
refer to separate articles ; see Clergy. 



Britain converted to Christianity (" Christo 

subdita," Tertullian) . . . 2nd century- 
Invasion of the Saxons, 477 ; converted by 

Augustin and his companions . . . . 596 
Dunstan establishes the supremacy of the mo- 
nastic orders, about 960 

The aggrandising poUcy of the Church, fostered 
by Edward the Confessor, checked by 
"William I. and his successors . . 1066 et seq. 
Contest between Henry II. and Becket re- 
specting the "Constitutions of Clarendon," 

1164-1170 
John surrenders his crown to the papal legate 1213 
Else of the Lollards — Wickliffe publishes tracts 
against the errors of the Church of Rome, 
1356: and a version of the Bible, about . . 1383 
The clergy regulated by parliament, 1529; they 

lose the first fruits 1534 

The royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by 
Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for re- 
fusing to acknowledge it 1535 

Coverdale's translation of the Bible commanded 

to be read in churches . .• . . . ,, 

" Six Articles of Religion " promulgated . .1539 
First Book of Common Prayer issued . . . 1549 
The clergy permitted to man-y . . . . ,, 
" Forty-two Articles of Religion " issued . . 1552 
Restoration of the Ronaau forms, and fierce 

persecution of the Protestants by Mary 1553-8 

The Protestant forms restored by EHzabeth ; 

the Puritan dissensions begin . . 1558-1603 
" Thirj;y-nine " Articles published . . . 1563 
Hampton Court conference with the Puritans . 1604 
New translation of the Bible published . . 161 1 
Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Direc- 
tory established by parliament . . . . 1644 
Presbyterians established by the Common- 
wealth 1649 

Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed— 
2000 nonconforming ministers resign their 

livings 1662 

Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism; 

" Declaration of Indulgence " published . 1687 
Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of 
" seditious libel " 1688 



The Non-juring bishops and others deprived ; x 
(they formed a separate communion) i Feb. 1691 
" Queen Anne's Bounty," for the augmentation 

of poor livings 1704 

Act for building 50 new chiirches jjassed . .1710 
Fierce disputes between the low church and 

the high church ; trial of Sacheverell . . ,, 
The Bangorian controversy begins . . . 1717 
John Wesley and George Whitefield commence 

preaching 1738 

Rise of the Evangelical party in the church, 
under Newton, Romaine, and' others, in the 
latter part of the i8th century. 
Church of England united with that of Ireland 

at the Union 1800 

Clergy Incapacitation Act passed . . . . 1801 
Incorporated society for promoting the build- 
ing of churches, &c. , established . . . 1818 
Acts for building and enlarging churches 1828, 1838 
200 new churches erected in the diocese of Lon- 
don under bishop C. J. Blomfield . . 1828-56 
" Tracts for the Times " (No. i-go) published 

(much controversy ensued) . . . 1833-41 
Ecclesiastical Commission established . . . 1834, 
New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) . 1840 
'• Essays and Reviews " published, i860 ; nume- 
rous Replies issued (see Essays and Reviews) 1861-2 

[The Church of England is now said to be divi- 
ded into High, Low (or Evangelical), and 
Broad Church : the last including persons 
who hold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, 
the Rev. F. D. Maurice, and others.] 

Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
on "The Pentateuch," about Oct. 1862 ; the 
bishops, ill convocation, declare that it con- 
tains "errors of the gravest and most dan- 
gerous character " .... 20 May, 1863 
A Church Congress at Manchester 13, 14, 15 Oct. ,, 
Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, 

Dr. Gray, bishop of Capetown . 16 AprU, 1864 
Church congress at Bristol .... Oct. „ 
Bishop Colenso's appeal came before the privy 
council, which declared bishop Gray's pro- 



* The church of England consists of three orders of cZe9-(72/— bishops, priests, and deacons ; viz. , two 
archbishops and twenty-five bishops, exclusive of the see of Sodor and Man. The other dignities are 
chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, 
and priest-vicars : these and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, and chapelries, make the number 
of preferments of the established church, according to official returns, 12,327. The number of benefices in 
England and Wales, according to parliamentary returns, in 1844, was 11,127, ^i^d the number of glebe- 
houses 5527. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels about 14,100. The number of 



CHU 



175 



CHU 



CHURCH OF England, continued. 

ceedings null and void (since a colonial 
bishop can have no authority except what 
is granted by parliament or by the colonial 
legislature) 21 March, 

■" Oxford Declaration" (authorship ascribed to 
archdeacon Denison and Dr. Pusey), respect- 
ing belief in eternal punishment, drawn wp 
and signed on 25 Feb. , and sent by post to 
the clergy at lai'ge for signature : about 3000 
are said to have signed ; it was presented to 
the archbishop of Canterbury . 12 May, 

Bishop of London's Fund, for remedying spiri- 
tual destitution in London, established ; the 
Queen engages to give (in three years) 3000?.., 
and prmce of Wales loooL . . 7 March, 

3oo,456L received; 72,003?. promised, 31 Dec. 

■205,3412. received 30 April, 

The Queen engages to give 15,000^. in 10 years, 

April, 

New foiTtt of clerical subscription proposed by 
a commission in 1S64 ; adopted by parliament, 

July, 

Chnrch congress met at Norwich . 3-7 Oct. 

Meeting in London of three English bishops, 
Dr. Pusey, and nearly 80 of the clergy and laity 
with counts Orloff and Tolstse, and the 
Russian chaplain, to consider on the practi- 
cability of uniting the English and Russian 
chui'ches 15 Nov. 

Congress met at York . . . .9 Oct. 

Bishop Colenso publicly excommunicated at 
Maritzbui-g cathedral, by bishop Gray 5 Jan. 

Bishop Gray declares himself independent, 
establishes sjmods, and calls his see "The 
Church of South Africa " . . early in 

The Church Missionary Society refuses to sup- 
port colonial bisliops, unless they keep within 
the formularies of the Church of England 

early in 



iS6s 



Much excitement caused by the progress of 
ritualism {lohich see) . . . Sept.-Nov. : 

Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and othei-s (trus- 
tees of the Colonial Bishopric Fund) for with- 
holding his salary. Verdict of master of the 
rolls, for plaintiff, with costs . . 6 Nov. 

Unqualified condemnation of ritualism, by the 
bishops in convocation, 13 Feb. ; the lower 
house concurred . . . .15 Feb. : 

The bishop of Salisbury (Dr. Hamilton) in a 
chiirch asserts the doctrine of the super- 
natural gifts of priests, the Divine presence 
in the sacrament ; public protest against it 

16 May, 

Trial in Court of Arches : Martin v. Mackon- 
ochie, respecting extreme ritualistic practices 
at St. Alban's, Holborn ; case deferred 21 May, 

Royal Ritualistic Commission appointed to in- 
quire and report rsspecting rubricks in the 
Prayer-Book, table of lessons, &c., 3 June ; 
first report, censuring innovations, signed 

19 Aug. 

Pan- Anglican Synod {ichich see) meets at Lam- 
beth 24-27 Sept. 

Church congress at Wolverhampton . i Oct. 

Meeting of ritualists in St. James's Hall, 
claiming liberty . . . -19 Nov. 

Case of Martin v. Mackonochie, begun 4 Dec., 
lasted 14 days ; resumed . . 16-18 Jan. 

Proposal of bishop Gray of Capetown to con- 
secrate Jlr. Macrorie bishop of Natal in oppo- 
sition to bishop Colenso, disapproved of by 
the English and Scotch bishops . . Jan. 

Bishop of London's Fund ; amount received, 
312,309^ . . . . . .31 Jan. 

Martin v. Mackonochie decided ; verdict for 
plaintiff ; use of incense, mixing water with 
the wine, and elevation of the elements, in 
the sacrament, forbidden . 28 March, 



CHURCH OF France. St. Pothinus preached Chvi.stianity to tlie Gauls about 160; 
Ijecame bishop of Lyons, aud suffered martyrdom with others, 177. 



292 



Concordat of Leo X. and Francis I. annulling 
the pragmatic sanction . . 18 Aug. 

Disputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists, 
begun 

Declaration of the clergy (drawir up by Bossuet) 
in aocoi-dance with the pragmatic sanctions, 
confirmed by the king . . 23 March, 

The Jansenists excommunicated by the Bull 
Unigenitus 1713 

Concordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon 1801 andi8i3 

The principles of the concordat of Leo X. re- 
stored by Pius VII. and Louis XVIII. . . 1807 



1516 
1640 



16S2 



A mission of seven bishops arrived in 243 ; fol- 
lowed by severe persecution ... 28 

Christianity tolerated by Constantius Chlorus . 

Council of* Aries convoked by Constantino, 
about 600 bishops present; the Donatists 
condemned 314 

Christianity established by Clovis . . . 496 

Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the 
impositions of the pope ; and restoring the 
right of electing bishops, &c 1269 

Pragmatic sanction of Bourges, declaring a 
general council superior to the pope, and pro- 
hibiting appeals to him 1438 

CHURCH OF Ireland, founded by St. Patrick in the 5th century, imited with that of 
England as the United Church of Enghind and Ireland in 1800. Previously to the Church 
Temporalities Act of Will. IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen 
bishoprics in Ireland, of which two archbishoprics and eight bishopries have ceased ; that 
act providing for the union or abolition of certain sees, according as the possessors .of them 
died ; see Ireland, 1867-68, and Bislwps. 

CHURCH OF North America. The Episcopal church was established in Nov. 1784, 
when bishop Seabury, chosen by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in Scotland. 
The first convention was held at Philadelphia in 1785. On 4 Feb. 1787, two more American 
bishops were consecrated at Lambeth. In 1851 there were 37 bishops; see Pan- Anglican 
Synod. 

CHURCH OF Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy in Scotland in 1638, Presby- 
terianism became the established religion. Its distinguishing tenets were first embodied 
in the formulary of faith, said to have been compiled by John Knox, in 1560, which was 
approved by the Parliament and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an act of the Scottish 
senate in 1696, and secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. The church of 

benefices in Ireland was 1495, to which there were not moi'e than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest 
having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in i860 for the union of contiguous benefices. In 1867 the 
beneficed clergy were estimated at 12,888 ; curates and other clergy without livings about 7000. 



CHU 176 GIN" 

Scotland is regulated by four courts — the general assembly,* the synod, the presbytery, and 
kirk sessions ; see Presbyterians. A large body seceded from this church in 1843, and took 
the name of the "Free Church of Scotland,'' {wMch see) ; see Bishops in Scotland. 

CHURCH-RATES. The maintaining the church (^. e. the building) in repair belongs- 
to the parishioners, who have the sole power of taxing themselves for the expense when, 
assembled in vestry. Tlie enforcement of payment, which is continually disputed by dis- 
senters and others, belongs to the ecclesiastical coiirts. Many attempts have been made to 
abolish church-rates. A bill for this purpose has passed the commons only several times 
since 1855 ; one was thrown out in May, 1861. One passed by the commons, July, rejected 
by the lords 8 Aug. 1867. Mr. Gladstone's compulsory church-rate abolition bill passed 
in the commons, 25 March, 1868; see Braintree. 

CHURCH-SERVICES were ordered by pope Vitellianus to be read in Latin 663 ; by 
queen Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. 

CHURCH- WARD ENS, officers of the church, appointed by the first canon of the synod 
of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also appointed by the same body, and 
they continue now nearly as then constituted. Johnson^ s Canons. 

CHURCHYARDS, see Consecration. 

CHURCHING OF Women is the act of returning thanks in the chiirch by women after 
child-birth. It began about 214. Wheatley; se& Purification. 

CHUSAN, a Chinese isle ; see China, 1840, 1841, i860. 

CIDER {Zider, German), when first made in England, was called wine, about 1284. The 
earl of Manchester, when ambassador in France,, is said to have passed off cider for wine. 
It was subjected to the excise in 1 763 et seq. The duty was taken off in 1 830. Many orchards 
were planted in Herefordshire by lord Scudamore, ambassador from Charles I. to France. 
John Philips published his poem "Cider" in 1706. 

CIGAR SHIP, see imder Steam, 1866. 

CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes of that coimtry. It became a Roman 
province 67 B.C., and was conquered by the Turks, a.d. 1387. 

CIMBRI, a Teutonic race from Jutland, invaded the Roman empire about 120 B.C. 
They defeated the Romans, under Cn. Papirius Carbo, 113 B.C. ; under the consul, Marcus' 
Silanus, 109 B.C., and under Csepio Manlius, at Aransio, on the banks of the Rhine, where 
80,000 Romans were slain, 105 B.C. Their allies, the Teutones, were defeated by Marius 
in two battles at Aquse Sextise (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were killed, and 70,000 made 
prisoners, 102 B.C. The Cimbri were defeated by Marius and Catulus, at Campus Raudius, 
when about to enter Italy ; 120,000 were killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, loi B.C. Thej' 
were afterwards absorbed into the Teutones or Saxons. • 

CIMENTO (Italian, experiment). The " Accademia del Cimento," at Florence, held its 
first meeting for making scientific experiments, 18 June, 1657. It was patronised by 
Ferdinand, grand duke of Tuscany. The foundation of the Royal Society of London followed 
in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1666. 

CINCINNATI. A society established in the American army soon after the peace of 
1783, "to perpetuate friendship, and to raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans 
of those who had fallen during the war." On the badge was a figure of Cincinnatus. The 
people dreaded military influence, and the societj'' dissolved itself. 

CINNAMON, a species of laiu'el, is mentioned among the perfumes of the sanctuary, 
Exodus XXX. 23. It was found in the American forests by Don Ulloa, in 1736, and was 
cultivated in Jamaica and Dominica in 1 788. 

CINQUE-CENTO (five hundred) ; ter-cento, &c., see note to article Jialy. 

CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of England, were originally j?rc (hence the name) 
— Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romuey, and Sandwich : Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards 
added. JeaJce. Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called wardens, for the better 
security of the coast, these ports being nearest to France, and considered the ke}''s of the 
kingdom ; instituted by William I. in 1078. Rapin. The latest lord-wardens were the 
duke of Wellington, 1828-52; the marquess of Dalhousie, 1852-60; lord Palmerston, 
1861-65 ; earl Granville, appointed Dec. 1865. 

CINTRA (Portugal.) Here was signed an agreement on 22 Aug. 1808, between the 
French and English the day after the battle of Vimeira. As it contained the bases of the 

* The first general assembly of the church was held 20 Dec. 1560. The genei-al assembly constitutes 
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edinburgh in May, and sits about 
ten days. It consists of a grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and delegates from presby- 
teries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. To this coui-t all appeals from the inferior 
ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision is final. 



CIP 



177 



cm 



convention signed on 30 Aug. following, it lias been termed the convention of Cintra. By 
it Junot and his army Avere permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British ships. The con- 
vention was publicly condemned, and in consequence a court of inquiiy was held at Chelsea, 
which exonerated the British commanders. Wellington and Napoleon both justified sir 
Hew Dalrymple. 

CIPHER, a secret manner of writing. Julius Cresar and Augustus when writing secret 
despatches are said to have employed the second or third letter instead of the first, and the 
same sequence with regard to the others. This cijiherwas in use till the reign of Sixtus IV. 
(1471-84), when the secret was divulged by Leon Battista Alberti, and a new sort of cipher 
sprang up. The father of Venetian cipher was Zuan Soro, who flourished about 15 16. 
Rawdon Brown, 

CIRCASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus). The Circassians are said to be descended 
from the Albanians. They were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the i6th century the 
greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the czar Ivan II. of Russia, and about 
1745, the princes of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many Circassians became Mahometans 
in the i8th century. 



Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by 
the treaty of Adrianople (but the Ch-cassians, 
under Schamjd, long resist) .... 

Victories of OrbelUani over them, June, Nov., 

Dec. 

He subdues much country, and expels the in- 
habitants April, I 

Schamyl, their gi-eat leader, captured, and 
treated with much respect . . 7 Sept. i 



About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constan- 
tinople, suffer much distress, and are relieved 1S60 
1830 The last of the Circassian strongholds captured, 
and the gTand duke Michael declares the war 

1857 at an end 8 June, 1864 

Many thousand Circassians emigrate into Tur- 
key ; partially relieved by the sultan's go- 
vernment June, et seq. 

Schamyl and his son at the marriage of the 
czaro witch 9 Nov. 1866 

CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in the Roman circus (at first in honour of Census, 
the god of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, Juno, and Minerva), said to have 
been instituted by Evander, and established at Rome, 732 B.C. by Romulus, at the time of 
the rape of the Sabines. They were called the Great games, but Tarquin named them 
Cu'censian ; their celebration continued from 4 to 12 Sej)t. 

CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circumference, 
has exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archimedes, about 221 e.g., 
gave it as 7 to 22 ; Abraham Sharp (1717) as I to 3 and 72 decimals ; and Lagny (1719) as 
I to 3 and 122 decimals. 

CIRCLES OF Gehmany (formed about 1500, to distinguish the members of the diet of 
the empire) were, in 15 12, Franconia, Bavaria, Upper and Lower Rhine, Westphalia, and 
Saxony; in 1789, Austria, Burgundy, Westphalia, Palatinate, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Bavaria, 
Franconia, and Upper and Lower Saxony. In 1804 these divisions were annulled by the 
establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, in 1806 {which see). 

CIRCUITS IN England were divided into three, and three justices were appointed to 
each, 1 1 76. They were afterwards divided into four, with five justices to each division, 
1 180. Rapin. They have been frequently altered. England and Wales are at present 
divided into eight — each travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil and criminal 
cases ; the larger towns are visited in winter for trials of criminals only : this is called 
"going the circuit." There are monthly sessions for the city of London and coimty of 
Middlesex. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers lent books on hire in the middle ages. The 
public circulating library in England, opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister 
of Salisbury, about 1 740, failed ; but similar institutions at Bath and in London succeeded, 
and others were established throughout the kingdom. There was a circulating library at 
Crane-court, Loudon, in 1748, of which a catalogue in two vols, was published. ^ — No books 
can be taken from the British Museum except for judicial purposes, but the libraries of the 
Royal Society and the principal scientific societies, except that of the Royal Institution, 
London, are circulating. — The London Library (circulating) was founded in 1841, xmder the 
highest auspices, and is of great value to literary men. — Of the subscription libraries 
belonging to individuals, that founded by Mr. C. E. Mudie, in New Oxford-street, is the 
most remarkable for the large quantity and good quality of the books : several hundreds, 
sometimes thousands, of copies of a new work being in cii'culatiou. It began in 1842, and 
grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when the first two volumes of Macaulay's History of 
England were published, for which there was an unprecedented demand, supplied by this 
library. The hall, having the walls covered with shelves filled with new books, was 
opened in Dec. i860. The "Circulating Library Company" was founded in Jan. 1862, and 
other companies since. 



Tasman, Dutcla . . . 1642 Bougainville, French . ■ 1766-9 

Cowley, British . . . 1683 James Cook . . . 1768-71 

Dampier, English . . . 16S9 On his death the voyage was 

Cooke, English . ... 170S \ continued by King . . 1779 

Clipperton, British . . 1719 Portlocke, British . . 1788 

Eoggewein, Dutch . . 1721 23 King and Pitzroy, British 1826-36 
Anson {afterwards lord) 1740-44 ', Belcher, British . . 1836-42 

Byron, EngHsh . . . 1764-66 Wilkes, American . . 1838-42 



CIR 178 CIV 

CIRCULATION of thk Blood, see Blood. 

CIRCUMCISlOISr (instituted 1897 B.C.) was the seal of the covenant made by God with 
Abraham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, and is still by the Copts and some 
oriental nations. The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), originally the octave of 
Christmas, is mentioned about 487. It was introduced into the liturgy in 1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most daring human enterprises at the period 
when it was first attempted, was the circumnavigation of the earth in 1519-22.* 

Magellan first entered the 
Pacific Ocean . . . 1519 

Grijalva, Spaniard . . . 1537 

Alvaradi, Spaniard . . ,, 

Mendana, Spaniard . . . 1567 

Sir Francis Drake, first Eng- 
lish IS77 

Cavendish, first voyage . 1586-88 

Le Maire, Dutch . . . 1615 j Wallis, British . . 1766-68 I See North-West Passage. ^ 

Quiros, Spaniard . . . 1625 ' Carteret, English . . 1766-69 I 

CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; the largest, 
the Circles Maximus, was built by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.C. It was an oval figure : length 
three' stadia and a half, or more than three English furlongs ; breadth 960 Roman feet. It 
was enlarged by Julius Caesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. 
Julius Csesar introduced into it large canals of water, which could be quickly covered with 
vessels, and represent a sea fight. Pliny ; see Avivhitheatres, and Factions. 

CIRRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), for sacrilege, razed to the ground in the Sacred 
War, 586 B.C. 

CISALPINE REPUBLIC (N. Italy), formed by the French in May, 1797, from the 
Cispadane and Transpadane republics, acknowledged by the emperor of Germany to be 
independent, by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see), 17 Oct. following. It received a 
new constitution in Sept. 1798; v/as remodelled, and named the Italian republic, with 
Napoleon Bonaparte president, 1802 ; and merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; 
see Italy, 

CISPADANE REPUBLIC, with the Transpadane republic, merged into the Cisalpine 
republic, Oct. 1797. 

CISTERCIANS (the order of Citeaux), an order of monks founded by Robert, a Bene- 
dictine, abbot of Citeaux, in France, near the end of the nth century. For a time it 
governed almost all Europe. The monks observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on 
straw, and wore neither shoes nor shirts. They were reformed by St. Bernard. ; see 
Bernardines. 

CITATE. The Russian general GortschakofF, intending to storm Kalafat, threw up 
redoubts at Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by the Turks under Omer 
Pacha, 6 Jan. 1854. The fighting continued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, when the Russians 
were compelled to retire to their former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 killed and 
2COO wounded. The loss of the Turks was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. 

CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scoiu-ge a citizen of Rome. Livy. In England a citizen 
is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade therein. Camden. Various 
privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen in several reigns. — The wives of citizens 
of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were obliged to wear 
minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or 
four inches beyond their foreheads ; aldermen's wives made them of velvet, 1 Eliz. 1558. 
Stow. — On 10 Oct. 1792, the convention decreed that "citoyen" and "citoyenne" should 
be the only titles in France. 

CITY. (Latin eivitas, French citS, Italian citta.) The word has been u.sed in England 
only since the conquest, when London was called Londonhurgh. Cities were first incorporated 
1079. A town corporate is called a city when made the seat of a bishop and having a 
cathedral church. Catnden. 

CIUDAD RODRIGO, a sti'ong fortress of Spain, invested by the French, 11 June, 1810, 
and surrendered to them 10 July. It remained in their possession until it was stormed by 
the British, under Wellington, 19 Jan. 1812. 

CIVIL ENGINEERS, see Engineers. 

CIVIL LAW. A body of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, 

* The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was Magellan's, 
or Magelhaen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a westerly course he 
returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was completed in 3 years and 29 days. 
Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, at the Philippines, in 1521. 



CIV 



179 



CLA 



was first collected by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, Avho flourislietl about 66 b. c. ; and a 
digest oftliem was made by Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, 53 B.C. The Gregorian code 
was issued a.d. 290 ; the Theodosiau in 438. Many of the former laws having grown out of 
use, the emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them (in 529-534), which was called the 
Justinian code, and constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil law was restored 
in Italy, Germany, &c., 1127. Blair. It was introduced into England by Theobald, a 
Norman abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury in 1 138. It is now used in the spiritual 
courts only, and in maritime affairs ; see Doctors' Commons, and Laws. 

CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the revenue awarded to the kings of England in 
lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 
6oo,oooZ., and that of Charles I. was about 8oo,oooZ. After the revolution (in 1660) a civil 
list revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700,000?., the parliament taking into 
its own hands the support of the forces both maritime and military. The civil list of George 
II. was increased to 800,000?. ; and that of George III., in the 55th year of his reign, was 
1,030,000?. 



civil list led to the resignation of the Wel- 
lington administration . . 15 Nov. 1830 

A select committee was appointed by the house 
of commons for the purpose . . 2 Feb. i860 

Estimate for 1867-8, 8,202,953^. 



In 1831, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed 

at 510,000?., and in Dec, 1837, the civil list 

of the queen was fixed at 385,000?. 
Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from 

parliament of 30,000?. per an. on . 7 Feb. 1840 
Sir H. Parnell's motion for inquiry into the 

CIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons are employed in this service imder the 
direction of the treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, and revenue offices, &c. 
In 1855, a commission reported most unfavourably on the existing system of appoint- 
ments, and on 21 May commissioners were appointed to examine into the qualifications 
of the candidates, who report annually. The civil service superannuation act passed 
in April, 1859. Civil service for the year (ending 31 March) 1855, cost 7,735,515?. ; 1865, 
10,205,413?. ; 1867, 10,523,020?. 

CIVIL WARS, see England, France, &c. 

CLANSHIPS, tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same name, originated in 
feudal times ; see Feudal Laxos. They are said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of 
Malcolm XL, about 1008. The legal power of the chiefs of clans and other remains of 
heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, and liberty was granted to clansmen in 
1747, in consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following is a list of all the known 
clans of Scotland, with the badge of distinction anciently worn by each. The chief of each 
respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in his bonnet, in addition to 
the distinguishing badge of his clan. Chambers. A history of the clans by Wm. Buchanan 
was published in 1775. 



Name. 


Badge. 


'Same. 


Badge. 


Name 


Badge. 


Buchanan , 


Birch. 


Lament . 


. Crab-apple tree. 


M'Neil . 


Sea- ware. 


Cameron 


Oak. 


M'Alister 


. Five-leaved heath. 


M'Pherson 


Variegated box-wd. 


Campbell . 


Myi-tle. 


M'Donald 


. BeU-heath. 


M'Quarrie 


Blackthorn. 


Chisholm 


Alder. 


M'Donnell 


. Mountain heath. 


M'Eae . 


Fir-club moss. 


Colquhoun . 


Hazel. 


M'DougaU 


. Cypress. 


Menzies 


Asli. 


Gumming 


Common sallow. 


M' Parian e 


. Cloud-berry bush. 


Munro . 


Eagle's feathers. 


Drummond 


Holly. 


M'Gregor 


. Pine. 


Mui-ray . 


Juniper. 


rarquharsoE 


Purple foxglove. 


M'Intosh 


. Box-wood. 


Ogilvie 


. Hawthorn. 


Ferguson 


Poplar. 


M'Kay . 


. Bull-rush. 


OUphant 


Great maple. 


Forbes . 


Broom. 


M'Kenzie 


. Deer-grass. 


Robertson 


. Pom, or brechans. 


Frazer . 


Yew. 


M'Kinnon 


. St. John's wort. 


Rose 


Briar-rose. 


Gordon . 


Ivy. 


M'Lachlan 


. Mountain-ash. 


Ross . 


Bear-berries. 


Graham 


Laurel. 


M'Lean . 


. Blackberry heath. 


Sinclair . 


. Clover. 


Grant 


Cranberry heath. 


M'Leod 


. Redwhortle-berries. 


Stewart 


. Thistle, 


Gun . 


Eosewort. 


M'Nab . 


. Kose blackberries. 


Sutherland 


. Cat's-tail grass. 



CLARE AND Clarence (Suffolk). Richard de Clare, carl of Gloucester, is said to have 
seated here a mon astery of the order of Friars Eremites, the first of this kind of mendicants 
who came to England, 1248. Tanner. Lionel, third son of Edward III. becoming possessed 
of the honour of Clare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence. The title has ever since 
belonged to a branch of the royal family.* — Clare was the first place in Ireland for 140 
years that elected a Roman Catholic member of parliament ; see Roman Catholics. At the 
election, held at Ennis, the county town, Mr. Daniel O'Connell was returned, 5 July, 1828. 
He did not sit till after the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being re- 
elected 30 July, 1829. 

* Dukes of Clakbkce: 1362, Lionel, bom 1338, died 1369; see York, dukes of. — 1411, Thomas (second 
son of Henry IV.), born 1389, killed at BaugS 1421. — 1461, George (brother of Edward IV.), mm-dered 1478. 
— 1789, William (third son of George III.), afterwards William IV. 

N 2 



CLA 



180 



CLE 



CLAEE, Nuns of St., a sisterhood, called Minoresses, founded in Italy by St. Clare 
and St. Francis d'Assisi, about 1212. They were also called ITrbanists ; tlieir rule having 
been modified by pope Urban IV., who died 1264. This order settled in France about 1260, 
and in England, in the Minories without Aldgate, London, about 1293, by Blanche, queen 
of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I. At the suppression, 
the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and Wells, 1539. Tanner. 

CLAEEMONT (Surrey), the residence of the princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince- 
regent, afterwards George IV.), and the scene of her death, 6 Nov. 1817. The house was 
originally built by sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successively of the earl of Clare, 
afterwards duke of Newcastle, of lord Clive, lord Galloway, and the earl of Tyrconnel. It 
was purchased of Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000?. for the prince and princess of Saxe- 
Coburg ; and the former, the late king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert in 1840. The 
exiled royal family of France took up their residence at Claremont, 4 March, 1848 ; and the 
king, Louis Philippe, died there, 29 Aug. 1856. 

CLAEENCIEUX, the second king-at-arms, said to have been nominated by Thomas, 
son of Henry IV., created duke of Clarence 141 1. His duty was to arrange the funerals of 
all the lower nobilitj", as baronets, knights, esquires, and gentlemen, on the south side of 
the Trent, from whence he is also called sur-roy or south-roy. 

CLAEENDON, Constitutions of, were enacted at a council held 25 Jan. 1164, at 
Clarendon, in Wiltshire, to retrench the power of the clergy. They led to Becket's quarrel 
with Henry II, , and were at lii'st condemned by the pope, but agreed to in 1173. 

IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- 
jected to the burthens belonging to that rank. 

X. Churches belonging to the king's see not to be 
granted in perpetuity against his will. 

XI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to 
give security for continuing in their abode. 

XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommuni- 
cated for non-appearance in a spiritual court. 

XIII. If any tenant hi capite should refuse sub- 
mission to spiritual courts, the case to be referred 
to the king. 

XIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right- 
of enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 

XV. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to 
be determined by a jury. 

XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, 
and no further without his consent. 



I. All suits concerning advowsons to be deter- 
mined in civil courts. 

II. The clergy accused of any crimetobetriedby 
civil judges. 

III. No person of any rank whatever to be per- 
mitted to leave the realm without the royal licence. 

IV. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, 
except by legal and reputable promoters and wit- 
nesses. 

V. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommu- 
nicated, nor his lands put under interdict. 

VI. Eevenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. 

VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be pro- 
tected in churches. 

VIII. Sons of villains not to be ordained clerks 
without the consent of their lord. 



CLAEENDON PEESS, Oxford. The building was erected by sir John Vanbrugh, in 
1711-13, the expense being defrayed out of the profits of lord Clarendon's History of the 
Eebellion, the copyright of which was given to the university by his son. The original 
building was converted into a museum, lecture rooms, &c., and anew printing-office erected 
by Blore and Eobertson, 1826-9. Sharp. 

CLAEION, said by Spanish writers to have been invented by the Moors in Spain, about 
800, was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding tenor and bass. Ashe. 

CLAEIONET, a wind instrument of the reed kind, invented by Denner, in Nuremberg, 
about 1690. 

CLASSIS. The name was first used b}'' Tullius Servius (the sixth king of ancient Eome), 
in making divisions of the Roman people, 573 B.C. The first of the six classes were called 
classici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank (especially Greek and Latin) 
came to be called classics. 

CLAVICHOED, a musical instrument in the form of a spinnet (called also a manichord) ; 
much in use in France, Spain, and Germany, in the 17th century. 

CLAYTON BULWEE TEEATY, see Bulwer. 

CLEAEING-HOUSE. In 1775, a building in Lombard-street was set apai't for the use 
of bankers, in which they might exchange drafts, bills, and secirrities, and thereby save 
labour and curtail the amount of floating cash requisite to meet the settlement of the different 
houses, if effected singly. By means of transfer tickets, transactions to the amount of 
millions daily are settled without the intervention of a bank note. In 1861, the clearing- 
house was used by 117 companies, and on May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England. 
The Railway clearing-house in Seymour-street, near Euston-square, is regulated by an act 
passed in 1 850. 

CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attributed to Clemens Eomanus, a contemporary of 
St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as bishop of Eome. He died 102. Niceron: 
Also the decretals of pope Clement V. who died 13 14, published by his successor. Bowycr. 



CLE 



181 



CLI 



Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine years, then merged into 
a common monlc- — Clementines were the adherents of Kobert, son of the count of Geneva, 
who took the title of Clement VII. on the death of Gregory XI. 1378, and Urbanists, 
those of pope Urban VI. All Christendom was divided by the claims of these two pontiffs : 
France, Castile, Scotland, &c., adhering to Clement ; Rome, Italy, and England, declaring 
for Urban. The schism ended in 1409, when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals 
resigned ; see Anti-Popes. 

CLEPSYDEA, a water-clock ; see Clocks. 

CLERGY (from the Greek klcros, a lot or inheritance) in the first century were termed 
presbyters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops {cpiscopoi or overseers), elected from 
the presbyters, in the second century assumed higher functions (about 330), and, under 
Constantine, obtained the recognition and protection of the secular power. Under the Lombard 
and Norman kings in the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to possess temporal power, 
as owners of lands ; and after the establishment of monachism, a distinction was made 
between the regular clergy, who lived apart from the world, in accordance with a reijiola or 
rule, and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. The English clergy write cleric after 
their names in legal documents ; see Church of England. 

Tlie clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the 
judges being chosen after the Norman custom 
from the sacred order, and the officers being- 
clergy : this gave them that denomination, which 
they keep to this day. Blackstone. 

As the Druids kept the keys of their rehgion and of 
letters, so did the priests keep both these to them- 
selves ; they alone made profession of letters, and 
a man of letters was called a clerk, and hence 
learning went by the name of clerkship. Fasquier. 

Benefit op CLERGy, Privilegium Clericale, arose in 
the regard paid by Christian princes to the church, 
and consisted of : ist, an exemption of places con- 
secrated to religious duties from crimmal arrests, 
which was the foundation of sanctuaries ; 2nd, 
exemption of the persons of clergymen from 
criminal process before the secular judge, in par- 
ticular cases, which was the original meaning of 
the privilegium clericale. The benefit of clergy was 
afterwards extended to every one who could read ; 
and it was enacted, that there should be a pre- 
rogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man 
who could read were to be condemned to death, 
the bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim 
him as a clerk, and dispose of him in some places 
of the clergy as he might deem meet. The ordi- 

CLERICAL SUBSCRIPTIOISr ACT, passed July, 1865. CLERK, see Clergy. 

CLERKENWELL, a parish, IST.E. London, so called from a well {fons clericoruin) in Ray- 
street, where the parish-clerks occasionally acted mystery-plays : once before Richard II. in 
1390. Hunt's political meetings in 181 7 were held in Spa-fields in this parish. In St. 
John's parish are the remains of the priory of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 
Clerkenwell prison was built in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, which was 
taken down in 1614 ; the then Bridewell having been found insufiicient. The prison called 
the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was rebuilt in 1818 ; again 1844. For the explo- 
sion here, see Fenians, Dec. 1867. At Clerkenwell-close formerly stood the house of 
Oliver Cromwell, where some suppose the death -wan-ant of Charles I. was signed, Jan. 1649. 

CLERMONT (France). Here was held the coimcil under pope Urban II. in 1095, in 
which the first crusade against the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey .of BouUlon 
appointed to command it. In this council the name of pope was first given to the head of 
the Roman Catholic church, exclusively of the bishops who used previously to assume the 
title. Philip I. of France was (a second time) excommunicated by this assembly. Henault. 

CLEVES (N.E. Germany). Rutger, cormt of Cleves, lived at the beginning of the nth 
century. Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves by the emperor Sigismund, 
141 7. John "William, duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &c., died without issue 25 March, 1609, 
which led to a war of succession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the elector of Brandenburg 
in 1666 ; seized by the French in 1757 ; restored at the peace in 1763, and now forms part of 
the Prussian dominions. 

CLIFTON SUSPENSION-BRIDGE, over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and 
Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hungerford-bridge, was completed in Oct. 1864 ; 
opened 8 Dec. 1864. It is said to have the largest span (702 feet) of any chain bridge in 
the world. In 1753 Alderman Vick, of Bristol, bequeathed loool. to accumulate for the 



nary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in 
a black Gothic character, from which to read a 
verse or two ; and if the ordinary said, '^ Legit ut 
C/«-iCT« " (" He reads hke a clerk"), the oft'ender 
was only bvu-nt in the hand; otherwise, he suf- 
fered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). 

The privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, 
and abolished, with respect to murderers and 
other great criminals, by Henry VIII. 15 12. Stow. 

The reading was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706). 

Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. 
IV. c. 28 (1827). 

CLERGY CHARiTIES. 

William Assheton, an eminent theological writer, 
was the first proposer of a plan to provide for the 
families of deceased clergy. He died Sept. 1711. 
Watts's Life of Assheton. 

Festival of the " Sons of the Clergy," held annually 
at St. Paul's cathedral, instituted about 1655 ; from 
it sprang the charity called the "Sons of the 
Clergy " (clergy, orphan,- and widow corporation), 
incorporated i July, 1678. 

There are several other charities for relatives of the 
clergy. 



CLI 182 CLO 

erection of a bridge over the Avon. In 183 1 Brunei began one, whicb was abandoned after 
tlie expenditure of 45,oooZ. 

CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certain periods of time in a man's life (multiples of 
7 or 9), in which it is affirmed notable alterations in the health and constitution of a person 
happen, and expose him to imminent dangers. Cotgrave says, " Every 7th or 9th or 63rd 
year of a man's life, all very dangerous, but the last most." The grand climacteric is 63. 
Hippocrates is said to have referred to these periods in 383 B.C. 

CLIO. The initials C. L. I. 0., forming the name of the muse of history, were rendered 
famous from the most admired papers of Addison, in the Spectator, having been marked by 
one or other of them, signed consecutively, in 1713. Cihher. 

CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the celebrated sewers at Rome, the construction of 
which is attributed to king Tarquinius Priscus (588 B.C.) and his successors. 

CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock was introduced at Rome about 158 B.C. by 
Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, about 140 B.C. Said to 
liave been found by Csesar on invading Britain, 55 b.c. The only clock supposed to be then 
in the world was sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin king of France a.d. 760. Pactficus, arch- 
deacon of Genoa, invented one in the 9th century. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record was made by a 
Saracen mechanic in the 13th century. Alfred is said to have measured time by wax tapers, 
and to have invented lanterns to defend them from the wind about 887. 

The scapement ascribed to Gerbert . . . 1000 

A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, 
cost 3oi. . 1292 

A clock constructed by Eichard, abbot of St. 
Alban's, about 1326 

John Visconti sets up a clock at Genoa. . . 1353 

A striking clock in Westminster . . . 1368 

A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . 1370 

The first portable one made .... 1530 

In England no clock went accurately before 
that set up at Hampton-court (maker's 
initials N. O.) 1540 

The pendulum is said to have been applied to 
clocks by the younger GaUleo, 1639 ; and by 
Eichard Han-is (who erected a clock at St. 
Paul's, Covent-garden) 1641 

Christian Huyghens contested this discoverj^, 
and made his pendulum clock some time pre- 
viously to 1658 (See Electric Clock, under Electricity.) 

Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the pendu- 
lum about 1659 

CLOGHER (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple of St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at 
Clogher, where he also built an abbey "in the street before the royal seat of the kings of 
Ergal." He died in 506. Clogher takes its name from a golden stone, from which, in times 
of paganism, the devil used to pronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of Apollo PytMus. 
Sir James Ware. In 1041 the cathedral was buUt anew, and dedicated to its founder. 
Clogher merged, on the death of its last prelate (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see 
of Armagh, by the act of 1833. 

CLONFERT (Ireland). St. Brendan founded an abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is 
extant in jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at "Westminster. In his time the 
cathedral, famous in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; and Colgan makes St. 
Brendan its founder and the first bishop ; but is said, in the Ulster Annals, under the 
year 571, " Mccna, bishop of Clonfert-Brenain, went to rest." Clonfert, in Irish, signifies a 
wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see merged into that of Killaloe ; see Bishops. 

CLONTARF (near Dublin), the site of a battle fought on Good Friday, 23 April, 1014, 
between the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland, 
who defeated the invaders, after a long and bloody engagement, was wounded, and soon 
afterwards died. His son Murchard also fell with many of the nobility ; 11,000 Danes are 
said to have perished in the battle. 

CLOSTERSEVEF (Hanover), Convention of, was entered into 8 Sept. 1757, between 
the duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., and the duke of Richelieu, commander of 
the French armies. By its humiliating stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their 
arms, and were dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his military com- 
mands, and the convention was soon broken by both parties. 

CLOTH, see Woollen Cloth, and Calico. 

CLOUD, St., a palace, near Paris, named from prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a 



Eepeating clocks and watches invented by 

Barlow, about 1676 

The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by 
Graham, about 1700 ; the compensating pen- ^ 

dulum 1715 

The spiral balance spring suggested, and the 
duplex scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; 
pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; the detached- 
scapement, invented by Mudge, and improved 
by Berthould, Arnold, Earnshaw, and others 
in the i8th century. 
Harrison's time-piece (^ohich see) constructed . 1735 , 
Clocks and watches taxed, 1797; tax repealed. 1798 
The Horological Institute established . . 1858 
The great Westminster clock set up . 30 May, 1859 
266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches imported into 
the United Kingdom in 1857 ; the duty came 
off in i85r. 



CLO 



183 



COA 



monk there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and died in 560. The palace was built 
in the i6th century, and in it Henry II. was assassinated by Clement, 2 Aug. 1589. 

CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, often in a frozen state, floating in the air. 
In 1803 Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of clouds, now generally adopted, con- 
sisting of three primary forms — ^cirrus, ciimulus. and stratus ; three compounds of these 
forms ; and the nimbus or black rain clouds (cumulo-ciiTo-stratus). A new edition of 
Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared in 1865. 

CLOVESHOO (now Cliff), Kent. Here was held an important council of nobility and 
clergy concerning the government and discipline of the Church, Sept. 747 ; and others were 
held here 800, 803, 822, 824. 

CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in the 6th century by St. Coleman, in 1431 
imited to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It was united with that of Cork and 
Eoss, 1834 ; see Bishops. 

CLUBMEIsr, associations formed in the southern and western counties of England, to 
restrain the excesses of the armies during the civil wars, 1642-9. They pi'ofessed neutrality, 
but inclined towards the king, and were considered enemies by his opponents. 

CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, 
who met together at stated times for social intercourse. The club at the Mermaid tavern, 
established about the end of the i6th centuiy, consisted of Raleigh, Shakspeare, and others. 
Ben Jonson set up a club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, frequently met 
at Button's coffee-house, as described in the SjKciatur. The present Loudon clubs, some 
comprising 300, others about 1500 members, possess luxuriously furnished edifices, several 
of great architectural pretensions, in or near Pall Mall. The members obtain the choicest 
viands and Avines at moderate charges, and many clubs possess excellent lib raries, "particu- 
larly the Atheuajum {ichich see). The annual pajmient varies from 61. to 11^. lis. ; the 
entrance fee from gl. gs. to 31Z. iis. The following are the principal clubs (several are 
described in separate articles) : — 



Eota (political) 

Kit-Cat {lUerary) . . . 

Dilettanti (fine arts) 

Seef Steak 

■White's (Tcn-y) 

Royal Society (scientific) before 

Boodle's 

Literary Club (which see), 
termed also " The Club," 
and Johnson's Club . 

Brooke's, originally Almaok's 
(Whig) 

AMred (literal-!/) . . i8< 

Guards' . . . x May, 

Arthur's, early in iSth cen- 
tuiy ; house buUt 



1659 
1700 
1734 
1735 
1736 
1743 
1762 



1764 



)B-5i 
1810 



Roxburghe, London . . .1812 
United Sei-vice . . . 1815 

Travellers' 1819 

Union 1821 

United University . . . 1S22 
Bannatyne, Edinburgh . . 1823 
Athenaeum (tvhich see) . . 1824 

Oriental 

United Service (Junior) . 1827 

Wyndham 1828 

Maitland, Glasgow . . . „ 
Oxford and Cambridge . . 1829 
Caxltow (Conservatire), founded 
by the duke of Wellington 
and others .... 1831 
Garrick „ 



Abbotsford, Edinburgh . 
Reform (Liberal) . . . 

Parthenon .... 
Army and Navy , . . 
Etoliing, London 
Spalding, Aberdeen . . . 
Conservative .... 
Whittington (founded by 
Douglas Jerrold and others) 
Army and Navy . . . 
Grafton .... 
CobdenClub . . . . 

See Working Men's Clubs. 



1835 
1836 



1839 
1840 



1851 
1863 
1866 



CLUBS, Feench. The first arose about 1782. They were essentially political, and greatly 
concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club des Jacobins, 
and the Club des Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton and Camille Desmoulins. 
From these two came the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists in 1793, and fell 
in its turn in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were revived 
1848 in considei-able numbers, but did not attain to their former eminence, and were sup- 
pressed by decrees, 22 June, 1849, and 6 June, 1850. Bouillet. 

CLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shortening of one or more of the muscles, although 
attempted to be crrred by Lorenz in 1784, by cutting the tendo Achillis, was not effectually 
cured till 1831, when Strome3'er of Er Ian gen cured Dr. Little by dividing the tendons of the 
contracted muscles with a very thin knife. 

CLTIGNY or Cluny, Abbey of, in France, formerly most magnificent, founded bj' 
Benedictines, under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained afterwards by William, duke 
of Berry and Aquitaine. English foundations for Cluuiac monks were instituted soon after, 

CLYDE AND FORTH WALL was built by Agricola, 84. The Forth and Clyde Canal 
was commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and was opened 28 July. 1790, It forms a 
communication between the seas on the eastern and western coasts of Scotland. 

CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor : near hero Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacede- 
monian fleet, under Peisander, 394 b. c. 

COACH (from coucher, to lie). Beckmann states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered 
Naples in a caretta (about 1282). Under Francis I. there were but two in Paris, one 



COA 



184 



COA 



belonging to the queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were 
but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. John do 
Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on account of his enormous bulk. The first coach 
seen in England was about 1553. Coaches Avere introduced by Fitz-AUeu, eavl of Arundel, 
in 1580. Stow. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the efieminacy of men 
riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* Carte. Repealed 1625. The coach-tax commenced in 
1747. Horace Walpole says that the present royal state coach (first used 16 Nov. 1762), 
cost 7528?. The lord mayor's old state coach was not used 9 Nov. 1867 ; see Car, 
Carriages, Chariots, Hackney Coaches, Mail 'Coaches, &c. 

COAL, t It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coal, although not mentioned 
by the Eomans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use by the ancient Britons. Brandt. 
Henry III. is said to have granted a licence to dig coals near Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234 ; 
some say earlier, and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being used in and near 
London, as being "prejudicial to human health;" and even smiths were obliged to burn 
wood, 1273. Stovj. In 1306 the gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was first made an 
article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Rich. II. 1381. Rymer's Fcedera. Notwith- 
standing the many previous complaints against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length 
generally burned in London in 1400 ; but it was not in common use in England until the 
reign of Charles I. 1625. 



1700 consumed in London . 317,000 chald. j 1810 . . 980,372 chald. 1835 
1750 ...... 510,000 ditto. 1S20 . . 1,171,178 ditto. 1840 

1800 814,000 ditto. I 1830 . . 1,588,360 ditto. 1850 

i860.— Coal brought to London, 3,573,377 tons coast ways; 1,499,899 tons bj- r 
1861. — „ ,, ,, 5,232,082 tons; in 1862, 4,973,823 tons. 



. 2,299,816 tons. 
. 2,638,256 ditto. 
. 3,638,883 ditto, 
and canals. 



The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 
S400 square miles ; of Durham and Northum- 
beiiand, 723 square miles. BakeweU. In 
1857 about 65t millions of tons were extracted 
(value about i6,348,676i.)from 2095 collieries ; 
about 25 millions are consumed annually in 
Great Britain. 
Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland :— In 
1854, 64,661,401 tons ; in 1861, 83,635,214 tons ; 
in 1862, 81,638,338 tons; in 1863, 86,292,215 
tons (valued at 51,000,000?.) ; in 1864 (from 3268 
collieries), 92,787,873 tons ; in 1865, 98,150,587 
tons ; in 1866, 101,630,544 tons. 

Mr. Sopwith, in 1855, computed the annual 
product of the coal-mines of Durham and 
]Sforthumberland at 14 million tons :— 6 mil- 
lions for London, 2J millions exported, 2J 
millions for coke, i million for colliery en- 
gin(!s, &c., and 2 millions for local consump- 
tion. 

By a stiiDulation in the commercial treaty of 
i860, in consequence of the French govern- 
ment greatly reducing the duty on imported 
coal, the British government (it is thought 
by many imprudently) engaged to lay no 
duty on exported coal for ten years. In 1859 
about 7,000,000 tons of British coals were 
exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went to 
France. 

The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in 
Dublin from Ne wry 1742 

Sale of Coal Regulation Act 1831 

The duties on the exportation of British coal, 
which had existed since the i6th centuiy, 
were practically repealed . . _ . . 1834 

Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842 ; 
caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . . 1845 

AVomen were prohibited from working in Eng- 
lish colUeries in 1842 

The consumption of coal in France in 1780, only 
400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1845. 

The United States produced between 8 and 9 



mUlions of tons : Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and 
France, 4,500,000, in 1855 

An act for the regulation and inspection of 
mines was passed in i860 

Duplicate shafts act passed 1862 

Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur ; a long 
and severe one arose in Staffordshire in . . 1864 

A commission (consisting of the duke of Argyll, 
sir R. J. Murchison, Dr. John Percy, pro- 
fessor Bamsay, and others) appointed to in- 
vestigate into the probable quantity of coal 
in the coal-fields of the United Kingdom, the 
quantity now consumed, &c. . . July, 1 866 

Accidents. — About 1000 hves are lost annually by 
accidents in mines. 

In 1858, by e.x-plosions in coal-mines, 52 persons 
perished at Bardsley ; 20 at Dufiryn, near ffewport ; 
52 at Tyldesley, near Leeds; and about 36 in different 
parts of the country. 

1859 — 5 April, 26 lives were lost at the chain col- 
liery, near Neath, through the irruption of water. 

i860 — 76 lives were lost on 2 March, at Burradon, 
near Killing worth ; 145 at the Risca mine, near New- 
port, I Dec. ; and 22 at the Hetton mine, Noi-thum- 
berland, 20 Dec. 

1861 — II June, 21 lives were lost through an inun- 
dation in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 

1862 — 47 lives were lost at Gethin mine, Merthyr 
Tydvill, S. Wales, Feb. 19; at Walker, near New- 
castle-on-Tyne, 15 lives lost, Nov. 22 ; Edmund's 
Main, near Barnsley, 60 lives lost, 8 Dec. 

1863 — 13 lives lost at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, 
6 March ; 39 lives lost at Margam, S. Wales, 17 Oct. ; 
14 lives lost at Moestig, S. Wales, 26 Dec. 

1865 — 6 lives lost at Claycross, 3 May; 24 at New 
Bedwelty pit, near Tredegar, 16 June ; explosion at 
Gethin mine, Merthyr Tydvill ; 30 lives lost, 20 Dec. 

1S66— Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, 
Lancashire ; about 30 lives lost, 23 Jan. ; at Dukin- 
field, near Ashton, 37 lives lost, 14 June ; at Pelton 
Fell colUery, near Durham ; about 24 lives lost. 



* In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever since 
the gunpowder plot, obtained his liberation. Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about with six horses 
in his coach (being the first that was so), the eai-1 put on eight to his, and in that manner passed fi-om the 
Tower through the city. Rapin. 

t There are five kinds of fossil fuel : anthracite, coal, lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No 
satisfactory definition of coal has yet been given. The composition of wood is 49-1 carbon, 6'3 hydrogen, 
44'6 oxygen; of coal 82'6 carbon, 5-6 hydrogen, ii'8 oxygen. 



COA 



185 



coc 



COAL, continued. 
31 Oct. ; at Oaks colliery, Hoj'lo-mill, near Bamsley ; 
about 350 persons killed, 12 Dec. ; 28 searchers 
killed (including Mr. Parkin .Teffcock, mining en- 
gineer) by fresh explosion, 13 Deo. ; at Talk-of-the- 
hill. Staffordshire ; about 80 persons peri.sh, 13 Dec. 

1867— Explosion at Garswood colliery, near St. 
Helen's, 14 lives lost, 29 Aug. ; Shankhouse colliery, 
Cramlington, Northumberland, flooded ; about 200 
men drowned, i Nov. ; explosion at Ferndale colliery, 
Rhonnda Valley, near Cardiff; about 178 lives lost; 
attributed to naked lights, 8 Nov. 

(For stUl more fatal accidents, see Zundhill and 
Hartlei/.) 

85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in Prance, in 
Oct. 1S61. 

COALITIOlSrS AGAINST France generally arose through England subsidising the great 
poM'ers of the continent. 



20,000 colliers on strike in St. Helen's district, 
March, 1868. 

CoAi, Exchange, London, established by 47 
Geo. III. c. 68 (1807). The present building 
(a most interesting structure) was erected by 
Mr. J. B. Bunning, and opened by prince 
Albert 30 Oct. 1849 

CoAL-WHiPPERS' Board, to protect the men em- 
ployed in unloading coal-vessels from pub- 
licans, formed by an act of parliament in 
1843, lasted till 1856, when the coal-owners 
themselves estabhshed a whipping of&ce. 



Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain . . . 1793 
Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Por- 
tugal, and Turkey, signed . . 22 June, 1799 
Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 

5 Aug. 1805 



Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 

6 Oct. 1806 
England and Austria ... 6 April, 1809 
Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at 

KaUsch 17 March, 1813 

, See Treaties. 



COALITIOlSr MIISriSTRIES, see Aberdcm, GrenvilU II., PeUmm, and. Portland. 

COAST GTJAED. In 1856, the raising and goA-erning this body was transferred to the 
admiralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established in liov. 1859. — Coast Volunteers, 
see under Navy of England. 

COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an 
early date, in the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call it mundic. Hill. It was 
distinguished as a metal by Brandt, in 1733. 

COBDEN" CLUB : held first dinner, W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. 

CO BURG, see Saxe Ooburg. 

COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John Cocceius, of Bremen, about 1665, who held, 
amongst other opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general con- 
version of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith, 

COCKEREL (near Evreux, IST. W. France). Here Bertrand du Guesclin defeated the 
king of Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 16 May, 1364. 

COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503 ; by the Dutch, 1663 ; taken by the 
British, 1796 ; ceded to them 18 14. — Cohin China, see Anam. 

COCHINEAL INSECT {Coccus cacti), deriving its colour from_ feeding on the cactus, 
became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico in 1518. Cochineal 
was brought to Europe about 1523, but was not known in Italy iu 1548, although the art of 
dyeing then flourished there. In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Tenerilfe, the vines 
having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. of cochineal were imported into England iu 
1830; 1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850; and 3,034,976 lbs. in 1859. Duty 
repealed 1845. 

COCKER'S ARITHMETIC. The work, edited by John Hawkins, first appeared in 1677. 

COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, was introduced at Rome after a victory 
over the Persians, 476 B.C. ; and brought by the Romans into England. William Fitz- 
Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on 
Shrove-Tuesday. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365 ; by Heniy VIII. ; and by 
Cromwell, 1653. Part of the site of Drury-laue theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of 
James I. ; and the cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. Till lately there was a 
Cock-pit Eoyal in St. James's Park ; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would not renew 
the lease for the building.* Cock-fighting is now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 1865, 
34 persons were fined at Marlborough-street police-ofiice, for being present at a cock-fight. 

COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition practised by William Parsons, his wife, and 
daughter, by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 1761, carried on at No. 2,2i^ 

* Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and gi-oat hospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the 
splendour of his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he had won many profitable matches. The 
last wager he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, that in a fit of passion he thrust the bird 
into the fire. A delirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in three days put an end to his life. 
He died at Tottenham, near London, April 4, 1788. 



COC 186 COH 

Cock-lane, London, was at length detected, and tlie parents were condemned to the pillory 
and imprisonment, lo July, 1 762. 

COCOA or Cacao, the kernel or seed of the tree Theohroma cacao (Linn.), was introduced 
into this country shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where it forms an important article 
of diet. From cocoa is produced chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United Kingdom, 
chiefly from the British West Indies and Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs. ; in 1855, 
7,343,458 lbs. ; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs. ; in 1866, 10,308,298 lbs., about half for home 
consumption. 

COCOA-ISrUT TREE {Cocos nucifera, Linn.), supplies the Indians with almost all they 
need, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, 
thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cordage, nails, covering 
for their houses, &c. Ray. In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of procuring 
stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made in 
a month from these materials at the Belmont Avorks, Lambeth. 

CODES, see Zatus. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Eoman laws about 
66 B.C. ; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 B.C. The Gregorian 
and Hermoginian codes were published a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian code commenced by order 
of Theodosius II. in 429 ; and published for the eastern empire in 438. In 447 he transmitted 
to Valentinian his new constitutions promulgated as the law of the west in 448. The cele- 
brated code of the emperor Justinian in 529 — a digest from this last made in 533 ; see 
Basilica. Alfred's code is the foundation of the common law of England, 887. — The Code 
ITapoleon^, the civil code of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. The emperor 
considered it his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by the 
most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems previously existing, It has been adopted by 
other countries. 

CODEX, see under Bible, Alexandrian, &c. 

CODFISH, see Holland, 1347. 

COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival 
in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838, De Jongh's treatise on cod-liver oil was 
published in Latin, 1844 ; in English, 1849. 

CCEUR DE LIOJST or the Lion- Hearted, a surname given to Richard I. of England, 
on account of his courage about 1192 ; and also to Louis VIII. of France, who signalised 
himself in the crusades, and in his wars against England, about 1223. 

COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha in Arabia to Holland about 1616 ; and 
carried to the "West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch, 17 18. The 
culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732, and the British and French colonies 
now grow coffee abundantly. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It came into 
great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and 
thence (in 1511) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house was opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, 
the traveller, first brought it to France, 1662. Chambers. 



Coffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel 
Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common 
beverage at BaUiol college, Oxford, 1641. 
Anderson. 

The quantity of coffee imported into these 
realms in 1852, 54.935,510 lbs. ; in i860, 
82,767,746 lbs. ; in 1866, 127,044,816 lbs. 

The first coffee-house in England was kept by 



brought home with him Pasquet, a Greek 
servant, who opened the first coffee-house in 
London, in George-yard, Lombai-d-street . . 1652 

Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened 
the first house in that country. Anderson. 

Rainbow coffee-house. Temple-bar, represented 
as a nuisance 1657 

Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclama- 



a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford . . . 1650 j tion in 1675 ; but the order was revoked in 
Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, | 1676, on petition of the traders. 

COFFERER of the Household, formerly an officer of state, and a member of the 
privy council, who had special charge of the other officers of the household. Sir Henry 
Cocks was coiferer to queen Elizabeth. Some of the highest statesmen filled the office up tO' 
1 782, when it was suppressed by act of parliament, and the duties of it ordered to be dis- 
charged by the lord steward and the paymaster of the household. Beatson. 

COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of cedar ; owing to its aromatic and 
incorruptible qualities. Thucydides. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. 
Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass coffins have been found in 
England. Goitgh. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us is that of the burial of 
king Arthur in an entire trunk of oak hollowed, 542. Asser. Patent coffins were invented 
in 1796 ; air-tight metallic coffins advertised at Birmingham in 186 1. 

COHORT. A division of the Roman army consisting of about 600 men, divided intO' 
centuries. It was the sixth part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was uuder the 



COI 



187 



COI 



same fluctuation as that of the legions. In the time of the empire the cohort often amounted 
to a thousand men. 

COIF. The Serjeant's coif was originally an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their 
helmets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and was used to hide the tonsure of such 
renegade clergymen as chose to remain advocates in the secular courts, notwitlistaudiug 
their prohibition by canon. BlacJcstone. The coif was at first a thin linen cover gathered 
together in the form of a skull or helmet, the material being afterwards changed into white 
silk, and the form eventually into the black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which is 
now the distinguishing mark of the degree of serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of the Judges. 

COIMBRA M-as made the capital of Portugal by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only 
Portuguese university was transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra in 1308 ; finally settled iu 
1527. In a convent here, Alfonso IV. caused Inez de Castro, at first mistress and afterwards 
wife of his son Pedro, to be cruelly murdered in 1355. 

COIISr. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 11 84 B.C. The invention of coin is 
ascribed to the Lydians, whose money was of gold and silver. Both were coined b}"- Pheidon, 
tyrant of Argos, 862 B.C. Money was coined at Rome under Servius TuUius, about 573 B.C. 
The most ancient known coins ai'e Macedonian of the 5th century B.C. Brass money only 
was in use at Rome previously to 269 b.c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver). Gold was 
coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, and iron and tin in Britain. Bufresnoy. 
In the earlier days of Rome the heads were those of deities, or of those who had received 
divine honoiu's. Julius Cresar first obtained permission of the senate to place his portrait on 
the coins, and the example was soon followed. The gold and silver coinage in the world 
is about 250,000,000?. silver, and 150,000,000?. gold. Times, 25 June, 1852 ; see Gold, 
Silver, and Copper. 



The first coinage in England was under tlie 
Romans at Camalodunum, or Colnhester. 
English coin was of different shapes, as 
square, oblong, and round, until the middle 
ages, when round coin only was used. 

Coin was made sterUng in 1216, before which 
time rents were mostly paid in kind, and 
money was found only in the coffers of the 
barons. Stow. 

Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be re- 
called and genuine issued in . . . ' . 

During the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage 
was greatly debased by clipping, &c. 

A commission (lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, 
and John Locke) was appointed by William 
III. to reform the coinage, an act was 
passed, withdrawing the debased coin from 
circulation, and i,2oo,oooi. was raised by a 
house duty to defray the expense 

English and Irish money assinailated i Jan 

The coin of the realm valued at about 
I2,ooo,oooi. in 1711. Davenant. 

At i6,ooo,oooJ. in 1762. Anderson. 

It was 2o,ooo,oooi. in 1786. Chalmers. 

37,ooo,oooi. in 1800. Phillips. 

The gold is 28,000,000^., and the rest of the 
metallic currency is 13,000,0002. Duhe of 
Wellington 1830 

Metallic currency calculated to reach 45,000, oooJ. 1840 

Estimated as approaching, in gold and silver, 
6o,ooo,ooot. ........ 1853 

Napier's coin- weighing machine at the bank of 
England constructed in 1844 

The law respecting coinage oflfences consoli- 
dated in 1861 



1560 



1696 
1826 



The first gold coins on certain record, struck 

42 Hen. Ill I2S7 

Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden) . 1337 
He introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 
6s. 8d. (hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards 
half and quarter nobles. 
Old sovereigns first minted .... 1494 
Shilhngs first coined (Or. Kelly) . . . . 1503 
Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael 
and the dragon, the original of George and 
the dragon. 
Hen. VIll. coined sovereigns and half sove- 
reigns of the modern value. 
Crowns and half-crowns coined .... 1553 

Irish shillings struck 1560 

Milled shiUing of Elizabeth .... 1562 
First large copper coinage, putting an end to 
the circulation of private leaden pieces, <Sic. . 1620 

Modern milling introduced 1631 

Halfpence and farthings coined . . . 1665 

Copper coined by government . . . . 1672 

Guineas first coined, 25 Car. II 1673 

Double guineas >■ 

Five guineas ,. 

Half-guineas ,, 

Quarter-guineas coined, 3 Geo I. . . . 1716 

Seven-shilling pieces coined 1797 

Two-penny copper pieces ,, 

Gold 78-pieces authorised . . 29 Nov. ,, 

Sovereigns, new coinage 1817 

Half -farthings 1843 

Silver florin 1849 

Bronze coinage issued . . . . i Dec. i860 



AMOUNT OF MONEY 

Elizabeth . 

James I . . . . 

Charles I. . 

Cromwell . . . 

Charles II. . 

James II. . . . 

William III. 

Anne . . . . 

George I. . . . 

George II. . . . 

George III. . 



COINED. 

£5,832,000 
2,500,000 

10,500,000 
1,000,000 
7,524,100 
3,740,000 

10,511,900 
2,691,626 
8,725,920 

11,965,576 

74,501,586 



George IV. . . .£41,782,815 
WilHamlV. . . 10,827,603 

Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 
i!9,886,457i. ; silver, 2,440,614^. ; 
copper, 43,743?. 1848-1852, gold, 
silver, and copper, 19,838, 377^. 
Coined in 1859, 1,547,603 sove- 
reigns, and 2,203,813 half-sove- 
reigns. 
Value of ten years (1849-59) gold 

coinage, 54,490,265^. 
Coined from i July, 1854, to 31 



Dec. i860, gold, 27,632,039!. ; sil- 
ver, 2,432,ii6i. 

Coined in 1861 : gold, 8,053, 069^. ; 
silver, 209,484?. ; bronze, 273,578?. 
13.S. 4'i. (No crowns, half-crowns, 
or four-penny pieces coined.) 

Coined iu 1862 : gold, 7,836,413 ; 
silver, 4,035,412 ; bronze pieces, 
4,125,977,600. 

Coined in 1866 : gold, 5,076,676!. ; 
silver, 493,416?. ; bronze, 50,372?. 
Total, 5,620,464?. 



COINING. Originally the metal was placed between two steel dies, and struck by a 



COL 188 COL 

hammer. In 1553, a mill, invented by An toine Brucher, introduced into England, 1562. 
An engine invented by Balancier, 1617. Great improvements effected by Boiilton and "Watt, 
at Soho, 1788. The erection of the Mint machinery, London, began 181 1. 

COLCHESTER (Essex), Camalodunum, a Roman station, supposed birthplace of Constan- 
tine the Great ; obtained its first charter from Richard I., 11 89. Its sixteen churches and 
all its buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks' siege. 1648. Two of its defenders, 
sir George Lisle and sir Charles Lisle, were tried and shot after surrendering. The baize 
manufacture was established here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to London was opened in 
1843. 

COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same perceptions on the 
skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as 
touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost in 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Peters- 
burg. Greig. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow, 13 Jan. 1810. Perhaps the coldest 
day ever known in London was 25 Dec. 1796, when the thermometer was 16° below zero. 
On 3 Jan. 1854, the thermometer marked 4° below zero, Fahrenheit; on 25 Dec. i860, it 
fell in some places to 18° and in others to 15° below zero ; at Torquay, Devon, 20° below 
zero. Prom 23 to 30 Dec. the cold was excessive. On 4 Jan. 1867, the thermometer stood 
at 3 ° below zero at Hammersmith and Hornsey, near London ; on 7 Jan., at 55 ° above ; see 
Frosts, Ice, Congelation, JRegelation. 

COLDINGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the 
attack of the Danes, in order to preserve their chastity, cut off their noses and lips. The 
Danes burnt the whole sisteihood, with the abbess Ebba, in their monastery, 875. 

COLDSTREAM GUARDS. General Monk, before marching from Scotland into England 
to restore Charles II. , raised this regiment at Coldstream, at the confluence of the Leet and 
Tweed, 1660. 

COLENSO CONTROVERSY, see CJmrcJi of England, 1862-8. COLIN, see Kolin. 

COLISEUM or Colosseum, at Rome, an elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external 
diameter is 1641 Italian feet, supposed to have been able to contain 80,000 spectators of the 
fights with wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was erected between 75 (some say 
77) and 80, by the emperors Yespasian and Titus, at an expense sufficient to have built a 
metropolis. Its remains are very imposing. 

COLLAR, a very ancient ornament. The Roman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic 
Gaul in single combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or collar) on his own neck, and was 
hence surnamed Torquatus, 361 B.C. A collar is part of the ensigns of the order of knight- 
hood. That of the order of the garter is described, and its wearing enjoined, in the 
statutes of Henry YIIL, 24 April, 1522; but a collar had been previously worn by the 
knights. Ashmolc. The collar of SS. was adopted by Henry lY., and became a Lancastrian 
badge ; some consider the letters stand for ' ' souveraigne, " in reference to his claim to the 
crown. Some writers consider SS. to be in honour of St. Simplicius, a martyr. The order 
of the Collar or Necklace (or Annonciada) was instituted by Amadeus YI. of Savoy, about 
1360, 

COLLECTS, short prayers introduced into the Roman service by pope Gelasius, about 
493, and into the English Liturgy in 1548. The king of England coming into Normandy, 
appointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 1166. Rapin. 

COLLEGES. University education jjreceded the erection of colleges, which were muni- 
ficent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of living at lodging-houses and 
at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the univer- 
sity of Paris, 1140 ; but some authorities say not befoi'e 121 5. In England, it is contended 
that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a decree formerly at Cam- 
bridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, that they were the first doctors of these universities ; 
see Cambridge, Oxford, Aberdeen, Queen's Colleges, Working Men's Colleges, &c. 



Founded a.d. 
Addiscom'be Military College 1809 
Birminghitm, Queen's College 1853 
Chesbunt College . . . 1792 
Doctor's Commons, civil law 1670 
Dulwich College . . . 1619 
Durham University . . 1837 
Edinburgh University . . 1580 
Eton College .... 1441 
Glasgow University . . .1451 
Gresham College . . . 1581 



Harrow 1585 

Haleybury, or East India 

College . 1806 ; closed, 1858 

Highbury College . . . 1826 

Highgate 1564 

King's College, London . 1829 

Maynooth College . . . 1795 

Military CoUege, Sandhurst . 1799 

Naval College, Portsmouth . 1722 
New College, St. John's Wood 1850 

Physicians, London . . 1523 

COLLIERY ACCIDENTS, see under Coal. 

COLLODION, a film obtained from the solution of gun-cotton in ether. The iodised 



Physicians, Dublin . . . 1667 

Physicians, Edinburgh . . 1681 

St. Andrews, Scotland . . 1410 

Sion College, incorporated . 1630 

Surgeons, London . . . 174s 

Surgeons, re-incorporated . 1800 

Surgeons, Dublin . . . 1786 

Surgeons, Edinburgh (new) . 1803 

Trinity College, Dublin . . 1591 

University, London . . 1826 

Winchester College . . . 1387 



COL 



189 



COL 



collodion extensively employed in photography, was discovered by Mr. F. Scott Archer, and 
announced in the ' ' Chemist, " in March, 1 85 1 . On the premature death of himself and wife, 
a pension of 50Z. per annum was granted by government to his three orphan children. 

COLOGNE (Colonia AgrijJinna), on the Rhine, the site of a colony founded by the em- 
press Agrippina, about 50 ; became a member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews 
were expelled from it in 14S5, and the Protestants in 16 18, and it then fell into decay. 
Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 1794. The archbishopric secularised, 
1801 ; assigned to Prussia, 1814. 



The cathedral (containing many supposed reUcs, 
such as the head of the magi or three kings, 
hone of the it, 000 virgins, &c.) founded 

The building, long suspended, vigorously con- 
tinued by the kings of Prussia, since . . 

The body of the cathedral opened in the pre- 



sence of the king, 600th anniversary of the 
foundation 15 Aug. 1848 

1248 International industrial exhibition opened by 

the crown prince .... 2 June, 1865 

1842 Dispute between the king and the chapter re- 
specting the electing an archbishop, settled ; 
the pope appoints Melchers . . . Jan. 1866 

COLOMBIA, a republic of S. America, formed of states which declared their independence, 
Dec. 1819 ; civil war ensued and the union was dissolved. 



Union of New Grenada and Venezuela, 17 Dec. 1819 
The royahsts defeated at Carabobo . 24 June, 182 1 
BoUvar named dictator . . .10 Feb. 1824 

Alliance between Colombia & Mexico 30 June, ,, 
Alliance with Guatemala . . . March, 1825 
Congress at Lima names BoHvar president, 

Aug. 1826 
Bolivar's return to Bogota, . . . Nov. ,, 



He assumes the dictatorship . , 23 Nov. 1826 
PadiUa's insux-rection . . . . g April, 182S 
Conspiracy of Santander against the life of 

Bolivar 25 Sept. „ 

Venezuela separates from Grenada . Nov. 1829 

Bolivar resigus, 4 April ; dies. . 17 Dec. 1830 

Santander dies 26 May, 1840 

(See New Grenada, and Venezuela.) 



COLOMBO (Ceylon) was fortified in 1638, by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the 
Dutch in 1666 ; the latter surrendered it to the British, 15 Feb. 1796. The British troops 
were murdered here in cold blood by the adigar of Candy, 6 June, 1803. Colombo was made 
a bishopric in 1845 ; see Ceylon. 

COLON" (:). The colon and period were adopted by Thrasymachus about 373 B.C. 
iSuidas), and known to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) were first used in British 
literature in the i6th century. 

COLONEL (from Italian colonna, a column), the highest regimental military officer. 
The term had become common in England in the i6th century. 

COLONIAL NAVAL DEFENCE ACT, to enable the colonies to take efi'ectual measures 
for their defence against attacks by sea, was passed in 1865. 

COLONIES. The Phoe,nician and Greek colonies, frequently founded by political exiles, 
soon became independent of the mother country. The Roman colonies, on the contrary, 
continued in close connection with Rome itself ; being governed almost entirely by military 
law. — The ColoniEkS of Great Britain partake of both these characters. The N. American 
colonies revolted in consequence of the attempt at taxation without their consent in 1 764. 
The loyal condition of the present colonies now is due to the gradual relaxation of the 
pressure of the home government. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the 
world was estimated, in 1861, at 142,952,243 (of which 135,442,911 belong to the East 
Indies). The revenue of the colonies was estimated in 1865 to be 51,492,000^., the 
expenditure, 59, 353, 000?. The act for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies, and 
for compensation to the OAvners of slaves (20,000,000?. sterling), was passed in 1833. All 
the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on i Aug. 1834. The Colonial 
branch mint act was passed in 1866 ; see Bishops, Colonial, and Separate Articles. 

Bate of Settlement, <i;c. 
Capitulation, Jan. 1806 
All acquh-ed . ■, 1815 
Capitulation, Sept. 1803 
Ceded by France . 1763 
See Falkland Islands 1833 
Settlement in . . 1631 
Capitulation, Aug. 1704 
Settlement, about 1618 
Capitulation, Sept. 1800 
Ceded by France . 1763 
Capitulation . . 1803 
Capitulation . . 1807 
By treaty, in . . 1670 
Ceded in . . . 1841 
Capitulation . . 1655 
Ceded . . . 1861 

See Borneo . . 1646 
. See India . . 1639 



Colony, or Possession. 


Date of Settlement, etc. 


Colony, or Po.isession. 


African Ports 


about 1618 


Cape of Good Hope . . 


AnguiUa. 


. Settlment . about 1666 


Ceylon . . . . 


Antigua 


. Settlement . . 1632 


Demerara and Essequibo . 


Ascension 


. Captured . . 1815 


Dominica . . . . 


Australia, South 


. Settlement . . 18^4 


Falkland Islands 


Austraha, W. (Swan river) Settlement . . 1829 


Gambia 


Bahama Island 


. Settlement 1629, et seq. 


Gibraltar .... 


Barbadoes . 


. Settlement . . 1605 


Gold Coast . . . . 


Bengal .... 


. Settlement . about 1652 


Gozo 


Berbice 


. Capitulation, Sept. 1803 


Grenada 


Bermudas 


. Settlements 1609, et seq. 


Guiana, British . 


Bombay 


. See India . . . 1662 


Hehgoland . . . . 


British Burmah . 


. See Pegu . . . 1862 


Honduras . . . . 


British Columbia 


. Settlement . . 1858 


Hong Kong (Victoria) . . 


Canada, Lower 


. Capitulation, Sept. 1759 


Jamaica . . . . 


<;anada. Upper . 


. Capitulation, Sept. 1760 


Lagos 


Cape Breton . 


. Ceded . . . 1763 


Labuan . . . . 


Cape Coast Castle 


. By cession . . . ^667 


Madras . . . . 



COL 



190 



COM 



COLONIES, continued. 

Colony, or Possession. Date of Settlement, &e. 

Malacca (under Bengal). 

Malta Capitulation, Sept. 1800 

Mauritius .... Capitulation, Dec. 1810 

Montserrat . . . . Settlement, in . . 1632 

Natal Settlement . . 1823 



Settlement, in 
Settlement, in 1622-1713 
Settlement, about . 1500 
Settlement, in . . 1787 
Settlement, in . 1622 
Settlement . . 1840 



Colony, or Possession. Date of Settlement, &c. 

Sierra Leone . . . . Settlement, in . 1787 
[United witli other settlements as West 
Africa, Feb. 1866.] 
Singapore .... Purchased, in . . 1819 
St. Christopher's ' . . . Settlement, in . 1623 
St. Helena .... Capitulated, in . . 1600 
St. Lucia . . . . Capitulation, June, 1803 
St. Vincent . . . Ceded by Prance . 1763 

Swan River . . . . See West Australia. 
Tobago . . . . Ceded by France . 

Tortola Settlement, in . . 

Trinidad .... Capitulation, Feb. 
Van Diemen's Land . . Settlement, in . . 
Vancouver's Island . . Settlement, in 
Victoria (Port PhilHp) . . Settlement, in , . 
Victoria .... See Hong Kong. 
Virgin Isles 1666 



1763 
1666 
1797 
1803 
1781 
1850 



Nevis 

New Brunswick 
Newfoundland . 
New South Wales . 
Nova Scotia 
New ^Zealand . 

Pegu Conquered . . 1852 

Port Phillip . . . . See Victoria, 

Prince Edward's Island . Capitulated in . . 1745 

Prince of Wales' Island 

(Penang) .... Settlement, in . 1786 
ijueensland, N. S. Wales . Settlement, in . . i860 

COLORADO, a territoi-y of tlie United States of North America, was organised 2 March, 
1861 ; made a state. May, 1866 ; capital. Golden City. 

COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in Eegent's Park, London, was planned by 
Mr. Horner, a land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto and Grissell, from designs by 
Decimus Burton. The chief portion is a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in diameter externally : 
the walls are three feet thick at the ground : the height to the glazed dome 112 feet. On 
the canvas walls of the dome is painted the panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 
from sketches by Mr. Hornor taken from the summit of St. Paul's cathedral in 1821-2. The 
picture covers above 46, 000 square feet, more than an acre of canvas. The different parts 
were combined by Mr. E. T. Parris, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 1848 a panorama 
of Paris was exhibited ; succeeded, in 1850, by the lake of Thorn in Switzerland ; in 185 1 
the panorama of London was reproduced. In 1848 the theatre with the panorama of Lisbon 
was added. In 1831, when Mr. Hornor failed, the establishment was sold for 40,000?. to 
Messrs. Braham and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Montague for 23,000 guineas. 
Timhs. After having been long closed, the building was opened to the public at Christmas, 
1856, at one shilling. Under the charge of Dr. Bachhoffner it continued open till the spring 
of 1864, when it was again closed. 

COLOSSUS OF Rhodes, a brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, esteemed one of 
the wonders of the world, was erected at the port of Rhodes in honour of the sun, by Chares 
of Lindus, disciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 B.C. It was thrown down by an earthquake 
about 224 B. c. The figure is said traditionally to have stood upon two moles, a leg being 
extended on each side of the harbour, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. The 
statue was in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been repaired ; when the Saracens 
taking Rhodes, pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who 
is said to have loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria about 653. Biifresnoy. 

COLOUR is to light what pitch is to sound, according to the undulatory theory of 
Huyghens (about 1678), established by Dr. T. Young, and others. The shade varies according 
to the number of vibrations. The number of millions of millions of vibrations in a second 
attributed to the red end of the spectrum is 458 ; to the violet, 727 ; see Spectrum. * 

COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city of "Washington in Maryland : established 
1800. In 1862, slavery was abolished in it ; see British Cohcmbia. 

COLUMBIUM, a metal discovered by C. Hatchett, in a mineral named columbite, in 1801. 
It is identical with niobium, and not with tantalum, as supposed by some chemists. Watts. 

COMBAT, Single. Trial by this commenced by the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It 
was introduced into England for accusations of treason, if neither the accuser nor the accused 
could produce good evidence ; see High Constable, and Appeal of Battle. 



The first battle by single combat was fought before 
the king and the peers between Geoffrey Baynard 
and William earl of Eu, who was accused by Bay- 
nard of high treason ; and Baynard having con- 
quered, Eu was deemed convicted, andbhndedand 
mutilated, 1096. 

The last combat proposed was between lord Eeay 
and David Ramsay, in 1631, but the king prevented 
it. A trial was appointed between the prior of 



Kalmainham and the earl of Ormond, the former 
having impeached the latter of high treason ; but 
the quaiTel having been taken up by the king, was 
decided without fighting, 1446. 
In a combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices 
and council, between Connor MacCormack O'Con- 
nor and Teig Mac-GUpatrick O'Connor, the former 
had his head cut off, and presented to the lords, 
1553- 



* Some persons (about 65 out of iis4)cannot distinguish between colours, and are termed Colourblind. 
In 1859, professor J. Clerk Maxwell invented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also called ' ' Dalton- 
ism," after John Daltou, the chemist, to whom scarlet appeared drab-coloured. 



COM 



191 



COM 



COMBINATIOISr. Laws were enacted from the time of Edward I. downwards, regu- 
lating the price of labour and the relations between masters and workmen, and prohibiting 
the latter from combining for their own protection. All these laws were repealed in 1825, 
due protection being given to both parties. The act was amended in 1859, when the subject 
was much discussed, in consequence of the strike in the buiUling trades ; see Sheffield, and 
Strikes. 

COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comed}^ and Ij^ric poetry. Susarion and Dolon, the 
inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 B.C., performed the first comedy at Athens, on a 
waggon or moveable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket of 
figs and a cask of wine ; see Arundelian Marhlcs, and Dramx. 

Aristophanes called tlie prince of ancient comedy, First regular comedy performed in England, about 

434 B.C., and Menander that of the new, 320 B.C. 
Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he flourished 

220 B.C. 

Statlus Cfficilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies; 

flourished at Rome 180 B.C. 
Comedies of Lfelius and Terence fii-st acted 154 b.c. 

COMETS (Greek come, a hair). It is recorded that more than 600 have been seen. Mr. 
Hind, in his little work on comets, gives a. chronological list of comets. The first discovered 
and described accurately was by Nicephorus, 1337. 



A.D. 1551. 

It was said of Sheridan that he wrote the best 
comedy (the School for Scandal), the best opera (the 
Duenna), and the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the 
English language (1775-1779). 



At the birth of the great Mitliridates two large comets 
appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days 
together, whose splendour ecUpsed that of the mid- 
day sun, and occupied the fourth part of the 
heavens, about 135 B.C. Justin. 

A grand comet seen 1264. Its tail is said to have ex- 
tended 100°. It is considered to have reappeared 
in 1556, with diminished splendonr ; and was ex- 
pected to appear again about Aug. 1858 or Aug. 
i860. Hind. 

A remarkable one seen in England, June 1337. Stow. 

Tycho Brahe demonstrated that comets are extra- 
neous to our atmosphere, about 1577. 

A comet which terrified the people from its near 
approach to the earth, was visible from 3 Nov. 1679, 
to 9 March, 1680. 

The orbits of comets proved to be ellipses by Newton, 
1704. 

A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which 
passed within two millions of miles of the earth. 
This beautiful comet, moving with immense swift- 
jness, was seen in London ; its tail stretched across 
the heavens, like a prodigious luminous arch, 
36,000,000 miles in length. The computed length 
■of that which appeared in 1811, and which was so 
remarkably conspicuous, was, on 15 Oct. accord- 
ing to the late Dr. Herschel, upwards of 100,000,000 
miles, and its apparent greatest breadth, at the 
isame time, 15,000,000 miles. Philos. Trans. Royal 
Soc. for 1 812. 

One still more brilliant appeared in Sept. Oct. and 
Nov. 1811, visible aU the autumn to the naked eye. 

Another Dec. 1823. 

Hallet's Comet, 1682. Named after one of the 
greatest astronomers of England. He first iDroved 
that many of the appearances of comets were but 
the periodical returns of the same bodies, and he 
demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same 
with the comet of 1456, 1531. and 1607, deducing 
this fact from a minute observation of the fu-st- 
snentioned comet, and being struck by its won- 
derful resemblance to the comets described as 
having appeared in those years : Halley, there- 
fore, first fixed the identity of comets, and pre- 
dicted their periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. 
The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in 
about 75 years; it appeared in 1759, and came to 
its perihelion on March 13 ; its last appearance 
was 1835. 

Encke's Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, 26 



Nov. 1818, but justly named by astronomers after 
professor Enckc, for his success in detecting its 
orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, hke the 
preceding, one of the three comets which have 
appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- 
tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. 

Biela's Comet has been an object of fear to many 
on account of the nearness with which it has ap- 
proached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's 
path ; it was first discovered by M. Biela, an 
Austrian oflicer, 28 Feb. 1826. It is one of the 
three comets whose re-appearance was predicted, 
its revolution being performed in 6 years and 38 
weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when 
the time of its perihelion passage was 27 Nov. ; its 
third was in 1839 ; its fourth in 1845 ; and its fifth 
in 1852. 

DoNATi's Comet, so called from its having been first 
observed by Dr. Donati, of Florence, 2 June, 1858, 
being then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from 
our earth. It was very bi-illiant in England in the 
end of September and October following, when 
the tail was said to be 40,000,000 miles long. On 
the loth of October it was nearest to the earth ; on 
the 1 8th it was near coming into collision with 
Venus. Opinions varied as to this comet's bril, 
liancy compared with that of 181 1. 

The Great Comet of 1861 was first seen by Mr. 
Tebbutt at S3'dney, in Australia, 13 May ; by M. 
Goldschmidt and others in France and England 
on 29, 30 June. The nucleus was about 400 miles 
in diameter, with a long bush-like tail, travelling 
at the rate of 10,000,000 miles in 24 hours. On 
30 June, it was suggested that we were in the 
tail — there being " a phosphorescent auroral glare. " 

A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation 
Cassiopoeia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on 2 Julj'', 
and by M. Tempel, at Marseilles, 2 & 3 July, 1862. 

M. Rosa (at Rome) discovered a comet on 25 July, 
1862. It was \'isible by the naked eye in August 
and September. 

Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and 
several in 1864. 

A fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, 
and was visible in South America and Australia, 
in Jan. Feb., 1S65. 

M. Babinet considered that comets had so little 
density that the earth might pass through the tail 
of one without our being aware of it, 4 May, 1857. 



COMMANDER-m-CHIEF, an office in the British army frequently vacant. When the 
duke of Wellington resigned the office, on becoming minister, in 1828, his successoi', lord 
Hill, became commander of the forces, or general commanding-in-chief. 



CAPTAINS-GEN'ERAL 

5)uke of Albemarle 



I Duke of Jlonmouth 
1660 I Duke of Marlborough 



1678 
1702 



COM 



192 



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COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, mitimml. 

Duke of Ormond 1711 

Duke of Marlborough, again .... 1714 

Duke of Cumberland 1744 

Duke of York 1799 

COMMANDEES-IN-CHIEF. 

Duke of Monmouth. 1674 

Duke of Marlborough 1690 

Duke of Schomberg 1691 

Duke of Ormond 1711 

Earl of Stair 1744 

Field-Marshal Wade 1745 

Lord Ligonier 1757 



Marquess of Granby 

Lord Amherst, general on the staff . . . 

Gen. Seymour Conway 

Lord Amherst, again 

Frederick, duke of York . . .11 Feb. 
Sir David Dundas .... 25 March, 
Frederick, duke of York, again . 29 May, 

Duke of Wellington ... 27 Aug. 

Lord Hill, general commanding-in-chief, 25 Feb. 
Duke of Wellington, again . . .15 Aug. 
Viscount Hardinge (died 24 Sept. 1856), gene- 
ral commanding-in-chief . . .28 Sept. 
Duke of Cambridge .... 15 July, 



1766 
1778 
1782 
1793 
1795 
1809 
1811 
1827 
1828 



1852 



COMMEND AM, "a benefice or church living, which being void, is commended to the 
charge of some sufficient clerk, to be supplied until it may be conveniently supplied with a 
pastor." Blount. By 6 & 7 "Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future bishops Avere prohibited from 
holding in commendam the livings they held when consecrated. 

COMMERCE early flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the PhcEnicians, see the 
description of Tyre, 588 B.C., EzeJc. xxvii. In later times it was spread over Europe by a 
confederacy of maritime cities, 1241 (see Hansc Toions) ; by the discoveries of Columbus ; and 
by the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese ; see the various articles connected with this 
subject through the volume. 



The first treaty of commerte made by England 
with any foreign nation was entered into with 
the Flemings, i Edw. I. 1272. The second 
was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edw. II. 
1308. AndersorCy see Treaties. Hertslett's 
Collection, in 10 vols. 8vo. , published 1827-59, 
has a copious index. 

An important commercial treaty was con- 
cluded with France in 

Chambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles 
in the 14th century, and similar chambers 



were instituted in all the chief cities in 
France about, 

These chambers suppressed in 1791 ; restored 
by decree 3 Sept. 

The chamber of commerce at Glasgow was 
established 1783 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 ; Man- 
chester, 1820 ; Hull 

Twenty-seven of these chambers of commerce 
(not including Liverpool, Manchester, and 
Glasgow) met at Westminster for interchange 
of opinions on various questions . 21 Feb. 



1700 
1851 



COMMISSION, see Eigh Court of Commission. 

COMMISSIONNAIRES, street messengers in Paris. Those in London were originally 
■jiensioned soldiers wounded either in the Crimea or India, first employed in the west-end. 
They were appointed by a society, founded in Eeb, 1859 bj'' capt. Edward "Walter, which is 
now under the patronage of the queen and the commander-in-chief. The charges are 
regulated by a tariff. In Jan. 1861 the society commenced the gratuitous issue of a Monthly 
Advertising Circular. In March, 1864, there were 250 commissionnaires in London. In 
Nov. 1866, about 340. In 17 June, 1865, capt. Walter resigned the superintendence, and 
a permanent system of administration was formed. In 1865 commissionnaires were first 
engaged as private night-watchmen. 

COMMON COUNCIL of London. Its organisation began about 1208. The charter of 
Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, a Saxon appellation for a court or assembly of the people. 
The general place of meeting of the folk-mote was in the open air at St. Paul's cross, St. 
Paul's churchyard. It was not discontinued till after Henry III.'s reign; when certain 
representatives were chosen out of each ward, who, being added to the lord mayor and 
aldermen, constituted the court of common council. At first only two were returned for 
each ward ; but the number was enlarged in 1347, and since. This council is elected 
annually on 21 Dec, St. Thomas's day. A Common Hall is held occasionally. The common 
council supported the prince of Orange in 1688, and queen Caroline in 1820. 

COMMON LA"W of England, an ancient collection of unwritten maxims and customs 
(leges nan seri2Jicc), of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, which has subsisted immemorially 
in this kingdom ; and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock of the Norman 
conquest, has weathered the violence of the times. This endeared it to the people in general, 
as well because its decisions were universally known, as because it was found to be excellently 
adapted to the genius of the English nation ; and accordingly, at the famous parliament of 
Merton, 1236, "all the earls and barons," says the parliament roll, "with one voice 
answered, that they would not change the laws of England, which have hitherto been used 
and approved ; " eminently the law of the laiid ; see Bastard. The process, practice, and 
mode of pleading in the superior courts of common law, were amended in 1852 and 1854. 

COMMON PLEAS, Coukt of, in England, in ancient times followed the king's person, 
and is distinct from that of the King's Bench ; but on the confirmation of Magna Charta by 
king John, in 1215, it was fixed at "\Vestmiuster, where it still continues. In 1833 the mode 



COM 



193 



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of procedure in all the superior courts was made imiform. In England, no barrister nndcr 
the degree of serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas; but in 1846 the privilege 
was extended to barristers practising in tlie superior courts at Westminster. 

1725. Sir Robert Eyre. 1856. Sir Alex. Cockburn, Xov. ; 

1736. Sir Thomas Reeve. cb. j. Q. B. June, 1859. 

1737. Sir John Wille-s. 1839. Sir William Erie, June ; re- 
1761. Sir Charles Pratt, afterwards 

lord chancellor Camden. 

1766. Sir John Eardley Wilmot. 

1771. Sir William de Grey, after- 
wards lord Walsingham. 

1780. Alexander Wedderburne,aft. 
lord chan. Loughborough. 

1793. Sir Janies EjTe. 

1799. Sir John Scott, afterwards 
lord chancellor Eldon. 



CHIEF JUSTICES. (England.) 

1558. Sir Anthony Browne. 

1559. Sii- James Dyer. 
1582. Sir Edmund Anderson. 

1605. Sir Fi'ancis Gawdy. 

1606. Sir Edward Coke. 
1613. Sir Heniy Hobart. 
1626. Sir Thomas Richardson. 
1631. Sir Robei-t Heath. 
1634. Sir John Finch. 

1639. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 

1640. Sir John Bankes. 
1648. Oliver St. John. 
1660. Sir Orlando Bridgman, after- 
wards lord keeper. 

1668. Sir John Vaughan. 
1675. Sir Francis Xorth, after- 
wards lord keeper Guilford. 
1683. Sii' Francis Pemberton. 

,, Sir Thomas Jones. 
16S6. Sir Henry Bedingfield. 
1687. Sir Robert Wright. 

,, Sir Edward Herbert. 
1689. Sir Henry PoUexfen. 
1692. Sir George Treby. 
1 701. Sir Thomas Trevor, after- 
wards lord Trevor. 
1714. Sir Peter King, afterwards 
lord chancellor King. 



tired Nov. 1866. 
1866. Sir Wilham Bovill, 29 Nov. 



CHIEF JUSTICES. (Ireland). 

1691. Richard Pyne, 5 Jan. 

1695. Sir John Hely, 10 May. 

1701. Sir Richard Cox, 4 May. 

1703. Robert Doyne, 27 Dec. 

1 714. John Porster, 30 Sept. 

1720. Sir Richard Levinge, 13 Oct. 



iSoi. Su- Richard Pepper Arden 1724. Thomas Wyndham, 27 Oct. 



(lord Alvanley), 22 May. 
1804. Sir James Mansfield. 21 Ai^r. 

1814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, 24 Feb. 

1815. Sir Robert Dallas, 5 Nov. 
1824. Sir Robert Gifford, 9 Jan. 

(lord Gifford) ; aft. master 

of the Rolls. 
,, Sir William Draper Best, aft. 

lord Wynford, 15 April. 
1829. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 9 

Jixne ; died July 1846. 
1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, 11 July; 

aft. lord chancellor Truro. 
1850. Sir .John Jervis, 16 July ; 

died I Nov. 1856. 



1726. William Whitshed, 23 Jan. 

1727. James Reynolds, 8 Nov. 
1740. Henry Singleton, 11 May. 
1754. Sir William Yorke, 4 Sept. 
1761. William Aston, 5 May. 
1765. RichHrd Clayton, 21 Feb. 
1770, Marcus Patterson, 18 June. 
1787. Hugh Cai-leton, aft. viscount 

Carleton, 30 April. 
1800. John Toler, afterwards lord 

Norbury, 22 Oct. 
1827. Lord Plunket, iS June. 
1830. John Dolierty, 23 Dec. 
1850. James Henry Monahan, 23 

Sept. 



COMMOIT PEAYER, Book of, was ordered by parliament to be printed in the English 
language on i April, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parliament, and the Directory 
(which see) set up in its room in 1644, and a proclamation was issued against it in 1647. 
"With a few changes the English Common Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches in 
Scotland and North America. 

The king's primer published . . . . 1545 The State services (which had never formed part of 
First book of Edward VI. printed . 7 March, 1549 the Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the be- 
Second book of Edward YI 1552 ginning of every reign) for 5 November (Gunpowder 

First book of Elizabeth ..... 1559 treason), 30 January (Charles I.'s execution), and 

King James's book 1604 29 May (Charles II. 's. restoration) were ordered to 

Scotch book of Charles 1 1637 be discontinued ; 17 Jan. 1859. 

Charles II. 's book (Sai'o;/ Conferenee)nowin\ise. 1662 

COMMONS. In 1685, of the 37,000,000 acres of land in England, aboirt 18,000,000 
were moorland, forest, and fen. In 1727, about 3,000,000 acres more had been brought into 
cultivation ; and from that time to 1844, by means of 4000 private acts of parliament, about 
7,000,000 acres more were enclosed. Since the Inclosure Act of 1845, which established 
commissioners, another 1,000,000 acres have been enclosed. 

Act for the improvement, protection, and I elected the Rt. Hon. Wm. Co wper, president, 

management of commons near the metro- | Feb. 1867 

polis, passed . . . . . -A.ug. 1866 I " Six essays on Commons Preservation," were 

The Commons Preservation Society established, | published 1867 

COMMONS, House of, our great representative assembly, originated with Simon de 
Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the Provisions of Oxford ordered returns to be made of 
two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet such of the barons 
and clergy as were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen his own power in opposition 
to that of his sovereign Henry III., 1258. Stow; hqq Parliament. The following is the 
constitution of the house of commons by passing the reform bill in 1832 : — 



ENGLISH. 

County members . 

Universities 

Cities and boroughs 



144 

4 

325—473 



WELSH. County members. 15 



Cities and boroughs 



14- 


- 29 




502 


30 
23- 


- S3 



IRISH. 

County members 

University 

Cities and boroughs 



64 



SCOTCH. 

County members . 

Cities and burghs . 23 — 53 Total . . . 66o* 

In 1859 Mr. Newmarch estimated the constituency of England and Wales at 934,000. It was much 
increased by the reform act of 15 Aug. 1867. 

COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND, the term applied to the interregnum between the 

* In 1844 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Alban's, were disfranchised for bribery and corruption; each having 
previously returned two members; the aggregate number of the hou.=e then became 656. In 1861, the 
forfeited seats were thus distributed by act of pai-liament — two additional to the west riding of York, one 
additional to South Lancashire, and one to a newly-created borough, Birkenhead. 





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194 



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death of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles IL A republic was established at the 
execution of Charles I., 30 Jan. 1649, — a new oath called the " Engagement " was framed, 
which the people were obliged to take.* Salmon. Oliver Cromwell was made protector, 16 
Dec. 1653 ; succeeded by his son Eichard, 3 Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored, and 
Charles II. entered London, 29 May, 1660. 

COMMUJSTIOlSr, a name given to the ordinance of the Lord's supper, i Cor. x. 16. 
Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have had its rise in the west, under 
pope Urban II., 1096. The fourth Lateran coimcil, 1215, decreed that every believer should 
receive the communion at least at Easter, The cup was first denied to the laity by the 
council of Constance, 1414-18. The communion service of the church of England was set 
forth in 1549. 

COMMUNISTS, see Socialists. COMOEIST, see Komorn. 

COMPANIES. + Among the earliest commercial companies in England maybe named 
the Steel-yard society, established 1232. The second company was the merchants of St. 
Thomas a Becket, in 124S. Stow. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated 
by Elizabeth, 1564. The following are the city companies of London ; the first twelve are 
the chief, and are styled "the Honourable." Several companies are extinct, and many 
dates doubtful. 



1. 


Mercers . 


1393 


25- 


Saddlers . 


1280 


2. 


Grocers . . 


1345 


26. 


Carpenters . . 


1344 


3- 


Drapers 


1439 


27. 


Cordwainers 


1410 


4- 


Fishmongers 


1284 


28. 


Paper-stainers 


1580 


5- 


Goldsmiths 


1327 


29. 


Curriers . 


1605 


6. 


Skinners . 




3°- 


Masons . 


1677 


7- 


Merchant Taylors 1416 


31- 


Plumbers . 


161 1 


8. 


Haberdashers . 


1447 


32. 


Inn-holders . . 


1515 


9- 


Salters 


1558 


33- 


Pounders . 


1614 


10. 


Ironmongers 


1464 


34- 


Poulterers . . 


1503 


II. 


Vintners . 


1437 


35- 


Cooks 


1481 


12. 


Clothworkers . 


1482 


36. 


Coopers . . 


1501 


13- 


Dyers 


1469 


37- 


Tilers and Brick- 




14. 


Brewers . . 


1438 




layers . . 


1568 


15- 


Leather- sellers . 


1442 


38. 


Bowyers . 


1620 


16. 


Pewterers . 


1474 


29. 


Fletchers . . 


1536 


17- 


Barber-Surgeons 


1308 


40. 


Blacksmiths 


1577 


18. 


Cutlers . . . 


1417 


41. 


Joiners . . . 


1564 


19. 


Bakers 


1307 


42. 


Weavers . 


1 164 


20. 


Wax-ohandlers . 


1484 


43- 


Wooltnen . . 


* * 


21. 


Tallow-chandler 


= 1463 


44. 


Scriveners . 


1616 


22. 


Armourers and 




45- 


Fruiterers . . 


1604 




Braziers . . 


jj 


46. 


Plasterers . 


1500 


23- 


Girdlers 


1448 


47- 


Stationers . . 


1556 


24. 


Butchers . . 


1604 


48. 


Embroiderers . 


1591 



49. Upholders . . 1627 

50. Musicians . . 1604 

51. Turners . . ,, 

52. Basket-makers . * * 

53. Glaziers . . 1637 

54. Horners . . 1638 

55. Farriers . . 1673 

56. Paviors . . * * 

57. Lorimers . . 1488 

58. Apothecaries . 1617 

59. Shipwrights . . 1610 

60. Spectacle-Makrs. 1630 

61. Clock-makers . 1632 

62. Glovers . . 1556 

63. Comb-makers . 1650 

64. Felt-makers . 1604 

65. Fi-amework knit- 

ters . . . 1664 

66. Silk-throwsters 1629 

67. Silk -men . . 1608 

68. Pin-makers '. . 1636 

69. Needle-makers . 1656 

70. Gardeners . . 1616 

71. Soap-makers . 1638 

72. Tinplate-workrs. 1670 



73. Wheelwrights . 1670 

74. Distillers . . * * 

75. Hatband- 

makei-s . . 1638 

76. Pattern-makers. 1670 

77. Glass-sellers . 1664 

78. Tobacco-pipe ^ 

makers . . 1663 

79. Coach and Har- 

ness makers . 1677 

80. Gunmakers . 1638 

81. Gold and Silver 

wire-drawers 1623 

82. Bowstring- 

makers . . * * 

83. Card-makers . 1629- 

84. Pan-makers . . 1709 

85. Wood-mongers . * * 

86. Starch-makers . 1632 

87. Fishermen . . 1687 

88. Parish clerks . 1232 

89. Carmen . . * * 

90. Porters . . * "^ 

91. Watermen. . 1556 



COMPANIES' ACT, passed 1862, was amended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867. 

COMPASS, MAEINER'S, said to have been known to the Chinese, 11 15 b.c, is ascribed 
to Marco Polo, a Venetian, a.d. 1260 ; and to Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a navigator of Naples. J 
Until this time the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in 
a vessel of water ; Gioja introduced the suspension of the needle, 1302. It is also said to 
have been known to the Swedes in the time of king Jarl Birger, 1250. Its variation was 
discovered first by Columbus, 1492 ; afterwards by Sebastian Cabot, 1540. Tlie compass- 
box and hanging compass used by navigators were invented 'bj William Barlowe, an English 
divine and natural philosopher, in 1608 ; see Magnetism. The measuring compass was 
invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. 

COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, the residence of the Carlovingian kings. 
During the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the English, 24 Maj'-, 1430. The emperor 
Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on 6 Oct. 1861. 

COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE, see Polyglot. 

* By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to the commonwealth, without king or house of 
ords. The statues of Charles were next day demolished, particularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one 
at the west end of St. Paul's ; and in their room the following inscription was conspicuously set up : — 
" Exit Ti/rannus Begum uUiiims, Anno Libertatis Anglice Restitutte Prima, Anno Bom. 1648, Jan. 30." 

t Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-1, was 
perhaps the most extraordinarj- of its kind, and the South Sea Bubbie, in the same year, was scarcely less 
memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in these countries in 
1824 and 1825, and turned out to be bubbles. Immense losses were incurred by individuals, and the families 
of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. Many railway enterprises (1844-5) may be termed bubbles ; 
see Lego's Bubble : South Sea; Railways : Joint-Stock Companies. 

J The statement that the fleur-de-lis was made the ornament of the northern point of the compass in 
compliment to Cliarles, the king of Naples at the time of the discovery, has been contradicted. 



COM 195 CON 

COMPOSITE ORDER, a mixture of the Corintliian and Ionic, and also called the Roman 
order, is of uncertain date. 

COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDERS, (in regard to the payment of rates) were constituted 
by the Small Tenements act of 1850. Their position, with regard to the suffrage, caused 
much discussion during the x^assing of the Reform act in 1867 ; and their claims were rejected- 

COMPOUND RADICLE, in organic chemistry, is a substance which although containing 
two or more elements, in ordinary circumstances performs the part of an element. The 
Radical or Binary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, and by Liebig, 1838 ; and 
modified in the nucleus theory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. The tirst compound radicle isolated 
was cyanogen (tvMch sec), by Gay-Lussac, in 1815 ; see Mhijl and Methyl as other examples. 

COMPROMISE, see Breda. 

COMTE PHILOSOPHY, see Positive Philosophy. 

CONCEPTION, Immaculate. A festival (on 8 Dec.) appointed in 1389, is observed 
with great devotion in the Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin Mary's having 
been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. Opposition to this doctrine 
was forbidden by a decree of Pope Paul V. in 1617 ; confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander 
VII. Eenault. On 8 Dec. 1854, Pope Pius IX. promulgated a bull, declariug this dogma 
to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt it or speak against 
it. — The CoNCEPTiONiSTS were an order of nuns in Italy, established in 1488 ; see Santiago. 

CONCERTINA, a musical instrument invented by prof., now sir Charles AVheatstone, 
about 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The sounds are produced by free vibrating 
metal springs. 

CONCERTS. The Filarmonia gave concerts at Vicenza in the i6tb century. The first 
public subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 1665 ; the first in London is said to 
have been in 1672. The Academy of Ancient Music began in 1710 ; the Concerts of Ancient 
Music in 1776 ; and the present Philharmonic Society in 1813 ; see Music; Crystal Palace; 
and Handel. 

CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was fii'st 
reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of Kiel, who published his classification of the 
Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722. 
Johnston's Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual of Conchology (1842), are useful. 
Forbes and Hanley's " British MoUusca and their Shells" (1848-53) is a magnificent work. 

CONCILIATION COUNCILS, see Council. 

CONCLAVE. This term is derived from the conclave, a range of small cells in the haU 
of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, where the cardinals usually meet to elect a 
pope, and is also used for the assembly of the cardinals shut up for the purpose. Clement 
IV. having died at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in 
the choice of a successor, and were on the point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by 
the advice of St. Bonaventm-a, then at Viterbo, shut the gates of their city, and locked up 
the cardinals in the pontifical palace till they agreed, 127 1. 

CONCORDANCE. An index or ali)habetical catalogue of aU the words and also a 
chronological accoimt of all the transactions in the Bible. The first concordance was made 
imder the direction of Hugo de St. Caro, whoemxiloyed as many as 500 monks upon it, 1247. 
AIM Lenglet. Cruden's Concordance was published in London in 1737. The Index to 
the Bible, published by the Queen's printers, was prepared by B. Vincent, editor of this 
volume, and completed in May, 1848.* 

CONCORDAT. The name is given to an instrument of agreement between a jirince and 
the pope, usually concerning benefices. The concordat between the emperor Henry V. of 
Germany and pope Calixtus 11. , in 1122, has been regarded as the fundamental law of the 
church in Germany. The concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VIL, signed at 
Paris, 15 July, 1801, re-established the Catholic church and the papal authority in France. 
Napoleon was made in eflfect the head of the Galilean church, as bishops were to have their 
appointments from him and their investiture from the pope. Another concordat between 
the same persons was signed at Fontainebleau, 25 Jan. 1813. These were almost nullified 
in 1817. A concordat, signed 18 Aug. 1855, between Austria and Rome, by Avhich a great 
deal of the liberty of the Austrian church was given up to the Papacy, caused much dissatis- 
faction. In 1868 it was virtually abolished by the legislatures of Hungary and Austria. 

CONCUBINES were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, but strictly for- 

* Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the ancient classics. An index to ShaHinare, by 
Ayscough, appeared in 1790; another by T-sviss in 1805; and Mrs. Cowden Clarke's (late Mary Novello) 
complete concordance to Shakspeare (on which she spent 16 years' labour) in 1847. Todd's vei-bal index to 
Milton was pubhshed in iSog. 

2 



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196 



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bidden by Christ {Marie x., i Cor. vii. 2). They are mentioned as having been allowed to 
the priests, 1 132 ; see Morganatic Marriage. 

COWDENSATIOF, see Gas. 

CONDOTTIERI, condtictors or leaders of mercenaries and their bands, termed free 
companies or free lancers, became so troublesome in Italy in the middle ages, that the various 
cities formed a league to suppress them in 1342. Many ravaged France after the peace of 
Bretigny in 1360. 

CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, among a number of others in London, existed 
early in Cheapside. The "great conduit" was the first cistern of lead erected in the city, 
and was built in 1285. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, on the occasion of her marriage, 
it ran with white and claret wine all the afternoon, i June, 1533. Stow. 

CONFEDERATE STATES of America. The efforts of the Southern States for the 
extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the conse- 
quent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1 860-1. On 4 Nov. i860, Abraham 
Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the United 
States. Hitherto, a president in the interest of the South had been elected. On 20 Dec, 
South Carolina seceded from the Union ; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, 
Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Yirginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina, 
seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern Con- 
federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, 18 Feb. 1861. For the events of the war which ensued, 
and the restoration of the Southern States to the Union, see United States, 186 1-5. 

CONFEDERATION at Paeis, 14 July, 1790 ; see Champs de Mars, and Bastille. 

CONFEDERATION of the Rhine. The League of the Germanic States, formed by- 
Napoleon Bonaparte, 12 July, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the 
emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. In Dec. it consisted of France, Bavaria, 
"Wurtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia ; seven grand duchies ; six duchies ; and twenty 
principalities. The princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of 
war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This league terminated with the career of 
Bonaparte in 1814 ; it was replaced by the Germanic Confederation {which see), and see Germany. 

CONFERENCES. One was held at Hampton Court Palace, between the prelates of the 
church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a genei'al union, at the 
instance of the king, James I. 14-16 Jan. 1604. It led to the new translation of the Bible, 
now in general use in England; executed in 1607-11. Some alterations in the church 
liturgy were agreed upon ; but these not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. — 
Another conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers, with the same view, was held 
in the Savoy, 25 April to 25 July, 1661. The dissenters' objections were generally disallowed, 
but some alterations were recommended in the Prayer-book ; see Wesleyans. 

CONFESSIONAL, see Attricidar Confession. 

CONFESSIONS op Faith; or Creeds, see Apostles', Nicene (325), and Athanasian {about 
434) Creeds. 

1563 



The confession of faith of the Greek church was 
presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This 
gave way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, 
metropolitan of Kiev, which is the present 
standard of the Busso-Greek church. 

The creed of Pius VI., composed of the Nicene 
creed, with additional articles which embody 
all the peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catho- 
lic church, published by the council of Trent 1564 

The church of England retains the Apostles', 
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with Ar- 



ticles : — 42 in 1552 ; reduced to 39 . 

The confession of Augsbm-g (that of the 
Lutherans) was drawn up principally by 
Melanchtlion, in 1530, and has since under- 
gone modifioations, the last of which is called 
the " Form of Concord. " .... 1579 

The "Westminster confession was agreed to in 
1643 ; and adopted by the presbyterian 
church of Scotland ; see Westminster . . 1647 

The congregational dissenters published a de- 
claration of faith . . . . . .1833 



CONFIRMATION, or laying on hands, was practised by the apostles in 34 and 56 
{Acts viii. 17 ; xix. 6), and was general, according to som» church authorities, in 190. In 
the church of England it is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, 
who has been baptized in infancy. It is made a sacrament by the church of Rome. 

CONFLANS (near Paris), Treaty of, between Louis XI. of France and the dukes of 
Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 5 Oct. 1465, By its provisions Normandy was ceded to 
the duke of Berry, and an end was put to the ' ' War of the Public Good. " It was confirmed 
by the treaty of Peronne, 1468. 

CONGE D'ELIRE (permission to elect), the licence given by the sovereign as head of the 
church, to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops ; the right 
asserted by Henry VIII. 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been 
removed in 1214, king John made an arrangement with the clei-gy for the election of bishops. 



CON 



197 



CON" 



CONGELATIOjNT, the act of freezing. Ice was produced in summer by means of chemical 
mixtures, by Mr. Walker, in 1783. The congehition of quicksilver was effected without 
snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 Leslie froze water in an air-pump by placing a vessel of 
sulphuric acid under it. JSTumerons freezing mixtures have been discovered since. Intense 
•cold is produced by the aerification of liquefied carbonic acid gas. In 1857 Mr. Harrison 
patented a machine for manufacturing ice for commercial purposes, by means of ether and 
salt water, and made large blocks. In i860, M. Carre devised a method of freezing to 60° 
below zero by making water in a close vessel absorb and give off the gas ammonia. Siebe's 
ice-making machine, exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862, excited much 
admiration. 

CONGREGATION of the Lord. A name taken by the Scotch Reformers, headed by 
John Knox, about 1546. Their leaders (the earls of Glencairn, Argyle, Morton, and others) 
called Lords of the congregation, signed the first bond or covenant which united the 
protestants under one association 3 Dec. 1557. Tytler. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS, see Independents. 

CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers for the settlement of the affairs of 
nations or of a people.* The following are the most remarkable congresses of Europe : — 

6 May, 1821 

25 Aug. 1822 

16 Jan. — 22 AprU, 1856 



Rastadt . 


9 Dec. 


1797 


Chatillon . 


. 5 Feb. 


1814 


Vienna . 


3 Nov. 




Aix-la-Chapelle . 


. 9 Oct. 


1818 


Carlsbad 


I Aug. 


181Q 


Troppau 


. 20 Oct. 


1820 



Laybach. , 

Verona 

Paris . 

Frankfort (see Germany) 

16-31 Aug. 1863 
See Alliances, Conventions, <5sc. 

states was held at Montgomery, Alabama, 
4 Feb. ; it elected Jefferson Davis president 
of the confederate states on 9 Feb. For 
political reasons it adjourned on 24 May, to 
meet at Richmond, in Virginia, on . 20 July, 1861 
In 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the 
sovereigns of Europe to a congress ; which 
was declined by England 25 Nov. , and only 
conditionally acceded to by other powers. 
He proposed a congress on the affairs of Italy 
and Rome in Nov. 1867, without effect. 



Munster .... 1643-8 

Nimeguen 1678 

Byswick 1697 

Utrecht 1713 

Soissons 172S 

Antwei-p . . 8 April, 1793 

The first general congress of the United States 

of America, preparatory to their declaration 

of independence, when strong resolutions 

were passed, also a petition to the king, and 

an addi-ess to the people of England, was held 

5 Sept. 1774. The second was held 10 May, 

1775 ; the third, when the independence was 

declared 4 July, 1776 

The first federal American congress, under the 

constitution, was held at New York ; George 

Washington, president . . . March, 17S9 
The fiirst congress of the seceding southern 

CONGREVE ROCKETS, invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803, Avere used 
with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, 8 Oct. 1806, when they set a part of the town 
on iire : they were employed dming the French war by " rocket-men," 

CONIC SECTIONS. Their properties were probably known to the Greeks, four or five 
centuries before the Christian era, and their study was cultivated in the time of Plato, 390 
B.C. The earliest treatise on them was written by Arista?us, about 330 B.C. Apollonius's 
eight books were' written about 240 B.C. The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo, 
who died 1608 ; the ellipse to the orbit of planets by Kepler, about 1609. 

CONJURATION, see Witchcraft. 

CONNECTICUT granted to lord Say and Broke, 1630 ; see America, and United States. 

CONNOR, Ireland. The bishopric was united to that of Down, 1442. The first prelate, 
^ngus Macnisins, died 507. The united sees were added to Dromore on the death of its 
last bishop, 1842, in accordance with the Irish Church Temporalities act, passed 1833. 

CONQUEST, the era in British history, when William duke of Normandy overcame 
Harold II. at the battle of Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066, and obtained the crown which had been 
most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the confessor (Edgar being the rightful heir). 
William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the croAvn of 
England by compact. He defeated Harold, who was himself a usurper, but a large portion 
of the kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath 
to observe the laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the 
people. Formerly our judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar who 
said casually William the conqueror instead of William I. Seldcn. Maclise exhibited 
forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman conquest, in May, 1857. 

CONSCIENCE, Courts of, or of Requests, first constituted by a stat. of Hen. VII. 
1493, and re-organised by stat. 9 Hen. Vlll. 1517. These courts were improved and 
.amended by various acts ; tlieir jurisdiction in London reached to 5?. and (until superseded 
by county-courts) to 40s. in other towns. The practice was by summons, and if the party 
<lid not appear, the commissioners had power to apprehend and commit ; see Countij Courts. 
— James II. proclaimed liberty of conscience in 1687. " ' ^^ ~" "' ''"""" 



Conscience Claicse, see Education. 



CON 198 CON 

CONSCRIPT FATHERS (patres conscripti) the designation given to the Roman senators, 
because their names were written in the registers of the senate. 

CONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the French 
and other armies. On 5 Sept. 1798, a military conscription was ordained in France, com- 
prehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of age : from these selections were made. 
The law of 1818 (moditied in 1824, 1832 and 1868) reqi;ired a certain annual contingent 
from each department. A conscription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the 
disastrous Russian campaign, and in Dec. same year, another for 300,000 after the battle of 
Leipsic. The conscription was enlarged and modified by the army bill which was enacted 
in Feb. 1868. 

CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sons were consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. {Lev. viii.) 
The Jewish tabernacle was dedicated 1490 B.C., and Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. (i Kings, 
viii.) The consecration of churches was instituted in the 2nd century. Anciently the 
consecration of popes was deferred until the emperor had given his assent to their election. 
Gregory IV. desired to have his election confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Renault. 
The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admitted in the reformed religion. 
An act relating to the consecration of churchyards was passed 20 Aug. 1867. The form of 
consecrating bishops in the church of England is set forth in the prayer-book of 1549. Stow. 

CONSERVATION OF FORCE. The doctrine that no physical force can now be 
created or destroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by Faraday, Grove, Helmholtz, 
Tyndall, and other philosophers ; see Correlation. 

CONSERVATIVES, a name of modern date, is given to, and accepted by a political 
party, whose leading principle is the preservation of our national institutions. It sprung 
up in England at the time when the Orange Societies and lodges were discouraged, 1836, 
and was substituted for Orangemen as a less obnoxious term, and as indicative of milder, but 
equally constitutional opinions. Conservative has, however, in some measure, changed its 
signification, and in popular language is now opposed to Liberal. Sir Robert Peel acknow- 
ledged himself a conservative when reproached by the Irish party in parliament with being 
an Orangeman ; but the party that afterwards separated from him called their principles 
conservative in contradistinction to his, — ^liis policy and measures being changed. — The 
Conservative Club was founded in 1840 ; see Protectionists.— The party in the north of the 
United States which supported the president in his conciliatory efforts to re-establish the 
Union, Jan. 1866, were termed "Conservatives." 

CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to schools for the cultivation of music on the 
continent. One was established at Naples, in 1537. The singing school at Paris, founded 
in 1784, and closed in 1789, was re-opened in 1793 ^s the "Institut National de Musique," 
and after being re-organised, was re-named " Conservatoire de Musique" in 1795. Under 
Cherubini (1822-42) it greatly promoted the study of music. The "Conservatoire des- 
Arts et Metiers" was established in 1784. It includes a museum and library, and lectures 
are given to workmen there. 

CONSERVATORS of the Public Liberties. Officers chosen in England to inspect 
the treasury and correct abuses in administration, 28 Hen. III. 1244. Rapin. Conservators 
were_ appointed to see the king's peace kept. Pardon. Conservators were formally 
appointed in every sea-port to take cognizance of all offences committed against the peace 
upon the main sea out of the liberty of the Cinque Ports. Bailey. 

CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical discipline and divine worship in the 
Lutheran church in Germany, were established at the reformation — the first at "Wittenberg 
in 1542 ; other consistories were established after the peace of Augsburg in 1555. 

CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined with the hundred court ; and its original, as- 
divided therefrom, is found in a law of "William I., 1079, quoted by lord Coke. The chief 
and most ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is 
called the Court of Arches (wMcli see). 

CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed by combining the other funds in 1786. On 5 Jan. 
1816, the exchequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously separaite, were amalgamated. 

CONSOLS, ^ee StocTcs. CONSORZIO NAZIONALE, see Italy, 1866. 

CONSPIRACIES. Among the recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following: 
are the most remarkable : see Rehellions. 

Of the dulce of Gloucester against Richard II. . 1357 Of Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master, hired 

Of the earl of Cambridge and others against by the Spaniards to kill the queen . . . 1594 

nf A 1'7 -o ^4^5 Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and Edwd. Squyer to 

OtAnthonyBabington and others against Eliza- poison the queen 1598 

beth. (See BaUngton) 1586 Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland . . . 1599 

(Jf Lopez, a Jew, and others 1594 The Gunpowder Plot (w/iicA see) .... 1605 



CON 



199 



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CONSPIRACIES, continued. 

Tyrone's conspiracy to surprise the castlo of 

Dublin 1607 

Of Penruddock (1655) and Syndercombe and 

others to assassinate Oliver Cromwell . . 1657 
Insurrection of the Puritans ....,, 
Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against 

Charles II i65i 

Of Blood and his associates, who seized the duke 

of Ormond, wounded him, and would bave 

hanged him ; and v/ho afterwards attempted 

to steal the regaha 1671 

The pretended conspiracy of the French, 

Spanish, and English Jesuits to assassinate 

Charles II., revealed by the infamous Titus 

Gates, Dr. Tongue, and others . . . . 1678 
The Meal-tub plot (which see) .... 1679 
The Rye-house plot to assassinate the kuig on 

his way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot) 1683 
Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and othtrs 

to restore James II. 1691 

CONSTABLE of England, Lord High. The seventh great officer of the crown, and, 
with the earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of chivalry, called, in the time of 
Henry IV., curia militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. The power of this officer 
was so great, that in 1389 a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the power of the 
earl marshal {ivhich see). The office existed before the conquest, after wliich it went by 
inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it 
was forfeited by Edward Staftbrd, duke of Buckingham, attainted for high treason, and has 
never since been granted to any person, otherwise than pro hdc vice (for this occasion), to 
attend at a coronation or trial by combat. The only instance of a trial by combat being 
ordered since this office fell into the hands of the crown, was that commanded between lord 
Reay and sir David Eamsay, in Nov. 163 1 ; but the king prevented it. — The following were 
lord hiifh constables at coronations. 



Of Granville,' a French chevaliei', to murder 

king "William in Flanders 1692 

The assassination plot {tolikh see) . . . i6g5 
Of Simon Eraser, lord Lovat, against queen 

Anne. (See Rebellions) 1703 

Of the marques.'s Guiscard . . March, 1711 
Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassi- 
nate George 1 1718 

Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring in the 

Pretender 1722 

Of the Corresponding Society, &c. (which see) 1796-8 

Of colonel Despard 1802 

Of Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- 

warden was killed .... July 23, 1803 
Of Thlstlewood and others, to assassinate the 

king's ministers. (See Cato-sireet) . . . 1820 
Of the Sepoys in India. (See India) May 10, 1857 

Of the Fenians 1858-68 

Siee Rebellions, Chartists, &:c. 



Queen Anne, Wriothesly, duke of Bedford 
George I., John, duke of Montagu 
George II., Charles, duke of Richmond 
George III., John, duke of Bedford . 



. 1702 I George IV. "1 

. 1714 1 WiUiam IV. V Arthur, duke of Wellington 

. 1727 Victoria . j 

• ^761 I 



CONSTABLE of Sgotland, Loed High. The office was instituted by David I. about 
1147. The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, which the king, at his promotion 
delivered to him naked (and hence the badge of the lord high constable is a naked sword) ; 
and the absolute command of the king's armies while in the held, in the absence of the king. 
The jurisdiction of this office came at last to be exercised only in dealing with crimes during 
the time of parliament, which some extended likewise to all general conventions. The office 
was conferred heritably in 1321 on sir Gilbert Hay, created earl of Erroll, by Robert Bruce, 
and with his descendants it still remains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of union in 
1707. The present earl of Erroll is the twenty-second lord high constable (1868). 

CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, 
are now called high constables. There are three kinds of constables, high, i^etiij, and special ; 
the high constable's jurisdiction extends to the whole hirudred ; the petty constable's to the 
parish or liberty for which he is chosen ; and the special constable is a])pointed for particular 
emergencies (as in April, 1848, on account of the Chartists). See Special Constables. 

CONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of London, see Police. The Constabulary of 
Ireland act passed in 1823, when this species of force was embodied throughout the country. 
Several subsequent acts were consolidated in 1836. 

CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). Here was held the seventeenth general 
council, 1414, which condemned John Huss ; and here he was burnt, 6 July 1415 ; see 
Hussites. 

CONST ANTINA, the ancient capital of Numidia, was taken by the French, 13 Oct. 
1837. During the assault on 12 Oct. the French general Damremont was killed. Achmet 
Bey retired with 12,000 men, as the victors entered Con stantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE, formerly Byzantium {which see), derives its name from Constantiue 
the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Emi^ire, dedicating it 11 May, 330. 



The city suffered much from religious dissen- 
sions, and was burnt during the " Nika " 
conflicts (rebuilt by Justinian with great 
splendour) 522 



Resisted the Saracens . . ■ ■ 675, 718 
And the Russians . . . 865, 904, 941, 1043 

Taken by the Latins i203> 1204 

Recovered by the Greeks 1261 



CON 200 CON" 



CONSTANTINOPLE, continued. 
Besieged by Amurath, the Ottoman . . . 1422 
Taken by Mahomet II. (aftei- 53 days' siege) 

May2Q, 1453 
General Ecclesiastical councils against heresy were 
held here in 381, 553, 680, and 86g. 
See Eastern Empire and Twkny. 1 
Eba of Constantinople has the creation placed 5508 



years B.C. It was used by the Russians until the 
time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the 
Greek church. The civil year begins i Sept., and 
the ecclesiastical year in March ; the day is not 
exactly determined. To reduce it to our era sub- 
tract 550S years from January to August, and 5509 
from Sept. to the end. Nicolas. 



CONSTELLATIONS. Ardunos, Orion, tlie Pleiades, and Mazzaroth are mentioned in 
Jol ix. 9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and Hesoid notice constellations ; but 
though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, our first 
direct knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolomseus, about A.D. 140. Hipparchus 
(about 147 B. c. ) made a catalogue of forty-eight constellations. Others were added by Tycho 
Brahe, Hevelius, Halley, and others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 northern, 
45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. 

CONSTITUENCIES, see Commons, House of. CONSTITUENT, see National Asscmbhj. 

CONSTITUTION of England. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the 
British people are governed, and to which it is presumptively held that every individual has 
assented. Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government 
in this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at 
all times ; and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. Lord 
BolinghroTce. The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power : on the 
contrary, he sees his equals in tlie co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognises 
his superior in the law. Sheridan. HaUam's "Constitutional History of England" was 
first published in 1827. , 

CONSTITUTIONALIST PARTY, a name given to or asumed by a combination of 
seceded Whigs and Conservatives, Aug. 1867. 

CONSUBSTANTIATION, see TransuMantiaiion. 

CONSULS (meaning colleagues), Roman ; at the expulsion of the Tarquins, a republic 
was established, to be ruled by two consuls elected annually : the first being Lucius Junius 
Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius CoUatinus, husband of the injured Lucretia, 509 B.C. The 
consular power was sometimes superseded by dictators and tribunes. 



Government of the Decemviri . . B.C. 451 — 449 
Three military tribunes, with consular power . 444 
A Plebeian elected consul 366 

[In the reign of Tiberius the consuls were 
nominated by the senate, and the appointment 
became henceforth honorary.] 
The French consulate was established in 1799, 

when the directory was abolished: onioNov. 

Bonaparte, Si€y6s, and Roger Ducos were 



made provisional consular commissioners ; 
and on 13 Dec, Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and 
Lebrun were made consuls. Bouaparte was 
made first consul for ten years, 6 May, and 
for life, 2 Aug. 1802 ; emperor, 18 May, 1804 

Commercial agents were first distinguished by 
the name of consuls in Italy, in 1485, being 
appointed by Richard III. A British consul 
was first appomted in Portugal in 1633 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT for naval and military stations passed June 1866 ; one 
for animals passed 1866 ; renewed 20 Aug. 1867. 

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British 
merchandise from the entire continent. It began with his Berlin decree in 1806, and 
occasioned the Orders in Coimcil (wJiich see), and was followed by similar measures, 

CONTINUITY. Mr. W. R. Grove, in his address as president of the British Associa- 
tion, on 22 Aug. 1866, at Nottingham, expounded the opinion held by many philosophers, 
that all the past changes in the world have been produced by the continuous action of the 
causes now in operation — that "continuity is a law of nature, the true expression of the 
action of Almighty Power." 

CONTRABAND of "Wae, a term said to have been first employed in the treaty of 
Southampton between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle between Spain and 
Holland, both powers acted with much rigour towards ships of neutrals conveying goods to 
the belligerents. This provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy was adopted by 
the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650 ; and by the declaration of Paris, 26 April, 1856. The subject 
■was much discussed during the North American conflict, 1861-4. 

CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in parliament, 1782. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Yoluntaey, to a vast amount have been several times made by 
the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these, in 1798, to 
support the war against France, amounted to two millions and a half sterling. Several men 
of wealth, among others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000^. : and 
200,oooZ. were transmitted from India in 1799 ; see Patriotic Fund. 

CONTROL, Board of. Mr. Pitt's bill, establishing this board for the purpose of aiding 



CON 201 COO 

and controlling the executive government of India, and of superintending the territorial 
concerns of the conipanj', was passed i8 May, 1784. Act amended and the board remodelled, 
1793- The president of the board was a chief minister of the crown, and necessarily one 
of the members of the cabinet. This board was abolished in 1858, when the goverment of 
India was transferred from the company to the crown ; see India Bills, and India. 

CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION (Metropolitan), at Walton-on-Thames, with children's 
branches at Hendon and Mitcham, was established in 1840. A convalescent hospital for the 
east of London was founded at Snaresbrook in 1866, greatly due to the exertions of Mrs. 
Gladstone and Miss Catherine Marsh. The principle has been since strongly advocated. 

CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for religious worship, held by Dissenters from the 
established church ; but first applied to the schools of Wickliff. They were strictly forbidden 
by Elizabeth in 1593, and by Charles II., 1664 ; and persons attending them were liable to 
severe punishment. The statutes were repealed by William III. in 1689. 

CONVENTION PAKLIAMENTS. Two especially distinguished by this term assembled 
without the king's writ upon extraordinary occasions. The first on 25 April, 1660, voted the 
restoration of Charles II. ; the second met on 22 Jan. 1689, and on 13 Feb. offered the 
crown to William and Marj''. This parliament was dissolved in Feb. 1690 ; see National 
Convention. 

CONVENTIONS, see Treaties. 

CONVENTS were first founded, according to some authorities, 270. The first in 
England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. The first in Scotland 
was at Coldingham, where Ethelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded earlier than 
this last date in Ireland. They were suppressed in England in A^arious reigns, particularly 
in that of Henry VIII., and few existed in Great Britain till lately.* A very great 
number have been suppressed in Europe in the present centurj'-. The king of Prussia 
secularised all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in 
Portugal in 1834; and Spain abolished 1800 convents. Many were abolished in Italy and 
Sicily in i860 and 1861 ; and many in Eussia 31 July, 1832, and Nov. 1864. 

CONVICTS, see Transportation. 

CONVOCATION, a general assembly of the clergy in the nation, convened by the 
sovereign's writ, to consult on the affairs of the church ; the writ is directed to the archbishop 
of each province, requiring him to summon all the bishops, archdeacons, &c. The convocation 
is divided into two houses, the itpper, consisting of bishops ; and lower, of deans, preben- 
daries, archdeacons, and members elected from the lower clergy. The clergy were summoned 
to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. I. 1295. The power of the convocation was limited by a 
statute of Henry VIII., in whose reign the convocation was reorganised. The two houses of 
convocation were deprived of various privileges in 1 716. Formal meetings of the clergy have 
been held annually since 1854, and attempts have been made to obtain the power of dealing 
summarily with ecclesiastical affairs, but without effect. 

CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus {Convolmdus Canariensis) came to England 
from the Canary Isles, 1690. The many-flowered convolvulus in I779- 

COOKEEY, an art connected with civilised life. Animals were granted as food to Noah, 
2348 B.C., the eating blood being expressly forbidden [Gen. ix.3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was 
cooked by Abraham to entertain his guests [Gen. xviii. 7, 8). "The Forme of Cury " {i.e. 
cookery) is dated 1390. An English cookery-book was printed 1498 ;t see Cottager's Stove. 

COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accompanied by sir Joseph Banks, sailed from 
England in the .ffncfoaypttr on his first voyage, 30 July, 1768;! and returned home after 

* In 1597 lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, which flourished there till 1794, when the 
nuns were compelled to remove to England. They were received by bishop Milner, and placed at Winches- 
ter, at which place they remained till their removal to East Bergholt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was 
the fii-st Enghsh conventual estabhshment founded on the continent after the Reformation. — It is stated 
that there were 16 convents in England in 1841, 53 in 1S61, and 189 in 1865. 

t Military Cookery.— Ca.-^l. Grant devised a system of cooking for the camp at Aldershot, which has 
continued in successful opei-ation for the service of between 12,000 and 14,000 men. From April to August, 
in 1857, the plan was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92,000 men, who marched in and out of the 
encampment during that period. The consumption of fuel requisite for this system of cooking is one half- 
pound of coal per man per day, and the official report states the cost to be one halfpenny per man per 
week for the three daily meals.— Self-supporting- Cooking Depots for the working classes were set up at 
Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), 21 Sept. i860 ; and proved successful in Manchester, London, and other 
places soon after. 

X A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advantages 
which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus over 
the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavour was, in consequence, prepared for that purpose, 
and the command of her given to lieutenant James Cook. He sailed in July. 176S, touched at Madeira 
and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a px-osperous voyage reached Otaheite, the place of desti- 
nation, in April, 1769. By a comparison of the observations made on this transit (3 June 1769) from the 



coo 



202 



COP 



liaviiig circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Deal, 12 June, 1771. Captain Cook sailed to 
explore the southern hemisphere, 13 Jul j^, 1772, and returned 30 July, 1775. In his third 
expedition (begun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages of Owhyhee, 14 Feb. 1779. 
His ships, the Resolution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, 4 Oct. 1780. 

COOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably suggested for preserving wine. The coopers of 
London were incorporated in 1501. 

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are composed of working-men, having for their object the 
sale of articles of daily consumption to the members at low prices. The Rochdale Equitable 
Pioneers Society began in 1S44, with a capital of 28^. In i860, the business done amounted 
to 152, 063^., the profits being 15,906?. These societies (332 in 1862) are registered pursuant 
to 13 and 14 Vict. c. 115 (1849). On 31 Dec. 1866, 749 industrial, provident, and co-opera- 
tive societies were registered. By an act passed in 1867 they are bound to make a return. 

COORG, a ]3rovince (S. India). War broke out between the rajah and the East India 
Company 1832, which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing the rajah, 10 April, 
1834 ; his territories were soon after annexed to the British possessions. In 1853 the rajah 
brought his daughter to be educated in England, where she was baptized. 

COPENHAGEN" (Denmark), built by "Waldemar I. , 1157, and made the capital 1443; 
university founded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were 
burnt. Its palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 
persons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, admiralty, and 
fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bombarded by the English under lord 
Nelson and admiral Parker; and in their engagement with the Danish fleet of twenty- three 
ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, 2 April 1801. Again, 
after a bombardment of three days, the city and Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambler 
and lord Cathcart, 7 Sept. 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, flfteen 
frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval stores ; see Denmark. 

COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). Here the Corresponding Society met on 26 
Oct. 1796; and the Trades' Union, 21 April, 1834. The fields are now chiefly occupied by 
the Metropolitan Cattle-market, opened 13 June, 1855. 

COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, 
19 Feb. 1473, died 24 May, 1543. A few days before his death, the printing of his book on 
the ' ' Revolution of the Celestial Bodies " was completed. The system, which resembles 
that attributed to Pythagoras, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. in 1616; not 
revoked till 1818 by Pius VII. 

COPLEY MEDAL, see Royal Society. 

COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, said to have been first discovered in Cyprus. 
Pliny. "We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper (or brass), "precioixs as 
gold," 457 B.C. [Ezra viii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, are the most surprising 
artificial excavations in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and 
copper now forms an immense branch of trade : there are upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, 
where mining has been increasing since the reign of William III. In 1857, 75,832 tons of 
copper ore were imported, and 25,241 tons extracted. In 1865, 198,298 tons of copper ore 
were extracted from British mines, and 11,888 tons smelted: 82,562 tons were imported. 
The Burra-Burra copper-mines, in S. Australia, discovered 1842, brought great prosperity. 
The first ship to which a sheathing of copper was applied was his majesty's ship Alarm, at 
"Woolwich, in 1761, "to preserve her from worms in southern climates :" it gave great 
satisfaction, and in 1780 all ships in the British navy were copper-bottomed. — About 1850 
the electro-type process was first employed to face with copper printing-types and casts from 
woodcuts. 



Copper Monet. The Romans, prior to the reign 
of Servius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper 
for money; see Coin. In England copper 
money was made at the instance of sir Eobert 
Cotton, in 1609 ; but was first really coined 
(when Miss Stewart sat for the figure of Brit- 
tannia) 1665 

Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was 
largely issued in 1689 

In Ii-eland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; 
in Scotland in 1406 ; in France in . . . 15S0 



Wood's coinage (which see) in Ireland com- 
menced in 1723 

The copper coinage was largely manufactured 
at Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . 1792 

Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively 
issued 1797. The half- far thing was coined 
in, but disused (see /art/iM?s') . . . . 1843 

lo.ooo?. voted towards replacing the copper 

comage Julyj 1855 

See Bronze. 



various parts of the globe on which it was viewed by men of science, the system of the universe has, in some 
particulars, been better understood ; the distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and 
the transit in 1761, was settled at 108,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation of 
95,000,000. Bailer. It is now computed to be 95,298,260 miles (1865). 



COP 



203 



COR 



COPPER, continued. 

Copper-Plate rinting was first invented in mode of engraving on soft steel, which, when 

Germany, about 1450 ; and rolUng-presses for hardened, will multiply copper-plates and 

working the plates about .... 1545 fine impressions indefimtely (see Ewjravmfj) 1819 

Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a 

COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or iron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), 
found in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue colour ; first produced in England by- 
Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 

COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 to such members of the Democrat party in 
the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on any terms.— Copperhead is a 
poisonous serpent, also named dumb-rattle snake, red viper, &c. 

COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with 
Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Chiistianity derived from the Eutychians. 

COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a copy of the rolls of a manor made by a 
steward of the lord's court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict. c. 35, 1841. By the Reform 
act in 1832, copyholders to the amount of lol. became entitled to a vote for the county. The 
copyhold acts were amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858). 

COPYING-MACHmES (for letters, &c.) were invented by James Watt in 1778 ■, patented 
in May 1780 ; and 150 machines were sold before the end of the year. "Wedgwood's "mani- 
fold writer" was patented in 1806 ; and in 1855 Terry patented a copying machine to be 
combined with the cover of a book. 

COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber regardmg it, 1556. Every book and publi- 
cation ordered to be licensed, 1585. 

plied to all tissues except lace and those 
already provided for ; for the modelling, em- 
bossing, and engraving of any manufacture 
not being a tissue ; and for the shape or con- 
■figuration of any article 1839 

By s & 6 Vict. c. 100, all existing designs acts 
repealed (except that for sculpture), and 
provision made for including all ornamental 
designs under 13 classes, and conferring upon 
them terms of protection, varying from nine 

months to three years 1842 

[Pees on registration vary from is. to i^] 

The " non-ornamental designs act," securing 
the configuration of articles of utility (fee 
10?.), passed in 1843 

By the "designs act," the Board of Trade is 
empowered to extend the copyright for an 
additional term of three years . . . . 1850 

Copyright of photographs secured by the act, 
protecting works of art, passed in . July, 1862 

TNTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 

Acts passed to secure to authors, in certain cases, 
the benefits of international copyright (i & 2 
Vict. c. 59, and 15 Vict. c. 12), and conventions 
have, in consequence, been entered into with 
France, Prussia, &;c. . . . 1838 and 1852 

International copyright bill introduced into 
American house of rexjresentatives 21 Feb. 1868 



Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work 

without the consent of the owner . . . 1649 
The first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the 

author's life if then Uving) was that of 

8 Anne *i709 

Protection of copyright in prints and engrav- 
ings, 17 Geo. Ill 1777 

Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the 

remauider of the author's life if then living), 

54 Geo. Ill 1814 

Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 Will. IV. 

c. IS 1833 

Act for preventing the publication of lectures 

without consent, 6 Will. IV. c. 65 . . . 1835 
International copyright bill, i Vict. c. 59 . . 1838 
5 <fe 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd's or lord Mahon's 

act),t to amend the copyright act passed . 1842 
The colonies' copyright act 10& 11 Vict., c. 95, 

passed ^1847 

COPyRIGHT FOR DESIGNS. 

Protection granting security for two months to 

new designs apphed by printing to linens, 

calicoes, and muslins 1787 

Extended to three months 1794 

A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture 1798 

and 1814 
The designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace 

printed designs on wool, sUk, and hair ; and 

12 months' copjrright granted to designs ap- 

CORBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). Here, on 27 April, 1650, the gallant mar- 
quess of Montrose was defeated by the Covenanters. He was taken soon after, treated with 
great contumely, and hanged at Edinburgh, on 21 May. 

CORCYRA (now Corfio, chief of the Ionian Isles), a colony founded by the Corinthians 
about 734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother coimtry ; one about the possession of 

* This act was confirmed by a decision of the house of lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright was 
overruled, 22 Feb. 1774. The statute declared the author to have an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at 
the end of that term he were living, the right to return to him again for the same term of years. Later 
acts extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time, then to the remainder 
of his life. 

t By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the avithor, and for seven years after his death ; but 
if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 42 yeai-s, for which term also any 
work published after the author's death is to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript. 

X The important question of a foreigner possessing a copyright in this country was finally decided in 
the negative by the house of lords, in August 1854, which reversed the decision of the court of exchequer, 
on an appeal by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. (In 1831, Mr. Boosey purchased the copy- 
right of Bellini's opera. La Sonnambida, from which Mr. Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges 
were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven of a contrary opinion.) 



COR 



204 



COR 



Epidamnus (431 B.C.) led to tlie Peloponnesian war. It was subdued by the Spartans iu 
373, and by the Romans, 230. At th^ decline of the eastern empire it fell into the hands 
of the Venetians about a.d. 1149. The Turks attacked Corfu in 17 16, but were gallantly 
repulsed. It was siibdued by the Russian and Turkish fleets in 1799, and formed (with, 
the other isles) into the Ionian republic ; see Ionian Isles. 

CORDELIERS, friars of the order of St, Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about 
1223. They are clothed in coarse grey cloth, with a small cowl and cloak of the same 
material, having a girdle of cord or rope, tied with three knots, and hence the name, which 
was first given to them by St. Louis of Prance, about 1227. Several members of the French, 
revolutionary party, termed " Cordeliers," established at Paris in 1790, Hebert Cloots, &c., 
were executed 24 March, 1794. 

CORDOVA, the Roman Corduba (S. Spain), founded about 152 B.C., taken by the Goths 
in 572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by Abderahman in 756, who founded the 
great mosque (now the cathedral) 786. It became eminent for its learned men, and was the 
birthplace of Seneca and Lucan under the Romans, and of the great Arabian physician 
Averrlioes. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III. of Castile, in 1236, was taken 
by the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged 8 June, 1808 ; surrendered to Joseph. 
Bonaparte Jan. 1810, and abandoned by the French in 1813. 

CORFU, see Corctjra. 

CORINTH (Greece), a city, said to have been built 1520 B.C., on the ruins of Ephyra. 
It was defended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth, surrounded with strong walls. 
Its situation was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the Eye of Greece, and declared, that 
■of all the cities known to the Romans, Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great 
empire..— For Corinth, in North America, see United States, 1862, 1863. n 



243 
228 



The Corinthians engaged in the Persian war b. c. 480 

War with the Corcyreans 43 s 

The Corinthian war {which see) . . . . 395 
Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and an- 
nexed to the Achsean League .... 
The Eoman ambassadors first appear at Corinth 
Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius, who 
sends to Italy the first fine paintings there 
seen, they being part of the spoil (Livy) 

Rebuilt by Julius Cfesar 

Visited by St. Paul {Acts xviii.) . . a.d. 

His two epistles to the Corinthians 
Ravaged by Alaric 



146 
. 46 
■ 54 
59. 60 

396 



Plundered by Normans from Sicily . . . 1146 
Taken by Turks, 1446 : by Venetians, 1687 ; by 
Turks, 1714 ; from whom it was finally taken 

by the Greeks in 1823 

Nearly destroyed by an earthquake 21 Feb. 1858 



The Isthmian games instituted, it is stated, by 

Sisyphus, who founded a kingdom . e.g. 1326 
Return of the HeracUdse, or Dorians . . . 1107 
Their dynasty established by Aletes . . 1074 

The Corinthians invent ships called triremes, 

with three benches of oars . . 786 or 758 
Reign of Bacchis, 925 ; oUgarchy of the Bacchidse 

747-657 
Thelestes deposed, and the government of the 

Prytanes instituted : Automenes is the first 

on whom this dignity is conferred, about . 745 
The Corinthian colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra 

founded about 734 

Revolt of the Corcyreans : they defeat the 

Corinthians at sea 664 

€ypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes . 655 
His son Periander rules, and favours genius 

and learning 627-585 

Psammitichus deposed, and a repubhc fonned 580 

CORINTHIAN ORDER, the richest of the orders of ancient architecture, called by 
Scamozzi, the virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 540 B.C. ; see Abacus. 

CORINTHIAN "WAR, began 395 b. c. ; received this name, because mostly in the neigh- 
bourhood of Corinth ; waged by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and 
Argives, against the Lacedaemonians. It was closed by the peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. 
The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra {which see). 

CORIOLI, a Latin city, capital of the Volscians, taken by the Romans, 493 B.C. From 
his exploits against it, Cains Marcius was named Coriolanus. His story is now deemed _ 
mythical. 

CORK, (S. Ireland,) built in the 6th century. The principality of the M'Cartys was 
converted into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The foundation of the see is 
ascribed to St. Barr, or Finbarr, early in the 7th century. About 1431, this see and that of 
Cloyne were canonically united ; but on the death of bishop Synge, in 1678, they were 
separated, the see of Ross having been added to Cork about a century before, 1582. The 
.sees of Cork and Cloyne were reunited (by the act of 1833) ^^SS- 

■Garrisoned by Henry II 1172 

First charter, from Henry II 1185 

Supported Perkin Warbeck, who landed here . 1492 
A large part of the town burnt .... 1621 

Taken by Cromwell in 1649 

The earl of Marlborough besieged and took 

Cork from king James's army, when the 

duke of Grafton, a natural son of Charles II. , 

was slain i6go 

The cathedral was rebuilt by the produce of a 



coal duty, between the years . . 1725 & 1735 
Explosion of gunpowder here . . 10 Nov. 1810 
One of the three colleges, endowed by govern- 
ment pursuant to act 8 & g Vict. c. 66, passed 
31 July, 184s, was inaugurated in this city 
(see Queen's Colleges) ... 7 Nov. 1849 
Railway to Dublin finished in . ... 1850 
Cork industrial exhibition opened, 10 June, 

and closed 11 Sept. 1852 

See Fenians 1867-8 



COE 



205 



COR 



CORK-TREE, Quercus suher, a species of the oak ; part of its bark used for stopping 
bottles. The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree grows in great abundance on the 
Pyi'enean nioiintaius, and in other parts of Spain, in France, and in the north of New 
England. It was brought to England about 1690. A cork carpet company was formed in 1862. 

CORN". The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who, having taught the art 
to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arunclelian Marbles. The art of 
husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed 
by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 199S 
B.C. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the 
world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Fxodtis xii. 15. The first 
importation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 1347. A law restricting it was made 
in 1361. Boimties were granted on its importation into England in 1686. — The new 
London Corn Exchange, Mark-lane, London, erected at an expense of 90,000?., (replacing 
one established in 1747), was opened 24 June, 1828. 



CORN-LAWS. 

The restrictions on tlie importation of corn are 
felt, in consequence of tlie increase of manu- 
factures, about 1770; they were relaxed in . 1773 

Mr. Kobinson's act passed, permitting its im- 
portation when wheat should be Sos. per 
quarter . 1815 

During the discussions on this bill, mobs as- 
sembled in London, and many of the houses 
of its supporters were damaged, 28 Jan. ; and 
a riot in Westminster continued several days 
and occasioned much mischief, 6-9 March, ,, 

The corn-bill, after passing in the commons, is 
defeated in the house of lords by a clause, 



proposed by the duke of WeUington, which is 
carried by a majority of 4 . .1 June, 1827 

The act (called the sliding scale) whereby wheat 
was allowed to be imported on payment of a 
duty of il. 5s. 8d. per quarter, whenever the 
average price of all England was under 62s. ; 
from 62.S. to 63s., zl. 4.S. Sd. ; and so gradually 
reduced to is., when the average price was 
73s. and upwards, passed . . 15 July, 1828 

The act 5 Vict.' c. 14, the second " sliding scale 
act," regulated the duty on wheat as follows, 
with sliding duties, also, on other articles of 



corn, passed 



29 April, 1842 



Arera<je per qiinyter. 


Duty 




Ai'eragc jier quarter. 


Shillings. Shilliitf/s. 


£ s. 


d. 


Shillings. Shillings 


under 51 


I 





59 and under 60 


51 and mider 52 


19 





60 and under 61 


■52 and under 55 


18 





61 and under 62 


55 and under 56 


17 





! 62 and under 63 


56 and under '^y 


16 





, 63 and under 64 


57 and under 58 


15 





64 and under 65 


58 and under 59 


14 





1 6s and under 66 



Duty. 
£ s. d. 
o 13 o 
o 12 o 

O II o 

o 10 o 
090 



Average 2>er quarter. 

Shillings. Shillings, 

66 and under 69 

69 and under 70 

70 and under 71 

71 and under 72 

72 and under 73 

73 and upwards 



Duty. 
£ s. ( 
o 6 
o 5 
o 4 



The Corn Ijiportation Bill (introduced by sir quarter only, on all kinds of grain imported 
Eobert Peel), g & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the into the United Kingdom, at any prices), re- 
duty on wheat was reduced to 4s. when im- ceived the royal assent . . 26 June, 1846 
ported at or above 535., until ist Feb. 1849 ; See Anti-Corn-Law League. 
after which day the duty became is. per 

CORNWALL, S.W. extremity of England, originally called Kernou, a term connected 
■with the Latin cornu, a horn, in allusion to its numerous promontories or projecting points. 
On the retreat of the ancient Britons, Cornwall is said to have been formed into a kingdom, 
and to have existed many years imder different pirinces, among whom were Ambrosius 
Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur. Cornwall is said to have been made an earldom by- 
Alfred. The eldest son of the British sovereign is born duke of Cornwall ; see Stannary Courts^ 



Cornwall given by the conqueror to Eobert, 

Comte de Mortein, his half-brother, 1068 ; 

killed ........ 1087 

William, his son, dispossessed by Henry I. (died 

a monk) 1104 

Eeginald de Duustanville, natural son of Henry 

I., earl 1140 

John Plantagenet, son of Henry IT., earl about 11 89 
Eichard Fitz-Count, son of Eeginald, earl, 1215; 

resigned 1220 

Eichard, son of king John, 1225 ; elected king 

of the Eom.ans, 1256 ; died . . 2 Api'il, 1272 
Edmund, his son, earl, 1272 ; died without 

issue ......... 1300 

Piers de Gavestou, earl, 1308 ; beheaded 

19 June, 1312 
John, son of Edward II., earl, 1330; died with 

issue 1336 



Cornwall made a duchy, by Edward III., for 
Edward his eldest son, afterwards created 
prince of Wales ... 17 March, 1337 

Insurrection of Comishmen under lord Audley, 
Thomas Flammock, and others, against 
taxes ; they march to London ; defeated at 
Blackheath ..... 22 Juno, 1497 

Insurrection in Devon and Cornwall against the 
Protestant hturgy, defeated by lord Eussell, 

Aug. IS49 

Dolly Pentrcath, said to have been the last per- 
son who spoke Cornish, died aged 102 . . 1778 

Eev. E. Pol whole's " History of Cornwall " pub- 
lished 1803-S 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Comw.all 

July, 1865 

Eeceipts from the duchy, 77,755^ paid to the 
prince of Wales, 53,403^ in i865 



The first coronation by a bishop is said to have been that of 



CORONATION. 

Majorianus, 457. 

Charlemagne crowned emperor of the west by 
the pope Leo III. (using the words " coronato 
a Deo," "crowned by God") . . 25 Deo. Soo 

Edward I., son of Alfred, crowned . 16 May, 902 



William I. crowned at Westminster . 25 Dec. 10S6 
Anointing at coronations introduced into Eng- 
land 872, and Scotland 1097 

Coronation of Henry III. , in the first instance. 



COR 



206 



COE 



COEOlSrATIO:^, continued. 
without a crown, at Gloucester. A plain 
circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the 
crown, which had been lost with the other 
jewels and baggage of king John, in passing 
the marshes ol Lynn, or the Wash, near Wis- 
beach ...... 28 Oct. 1216 

■William and Mary crowned by Compton, bishop 
of London, as Sancroft, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, would not take the oaths . II April, 1689 
George IV. crowned . . . .19 July, 1821 

WiUiam IV. crowned, with his queen 8 Sept. 1831 
Victoria crowned .... 28 June, 183S 

Coronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, 



formeVly the metropolis of the kings of Munster, 
was deposited the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on 
which they were crowned. Tradition says, that 
in 513 Fergus, a prince of the royal line, having 
obtained the Scottish throne, procured the use of 
this stone for his coronation at Dunstaffnage, 
where it continued untO. the time of Kenneth II., 
who removed it to Scone ; and in 1296 it was re- 
moved by Edward I. from Scone to Westminster. 
A Coronation Oath was administered by Dun- 
stan, archbishop of Canterbury, to Bthelred II., in 
978. An oath, nearly corresponding with that 
now in use, was administered in 1377, and was 
altered in 1689. 

COEONEA, Battles of. I. (or Chseronea), The Athenians were defeated and their 
general Tolmides slain in a battle with the Bceotians at Coronea near Chaeronea, 447 -B. c. 
II. The Athenians, Thebans, Argives. and Corinthians having entered into a league, oflfensive 
and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms, from his many 
victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town of Bceotia, and 
achieved a great victory over them, 394 b. c. 

COEONEES, officers of the realm mentioned in a charter, 925. Coroners for every 
county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 3 Edw. I. 1275. Stow. 
They are chosen for life by the freeholders, and their duty is to inquire into the cause of 
unnatural death, upon view of the body. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign 
of Malcolm II., about 1004. By an act jiassed in 1843, coroners are enabled to appoint 
deputies to act for them incase of illness. — 20,531 coroners' inquests were held in England 
and "Wales in 1859 ; 21,178 in i860 ; 21,038 in 1861 ; 20,591 in 1862 ; 22,757 in 1863 ; 
24,787 in 1864 ; 25,011 in 1865 ; 24,926 in 1866 (17,496 males, 7430 females). 

COEONETS, caps or inferior crowns of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first 
allowed by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. 
Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Eobert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of 
the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes and 
marquesses were settled. Beatson. 

COEPOEATIONS are stated by Livy to have been of very high antiquity among the 
Eomans, by whom they were introduced into other countries. They were planned by Numa, 
in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Eomans, by instituting 
separate societies of every manual trade and profession. Plutarch. — Municipal Corpora- 
tions IN England. Bodies politic, authorised by the king's charter to have a common 
seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by their common consent, to 
grant or receive in law any matter within the compass of their charter. Cowell. Corpora- 
tions were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to various towns, 
first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. gi-anted charters, 1 100 : and succeeding monarchs 
gave corporate powers, and extended them to numerous large communities throughout the 
realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. Blackstone. The Corporation and Test act, 
passed in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corporation Eeform act, for the regula- 
tion of municipal corporations in England and "Wales, 5 & 6 "Will. IV. c. 76 (1835). The 
Irish Municipal Corporation act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, was amended in x86i. 

COEPULElSrCE. In Germany some fat monks. have weighed eighteen stone. Render. 

weighing 52 stone, 11 pounds; 10 stone, 4 
pounds raore than Mr. Bright . 21 June, 1809 

James Mansfield, died at Debden, aged 82, 
weighing 34 stone .... 9 Nov. 1856 

Mr. Wm. Banting pubUshed a letter on corpu- 
lence, recommending, from his own expe- 
rience, as a remedy, great rooderation in the 
use of sugar and starch in diet. 50,000 copies 
of this letter were speedily sold or given away 1863 



Mr. Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, of 
Maldon, in Essex, who died in his 29th year. 
Seven persons of the common size were with 
ease enclosed in his waistcoat ; buried at All 
Saints, Maldon .... 12 Nov. 

Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the 
heaviest man that ever lived, died in his 
40th year, at Stamford, in Lincolnshire, 



COEPUS CHEISTI, a festival in the Eomau church, in honour of transubstantiation, 
kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday {wMcli see). It was instituted by pope Urban 
IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed by the council of Vienne in 1311. 

" COEEELATIOF of the PHYSICAL EOECES " is the title of a book by Mr. "W. E, 
Grove, E.E.S., yAio in 1842 enunciated the theory of the correlation or mutual dependence 
and convertibility into each other of all the forces of nature (viz. heat, light, electricity, 
magnetism, chemical affinity, and motion). 

COEEESPONDmG SOCIETY oP LONDOK, was formed about 1791 to spread liberal 
opinions and check the severity of the British government, then much alarmed by the 



COR 



207 



COS 



French revolution. Home Tooke and other members were tried and acquitted, Oct. 1794 ; 
see Trials, 1 794. The meetings of the society at Copenliagen-fields and elsewhere, in Oct. 
and Nov. 1796, were termed treasonable.^ — On 21 April, 1798, Messrs. O'Connor, O'Coigley, 
and others, were tried for corresponding with the French directory; and James O'Coigley 
was executed as a traitor (protesting his innocence) on 7 June. 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, see Mcrcunj. 

CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT, respecting elections for members of parliament, was 
passed in 1854, and continued in following years. 

CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea (called by the Greeks Cyrnos), held hy 
the French. The ancient inhabitants were savage, with the character of robbers, liars, and 
atheists, according to Seneca. Corsica was colonised by Phocojans 564 B.C., and afterwards 
held by the Carthaginians, from whom it was taken by the Romans, 231 B.C. In modern 
times it was nominally dependent upon Genoa, until 1768, when it was ceded to France. 



During a revolt erected into a kingdom under 
Theodore, its first and only king . . . 1736 

He came to England, was imprisoned in the 
King's Bench prison for debt, and long sub- 
sisted on private friends, but released ; he 
gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica 
to his creditors, and died in Soho . . . 1756 

The earl of 0.x.ford wi-ote the following epitaph, 
for a tablet near his grave in St. Anne's 
church, Dean-street : — 

" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 



Pascal Paoli chosen for their general by the 
Corsicans 1753 

Defeated by the count de Vaux, he fled to 
England 1769 

Napoleon Bonaparte bom at Ajaccio, (5 Feb. 
1768, baptismal register dovjbtful) . 15 Aug. 1769 

The people acknowledge George HI. of England 
for king 17 June, 1794 

Sir Gilbert Elliott made viceroy, and opened 
a parliament . 1795 

A revolt suppressed, June ; the island relin- 
quished by the British, 22 Oct. ; the people 
declare for the French 1796 

A statiie to Napoleon I. inaugurated by pirince 
Napoleon Jerome . . . .15 May, 1S65 



CORTES, the Spanish parliament, originating in the old Gothic councils. The cortes 
were assembled after a long interval of years, 24 Sept. 1810 ; and settled the new constitu- 
tion, 16 March, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VIL, who banished 
many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes were re-opened by him in 1820, 
and dissolved in 1823 ; again assembled in 1834, and have since been regularly convened. 
The cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of don Pedro's charter, 30 Oct. 1826 ; they were 
suppressed by don Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. 

CORUNNA (N.W. Spain). The British army, about 15,000 men, under the command 
of sir John Moore, had just accomplished a safe reti-eat when they were attacked by the 
French, whose force exceeded 20,000: the enemy were completely repulsed, but the loss of 
the British in the battle was immense, 16 Jan. 1809. Sir John was struck by a cannon- 
ball, which carried away his left shoulder and part of the collar-bone, leaving the arm hang- 
ing by the flesh ; he died universally lamented. The remains of the army hastily embarked 
at Corunna, Jan. 17, under sir David Baird. 

CORUS (Corupedion, or Cyropedium), a plain in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged 
Lysimachus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 B.C. These two were the only 
survivors of Alexander the Great's generals. 

CORVEE, forced labour and service under the feudal system in France, was partially 
reduced by Louis XVI., at the instigation of Turgot, 27 June, 1787; by the constituent 
assembly, 18 March, 1790; and totally abolished by the convention, 17 July, 1792. 
Bcndllet. 

CORYPHjEUS, the principal person of the chorus in the ancient tragedy. The name 
was given to Tysias, afterwards named Stesichorus, who first instructed the chorus to dance 
to the lyre, 556 B.C. 

COSMOGRAPHY, see Astronomy and Geograjyliy. 

COSSACKS, the warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and 
Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia ; 
but were formed into a regular army by Stephen Batliori, about 1576, to defend the frontiers 
of Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. They joined the Russians in 1654, and in the 
gi-eat war of Europe against France (1813-15), formed a valuable portion of the Russian 
army. 

COSSOVA, a plain in Servia. Here Amurath I. totally defeated the Christian army 
(Servians, Hungarians, &c.), Sept. 1389 ; but was himself killed by an expiring soldier. 
Here, in 1448, John Huniades was defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than his 
•own. 

COSTA RICA, a republic in Central America, established ia 1S48. It has been much 



COS 



208 



COT 



disturLed by the American filibusters, see Nicaragtoa and America, Central. On 14 Aug. 
1859, the president Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jose Montealegre made 
president ; Dr. J. Ximenes elected president 3 April, 1863, was succeeded by Dr. Joseph 
Castro, 8 May, 1866. Population in 1864, 120,471. 

COSTEEMONGERS, itinerant dealers in fruit, vegetables, fish, &c., deriving their name, 
it is said, from costard, a favourite apple. The London costermongers are useful in 
relieving the markets when glutted ; and it was said, in i860, that 3,000,000^. passed 
through their hands annually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, they sell the 
appointed forms of prayers in great niambers. On 22 Nov. i860, they held a meeting in 
order to represent to the city authorities the hardships they felt by the police restricting 
their means of livelihood ; and the Metropolitan Streets act was modified on their account, 
7 Dec. 1867. 

COSTUME, see Dress. 

COTTAGE. The term was originally applied to a small bouse without land, 4 Edw. I. 
1275. "ISo man may build a cottage, except in towns, unless he lay four acres of land 
thereto," &c., 31 Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. 1775. By returns tO' 
the tax office, in 1786, the number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 1800 was 
428,214 ; the number in 1840 was about 770,000. In i860 the public attention was much 
drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many parts of the country, and the law of 
settlement was altered in 1865. 



The Cottager's Stove was doaigned by captain John 
Grant, registered Dec. 1849, and presented by 
Mm to the metropolitan association for improving 
the dwellings of the industrious classes. It re- 
quii-es no fixing, is extremely simple in its con- 



struction, and all the operations of cooking may be 
carried on with any description of fuel. 100 lb. of 
meat and 115 Jb. of vegetables have been cooked in 
one of these stoves with less than 20 lb. of coal ; 
see Cookery. \ 



COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the Gossypium, a shrub indigenous to the 
tropical regions of India and America. Indian cotton cloth is mentioned by Herodotus, was 
known in Arabia in the time of Mahomet, 627, and was brought into Europe by his followers. 
It does not appear to have been in use among the Chinese till the 13th century; to them we 
are indebted for the cotton fabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the material of the principal 
articles of clothing among the Americans when visited by Columbus. It was grown and , 
manufactured in Spain in the loth century ; and in the 14th century was introduced into 
Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons were so largely imported into England in the 
I7tli century, that in 1700 an act of parliament was passed, prohibiting their introduction. 
Cotton became the staple commodity of England in the present century. About 1841 the 
"cotton" or "Manchester" interest began to obtain political influence, which led to the 
repeal of the corn laws in 1S46 ; see Calico, Muslioi, &c. 



Fustian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 164T. 

Calico, sheeting, &c. The fly-shuttle was invented by 
John Kay, of Bury, 1738 ; the drop-box by Kobert 
Kay, 1760; spinning by rollers (also attributed to 
John Wyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738; the 
mule spinning-jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767 ; the 
water-frame, by Arkwright, 1769; the power- 
loom, by Kev. Dr. Edmund Cartwright, 1785 ; the 
dressing machine, by Johnson and Radoliife, 
1802-4 ; another power- loom, by Horrocks, 1803-13. 
A combing machine was patented by Joshua 
Heilmann, in 1845. 

British mmlin (totally superseding that of India) is 
d\ie mainly to the invention of the Mule {which 
see) by Samuel Cromptou, 1774-9; and to the self- 
acting mule of Mr. Roberts, 1825. 



Calico Printing commenced 1764. 

The Stea-m-Engine first applied to the cotton manu- 
facture (by Boulton and Watt) 1785. 

Bleaching by means of chloride of lime introduced by 
Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, 1798. 

Stockings. The stocking-frame was invented by 
William Lee, in 1589. Cotton stockings were first 
made by hand, about 1730; Jedidiah Strutt ob- 
tained a patent for Derby ribbed stockings in 
1759; and Horton patented his knotter frame in 
1776 ; Crompton's mule was employed in making 
thread for the stocking manufacture about 1770. 

Cotton Lace — Bobbin-net. The stocking-frame of Lee 
was apphed to lace-making by Hammond, about 
1768 ; the process perfected by John Heathcoat,, 



COTTON FIBEE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 





lb. 




lb. 




lb. 




lb. 


1697 . 


■ 1,976,359 


1790 . 


. 31,500,000 


1840 


592,500,000 


1864 


■ 893,304,720 


I7IO 


. . 715,008 


iSoo . 


. . 56,000,000 


1S60 . 


• 1,390,938,752 


1865. 


• • 977,978,288 


1730 . 


• 1,545,472 


1810 


. 132,500,000 


1861 


. 1,256,984,736 


1866 . 


1,377,129,936 


1765 • 


• ■ 3,870,392 


1820 . 


. . 151,500,000 


1862 . 


• 523,973,296 






1782 . 


11,828,039 


1830 


. 264,000,000 


1863 . 


669,583,264 







American Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre 
came from the East and West Iiidies, the Levant, 
and a little from the United States. Aboitt 1786, 
the growth of cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, 
Eli Whitney, an American, invented the saw-gin, 
a machine Ijy which cotton wool is separated from 
the pod and cleaned with great ease and expedi- 
tion. This led to such increased cultivation that 
the United States soon exported 1,500,0001b. of cot- 



ton; in 179s, 5,250,0008).; in 1S20, 89,999,1741b. 

in 1830, 210,885,358 lb. ; in 1840, 487,856,504 lb. 

in 1847, 364,599,291 lb. ; in 1859, 961,707,264 lb. 

in i860, 1,115, 890,608 lb. ; in 1861, 819,500,528 lb. 

in 1S66, 520,057,440 lb. 
Cotton imported from other countries: In 1847, 

110,208,324 lb.; in 1859, 264,281,808 It).; in i860, 
• 215,048,144 lb. ; in iS6r, 437,481,208 lb. 
Cotton imported from India : 1856, 463,000 bales ; 



COT 



209 



COU 



COTTOX, continued. 

official value, 3,572,329?. ; in 1865, 1,266,520 bales ; 
value, 25,025, 856(. 
Australian Cotton is said by Manchester manufac- 
turers to be superior to the best American cotton, 
Jan., 1861. A company was formed at Manchester 
in Sept., i860, to endeavour to obtain cotton from 
India, Africa, and other places. It arose out of the 
Cotton Supply Association, formed in 1857. Since 



1 861, the ciiltivation of cotton in India, Egypt, 
Italj', &c., has greatly increased. 
Cotton Factories were regulated by acts of parliament 
passed in 1825, 1831, 1833, and 1844. The hours of 
labour were limited, and the emplojTnent of chil- 
dren under nine years of age prohibited. In 1846, 
1724 cotton mills employed 197,500 persons. In 
1S62, the persons employed were stated to be 
451,000 : 315,000 in Lancashire. 



1697 
1 701 
1751 
1780 
1790 



EXPORTS OF COTTOX GOODS, YARN, &C., FROM TTNITED KINGDOM. 

Official Value. 
. £5,406,501 



Official Value. 

£5,915 

• • 23-253 

45,986 

■ • 355,000 

1,662,369 



1800 
1820 
1847 
1S59 
i860 



20,509,926 
23,333,225 
48,202,225 
52,012,430 



fflcial Value. 
. £46,872,489 
■ 36,750,971 
. 47,587,188 
• 54,382,329 
74,565,426 



In i36o, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported, 
of which 9,963,309 cwt. came from the United 
States, and 1,822,689 c^- froni India. 

The supply of cotton from North America nearly 
ceased, in consequence of the secession of the 
southern states from the imion in 1860-61. In 
1852, Mr. T. Bazley warned tlie country on the 
danger of trusting to this source. In May, 1862, 
he stated that through its failure the loss of the 
labouring classes was 12,000,000?. sterling a year, 
and that the loss, including the emx>loying classes, 
might be estimated at nearly 40,000,000/. a year. 

At a meeting of the noblemen and gentlemen con- 
nected with the cotton manufacturing districts at 
Bridgewater-house, St. James's, on 19 Jvily, 1862, 
the earl of Derby in the chair, io,ooot. were sub- 
scribed to the Cotton District Belief fund. The 
viceroy of Egypt, in London at the time, gave 
loooL and the queen gave 2000?. on 24 July. Libe- 
ral subscriptions flowed in fi-om all parts. On 28 
Aug., the loi-d mayor had received 41,902?. 

In the Lancashire district (population about 4,000,000) 
there were receiving parish relief, Sept. 1861, 



43,500 persons; in Sept. 1862, 163,498. Sari of 
berby, 2 Dec. 1862. 

In July, 1863, about the value of 700,000?. remained 
of the donations which had been received in money 
and goods, amounting to about 1,900,000/. 

On 9 Feb., 1863, the "George Griswold" arrived, 
containing contributions of provisions, &c., from 
North America, for the rehef of the sufferers in 
Lancashire. 

The Union Belief Act (passed in 1862, and continued 
in 1863) gave much relief by enabling overseers to 
borrow money to be expended in public works to 
be executed by the unemployed workmen. 

In Oct. 1864, mvich distress still existed, and fears 
were entertained for the approaching winter— »• 
90,000 more paupers than ordinary in cotton dis- 
ti'iots. Times, 18 Jan., 1865. 

In June, 1865, Mr. Farnall, the special commissioner 
(appointed in May, 1862), was recalled by the poor- 
law board, and the famine was declared to be 
ended. 1,000,000?. had been expended in two 
years. The executive of the Central ReUef Fund 
held their last meeting, 4 Dec. 1865. 



COTTONIAlSr LIBRARY, formed with great labour and judgment by sir Robert Cotton, 
1600, et seq. He died 6 May, 1631. It was with difficulty rescued from the fury of the 
republicans during the protectorate, and was secured to the public by a statute in 1700. It 
was removed to Essex-house in 17 12; and in 1730 to Dean's-yard, Westminster, where on 
23 Oct. 1 73 1, a part of the books sustained damage by fire. The library was removed to 
the British Museum in 1757. 

COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is said to have so arranged the business of the 
nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to 
which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all affairs 
that were to be laid before the second council, — bishops and nobles appointed by the king 
like the present privy council. The third was a general assembly of the nation, called, in 
Saxon, Witteuagemot, in which cpiality and offices gave a right to sit, independent of the 
king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils and 
the anti(]^uity of parliaments ; see Cabinet, Common and Privy Councils, &c. 

COUNCILS OF THE Church. The following are among the most metnorable. Those 
numbered are the General Councils. Sir Harris Nicolas in his "Chronology of History" 
enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical list. 

Of the church at Jerusalem (.<4c?s XV.) . . 50 ; 

Of the western bishops at Aries, in Prance, to | 

suppress the Donatists ; three fathers of the 
Enghsh church attended . . . . . . 314 I 

I. First Qicumenical or General, at Nice (Con- 
stantine the Great presided), decreed the con- 
substantiality ot the Son of God, condemned 
Arianism, and composed the Nicene creed . 325 

At Tyre, against Athanasivis .... 335 

The first at Constantinople, when the Ai'ian 
heresy gained ground 337 

At Bome, in favour of Athanasius . . . 342 

At Sai'dis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- 
demned 347 

At Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantine 
obligedlthem to sign a new confes.sion . . 359 



II. Constantinople : 350 bishops attended, and 
pope Damasus presided . May to Jvily, 381 

III. Ephesus, when pope Celestine presided ; 
Pelagius censured . 22 June to 31 July, 431 

IV. Chalcedon : Marcian and his empress at- 
tended ; Butychianism censured . 8 Oct. 451 

V. Constantinople: pope Vigilius presided; 
against errors of Origen . 4 May to 2 June ; 553 

VI. Constantinople, wben jjope Agatho pre- 
sided ; against Monothelites, 

7 Nov. 680, to 16 Sept. 681 
Aiithority of the six; general councils re-estab- 
lished by Theodosius 715 

VII. Second Nicene council ; 350 bishops at- 
tended ; against Iconoclasts, 

24 Sept. to. 23 Oct. 787 



cou 



210 



COU 



COUNCILS OF THE Church, continued. 

VIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil at- 
tended ; against Iconoclasts and various 
heresies . . .5 Oct. 869, to 28 Feb. 

At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to autho- 
rise tlie crusades : 310 bishops attended 

IX. First Lateran : right of investiture settled 
by treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the 
emperor Henry V. . 18 March to 5 April, 

X. Second Lateran : Innocent II. jjresided ; 
preservation of temporalities of ecclesiastics, 
the principal subject; 1000 fathers of the 
church attended ... 20 April, 1139 

XI. Third Lateran, against schismatics, 



XII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 
abbots attended ; Innocent III. presided ; 
against Albigenses, &c. . 11 to 30 Nov. 1215 

XIII. Lyons ; under pope Innocent IV. : era- 
jperor Frederick II. deposed, 

28 June to 17 July, 1245 

XIV. Lyons ; under Gregory X. : temporary 



union of Greek and Latin churches, 

7 May to 17 June, 1274 

XV. Vienne in Dauphin^ : Clement V. pre- 
sided, and the kings of France and Aragon 
attended ; the order of the Knights Tem- 
plars suppressed, 

16 Oct. T311 ; 3 April and 6 May, 1312 

XVI. Pisa : Gregory XIL and Benedict XHI. 
deposed, and Alexander elected, 

5 March to 7 Aug. 1409 

XVII. Constance : Martin V. is elected pope ; 
and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
demned to be burnt .... 1414-1418 

5 to 19 March, 1179 | XVIII. Basil 1431-1443 



870 



1095 



1123 



XIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julius II. . 1512 
Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of 

the pragmatic sanction of France, against the 
council of Pisa, (fee., till 1517 

XX. Trent : the last styled ffioumenical ; was 
held to condemn the doctrines of the re- 
formers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (See 
Trent.) . . .13 Dec. 1545, to 3 L)ec. 1563 

COUISTCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly of 
revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, i Nov. 1795, together 
■with the council of Five hundred : the executive was a Directory of Five. Bonaparte 
dispersed the council of Five hundred at St. Cloud, 9 Nov. 1 799, declaring himself, Roger 
Duces, and Sieyes, consuls 2Jrovisoires j see France. 

COUNCILS OF Conciliation, to adjust differences between masters and workmen, 
maybe established by licence of tlie secretary of state, by virtue of an act passed 15 Aug. 1867. 

COUNSEL are supposed to be coeval with the curia regis. Advocates are referred to the 
time of Edwai-d I., but earlier mention is made of them. Counsel who were guilty of deceit 
or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1285. Counsel were 
allowed to persons charged with treason by act 8 Will. III. 1696. The act to enable persons 
indicted for felony to make their defence by counsel, passed Aug. 1836 ; see Barristers and 
King's council. 

COUNT, from the Latin comes, a companion, and French comte ; equivalent to the 
English earl, (whose wife is still termed a countess,) and to the German graf ; see Champagne 
and Toulouse. 

COUNTERPOINT (in music), writing the chords to a melody. The earliest specimen of 
contrapuntal writing extant is by Adam de la Halle in the 1 2th century. 

COUNTESS OF HUNTINGDON'S Connexion ; see Whitefielditcs. 

COUNTIES or Shires. The division of this kingdom into counties began, it is said, 
with king Alfred ; but some coimties bore their present names above a century before. The 
division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were appointed in 
1549 in England and in 1831 in Ireland. Counties iirst sent members to parliament, before 
which period knights met in their own counties, 1285. Chandos Clausse, Sect. 20 of the 
Reform act, 2 Will. lY. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion of the marquis of Chandos. 
By it occupiers as tenants of land paying an annual rent of ^ol. became entitled to a vote for 
the knight of the shire. It had the effect of increasing the number of tory voters, and 
in consequence several vain attempts have been made to repeal the clause. It was superseded 
by the Reform act of 15 Aug. 1867. 

COUNTRY PARTY, see Court Parly. 

COUNTY-COURTS or schjTemotes, in the time of the Saxons, were the most important 
tribunals in this country. Alfred is said to have divided Englandiuto counties, and counties 
into hundreds ; but the county-courts, the creation of which is generally attributed to him, 
in 896, seem to have existed at a period long anterior to his reign. 



County-Courts, for the recovery of debts under 
2oi., superseding courts of requests, instituted 
by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, in 1846 

The counties of England and Wales are divided 
into sixty districts, each district having a 
county-court, and a baiTister as judge, and 
j uries sworn when necessary. Their j urisdic- 
tion extended by 13 &: 14 Vict. c. 6r, to sums 
not exceeding 50^ 1850 

Their proceedings facilitated in . 1852 and 1854 

There are now 60 county-courts in England and 
Wales i868 



In 1850 the number of plaints entered at the 
courts of the sixty circuits was 306,793, for 
1,265,115?. ; in 1857, 744,652 ijlaints for 
1,937,745^. ; of the 217,173 causes tried, 4297 
were for sums between loL and 50^ 

From 1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in 
these courts for 8,309,236?. 

An act conferred on these courts equity powers, 
like those of the court of chancery, in cases 
relating to sums under 500J., to begin i Oct. 1865 

Their jurisdiction still further enlarged by an 
act passed 20 Aug. 1867 



COU 211 COU 

COURIERS. Xenophon attributes the first to Cja-us ; and Herodotus says that they 
■were common among the Persians; see Esther iii. 15, about 510 B.C. The Greeks or Romans 
had no regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, aliout 24 B.C. 
Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. 
The couriers for letters were employed in the early part of the reign of Lous XI. of France, 
owing to this monarch's extraordinary eagerness for news. They were the first institution 
of the kind in Europe, 1463. Henault ; aee Post-office. 

COURLAND, a duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles 
XII. of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737 ; his son, Peter, 1769 ; annexed to Russia, 
March, 1795. 

COURT BARON, an ancient court which every lord of a manor m.ay hold by prescription 
in some part of the manor. It is supposed to have originated with the nobility. In it 
duties, heriots, and customs are received, and estates and surrenders are passed. Its 
jurisdiction was restricted in 1747 and 1833. By the Small Debts act, 1856, lords of the 
manor were permitted to give up holding these courts. 

COURT LEET, an ancient court of record, belonging to a hundred, iustitirted for 
punishing encroachments, nuisances, and fraudulent weights and measures, and also offences 
against the cro^vn. The steward is tlie judge, and all persons residing within the hundred 
(peers, clergymen, &c., excepted) are obliged to do suit within this court. 

COURT PARTY— COUNTRY PARTY, politicians in the parliaments of England, 
beginning about 1620. At the end of the 17th century the latter embodied toryism and 
high church principles with a strenuous maintenance of the assumed rights of " the land," 
as opposed to the innovations of whiggisni and the corruptions of the trading interests. Its 
most distinguished statesman was sir Thomas Hannier (the Montalto of Pope's Satires), 
who died in 1746. Ashe. 

COURT OF HONOUR. In England the court of chivalry, of which the lord high 
constable Avas a judge, was called Curia Militaris, in the time of Henry IV., and subse- 
quently the Court of Honour. In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour was 
institirted in April, 1819. Mr. Joseph Hamilton for many years ardently laboured to 
establish a similar institution in Britain. 

COURT OF SESSION, the highest civil tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by 
James Y. by statute, 17 May, 1532. It consisted of 14 judges and a president, and replaced 
a committee of parliament. In 1830 the number of judges was reduced ; and the court now 
consists of the lord president, the lord justice clerk, and 11 ordinary judges. In 1867 the 
necessity of renovating this court was asserted by high legal authority. 

COURT OF REQUESTS (also called a Court of Conscience) was first instituted in the 
reign of Henry YII. 1493, and was remodelled by Henry VIII. in 1517. Stotv. Established 
for the summary recovery of small debts under forty shillings ; but in the city of London 
the jurisdiction extends to debts of five pounds. Ashe. The courts of requests in the 
principal towns of the kingdom were superseded in 1847 (those of the city of London only 
excepted) by the County-Courts {which see). 

COURTRAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings 
in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, 11 July, 1302. The conflict was named the 
" Battle of Spurs," from the number of gilt spurs collected. 

COURTS MARTIAL are regulated by the Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers 
of these courts were much discussed in 1867, in consequence of the measures iised to suppress 
the negro insurrection in Jamaica, Oct. 1866. 

COURTS OF JUSTICE were instituted at Athens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus) ; by 
Moses, 1491 B.C. {Exocl xviii. 25). They existed under various denominations in Rome. 
For these realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Excliequer, King's Bench, &c. The citizens 
of London were privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of judicature, without 
employing lawyers, except in pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stow. The rights of 
the Irish courts were established by the British parliament in April, 1783. 

COURTS OF LAAV Fees Act, passed 20 Aug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees 
towards the expenses of jiroviding the intended new courts of justice. Acts for building the 
new courts of justice were passed in 1865 and 1866. No plan for their erection has been as 
yet approved of (April, 1868). 

COUTRAS (S. W. France). Here Henry of Navarre totally defeated the due de Joyeuse 
and the royalists, 20 Oct. 1587. 

COVENANTERS, a name particularly applied to those persons who in the reign of 
Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engaging to stand by each 

p2 



GOV 2] 2 CRA 

other in opposition to tlie projects of the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant 
or league between England and Scotland (the preceding one modified) was solemnly adopted 
by the jiarliament, 25 Sept. 1643 ; and was accepted by Charles II. 16 Aug. 1650, but 
repudiated by him on his restoration in 1661, when it was declared to be illegal by parlia- 
ment, and copies of it ordered to be burnt ; see Cameronmns. 



It consisted of six articles : 

1. The preservation of tlie reformed churcli in Scot- 
land, and the reformation of religion in England 
and Ireland. 

2. The extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, &c. 

3. The preservation of the liberties of parliament 
and the king's person and authority. 



4. The discovery and punishment of all malignants, 

&c. 
S- The preservation of "a blessed peace between 

these kingdoms ; " 
6. The assisting all who enter into the covenant : 

" This will we do as in the sight of God." 



COYENT GARDElSr (London), corrupted from "Convent Garden," having been the 
garden of St. Peter's convent. The square was built about 1633, and the piazza on the north 
side and the church were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vegetable markets were 
rebuilt in 1829-30, from designs by Mr. Fowler (on ground belonging to the duke of Bedford). 

COVENT GARDEN THEATRE sprang out 'of one in Lincoln's-inn-fields, through a 
patent granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir WUliam Davenant, whose company was denominated 
the " duke's servants," as a compliment to the duke of York, afterwards James II ; see under 
Theatres. — The present theatre by E. Barry was opened 15 May, 1858. The Floral Hall 
adjoining it was opened 7 March, i860, with the volunteers' ball. 

COVENTRY ACT passed, to prevent malicious maiming and woundiug, 6 March, 1671, 
in consequence of sir John Coventry, K. B., M.P., being maimed in the streets of London, 
by sir Thomas Sandys and others, adherents of the duke of Monmouth, 21 Dec. 1670. 
Repealed 1828. 

COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl of Mercia, loi-d of Coventry, is said to have 
relieved it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife Godiva, on condition of her riding 
naked through the streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory took place in 185 1 ; on 
23 June, 1862 ; and on 4 June, 1866. A parliament was held here in the reign of Henry IV. 
CBWedi 2]arlia-inentum incloctum, or the unlearned parliament, because lawyers were excluded, 
1404 ; and in the reign of Henry VI. another met here afterwards called parliamentioin 
diabolicum, from the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York and others, 20 Nov. 
1459. The town was surrounded with strong walls, three miles in circumference, and 
twenty-six towers, which were demolished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The ribbon- 
makers here suffered much from want of work in the winter of 1 860-1. An industrial 
exhibition here was opened by earl Granville, 19 June ; closed by the earl of Clarendon, 21 
Oct. 1867. The Bishopric was founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 656, and had the double 
name of Coventry and Lichfield, which was reversed by later bishops. It was so wealthy, 
that kiug Offa, by the favour of pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal ; but this title was laid 
aside on the death of that king. In 1075 the see was removed to Chester ; in 1102 to 
Coventry ; and afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, but with great opposition 
from the monks of Coventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of Lichfield {which see). 
Beatson. 

COW- POCK INOCULATION ; see Small Pox, and Vaccination. 

CRACOW, a city in Austrian Poland. The Poles elected Cracus for tlieir duke, who 
built Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, 700 et seq. Cracow Avas taken by 
Charles XII. in 1702. Taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confede- 
rates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 1 764. Kosciusko expelled the Russians 
from the city, 24 March, 1794 ; but it surrendered to the Prussians, 15 June, same year, and 
in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed into a republic in 1815. Occupied by 
10,000 Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its independence was 
extinguished : and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and incorporated with his empire, 
16 Nov. 1846, which was protested against by England, France, Sweden, and Turkey; see 
Poland. A dreadful fire laid the greater part of the city in ashes, 18 July, 1850. 

CRANES are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. In. 
1857 a crane had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 tons. 

CRANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), the study of the external form of the human skuU, as 
indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. Gall, the first propounder, was a 
German physician, born March, 1758, and his first observations were among his schoolfellows. 
Afterwards he studied the heads of criminals and others, and eventually reduced his ideas to 
a system, marking out the skull like a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna in 1796 ; 
but in 1802 the Austrian government prohibited his teaching. In 1800 he was joined by 
Dr. Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris their work on the "Anatomy and 
Physiology of the Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular. " GaU died in 1828. The 



CRA 213 CRE 

researches of Gall and Spurzheim certainly led to increased studj' of phj'sioloi:,r_y. Combe's 
" Phrenology, " first published in 1819, is the popular English work on this subject. Phreno- 
logical societies were formed early in London and Edinburgh. 

CEANMER, Latimer, AND Ridley, Martyrdom of, see Protestants, note. 

CRANON, Thessaly, N. Greece. The Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus 
defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Crauon. The 
Athenians demanded peace, and Antipater put their orators to death, among whom was 
Hyperides, who, that he might not betray the secrets of his country when under torture, cut 
out his tongue, 322 B.C. and Demosthenes is said to have taken poison shortly aftei'. 

CRAONNE (ISr. France). Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Blucher, 
after a severe contest, 7 March, 1814. 

CRAPE. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by 
St. Badour, when queen of France, about 680. It was first made at Bologna. 

CRAVANT, see Crevant. 

CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is said to have defeated the Britons here, 457. 

CRAYON'S, coloured substances made into paste, and dried into pencils, were known in 
France about 1422 ; and were improved by L'Oriot, 1748. 

CREASOTE, or Kreasote (discovered bj' Reichenbacli about 1833), a powerful anti- 
septic and coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained from the destructive distillation of 
wood and other organic matters. It is used for the preservation of meat, timber, &c. 

CREATINE (from the Greek krcas, flesh), the chemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 
1835 by E. Chevreul, and has been fully investigated by Liebig and Gregory. 

CREATIGlSr OF THE World. The date given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, 
and others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 ditferent dates assigned to the Creation, vary- 
ing from 3616 years to 6984. Dr. Hales fixes it at 5411. 

CRECY, or Cressy (N. France), where Edward III. and his son, Edward the Black 
Prince, and an army of about 36,800, obtained a great victory over Philip, king of France, 
with about 130,000, 26 Aug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; James, king of 
Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign ]U'inces) ; and a number of French nobles, 
together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. 
The crest of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with the motto Ich dien — in Eng- 
lish, " I serve,") has since been adopted by princes of Wales. 

CREDIT FONCIER. A plan of providing loans to landowners was introduced by- 
Frederick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the Prussian provinces, as the best 
method of alleviating the distresses of the landed interest caused by his wars. The system 
consists of lending monej'- to landowners on the security of their estates, and providing the 
loan capital by the issue of debentures charged upon the aggi'egate mortgaged estates. 
There are two modes of carrying out this scheme: (i) by means of an association of land- 
owners ; (2) by means of a proprietary public company. The former obtains in Eastern 
Prussia, but the latter is exclusively found in Western Europe. Credit Fonder companies 
have been founded in Hamburg (1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France 
(1852), England (1863). Similar companies are now formed, or in course of formation, in all 
the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies and dependencies. Henriqucs. 

CREDIT MOBILIER : a joint-stock company with this name was estabhshed at Paris. 
18 Nov. 1852, by Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others. It took up or originated trading 
enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the principle of commandite, or limited liabilities ; 
and was authorised to supersede or buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or 
bonds in its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds 
were to be obtained by a paid-up capital of 2| millions sterling, the issue of obligations at 
not less than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current account. 
The society apparently prospered ; but was considered by experienced persons a near 
approach to Law's bank of 1716. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed ; and in 
May, 1858, no dividend was jjaid. Many companies based on its principles were established 
in London in 1863. In Oct. 1867, E. & I. Pereire withdrew from the management; the 
company failed, and the capital was said to have disappeared. 

CREEDS, see Confessions of Faith. CREMERA, Battle of, see Fabii. 

CREMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the Romans, 221 B.C. It became an inde- 
pendent republic in 1107, but was frequently subjugated by its neighbours, Milan and 
Venice, and partook of their fortunes. It 1859 it became part of the kingdom of Italy. 

CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among the Greeks and Romans, and the device of 
Byzantium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks adopted it. The Crescent has given 



CRE 



214 



CRl 



name to three orders of knighthood ; founded by Charles I. of Naples, 1268 ; by Bene of 
Anjou, in 1448 ; by the sultan Selim, in 1801 ; the last is still in existence. 

CRESPY (K France). Here was signed a treaty of peace between Charles V. of Germany 
and Francis I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544, when the former renounced Burgundy, and the 
latter Italy. 

CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. There are several representations of Richard I. 
(1189), with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers. The English kings had 
generally crowns above their helmets ; that of Richard II. 1377, was surmounted by a lion 
on a cap of dignity ; see Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a plume of feathers; 
and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of James I. by a 
lion, 1424. In the i5tli and i6th centuries, the crest was described to be a figure placed 
upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance. Gwillim. 

CRETE, now Candia {loMcli see). 

CREVANT-SUR-YONNE (IST. France). It was besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchau, 
with a French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the earl of Salisbury with an army of 
English and Burgundians ; after a severe contest, the French were totally defeated. 

CREVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here, on 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of 
Brunswick defeated the French rruder the count of Clermont. 

CRICKET, an ancient English game, said to be identical with the "club ball" of the 
14th century. The present riiles were laid down in 1774 by a committee of noblemen and 
gentlemen, including the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann. In 1861 the All England 
Eleven gained and lost games in Australia. 

CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a fifteenth part of the population of the 
United Kingdom lived by crime. The increase in education and manufactures is gradually 
reducing this proportion. From 1848 to 1865 there had been no commitment for political 
oflfences, such as treason or sedition. The returns of the last thirty-two years show that 
crime has absolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866) ; see Executions and Trials. 

CONVICTIONS (BY TKIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 





Persons. 


Cap. Off. 


Executed. 




Persons. 


Cap. Off. 


Executed. 




Persons. 


Cap. Off. 


Exea 


1847. 


• 21,542 




8 


185s 


■ i9>97i 


50 


5 


1861 


■ 13,879 


50 


IS 


1849 


. 21,001 


66 


12 


1856. 


■ 14-734 


69 


15 


1862 . 


. 15,312 


29 


16 


1850. 


• 20,537 


49 


15 


1857 


• 15,307 


54 


13 


1863 


■ 15,799 


29 


22 


I85I 


• 21,579 


70 


6 


1858. 


■ 13,246 


53 


II 


1864. 


• 14,726 


32 


19 


1852 . 


- 21,304 


61 


lO 


1859 


. 12,470 


52 


9 


1865 


• 14,740 


20 


8 


1853 


• 20,756 


55 


9 


i860. 


. 12,068 


48 


12 


1S66. 


• 14,254 


26 


12 


1854. 


• 23,047 


49 


8 



















Convictions, iniS^T. Scotland, 3558; Ireland, 15,233. In 1861 : Scotland, 2428; Ireland, 3271. 



On 17 Feb. 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58 
were believed to be living honestly. 

In 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered 
to have failed through the numerous crimes com- 
mitted by ticket-of-leavers ; it was modified by the 
Penal Servitude act. In 1864. 

Statistics of crime, police, and law, with a report, 
were first pubhshed by government, in 1857. 



The Criminal Justice act authorises justices, vrith 

the consent of the prisoners, to pass sentence for 

short periods, instead of committing them to trial, 

1855. 
In 1856, the expenses for criminal prosecutions were 

194,912?. 4.S. 8(Z. 16 persons were executed for 

miu-der in 1856 (four foreigners), 14 in 1857, 11 in 

185S (four foreigners), and 9 (four for wife-murder) 

in 1859. 2,666 persons were liberated on tickets-of 

leave in 1856. 

CRIMEA, or Crim Taetaey, a peninsula in the Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient 
Tmcrica Chersonesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians founded the 
kingdom of Bosporus, now Kertch, which about 108 B.C. formed part of the dominions of 
Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman 
protection till the irruption of the Goths, Huns, &c., about A. d. 258. About 1237, it fell 
into the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; soon after the Venetians established 
commercial stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted by the Genoese, who were 
permitted to rebuild and fortify Kalfa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. expelled the 
Genoese, and subjected the peninsula to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government to 
remain in the hands of the native khans, but closing the Black sea to Western Europe. In 
1774, by the interventioir of the empress Catherine II., the Crimea recovered its inde- 
pendence : but on the abdication of the khan in 1783, the Russians took possession of the 
country, after a war with Turkey, and retained it by a treaty of peace in 1792. The Crimea 
(now Taurida), was divided into eight governments in 1802. War having been declared 
against Russia by England and France, 28 March, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to 
the East, which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and other places, sailed for Varna, 
where they disembarked 29 May. An expedition against the Crimea having been deter- 
mined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000 



CRI 



215 



CRO 



British), commanded by lord Raglan and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, 3 Sept. 
and landed on the 14th, 15th, and i6th, withoirt opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, 
about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40,000 
and 50,000 strong (under prince Menschikotf), entrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed 
to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. See A Ima and 
Busso-Turkisli War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the 
Crimea 12 July following. 

CRIMINAL LAWS of ENGLAND. Their great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel 
Romilly, sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was considerably mitigated by sir 
R. Peel's acts, passed 1826-8. The criminal law was consolidated in six acts passed iu 
i86r. Some defects were removed by an act passed iu 1867. 

CRIMISUS, a river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C. 

CRIMPING-HOITSES were used to entrap persons iirto the army ; hence the name of 
" crimp sergeant." In a riot in Loirdon, some of these receptacles were destroyed by the 
populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in. 
endeavouring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794. 

CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair) is the modern name of 
the "fardingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats made of wlialebone, 
&c., revived in France and England since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of 
life, by coming in contact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatlcr, published 
5 Jan. 1 7 10, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. 

CRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called from the lame beggars who sat there, so early 
as the year loio. The gate was new built by the brewer's of London, in 1244 ; and was 
pulled down and sold for "9 1?, in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried in the church 
near it, 12 Nov. 1674 ; see London. 

CRISPIN AND Crispianus are said to have been two saints, born at Rome, from whence 
they travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the Christian religion. They worked as 
shoemakers ; but the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians, ordered them 
to be beheaded, about 288. Their day is 25 Oct. 

CRITH, (from the Greek krithe, a barleycorn or small weight,) a term suggested by 
Dr. A. W. Hofmann to express the volume-weight of gases ; a cube containing i litre of 
hydrogen (o"o896 gramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being i crith, oxygen wiU. be 16, 
nitrogen 14 criths. 

CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 B.C. Blair. Varro, Cicero, 
ApoUonius, and Aristarchus were ancient critics. In modern times the Jourtml des 
Sgavans was the earliest periodical critical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, 
ecclesiastical councillor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, 30 
May, 1655, and is still continued. The first work of this kind in England was the Revinu 
of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The Waies 
of Literature was commenced in 17 14, and discontinued in 1722 ; see Hevieius. 



work, was determined in favonr of the defendant 
on the principle that criticism is allowable, how- 
ever sharp, if just, and not mahcious. 



The legality of fair criticism was established in the 
English courts, in Feb. 1794, when an action that 
excited great attention, brought by an author 
against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his 

CROATIA was conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, and was with that 
country united to Austria in 1526. The Croatian diet was abolished in Nov. 1861. The 
Croats protested against incorporation with Hungary, 25 May, 1867, and their diet (including 
Croatia and Slavonia) at Agi-am, was dissolved 27 May. 

CROCKERY- WARE, see Pottery. 

CROCODILES were well fed and reverenced as divinities by the Egyptians. The 
emperor Augustus is said to have collected twenty-five at one time in his amjjhitheatre, 
where they were killed by gladiators. A fossil crocodile was found at Doddridge, Gloucester- 
shire, in 1806. 

CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased from the French by Christian VI., king of 
Denmark, in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 1807 ; restored in 1814. 

CRONSTADT, Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 17 10, and received its name (Crown- 
town) in 1 721. It was not attacked by the fleets in the war with Russia, 1854-5. 

CROPREDY-BRIDGE, near Banbury, Oxfordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir 
WiUiam Waller and the ai-my of the parliament, 29 June, 1644. 

CROQUET. This game introduced into Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of 
the old Pall Mall {tuhich see). 



CRO 216 CEU 

CROSIEE, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne before an archbishop, Avas in use in the 
4th century. The bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned in the life of St. Caesarea 
of Aries about 500. 

CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to have 
been found at Jerusalem, with two others, deep in the ground, by St. Helena, 3 May, 328 
(termed the hivenUon of the Cross) ; Christ's was distinguished from those of the thieves by 
a sick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, 
on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated 
him in battle), 14 Sept. 615, and that day has since been commemorated as "the festival of 
the Exaltation of the Cross," established in 642. — It is asserted by chmxh writers that a 
shining cross, two miles in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantine, and that it led 
him to adopt it on his standard, with the inscription "In hoc sicjno vinccs;'" "in this sign 
thou shalt conquer." "With this (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished 
Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. Lenglet. 



Signinrj vjith the Cross was first practised by 
Christians to distinguish themselves from 
the Pagans, about 110; and in the time of 
Tertullian, 260, it was deemed efficacious 
against poison, witchcraft, &c. 

Crosses in churches and chambers were intro- 
duced about 431 ; and set up on steeples about 568 

Maids of the Cross were a community of young 
women who made vows of poverty, chastity, 
and obedience, instituted in . . . . 1265 



Crosses in honour of queen Bleanorwere set up 
in the places where her hearse rested, be- 
tween 1296 (when she died) and . . . 1307 

Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed 
from churches, and crosses in the streets de- 
molished by order of parliament . . . 1641 

The order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was 
instituted by the empress Eleonora de Gon- 
zaga, wife of Leopold I., in . . . . 1668 



CROSSED CHEQUES, see Drafts. 

CROTONA (S. Italy), a city founded by the Achajan Greeks about 710 B.C. Here' 
Pythagoras taught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris 510. 

CROWS. An act passed for their destruction in England (which breeds more of them, 
it is said, than any other country in Europe), 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were anciently 
employed as letter-bearers, as carrier-jaigeons are now. 

CROWN. An Amalekite brought Saul's crown to David, 1056 B.C. (2 Sam,, i.) The first 
Roman who Avore a crown was Tai'quin the Elder, 616 B.C. Tlie crown was first a fillet tied 
round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned 
with jewels; see Tiara. 

The crown and regalia of England were pledged to 
the city of London by Richard It. for 2000!. in 
1386 ; see the king's receipt on redeeming them. 
Rymer. 

The Imperial State Crown of Enaland was made bj' 
Bundell and Bridges, in 183S, principally with 
jewels taken from old crowns. It contains i large 
ruby, I large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 
4 rubies, 1363 brilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 
table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, and 273 
pearls. Professor Tennant. 



The crown of Alfred had two little bells attached 

(872) ; it is said to have been long preserved at 

Westminster, and may have been that described 

in the parliamentary inventory taken in 1649. 
Atlielstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, 929. 
William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with 

points, 1066. 
Eichard III. introduced the crosses, 14S3. 
Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 
The crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest 

existing in England ; see Blood's Conspiracij. 

CROWN LANDS. The revenue arising from those in England is now nearly all subject 
to parliament, which annually provides for the support of the sovereign and government. 
The annual revenue now arising from crown lands is about 284, 500^. The revenues of 
the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster belong to the prince of Wales, and accumulate 
during his minority. Henry VII. (1485) resumed those which had been given to their 
followers by the sovereigns of the house of York. The hereditary estates of the crown were 
largely bestowed on their courtiers by the sovereigns — especially by the Stuarts. 

CROWNS AND Half-crowns were coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None 
were coined in 1861, and they wall gradually be withdrawn from circulation. 

CROYDON, Surrey, granted to Lanfranc, archbp. of Canterburj^, about 1070. Archbp. 
Whitgift's hospital was founded in 1596. The fine old parish church was burnt, 5, 6 Jan. 1867. 

CROZIER, sec Crosier. 

CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the S5'rians, Egyptians, Per.sians, 
Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, usually accompanied by other tortures. Ariarathes of 
Cappadocia, aged 80, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prisoners, 
and by the conqueror's orders was fla5''ed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his principal 
oflScers, 322 B.C. Jesus Christ was crucified 3 April, A. d. 33. Bible. (15 April, A. d. 29, 
Clinton ; 28 March, a.d. 31, Hales). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Con- 
stantine, 330. Lenglet ; see Death. 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, Royal Society for the Prevention of, was instituted in 



CRU 



217 



ClIY 



1824. Through its exertions hundreds of cases of cruelty are annually prosecuted. Acts for 
the protection of animals Avere passed in 1835 and 1839. A similar society exists in Paris. 
In i860 both societies endeavoured to repress vivisection (physiological experiments on 
living animals). 

CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars undertaken by the Christian powers to drive the 
infidels from Jerusalem and the adjacent country, the " Holy Land." They were projected 
by Peter Gautier, or Peter the Hermit, an enthusiastic French officer of Amiens, who 
turned pilgrim. On his return from the Holy Land, he deplored to pope Urban IL that 
infidels should be in possession of the city M'here Christ had taught. Urban convened a 
council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Chris- 
tian potentates assisted, and gave Peter the commission to excite all Europe to a general 
war, 1094. The first crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 men was raised, Peter 
Lad the direction of it, and Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. Voltaire. The warriors 
wore a red cross upon the right shoulder, with the name of Croisds, Crossed, or Crusaders ; 
their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's will." — The French government published the 
Western Historians of the Crusades in a magnificent form (1844-60). 

I. Crusade (1096) ended by Jei-usalem being taken by 
assault, 15 July, logg, and in establishing God- 
frey de Bouillon as king. 

II. Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by 
emperor Conrad 11., and Louis VII. of Franco. 
Crusaders defeated ; Jerusalem lost in 11 87. 

III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, &c., in iiSS, 
joined by Philip II. of France and Eichard I. of , 
England, in 1190. Glorious, but fruitless. j 

IV. 119s, by emperor Henry VI. ; successful till his j 
death in 1197. 

V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, | 
count of Flandsrs, attacked the Greeks, and took [ 
Con.stantiaople in 1203. His companions returned. 1 

CRYOLITE, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride of aluminium and sodium, employed in 
procuring metallic aluminium in 1855. 

CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by Dr. Yv^'ollaston about 1812) to demonstrate 
the relation between evaporation at low temperatures and the production of cold. 

CRYPTOGRAPHIC MACHINE, for carrying on secret correspondence, patented i860. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science relating to the symmetrical forms assumed by 
substances passing from the liquid to the solid state. Rome de Lisle published his " Essai 
de Cristallographie, " in 1772 ; but Rene- Just Haiiy is regarded as the founder of the modern 
school of crystallography (1801). Whewell. Dana, Dufresnoy, and Miller, are eminent 
modern wiiters on this subject. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London; see ExMhition of iS^i. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Exhibition building of 185 1 having been 
surrendered to Messrs. Fox & Henderson on i Dec. 185 1, the materials were sold for 
70,000?. to a company (formed hj Mr. Leach), wlio soon after commenced erecting the 
present Crj'stal Palace on its present site (300 acres having been purchased for the purpose), 
near Sydenham in Kent, under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Messrs. Owen Jones, 
Digby Wyatt, and other gentlemen. The proposed capital of 500,000/. (in 100,000 shares of 
5?. each) was increased in Jan. 1853 to a million pounds. In addition to the permanent ex- 
hibition, there are extensive gardens, with magnificent fountains, &c., illustrations of zoology, 
geology, botany, ethnology, &c. 



VI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained 
]30ssessiou of Jerusalem on a truce for ten yeai'S. 
In 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at 
Palestine, but soon departed. 

VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248, who was de- 
feated and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 5 April, 
1250 ; released by ransom ; truce of ten years. 

VIII. And last, in 1270, by the same prince, who 
died of a contagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 
2 Aug. Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of 
England, was at Acre, 1271. In 1291, the soldan 
took Acre, and the Christians were driven out of 
Syria. 



First column raised by S. Laing, M,P., 5 Aug. 1852 

During the progress of the works as many as 
6400 men were engaged at one time. By the 
fall of scaffolding, 12 men killed . 15 Aug. 1853 

Dinner given to professor Owen and a party of 
savans in the interior of the model of the 
iguanodon, consti-ucted by Mr. Waterhouse 
Hawkhis 31 Dec. ,, 

The palace opened by the queen . 10 June, 1854 

Grand musical fete on behalf of the Patriotic 
Fund 28 Oct. „ 

The palace visited by the emperor and empress 
of the French, &c 20 April, 1855 

First grand display of the great fountains, 
before the queen and 20,000 spectators, 

18 June, 1856 

The receipts were 115, 627^. ; the expenditure, 
87,872?., not including payments for pre- 
ference shares, &c., in year ending 30 April, 1857 



The preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 
15, 17, 19 June, 1S57 ; and . . 2 July, 1S58 

On the Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. 
C. Spurgeon preached hereto 23.000 persons ; 
476^ were collected, to which the C.P. com- 
pany added 200? 7 Oct. 1857 

Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns cele- 
brated : the directors i^warded 50'. to a prize 
poem on the subject, which was obtained by 
Miss Isa Craig 25 Jan. 1859 

The ll.andel festival . . 20, 22, 24 June, 1859 

Festival kept in honour of Schiller, 10 Nov. 
1859 ; of Mendels.sohn ... 4 May, i860 

London charity children sing here . 6 June, ,, 

3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) 
perform choral music, 25 June ; the imperi.il 
dand of Guides perform, 26 June; both dine 
in the palace . . . . .30 June, ,, 

About 100 English brass bands perform, 10 July, ,, 



CRY 



218 



CUL 



CliYSTAL PALACE, continued. 

Annual rose show began iS 

North wing injured by a gale of wind, 20,21 Feb. iS 
Haydn's "Creation" performed (Costa, con- 
ductor) I May, , 

Blondin's performances on an elevated rope 
begin here (lie plays on vioUn, cooks, simu- 
lates falling, &c.) .... 1 June, , 
Another successful Handel festival : a new 
arched roof constructed for the orchestra; 
about 4000 vocal and instrumental performers, 

23, 25, 27 June, if 
Successful Handel festival . 26, 28, 30 June, i£ 
North wing, containing tropical department. 



Cuba again 'invaded by Lopez and others 1 3 Aug. 

They are defeated and taken ; 50 .shot, and 
Lopez garotted at Havannah . i Sept. 

The president of the United States again issued 
a proclamation against an intended expedi- 
tion against Cuba . . . 31 May, 

Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and SoulS, United 
States envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la- 
Chapelle, and reported, recommending the 
purchase of Cuba Oct. 

The Spanish minister in cortes declared that 
the sale of Cuba would be ' ' the sale of Spanish 
honour itself " 19 Dec. 



:8^+ 



the Alhambra, and other courts, destroyed by 
fire (about 150,000?. damage) . 30 Dec. i366 

Prince of Wales present at a grand concert to 
raise funds to restore the palace . 26 June, 1867 

Visit of the viceroy of Egypt (who gives 500?. ), 
July ; and of the sultan (who gives loooi.) 

16 July, „ 

Conservative working men"s demonstration, 

IT Nov. ,, 

Meeting of shareholders decide by ballot that 
free tickets shall not be issued to admit non- 
shareholders on Sundays . . 31 Dec. ,, 

North wing restored and re-opened to the 
public 15 Feb. 1868. 

CTESIPHOIST (afterwards Al Madayn), on the Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, Avas 
taken by Trajan in 116 ; and by Alexander Severns (who made 100,000 captives), 198. Its. 
defences deterred Julian from the siege, 363. Through the cowardice or treachery of the 
defenders it was taken by Omar and the Saracens, 637 ; and utterly destroyed. He built 
Cufa near it with the remains. 

CUBA (its original name), an island (W. Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first 
voyage, 28 Oct. 1492, settled by Velasquez, 1511-12. 

The buccaneer Morgan took the Havannah ; see 

Buccaneem 1669 

The fort of Havannah erected by adm. Vernon 1741 
The Havannah taken by admiral Pococke and 

lord Albemarle, 1762 ; restored at the peace 

of Paris 10 Feb. 1763 

"Lone Star" society (which see), for the acqui- 
sition of Cuba, &c. , formed . . . . 1848 
The president of the United States (Taylor) 

published a strong proclamation, denouncing 

the object of the invaders . . ti Aug. 1849 

Expedition, under general Lopez and a large 

body of Americans, with the view of wresting 

this island from the dominion of Spain, 

landed at Cuba (defeated) . . 17 May, 1850 

CUBIT, a measure of the ancients, by which the ark of Noah was measured (2448 B.C.). 
Holclen. The Hebrew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven English 
feet. Originally, it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards, to the extremity of 
the middle finger. Calmet. 

CUCKING-STOOL (or DucTaNa-STOOL), for shrews : one at Kingston-on-Thames was. 
used in April, 1745 ; and another at Cambridge in 1780. Chambers. 

CUCUMBEPiS, noticed by Virgil and other ancient poets, were brought to England from 
the Netherlands about 1538. 

CUDDALOPiE (India), on the coast of the Carnatie, was acc[uired by the English in 
1681. It was reduced by the French in 1758, but recaptured in 1760 by sir Eyre Coote. 
Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive siege by the British imder general Stuart, in 
1783, which was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. 

CUIRASS, a part of armour much in use by the Greeks and Romans. Tacitus. The 
skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, formed the cuirass of the Britons until the 
Anglo-Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and brass, and covered the warrior from 
neck to waist before and behind. The cuirass was worn by the heav}^ cavalry in the reign of 
Henry III. 1216 et seq. Napoleon had several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses. 

CULDEES (said to derive their name from cuUores Dei, worshippers of God,) monks of 
simple and peaceful lives in Scotland and Ireland in early times. They had their principal 
seat at St. Andrew's ; and it is said that in 1185 at Tipperary there was a Culdean abbey 
whose monks were ' ' attached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, and had not yet 
conformed to the reigning superstition," They were eventually subjected to the papal yoke. 

CULLEN'S-WOOD (Ireland) : a horrible slaughter of the English by the Irish took place 
at a village near Dublin, on Easter or i^Zac^ Monday, so called from this massacre, 30 March, 
1209. The English were a colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to 
divert themselves at Cullen's-wood, when the O'Byrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them^, and 
destroyed 500 men, besides women and children. 

CULLODEN, near Inverness, where the English, imder William, duke of Cumberland, 
defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, 16 April, 
1 746. The Scots lost 2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred 



CUL 



219 



CUR 



in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. Priuce Charles lied, and 
wandered among the wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,000?. were offered for taking 
him, and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in search. He at length escaped from 
Uist to Morlaix, and died at Eome in 1 788. 

CULVERIN, cannon so called from the French coidevrine, said to have been introduced 
into England from a French model in 1534. It was originally iive inches and a rparter 
diameter in the bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. 

CUM^ (S. Italy), an old Greek colony, 1050 B.C., said to have been the residence of 
the ancient Sibyl, was taken by the Samnites 420 B.C., and annexed by the Romans 338 B.C., 
and enfranchised. 

CUMBERLAND, a jST.W. county of England, was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 
945, b}"- king Edniimd, " on condition that he should be his fellow-worker." It was seized 
by William I., but restored to Malcolm III., "who became his man," 1072. WiUiam the 
Lion, after his defeat at Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry II., and it was finally 
annexed to England in 1237. 

DUKES. 1799- Ernest Augustus ; became king of Hanover 

1726. WilliaQi Augustus, second son of George II., 20 June, 1S37; died 18 Nov. 1851. 

died 13 Oct. 1765. 1851. George V., the ex-king of Hanover. 

1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, piince of 

Wales, died 18 Sept. 1790. 

CUMBERLAND, The, see Naval Battles. 

CUMULATIVE VOTE, in parliamentary elections, proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,*4 July, 
during the debates on the reform bill ; and' rejected, 5 July, 1867, by 314 to 173. By the 
act passed 15 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 102), it was enacted that at a contested election for 
any county or borough represented by three members, no person shall vote for more than 
two candidates. 

CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cyrus the younger was defeated 
and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired (401 B.C.), narrated 
in Xenophon's Anabasis. His Greek auxiliaries were successful ; see Retreat of the Greeks. 

CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from cicneus, Latin for a wedge), in characters resem- 
bling arrow-heads, inscribed on bricks or clay-tablets, found at Babylon, Behistun, &c. , have 
lately been deciphered by English and foreign scholars, who date some of them as far back as- 
2000 B.C. This is impugned by other scholars ; see Assyria, Babylon, Behistun. 

CUNNERSDORF (in Prussia). On 12 Aug. 1759, the king of Prussia, with 50,000 men, 
attacked the Austrian and Russian armj'- of 90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first 
gained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians 
rallied, and gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 30,000' 
men in killed and wounded. 

CUPOLA SHIPS, see Navy of England, 1861. 

CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. The skin is scarified by lancets, and a glass cup iu 
which the air has been rarified by flame, is immediately applied to it, when the blood usually 
flows into the cup. This operation was well known to the ancients, and is described by 
Hippocrates (413 B.C.) and Celsus (20 B.C.). It was common in England about 1820. 

CURAQOA, an island in the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1527, wa.g. 
seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 the French, settled on part of this island, quarrelled 
with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 
1802 ; taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in 1814. 

CURATES were of early appointment as coadjutors in the Romish church, and are men- 
tioned in England in the 7th centmy. Among the acts passed for the relief of this laborious 
class of the clergy are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53rd, and 58th Geo. III., and 
especially the beneficent act 2 Will. IV. Oct. 1831. It appeared by parliamentary reports 
on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were in 1831, 5230 curates in England and Wales, 
whose stipends amounted to 424,695?. The greatest number of curates in one diocese was 
Lincoln, 629 ; and the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. 

CURFEW BELL (from the French couvre feu), Avas introduced into England by Will. I. 
1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. Mapin. The curfew was abolished I Hen. I. 
1 100. A curfew beU was rung at West Ham so lately as Nov. 1859. 

* "At any contested election for a county or borougli represented by more than two members, and 
having more than one seat vacant, every voter shall be entitled to a number of votes equal to the number 
of vacant seats, and may give all such votes to one candidate, or may distribute them among the candi» 
dates as he thinks fit." 



CUE, 



220 



CUT 



CUEIATII, see Rome, 669 B.C. 

CUELING, a Scotch national game with, stones on the ice, said to have been introduced 
from the Low Countries in the i6th century. The Duddingstone curling club was instituted 
1795. The royal Caledonian curling club, founded in 1838, owns a large artificial pond at 
Strathallan, Perthshire. 

CUEEANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, the tree was first brought to us about 
1533. The name is also given to a small kind of dried grape, brought from the Levant and 
Zante. The duty on these currants (44s. ^d. per cwt. in 1834) has been reduced to 7s. The 
hawthorn currant {Rihes Oxyacanthoicles) came from Canada in 1705. 

CUEEENCY ACTS. Those of Sir Eobert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. 

CUESITOE BAEON". This office, formerly attached to the court of exchequer, was 
iibolished in 1856, on the death of the right lion. George Banlces. 

CUETATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here the Austrians, under Eadetzky, crossed 
the Mincio, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, 29 May, 1848. 

CUSHEE PIECES, invented by Eichard Leake, the master-gunner of the Royal Prince 
man-of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engagement with the Dutch admiral Van 
Tromp, in 1673. 

CUSTOM is a law, not written {hx non seripta), established by long usage and consent, 
and is distinguished from lex seripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is 
derived from 11 89 downwards. Sixty years' custom is binding in the civil law, and forty 
years' in ecclesiastical cases. 

CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethelred II. in 979. 
The king s claim to them by grant of parliament was established 3 Edw. I. 1274. The 
customs were farmed to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 14,000?. to 50,006?. 
in the reign of Elizabeth. Stow. They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000/. in 1666. 
Daveiiant. In 1671 commissioners were appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. 
Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many reductions and consolidations were made in 
the customs department, that above a quarter of a million was saved in salaries, though the 
work has enormously increased. — Acts consolidating the customs duties were passed in 1853, 
1854, aud i860, whereby the number of articles in the tariff and the amount of the customs 
were greatly reduced, Further changes have been made since ; the last in Aug. 1867 ; see 
Revenue. Custom-house officers and officers of excise were disqualified from voting for the 
election of members of parliament in 1782. 



Customs in 




Customs in 




Customs in 


Customs in year ending 


1580 . 


. £14,000 


1720 


£1,555,600 


1840 


. £19,915,296 


31 March. 


1592 


50,000 


1748 . . 


2,000,000 


1845 . 


. 20,196,856 


iS5o . .£24,460,901 


1614 . 


. 148,000 


1808 


9.973,240 


1850 


. 20,442,170 


1864 . . . 23,232,000 


1622 


. 168,000 


1823 . 


11,498,762 


1855 . 


. 21,630,081 


1867 . . 22,303,000 


1642 . 


. 500,000 


1830 


17.540,323 


1858 . 


. 23,109,105 


1S68 . . . 22,650,000 


1684 


. 530,000 


1835 . ■ 


i8,6i2,go5 









The customs in Ireland, in 1224, a sack of wool, The custoni-house once more burnt down, and 

3cZ. ; a last of hides, 6d. ; a barrel of wine, 2ei. \ immense property and valuable records des- 

The customs business of Ireland was trans- I troyed 12 Feb. ^814 

ferred to the London board . . 6 Jan. 1830 ' The ijresent edifice opened . . 12 May, 181 7 



Dublin Custom-house commenced in 1781 ; 
opened in 1791. The eastern wing of its 
warehouse was destroyed by fire, with pro- 
perty to the amount of 400,000^. . 9 Aug. 



Custom-house. A custom-house was erected in 

London on a large scale, 1304 ; and a yet 

larger in 1559. The last was burnt down in . 1666 
A new one, built by Charles II., was burnt 

down in 1718, and again rebuilt. 1 

CUSTOS EOTULOEUM, keeper of the rolls or records of the sessions of the peace, pre- 
viously nominated by the lord chancellor, was in 1545 directed to be appointed by a bill 
signed by the king. The act was confirmed in 1689. 

CUSTOZZA, near Verona, N. Italy. Here the Italians were defeated by Marshal 
Eadetzky, 23 July, 1848; and here they were again defeated, 24 June, 1866, after a series 
of despeiate attacks on the Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, 
Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by the archduke Albrecht. The Italian loss was com- 
puted to be 720 killed, 3112 wounded, and 4315 missing ; the Austrian loss, 960 kiUed, 
3690 wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The Italians soon recrossed the Mincio. 

CUTCH (Kachh), W. India, a principality under the political superintendence of the 
government of Bombay. In consequence of the depredations of the mai'auding natives, the 
East India government resorted to hostile measures, which resulted in a stringent treaty 
with the rao in Jan. 1816. In 1819 he was deposed for misgovernment, and replaced by his 
infant son, supported by a British contingent. The traffic" in children, detected in Dec. 



CUT 221 cyp 

1835, was suppressed by British, intervention. Many persons perislied by an earthquake in 
July, 1819. Thoiiiton. 

CUTLERY, see Steel. 

CUTTACK (Katak), E. India, a British province ceded to the E. I. company in 1803,. 
Cuttack, the capital, was taken by col, Harcourt, 14 Oct. same year. The Mahrattas con- 
quered it in 1750. Thorntun. 

CUTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearing apparel was first cufout by machinery in Eng- 
land in the factory of Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, invented by Mr. Frederick 
Osbourn, consists of a reciprocating vertical knife working through a slot in the table 
that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The cloth being pressed iip to the edge of the 
knife by the attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction of the lines marked on the 
upper layer. 

CUZCO, capital of Peru, was entered by Pizarro in Nov. 1533, and taken by him in 
Aug. 1536, after live months' siege. 

CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose 
and eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was first obtained in the free state by Gay Lussac in 
1815, being the first instance of the isolation of a compound radicle. 

CYCLE of the sun, the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the 
same days of the month ; that of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary 
months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years. The Paschal cycle, or 
the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, 463. 
Blair. See Metonic Cycle, CaliiJine Period. 

CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hurricanes, common in the East and West Indian 
and Chinese seas, varying from 200 to 500 miles in diameter. Many details resj)ecting them 
will be found in Peid's "Law of Storms," first published in 1838. 

By a great cyclone immense damage was done | Great cyclone in the Bahamas, at Nassau, New 

on sea and land. About 100 ships are said to Providence, above 600 houses and many 

have been lost, and about 60,000 persons churches and other buildings thrown down ; 

pei'ished, and whole towns nearly destroyed; I between 60 and 70 persons killed, and a great 

see Calcutta 5 Oct. 1864 i many ships dismantled . . . i, 2 Oct. 



Captain Watson, of the Clarence, observing the 
barometer fallbig, and foretelling the ap- 
proach of the cyclone, saved his ship by 
steering out of its range. 



Another cyclone at Calcutta, not so destructive, 

I Nov. 1867 

See Virgin Isles. 



CYCLOPAEDIA, see Encijlopccdia. 

CYCLOPEAN MASONRY, a term given to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and 
Asia Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 1000 B.C. 

CYDER, see Cider. 

CYMBAL, the oldest known musical-instrument, was made of brass, like a kettl e-drum. 
Xeuophon mentions the cymbal as invented by Cybele, and used in her feasts about 
1580 B.C. 

CYMRI or Kymri (hence Cambria), the great Celtic family to which the Britons 
belonged, and which came from Asia and occupied a large part of Europe about 1500 b.c. 
About A. D. 640 Dyvnwal Moelmud reigaed ^' King of the Oymry i' see Wales. 

CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 B.C., Diog. Laert., 
Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences, except morality ; 
were very free in reprehending vice, and lived in public with little shame. Diogenes, the 
eminent cynic, died 323 B.C. 

CYNOSCEPHAL^ {dogs' heads, so named from the shape of the heights), in Thessalj', 
where Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander tjrant of Pherfe and the Thessalians, 
364 B.C. (Pelopidas being slain): Here also the consul Flaminius totally defeated Philip V.. 
of Macedon, 197 B.C., and ended the wai'. 

CYPRESS, Cuprcssus Sempervirens, a tree originally found in tlie isle of Cyprus. The 
Athenians buried their heroes in cofiins made of this wood, of which many of the Egyjitian 
mummy-chests Avere also fabricated. The ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress 
was brought to England about 1441. The deciduous cypress, or Ciqjressus disticha, came 
from North America before 1640. 

CYPRUS, island in the Mediterranean, subject to Turkey, was divided among several 
petty kings till the time of Cyrus of Persia, who subdued them. It was taken by the Greeks 
477 B.C., and ranked among the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered 
by the Saracens, a.d. 648 ; but recovered by the Greeks, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by 
Richard I. of England, in 1191. He gave it to Guy de Lusignau, who became king in 1192, 



CYR 222 DAK 

and whose descendants reigned till the last, Catherine de Cornano, sold it to the Venetians, 
1489. It was taken by the Turks, Aug. 1571, who treated the defenders with great 
barbarity. 

CYR, St., near Versailles. Here a conventual college for ladies was founded by madame 
De Maintenon, in 1686, where she died, 15 April, 1719. It was made a military college, 
in 1803. 

CYREISTAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus the Elder, 365 B.C. They maintained the 
doctrine that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure, particularly that of the 
senses ; and said that even virtue ought to be commended only because it gave pleasure. 

GYRENE (ISr.W. Africa), a Greek colony, founded by Battus about 630 B.C. Aristseus, 
who was chief of the colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called 
Pentapolis, on account of its five towns ; namely, Gyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, ApoUonia, 
and Arsinoe. It was conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many Jews here (286 B.C.). 
Gyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 B.C. It is now a desert. Some 
Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the British Museum in July, 1861. 

CYROPEDIITM, see Oorus. 

CYZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedemonian fleet under the 
■command of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, was encountered by the 
Athenians under Alcibiades, and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus. Mindarus 
was slain 410 B.C. PhUarcIi. 408 b.c, Lenglet. 

GZAR (the title of the emperor of Russia), probably derived from Gsesar, a title said to 
have been assumed by Ivan Basilowitz after defeating the Tartars, about 1482. The empress 
is termed czarina, and the eldest son czarowitch. 

CZECHS, the native race of Bohemia and Moravia {which see). The antagonism between 
the German and Czechs is milder in Moravia than in Bohemia. 

D. 

DACCA, I^. E. India, a province, acquired to the East India Company in 1765, and ruled 
under them by a ISTawab till its annexation in 1845. Thornton. 

DACIA, a Roman province, part of Hungary, and the adjoining provinces, after many 
contests finally subdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the Dacian leader, was killed. 
Dacia was abandoned to the Goths by Aurelian, in 270 ; subdued by the Huns, 376 ; by 
Scythians, 566 ; by Charlemagne, and by the Magyars, in the 9th century. 

DAGHESTAN" (S.W. Asia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723 ; restored to Persia, 
173s ; ^ut re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I., 1813. 

DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS, invented by Daguerre, and published 1838; see Photo- 
graphy. 

DAHLIA, a flower brought from Mexico, of which it is a native, in the present century, 
and first cultivated by the Swedish botanist, Dahl. In 1815 it was introduced into France, 
and Andr^ Thouine suggested improvements in its culture, and it soon became a favourite 
in Brittany. Georgi introduced it at St. Petersburg ; hence the dahlia is known in Germany 
as the Georgina. 

DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, "West Africa, became known to Em-opeans early in the 
last century, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a man of energy and talent, was king. 
He died in 1 732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants : a large part of whose 
revenue was derived from the slave-trade. Abbeokuta, which was a robber's cave in 1825, is 
now a strong- walled populous town, inhabited by free blacks ; and is consequently opposed 
by the king of Dahomey. His army has been severely defeated in its attacks on this place, 
and in one on 16 March, 1864, a great number of his Amazons were slain. During the last 
few years this kingdom had been visited by Captain Burton and other travellers, who have 
described the sanguinaiy customs of the royal court. 

DAHRA (Algeria). On 18 June, 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the French were 
suffocated in a cave \>y smoke, the fire having been kindled by order of general Pelissier, 
afterwards duke of Malakofif. They had fired on the messenger bearing an offer of a truce. 
The massacre was condemned by marshal Soult, the minister of war, but justified by marshal 
Bugeaud. 

DAILY NEWS, liberal newspaper, established 2 1 Jan. 1846. 

DAILY TELEGRAPH, penny paper, liberal, established 29 June, 1855. 

DAKOTA (North America), organised as a territory of the United States, 2 March, 1861. 



DAL 223 DAN 

DALECARLIANS (Sweden), revolted, against Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed 
Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden. 

DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N.E. of the Adriatic Sea, conquered and made a 
province by the Romans, 34 B.C. Tlie enijieror Diocletian erected his palace at Spalatro, 
and retired there, A.D. 305. Dalmatia was hekl in turns by tlie Goths, Hungarians, and 
Turks, till its cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of Campo Fonnio in 1797 it \va.s 
given to Austria, but in 1805 it was incorporated with Italy, and gave the title of duke to 
marshal Soult. In 18 14 it reA^erted to Austria. 

DALT0:N'ISM, see Coloiir, note. 

DAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of Abraham; 19 13 B.C. {Gen. xiv.), now the 
capital of a Tui-kish pachalic. 

Taken by David (1040 B.C.), but retaken shortly 1 that people, which caused remonstrances from 

after, and made the capital of Syria under many states of Europe. 

Benhadad and his successors . . . B.C. 951 I Damascus was restored to Turkey . . . 1841 

Taken by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria . 740 



From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, 
and from them to the Greeks, under Alex- 
ander; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 
Paul, converted, preaches here [Acts ix.) a.d. 52 
Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 

1075 ; destroyed by Tamerlane . . . . 1400 
Taken by Ibrahim Pacha in ... . 1832 
The disaj)pearance of a Greek priest, named 
father Tommaso, from here, i Feb. 1840, led 
to the torture of a number of Jews, suspected 
of his murder, and to a cruel persecution of 



In consequence of a dispute between the Druses 
and Maronites, the Mahommcdans massacred 
above 3000 Christians and destroyed the 
ho\ises, rendering vast luinibers of x^ersons 
homeless and destitute ; a large number 
were rescued by Abd-el-Kader,* who held 
the citadel . . . . 9, 10, 11 July, 1S60 

Summary justice executed for these ci-imes by 
Fuad Pacha : 160 persons of all classes exe- 
cuted including the Turkish governor ; and 
11,000 persons made soldiers by conscription, 

Aug. Sept. ,, 



DAMASK LiNEN.s and Silks, first manufactured at Damascus, have been beautifully 
imitated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture was brought to England by artisans 
■who fled from the persecutions of Alva, 1571-3. The Daj[ask Rose was brought here from 
the south of Europe by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry Vlll., about 1540. 

DAMIENS' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of France was stabbed with a knife in the right 
side by Damiens, a native of Arras, 5 Jan. 1757. The culprit endured the most excruciating 
tortures, and was then broken on the wheel, 28 March. 

DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt), was taken by the crusaders 1219 ; lost 1229 ; retaken by 
Louis IX., 5 June, 1249; surrendered as his ransom when a prisoner, 6 May, 1250. The 
present town was built soon after. Here, it is said, was first manufactured the cloth termed 
dimity. 

DAMOiST AND PYTHIAS (or Phintias), Pythagorean philosophers. "When Damon was 
condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, about 387 B.C., he obtained leave 
to go and settle some domestic affairs, on the promise of returning at the appointed time of 
execution, and Pythias became surety for the performance of his engagement. "When the 
fatal hour approached, and Damon did not appear, Pythias surrendered himself, and was led 
awajr to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned. Dionysius remitted the 
sentence, and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship. 

DAISTAI : an ancient name of the Greeks derived from Danaus kmg of Argos, 1474 B.C. 

DANCE OF Death. The triumph of death over all ranks of men was a favourite 
subject with the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude carvings and pictures in 
various countries. 



The Chorea Machabo'orum or Danse Macabre, the 
first printed representation, published by 
Guj'ot Marchand, a bookseller of Pai'is . . 1485 

Holbein's celebrated Dance of Death (concerning 
the authorship of which there has been much 
controversy), printed at Lyons in 1538, and at 
Basil 1594 

Many editions have since appeared ; one with 
an introduction and notes pubUshed by Mr. 
Russell Smith 1849 

The term Dance of Death was also applied to the 



frenzied movements of the Flagellants, who 
had sometimes skeletons depicted on their 
clothing about the end of the 14th century. 
Dancing mania, accompanied by aberration of 
mind and distortions of the body, was very 
prevalent in Germany in 1374, and in the i6th 
century in Italy, where it was termed Taran- 
tism, and erroneously supposed to be caused 
by the bite of the Tarantula spider. The 
music and songs employed for its ciu-e ai'e 
still preserved. 



DANCING to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1534 b.c. EiiseMus. 
The Greeks first combined the dance with their dramas. Pantomimic dances were first 
introduced on the Roman stage, 22 B.C. UsJier. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced 
into England from Italy, A.D. 1541. In modern times the French were the first who intro- 
duced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country dance (contrc-danse) is of 
French origin, but its date is not precisely known. Spelman. See Morice Dance, Quadrille, 
and Waltz. 

* Abd-3l-Kader visited England in August, 1865. 



DAN 



224 



DAIf 



DANE- GELD, or Danegelt, a tribute paid to the Danes to stop their ravages in this 
kingdom ; first raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 1003 ; and levied after the 
expulsion of the Danes to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The tax was suppressed 
by Edward the Confessor in 105 1 ; revived by William 1. 1068 ; and formed part of the 
revenue of the crown, until abolished by Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land, i.e. as much 
as one plough could plough, or as Bede saj^s, as much as could maintain a family, was 
taxed at first is., afterwards as much as 7s. Camden says that once 24,360^. was raised. 

DANES, or Northmen ; see Denmark. During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland 
they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under KoUo, they received presents under 
the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 
896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to EoUo 
and his Normans (North-men), hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of England and 
Ireland were as follows : — 



First hostile appearance of the Danes . . . 783 

They land near Purbeck, Dorset . . . 787 
Descend in Northumberland : destroy the 

church at Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and 

perish by shipwreck . . . .8 Jan. 794 

They invade Scotland and Ireland . . 793, 796 
They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and 

possess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, &c. . 798 

They take the Isle of Sheppey . . . . 832 

Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert 835 
They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take 

Canterbury and London . . ' . . . 851 

They descend on the North, and take York . 867 
They defeat the Saxons at Merton . . .871 

They take Wareham and Exeter . . . . 876 
They take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships 

are wrecked ....... 877 

Defeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes 

Christian, and many settle in England . . 878 

Alfred enters into a treaty with them . . 882 

Their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore" . 894 

I')efeated near Isle of Wight .... 897 

They invade and waste Wales . . . . 900 

Defeated by Edward the Elder .... 922 

They defeat the people of Leinster . . . 956 

Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . 982 

And ravage Essex and Suffolk . . . . 990 

Said to assume the title lord dane about . . 991 



Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, 

purchased by money 

They land in Essex, and in the "west, and are 

paid money (i6,oooL) to quit .... 
A general massacre of the Danes, by order of 

Ethelred II 13 Nov. 

Sweyne revenges it, and receives 36,000^ 

(which he demands as an annual tribute) to 

depart 

Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight . 

They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons 

in Suffolk 

They sack Canterbury, imprison the archbishop, 

and kill the inhabitants 

They receive 48,000^. as tribute, and murder 

Alphege, ai-chbishop of Canterbury . . . 
Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf) . 
Their conquest of England completed ; Canute 

king 

They settle in Scotland 

They land again at Sandwich, carrying off 

much plunder to Flanders .... 
Defeated by Harold II. at Stanford-bridge, 

25 Sept. 
They burn York, and kill 3000 Normans . . 
Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy ; 

but compelled to depart 



992 
994 
1002 



1003 
1006 



lOIO 

lOII 



IOI2 
IOI4 



IOI7 
1020 



1066 
1069 



DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IRELAND) BILL ; see Soman Catholic Association. 

DANGEROUS GOODS : an act regulating their deposit and carriage was passed 6 Aug. 
1866. 

DANNEWERKE, or Danuawirke, a series of earthworks, considered almost impregnable, 
stretching across the long narrow peninsula of Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland — said to 
have been constructed during the "stone age," long before the art of metal- working. It 
was rebuilt in 93 7 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the old, for which she was named ' ' Dann abod, ' ' 
the pride of the Danes. It was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 and 1000. 
Near here the Prussians, helping the duchies, defeated the Danes, 23 April, 1848. The 
retreat of the Danes from it, 5 Feb. 1864, occasioned much dissatisfaction at Copenhagen. 

DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was first printed in 1472. He was born 14 May, 
1265, and died at Ravenna, 14 Sept. 1321. A festival in his honour, at Florence, was 
opened by the king, 14 May, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi of Ravenna was 
uncovered. 

DANTZIC (N. Germany), a commercial city in 997 ; but according to other authorities, 
built by Walde mar I. in 1165. Poland obtained the sovereignty of it in 1454. It was 
seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It surrendered to the French, May, 
1807 ; and by the treaty of Tilsit was restored to independence, under the protection of 
Prussia and Saxony, July, 1807. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and surren- 
dered to them, I Jan. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it again reverted to the king of Prussia. 
By an inundation here, owing to the Vistula breaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of 
cattle and 4000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, 9 April, 1829. 

DANUBE (German, Donau ; anciently Lster, in its lower part). Except the "VVolga, the 
largest river in Europe, rising in the Black Forest and falling into the Black Sea. Part of 
Trajan's bridge at Glad ova still remains. It was destroyed by Adrian, to prevent the 
barbarians entering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected on this river by count Szenechyi 
in 1830, and in that year the first steam-boat was launched at Vienna, and the Austrian 



DAN 225 DAR 

(.•ompany was formed shortly after. The Bavarian company was formed in 1836. A canal 
between the Danube and the Maine was completed by Louis I. of Bavaria. Charlemagne, in 
the 8th century, contemplated uniting the Danube and Rhine by a canal. At the peace of 
1856 the free navigatioa of the Danube was secured, and a European commission appointed 
to make it navigable from Isaktchi to the sea, which has worked with good efl'ect. 

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES; Wallachia and Moldavia (capitals, Bucharest 
and Jassy) were united as RouMANiA, 1859. Population of the two, 1860,3,864,848. These 
])rovinces formed part of the ancient Dacia {ivhich see). 

Part of Moldavia ceded to Rijssia . . . 1812; ministers, assassinated as lie was leaving the 

The provinces having participated in the Greek chamber of deputies ... 20 June, 1862 

insurrection in 1821, were severely treated by The united chambers of the two piinoipalities 

the Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianuple ] meet at Bucharest .... 5 Feb. ,, 

were placed under the protection of Russia . 1829 Coup d'etat of prince Couza against the aristo- 

The Porte appomtcd as hospodars prince Stir- j crats : a jjlebiscite for a new constitution, 

bey for Wallaehia, and prince Ghika for Mol- I 2 May ; which is adopted . . 28 May, 1864 

da via June, 1849 . A law passed enabling the peasants to hold land. 

They retire from their governments when the j Aug. ,, 

Russians enter Moldavia. See Russo-Twrkiish Revolt at Bucharest suppressed, 15 Aug. ; am- 
War 2 July, 1853 ' nesty 11 Sept. 1865 

The Russians quit the provinces and the Aus- Revolution at Bucharest ; forced abdication of 

trians enter, Sept. 1854 ; retire . M.arcli, 1857 prince Couza : and provisional government 

The government of the principalities finally 1 established 22 Feb. 1866 



The offered crown declined by the count of 
Flanders, P'eb. ; prince Charles of Hoken- 
zoUeru elected hosiDodar by plebiscite, 
20 April ; enthusiastically received at Bu- 
charest 22 May, ,, 

Sworn to observe the constitiition 12 July, ,, 

Recognised hereditary hospodar by the sultan, 
and received at Constantinople . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Roumauia said to be very unsettled ; treasury 
empty; "natiouahty" projects . Nov. 1S67 



settled at the Paris conference (there were to 
be two hospodars. elected bj- elective assem- 
blages, and the suzei-ainty of Turkey was to 
be preserved) 19 Aug, 1858 

Alexander Couza elected hospodar of Moldavia, 
17 Jan. ; of Wallachia . . . .5 Feb. 1859 

The election acknowledged by the allies 6 Sept. ,, 

The definitive union of the provinces (under 
the name of Roumania) proclaimed and ac- 
knowledged by the Porte . . Dec. 1S61 

M. Catargi, the president of the council of 

DARDANELLES, The, are two castles (Sestos, in Romania, and Abydos, in Natolia), 
built by the sultan Mahomet IV. in 1659, commanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, 
named Dardanelles from the contiguous town Dardanus. — The passage of the strait was 
achieved by the British squadron under sir John Duckworth, 19 Feb. 1S07; but he repassed 
them with great loss, 2 March, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down stones of 
many tons weight, upon the British ships. The allied English and French fleets passed the 
Dardanelles at the sultan's request, Oct. 1853 ; see Hellespont and Xerxes. 

DARIC, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, hence its name, about 538 B.C. About 
556 cents. Knoiules. It weighed two grains more than the English guinea. l>r. Bernard. 

DARIEN, Isthmus of, central America, discovered by Columbus, 1494. In 1694, 
William Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, published his plan for colonising Darien. 
In consequence a company was formed in 1695 and three ill-fated expeditions sailed there in 
1698 and 1699, from Scotland, where 400,000! had been raised. The first consisted of 1200 
young men of all classes, besides women and children. The enterprise not having been 
recognised by the English government, the settlements were threatened by the Spaniards, to 
whom they were finally surrendered, 30 March, 1700. Paterson and a few survivors from 
famine and disease, had set off shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. Several 
years after, a sum of 398,085?. was voted by parliament to the survivors as "Equivalent 
money." A sum of monej' was also voted to Paterson ; but the bill was rejected in the 
house of lords ; see Panaynd. 

DARK AGES, a term apjjlied to the period of time called the Middle Ages ; according 
to Hallam, comprising about 1000 years — from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, to 
that of Naples by Charles VIII. 1495. During this time learning was at a low ebb. 

DARMSTADT, see Hesse Darmstadt. 

DARTFORD (Kent). Here commenced the insurrection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A con- 
vent of nun,s, of the order of St. Augu.stin, endowed here by Edward III., 1355, was converted 
by Henry VIII. into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in England was erected at Dartford 
by sir John Spielman, a German, in 1590 {Stow), and about the same period was erected here 
the first mill for splitting iron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up four times 
between 1730 and 1738. Various explosions have since occurred, in some cases with loss of 
life to many persons : 12 Oct. 1790; i Jan. 1795 ; and others recently. 

DARTMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. 
In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were defeated by the inhabitants, assisted by the 
valour of the women. The French commander, Du Chastel, three lords, and thirty-two knights, 
were made prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dartmouth was taken after a siege 

Q 



DAT 226 DEA 

of fom* weeks, by prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the king (1643) ; hut it was 
retaken by general Fairfax by storm in 1646. 

DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it 
was \isual at least to pass lands without dating the deed of conveyance. Lewis. IsTumerous 
instruments of assignment enrolled among our early records establish this fact. Tlie date is 
determined by the names of the parties, particularly that of the grantor : the possession of 
land was proof of the title to it. Hardie. A useful glossary of the dates given in old 
charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas's " Chronology of History." 

DAUPHIN£,*S.E. France, successively held by the AUobroges, Burgundians, and Lom- 
bards ; was, about 732-4, delivered from the invading Saracens by Charles Martel. After 
formiuo" part of the kingdom of Aries, it was much subdivided among counts. One of these, 
Humbert IL, ceded Dauphine and the Viennois to Philip VI., in 1343, for his eldest son, 
on the condition that the prince should be styled dauphUw, which took effect in 1349, 
when Humbert became a monk. Louis Antoine, duke of Angouleme, son of Charles X., 
the last dauphin who assumed the title at his father's accession, 16 Sept. 1824, died 
3 June, 1844. 

DAVENTRY, Northamptonshire. Near here Lambert, having escaped from the Tower, 
was defeated and retaken, in his attempt to enkindle the war, by Monk, 21 April, 1660. 
The dissenting academj'- removed here from Northampton in 1752, was transferred to 
Wymondley in 1 789, thence to London as Coward College, and finally united with Homerton 
and Highbury Colleges as New College, in 1850. 

DAVID'S, St. (S.W. Wales), the ancient Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once 
the metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopai. When Christianity was planted in 
Britain, there were three archbishops' seats appointed, viz. London, York, and Caerleon upon^ 
Usk, in Monmouthshire. That at Caerleon being too near the dominions of the Saxons, was 
removed to Mynyw, and called St. David's, in honour of the archbishop who removed it, 519. 
St. Sampson was the last archbishop of the Welsh ; for he, Avithdrawing himself on account 
of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, carried the pall with him. In the reign of Henry I. 
the archbishops submitted to the see of Canterbury. Beatson. Present income 4500Z. 



BISHOPS. 

1800. Lord George Murray, died 3 June, 1803. 

1803. Thomas Burgess, trans, to Salisbury, June 1825. 



1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died 7 July, 1840. 
1840. Connop Thirl wall (present hishopj. 



DAVID'S DAY, St., i March, is annually commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of 
St. David. Tradition states that on St. David's birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained 
by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders ; and that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished by 
order of St. David by a leek in their cap. 

DAVIS'S STRAIT (N. America), discovered by John Davis, on his voj'age to find a 
N. W. passage, between 1585 and 1587. He made two more voyages for the same purpose, 
and five voyages to the East Indies. In the last he was killed by Japanese pirates, on the 
coast of Malacca, 27 Dec. 1605. 

DAVY LAMP, see Safety Lamp. 

DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, at sunset among 
the Athenians and Jews ; and among the Romans at midnight as with us. The Italians 
in many places, at the present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their 
clocks strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all other 
countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but partially used in the larger 
towns of Italy ; most public clocks in Florence, Rome, and Milan, being set to the hour 
designated on French or English clocks. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of 
two hours each. The astronomical day begins at noon, is divided into twenty-four hours 
(instead of two parts of twelve hours), and is the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical 
Almanack. 

DEACONS (literally servants), an order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise 
from the institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long 
period in many churches, about 53. {Acts vi.) The original deacons were Stephen, Philip, 
Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are 
mentioned by St. Paul (65) ist Timothy iii. 8—14. 

DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, are mentioned in early Christian history. Their 
qualifications are given in i Tim. v. 9, 10 (65). Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, 
assist at the agapte or love feasts, admonish the young women, &c. The office was discon- 
tinued in the Western church in the 5th and 6th centuries, and in the Greek church about 

* One of the counts of Vienne, placed a dolphin (dauphin) in his coat-of-arms, and assumed the title 
of dauphin. 



DEA 227 DEB 

the 1 2th, hut has heen recently revived in Germany. The appointment of deaconesses, 
subject to the parochial clergy, was advocated by the bishop of Ely about 1853, and some 
Avere appointed. The Deaconesses' Institution, London, was established in 186 1. 

DEAD. Prayers for the benefit of the dead were probablj' offered up in the 2nd centuiy, 
beiug referred to by TertuUian, who died 220, and the practice greatly increased soon after. 
It was protested against by Aerius, and defended by Epiphanius, who died 403. It is re- 
nounced by the church of England. 

DEAD AVEIGHT LOAN acquired its name from its locking up the capital of the Bank 
of England, which in 1823 advanced ii,ooo,oooZ. to the government (to construct new 
ordnance, &c.). The latter engaged to give an annuity of 585,740^. for 44 years, which 
ceased in June, 1867. 

DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was 
made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about 1570. Bonet, also a monk, 
published a system at Madrid in 1620. Dr. Wallis published a Avork in England on the 
subject in 1650. The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Britain was opened in 
Edinburgh in 1773. In modern times the abbe de I'Epee (1712-89), and his friend and pupil 
the abb^ Sicard of Paris (1742 — 1822) ; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of London ; 
Mr. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; and surgeon Orpeu of Dublin, have laboured with much, 
success in promoting the instruction of the deaf and dumb. The asylum for deaf and 
dumb children was opened in London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend in 1792 ; one 
in Edinburgh by Mr. J. Braidwood, in 1810 ; and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braidwood, 
in 1815. The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, was opened in 1816. In 1851, there were in 
Great Britain, 12,553 deaf and dumb out of a population of 20,959,477. 

DEAL, a cinque port with Sandwich, 1229; a fishing village in the reign of Henry 
VIII. ; its strong castle built 1539 by Henry VIII. Deal was incorporated and made inde- 
pendent of Sandwich, 1699. 

DEAN, Forest of, Gloucestershire, anciently wooded quite through, and in the last 
century, though much curtailed, was twenty miles in length and ten in breadth. It was 
famous for its oaks, the material of our ships of war. Kiots in this district, when more 
than 3000 persons assembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of fifty miles of wall 
and fence, throwing open 10,000 acres of plantation, took place on 8 June, 1831. 

DEAN (decanus), a name commonly given to the arcli-presbyter, or eldest presbj'ter, in 
the 12th century ; originally a military title, an officer over ten soldiers. In the church of 
England the dean and chapter of a cathedral nominally elect the bishop and form his 
council. By 13 & 14 Car. II. (1662), a dean must be in priest's orders ; previously the office 
had occasionally been held by a la5'man, with special dispensation. The ancient office of 
" rural dean " has been much revived since 1850. 

DEATH, ordained as the punishment for murder, 2348 B.C. (Gen. ix. 6.) 
The Jews generally stoned their criminals 

{Lev. XX. 2) B.C. 1490 

Draco's code punished every offence with 

death 621 

It was limited to murder by Solon . . . 594 
Drowning in a quagmire was a punishment 

among the Britons (6Yo«:), about . . . 450 
Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted 

that he had killed Cyrus the Younger, at the 

battle of Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes 

JInemon exposed to the action of the sun for 

eighteen days 401 

Maurif'e, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, 

drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first 

execution in that manner in England, 25 

Hen. Ill A.D. 1241 

The punishment of death was aboUshed in a 

DEATHS, Registers of, see Bills of Mortality and Registers. 

DEBT. Debtors have been subjected to imprisonment in almost all counti'ies and times ; 
and until late years our prisons were crowded with them. In the eighteen months sub- 
sequent to the panic of Dec. 1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debts were issued in 
England. In the year ending 5th Jan. 1830, there were 71 14 persons sent to the several 
prisons of London ; and on that day, 1547 of the number were yet confined. On the ist of 
Jan. 1840, the number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales was 1732 ; in Ireland the 
number was under 1000 ; and in Scotland under 100. The operation of statutes of relief, 
and other causes, considerably reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. When the new 
Bankruptcy act (abolishing imprisonment for debt except when fraudulently contracted) 
came into operation in Nov. 1S61, a number of debtors who had been confined were released. 

q2 



great number of cases by sir Robert Peel's 
acts, 4 to 10 Geo. IV 1824-9 

By the criminal law consolidation acts, death 
was confined to treason and wilful murder . 1861 

The commission on capital punishment (ap- 
pointed 1 864) issued their report (i-ecommend- 
ing that penal servitude be substituted for 
death in some cases where murder was un- 
premeditated, and that executions should 
not be public) Dec. 1865 

Capital punishment restricted in Italy Aisril, ,, 

Its proposed abolition in Belgium was nega- 
tived 18 Jan. 1867 

"Capifcxl Punishment within Prisons" bill 
read second time in Commons . 5 March, 1868 

See Beheading, Ravaillac, Damiens, Boiling, 
Bv.rning, Hanging, Forgery, and ExecuHon. 



DEB 228 DEF 

Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 52, 1852. In 1863 nearly 18,000 per- 
sons were imprisoned by order of the county courts : average time, 15 days, amount of debt, 
2,1. los. ; see A rrest, King's Bench, Bankrufts, Insolvents, and National Debt. 

DEBUSSCOPE, an instrument of French origin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope, 
said to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, &c., made its appearance in i860. 

DECAMERONE (iof%s), sqq Boccaccio. DECAPITATION, see jBe/iOTcZwg'. 

DECCAJST (Dekhan or Dakhan), S. India, was invaded by the Mahometans in 1294. The 
first independent sultan was Alaudin. The natives revolted, and the dynasty of Bahmani 
was founded by Hasan Ganga in 1347. About 1686-90, Aurungzebe I. recovered the Deccan, 
but soon lost great part of it to the Mahrattas. The Nizam al Mulk, his viceroy, became 
independent in 17 17. A large part of the Deccan was ceded to the English in 18 18. 

DECEMBEPi, (from decern, ten), the tenth month of the year of Eomulus, commencing 
in March. In 713 B.C. Numa introduced January and February before March, and thence- 
forward December became the twelfth of the year. In the reign of Commodus, A.D. 181 — 
192, December was called, by the way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour of a courtesan whom 
that prince had loved, and had painted like an Amazon. The English commenced their 
year on the 25th December, until the reign of William I. ; see Tear. 

DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, appointed to draw up a code of laws, to whom for a time 
tlie whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. The laws they drew up were 
approved by the senate and general assembly of the people, written on ten metallic tables, 
and set up in the place where the people met (comitiwn). Two more tables were added, 
450 B.C. The Decemviri at first ruled well, but the tyranny of Appius Claudius towards 
Virginia occasioning an insurrection, they were forced to resign ; and consuls were again 
appointed, 449 B.C. 

DECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Augustus, 17 B.C., celebrated by the Roman 
emperors every tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, games, and largesses. Livy. Cele- 
brated by Antoninus Pius, A.D. 148. 

DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c., see Metric System. 

DECLARATION or Rights, see Rights. DECORATED STYLE, see Gothic. 

DECORATIVE ART. Its true principles enunciated by A. W. Pugin, in his " Designs," 
in 1835, have been advanced by Owen Jones, Redgrave, and others. Owen Jones's elaborate 
" Grammar of Ornament " was published in 1856. A Decorative Art society, founded in 
1844, existed for a short time only. 

DE COURCY'S PRIVILEGE, that of standing covered before the king, granted by king 
John, to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and his successors, in 1203. He was the first 
nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 Hen. II. 1181 ; and was entrusted with the 
government of Ireland, T185. The privilege was allowed to the baron of Kingsale by Will. 
III., Geo. III., and by Geo. IV. at his court held in Dublin, in Aug. 1821. The present 
baron is the 29th in succession. 

DECRETALS. They formed the second part of the canon law, or collection of the pope's 
edicts and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first acknowledged to be genuine is a 
letter of Siricius to Himerus, a bishop of Spain, written in the first year of his j)ontificate, 
385. Howel. Certain false decretals were used by Gregory IV. in 837. The decretals of 
Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of canons), were compiled in 11 50. Henault. Five 
books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227 ; a sixth by Boniface VIII. 1297 ; the Clemen- 
tines by Clement V. in 1313 ; employed by John XXII. in 1317 ; the Extravagantes range 
from 1422 to 1483. 

DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took place 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C. ;' 
of the second temple, 515 B.C. The Christians under Constantino built new churches and 
dedicated them with gi-eat solemnity, in A.D. 331, ct seq. The dedication of books (by 
authors to solicit patronage or testify respect) began in the time of Maecenas, 17 B.C., 
the friend and counsellor of Augustus, and a patron of Horace {Ode I. i). 

DEED, a written contract or agreement. The formida, "I deliver this as my act and 
deed," occurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrooke. Deeds in England were formerly written in 
Latin or French ; the earliest known instance in English is the indenture between the abbot 
of Whitby and Robert Bustard, dated at York in 1343 ; see English. 

DEER are mentioned in a will of one Athelstan, dated 1045. Professor Owen thinks 
that fallow deer are not native, but were introduced here at an early period. There are now 
in England 334 deer parks, the oldest being probably lord Abergavenny's at Eridge, Sussex. 
See Evelyn Shirley's "Account of Deer Parks," July, 1867. 

DEFAMATION is punishable by fine and imprisonment by statute of 1843. The 



DEF 229 DEL 

jurisdiction of tlie ecclesiastical courts on this subject was abolished by i8 & 19 Vict. c. 41 
(1855). 

DEFENCE OF the KEALM ACT passed Aug. i860, in consequence of the unsettled 
state of Europe, and the doubtful policy of the emperor Napoleon ; see Fortification. 

DEFENDER of the Faith {Field Defensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred 
by Leo X. on Henry Vlll. of England, for his tract on behalf of the Church of Kome (then 
accomitei I>omiciliu7n fidei OaiJioticce), against Luther, 11 Oct. 1521. 

DEFENDEES, a faction in Ireland, which arose out of a quai-rel between two residents of 
Market-hill, 4 July, 1784. Each was soon aided by a large body of friends, and many battles 
ensued. On Whit-Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of one of the parties (700 men), 
called the Nappagh Fleet, prepared to encounter the Bawn Fleet, but the engagement was 
prevented. They subsequently became religions parties. Catholic and Presbyterian, distin- 
guished as Defenders and Pcep-o'-daii-boys : the latter were so named because they usually 
visited the dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search of arras ; see Diamond. 

DEGREES. Eratosthenes attempted to determine the length of a geographical degree 
about 250 B. c. Snellms ; i^^e Latitude and Longitude. Collegiate degrees are coeval with 
universities. Those in medicine are traced up to A.D. 1384; in music to 1463. In Oct. 
1863, Avomen were permitted to compete for degrees. 

DEI GRATIA, see Grace of God. 

DEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria ; see Britain. 

DEISM oil THEISM (Greek, theos ; Latin, deus, God), the belief in one God, in opposi- 
tion to the doctrine of the Trinity. About the middle of the i6th century some gentlemen 
of France and Italy termed themselves deids, to disguise their opposition to Christianity by 
a more honourable appellation than that of Atheism {which see). The most distinguished 
deists were Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624 ; Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Boling- 
broke, Gibbon, Hume, Holcroft, Paine, and Godwin. 

DELAWARE, one of the United States of North America, named after lord de la Warre, 
governor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It was settled by Swedes, sent there by 
Gustavus in 1627 ; acquired by the Dutch, 1655 ; ceded to the English, 1664. 

DELEGATES, Court of. Appeals to the pope in ecclesiastical causes having been 
forbidden (see Ap^jeals), those causes were for the future to be heard in this court, established 
by Henry VIII. 1533 ; soon afterwards the pope's authority was superseded altogether in 
England. Stoio. This court was abolished in 1832 ; and appeals noAV lie to the Judicial 
Committee of the Privy Council, as tixed by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 (1833) ; see Arches. 

DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by Godfrey le Bossu, about 1074 ; famous for 
*' Delft earthenware ; " first manufactured here about 13 10. The sale of delft greatly de- 
clined after the introduction of potteries into Gerniany and England. Grotius was born 
here, 10 April, 1583 ; and here William, the great prince of Orange, was assassinated 
10 Jul}', 1584, by Gerard. 

DELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul empire, and chief seat of the Mahometan 
power in India ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It is now in decay, but contained a 
million of inhabitants in 1700. In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he entered 
Delhi ; 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of 
62,ooo,oooZ. sterling is said to have been collected. The same calamities were endured in 
1761, on the invasion of Abdalla, king of Candabar. In 1803, the Mahrattas, aided by 
the French, took Delhi ; but were afterwards defeated by general Lake, and the aged Shah 
Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was restored to his throne with a pension ; see hidia, 1803. 
On 10 May, 1857, a mutiny arose in the sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked ; 
but the fugitives fled to Delhi on 11 May, and, combined with other troops here, seized the 
city ; proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul king, and committed frightful atrocities. 
The rebels were anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a gallant defence it was 
exploded by order of lieutenant Willoughby, who died of his Avoumls shortly after. The 
other heroes in this exploit were lieutenants Forrest and Ra}mier, and the gunners Buckley 
and Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the British, but was not taken till 20 Sept. 
following. The final struggle began on the 16th ; brigadier (since sir E.) Archdale Wilson being 
the commander. ]\Iuch heroism was shown ; the gallant deaths of Salkeld and Home at the 
explosion of the Cashmere gate created much enthusiasm. The old king and his sons were 
captured soon after : the latter were shot, and the former after a trial was sent for life to 
Rangoon, where he died 11 Nov. 1862 ; see India, 1857. 

•' DELICATE INVESTIGATION " into the conduct of the princess of Wales (after- 
wards queen of England, as consort of George IV.), was commenced by a committee of the 
privy council, under a warrant of inquiry, dated 29 May, 1806. The members were lord 



DEL 



230 



DEM 



Greiiville, lord Erskine, eaii Spencer, and lord Elleuborough. The inquiry, of which the 
countess of Jerse}% sir J. and lady Douglas, and other persons of rank, were the prompters, 
and in which tliey conspicuously figured, led to the publication called "The Book;" 
afterwards suppressed. The charges against the princess were disproved in 1807, and in 
1813 ; but not being permitted to appear at court, she went on the continent in 1814 ; see 
Queen Caroline. 

DELIUM, Boeotia, IST. Greece, the site of a celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a 
conflict between the Athenians and the Bceotians, in which the former were defeated, 
Socrates the philosopher is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 424 B.C. 

DELLA GRUSCA ACADEMY of Florence merged into the Florentine in 1582.— The 
Della Crusca School, a term applied to some English persons residing at Florence, who 
wrote and printed a quantity of inferior sentimental poetry and prose in 1785. They came 
to England, where their works were popular for a short time, but were severely satirised by 
Gilford in his " Baviad" and "Mseviad" (1792-5). 

DELOS, a Greek isle in the iEgean sea. Here the Greeks, during the Persian war, 
477 B.C., established their common treasuiy, which was removed to Athens, 461. 

DELPHI (N". Greece), celebrated for its enigmatical oracles delivered by the Pythia, in the 
temple of Apollo, Avhich was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. 
The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult the oracle, and was 
supposed to be suddenly inspired. The Pythian games were first celebrated here 586 B.C. 
The temple was burnt by the Pisistratidte, 548 e.o. A new temple was raised by the 
Alcmseonidce. The Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 b.c.) were deterred from plunder- 
ing the temple by awful portents. It was, howevei', robbed and seized by the Phocians 357 
B.C., which led to the sacred war, and Nero carried from it 300 costly statues, a.d. 67. The , 
oracle was consulted by Julian, but silenced by Theodosius. 

DELPHIISr CLASSICS, a collection of thirty-nine of the Latin authors in sixty volumes, 
made for the use of the dauphin (in usum Delphini) son of Louis XIV., and published in 
1674-91. Ausonius was addedin 1730. The due de Montausier, the young prince's governor, 
proposed the plan to Huet, bishop of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with 
other learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* edited all the Latin classics except Lucan. 
Each author is illustrated by notes and an index of M'ords. An edition of the Delphin 
Classics, with additional notes, &c., was published by Mr. Valpy of London, early in the 
jn'esent century. 

DELUGE. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and began 7 Dec. 
1656, and continued 377 days. Genesifi vi. vii. viii. The ark rested on Mount Ararat 6 May, 
1657; and Noah left the ark 18 Dec. following. The year corresponds with that of 2348 B.C. 
Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to Dr. Hales : — 



Septuagint . B.C. 3246 

Jackson . . . 3170 

Hales , , . 3155 

Josephus . . . 3146 



In the reign of Ogyges, king of Attica, 1764 b.c, a 
deluge so inundated Attica, that it lay waste for 
nearly 200 years. Blair. Buffon thinks that the 
Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and 
arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting 
Into the valley of the Mediterranean. 

The deluge of DeucaUon, in Thessaly, is placed 1503 
B.C. according to Eusehius. It was often con- 
founded by the ancients with the general flood ; 
but considered to be merely a local inundation, 



Persian . 


. B.C. 3103 


Clinton . 


. B.C. 2482 


Hindoo 


• ■ 3102 


Playfair 


• • 2352 


Samaritan 


. 2998 


Usher & Eng 


Bible 2348 


Howard 


. . 2698 


Marsham . 


• • 2344 



Petavius . . B.C. 2329 
Strauchius . . , 2293 
Hebrew . . . 2288 
Vulgar Jewish . . 2 104 



occasioned by the overflowing of the river Piueus, 
whose course was stopped by an earthquake be- 
tween the mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, 
who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife 
Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, are stated to 
have saved themselves by climbing up mount 
Parnassus. 
A general deluge was predicted to occur in 1524, and 
arks were built ; but the season happened to be a 
fine and dry one. 



DEMERARA and Esseqxtibo, colonies in Guiana, South America, founded by the 
Dutch, 1580, were taken by the British, under major-general Whyte, 22 April, 1796, but were 
restored at the peace of Amiens, 1802. They again surrendered to the British under general 
Grinfield and Commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, and became English colonies in 1814. 

DEMOCRATS, advocates for government by the people themselves [demos, people, and 
Jcraiein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 1790 (who termed their 
opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats was adopted by 
the pro-slavery party in N. America (the southern states), and the abolitionists were called 
Republicans. Into these two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at 
the presidential election in 1856. In i860, the Republicans formed " Wide-awake " clubs 

* This beautiful and gifted woman translated Callimachus at the age of 23 ; and also ^nacreon, Sappho. 
Plauttis, Terence, and Homer. She died in 1720. 



DEN 



231 



DEN 



for electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham Lincoln, 
elected president, 4 Nov. ; see United States, i860. 

DENAIN (N. France). Here marshal Villars defeated the Imperialist army, 24 Julj'', 
1712. 

DENAEIUS, the chief silver coin among the Eomans, -weighing the seventh part of a 
Iioman ounce, and value 'jlcl. sterling, first coined about 269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten 
ases (see ^s). In 216 B.C. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound weight of silver was 
coined into 100 denarii. Digby. A pound weight of gold -was coined into tweut}'^ denarii 
aurei in 206 B.C. ; and in Nero's time into forty-five denarii aurei. Lempricre. 

DENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near Paris, famous for its abbey and church, 
the former abolished at the revolution : the latter the place of sepulture of tlie French kings, 
from its foundation, by Dagobert, about 630 ; the remains of the saint Denis were placed 
there in 636. On the 6 Aug. 1793, the republicans demolished most of tlie royal tombs, 
and emptied the leaden coffins into the dunghills, melting the lead. By a decree of Bona- 
parte, dated 20 Feb. 1806, the church (which had been turned into a cattle -market) was 
ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as ' ' the future burial place of the emperors of 
France." On the return of the Bourbons, more restorations were effected, and when the 
due de Bcrri and Louis XVIII. died, both were buried there. 

DENMAEK (N. Europe). The most ancient inhabitants were Cimbri and Teutones, 
who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones settled in Germany and Gaul ; 
the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland 
obtains its name from the Jutes ; and the name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from 
Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German Avord signifying country. 
For their numerous invasions of Britain, &c. , see Danes. Pojmlation of the kingdom of Den- 
mark in i860, 1,600,551 ; of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburgh, 1,004,473 ! 
of the colonies, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed 30 Oct. 1864, the duchies were 
taken from Denmark. Schleswig and Holstein were to be made independent, and Lauenburg 
was to be incorporated, by its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastein, and Prussia, 
1866. 



Keigix of Sciold, first king .... B.C. 60 
The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the 

time of Ragnor Lodbrog . . . a.d. 750 
Killed in an attempt to invade England . . 794 
Canute the Great conquers Norway . . 1016-28 
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are united into 

one kingdom under JIargaret .... 1397 
Copenhagen made the capital . . . . 1440 
Accession of Christian I. (of Oldenburg), from 

whom the late royal family sprang . . 1448 
Christian II. is deposed ; independence of 

Sweden acknowledged under Gustavus Vasa 1523 
Lutheranism introduced in 1527; established 

by Christian III 1536 

Danish East India Company established . . 1612 
Christian IV. chosen head of the Protestant 

league against the emperor . . . . 1629 

Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmai-k, 

besieges Copenhagen, and makes coiiquests . 1658 
The crown made liereditary .and absolute . . 1665 
Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Schleswia-, Ton- 
ningen, and Stralsund ; reduces Weism-ir, 
and drives the Swedes from Norway i-jiS et seq. 
Copenhagen nearly destroyed by a fire, which 
consumes 1650 houses, 3 churches, the uni- 
versity, and 4 colleges 1728 

The peaceful reign of Christian VI. . . 1730-46 
Plot of the queen dowager against the ministers 
and JIatilda (sister of our George III. and 
queen of Christian VII., a weak monarch). 
Matilda, entrapped into a confession of 
criminality to save the life of her supposed 
lover Struenzoe, condemned to imprison- 
ment for life in the castle of Zell . 18 Jan. 1772 
Count Struenzee and Brandt beheaded, 28 Apr. ,, 
Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 ... . 1775 
Christian VII. becomes deranged, and pnnce 

Frederick is .appointed regent . . . . 1784 
One-fourth of Copenhagen burnt . 9 June, 1795 
Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copen- 
hagen, and engage the Danish fleet, taking or 
destroying 18 ships of the line, of whose crews 
1800 are killed. (Confedei-acy of the North, 
see Armed JfeutralU>/, dissolved.) . 2 April, 1801 



Admiral Gambler and Lord Cathcart bombard 
t!openhagen, 23 Aug. ; the Danish fleet of 18 
ships of the line, 15 frigates, and 37 brigs, 
&c., STUTender .... 8 Sept. 

Peace of Kiel : Pomerania and Rugen ai-e 
annexed to Denmark in exchange for Norway, 

14 Jan. 

Pomerania and Rilgen ceded to Prussia for 
Lauenburg 

Commercial treaty with England . . . 

Frederick VI, grants a new constitution . 

Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown 
to Schleswig, Holstein, &c. . 11 July, 

Accession of Frederick VII. 20 Jan.; he pro- 
claims a new constitution, uniting the 
duchies more closely with Denmark, 28 Jan. 

Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional 
government fonned . . .23 March, 

The rebels seize fortress nf Rendsburg 24 March, 

They are defeated near Flensburg . 9 April, 

The D.anes defeated by the Pru.ssians (helping 
the duchies) at Schleswig . . 23 xVpril, 

The North sea blockaded by Denmark i Aug, 

Hostilities suspended : the European powers 
recommend peace . . . .26 Aug, 

Hostilities recommence ... 25 March, 

Victory of the Danes over the Holsteiners ami 
Gei'mans 10 April, 

Several conflicts with varj'ing success . June, 

Armistice renewed at Malmo . . 10 July, 

Separate jjoace with Prussia . . .2 July, 

Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, 
France, Prussia, and Sweden . . 4 July, 

Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Schleswig- 
Holsteiners by the Danes . , 25 July, 

Protocol signed in London by the ministers of 
all the great powers . . .23 Aug. 

Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the Hol- 
steiners, and the town almost destroyed, but 
not taken ... 29 Sept, to 6 Oct. 

Proclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswig- 
Holstein, placing the rights of the country 
under the protection of the Germanic con- 
federation 10 Jan. 



1807 



1S15 
1S24 
1831 



1849 



1851 



DEN 



232 



DEN 



DEXMARK, continued. 

The integrity of the Danish monai-chy and the 
independence of Schleswig and its old union 
with Holstein guaranteed by treaty, i8 Feb. 1852 
Austrians evacviate Holstein, ».'C. . 2 March, ,, 

Treaty of European powers settling the suc- 
cession of the Danish crown . 8 May, ,, 

[The succession in the line of Sonderburg- 
Glucksburg settled, and the integrity of the 
Danish kingdom guaranteed. Christian, 
duke of Augustenburg-Holstein, renounced 
his rights for a compensation in money.] 

■The king prorniil gates a new constitution, 29 
July, 1854; adopted . . . . i Oct, 1855 

The sound dues abolished for a compensation 
(see Sound) 14 March, 1857 

Fortification of Copenhagen decreed, 27 March, 1858 

Dissension between the government and the 
duchies Oct. 1857-1862 

New ministry appointed 3 Dec. 1859 ; resigns, 
9 Feb. ; Bp. Monrad forms a ministry, 24 Feb. i860 

The assembly of Schleswig complain that the 
promise of equality of national rights in 1852 
has not been kept, 11 Feb. ; protest against 
the annexation to Denmark . . i March, „ 

The Prussian chamber of deputies receive a 
petition from Schleswig, and declare that 
they will aid the duchies, 4 May ; at which 
the Dani.sh government protests . 16 May, ,, 

Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
Danish, and British governraeuts ; the Danish 
government declare for war, if the forces 
of the Germanic confederation enter the 
duchies Jan. 1861 

"Wai'like preparations in Denmark . Feb. ,, 

Decimal coinage adopted . . . June, ,, 

Agitation in favour of union of Denmai'k with 
Sweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits 
Denmark, and is warmly received 17 July, 1862 

Earl Russell recommends the government to 
give to Holstein and Lauenburg all that the 
Germanic confederation desire for them, and 
to give self-government to Schleswig, 24 Sept. ,, 

M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to ac- 
cede ; stating that to do so would imperil the 
existence of the monarchy itself . 20 Nov. , , 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 
Prince of Wales at Windsor . 10 March, 1863 

The king grants, by patent, independent rights 
to Holstein, but annexes Schleswig, 30 March, „ 

Austria and Prussia protest against this decree, 

17 April, ,, 

Further diplomatic correspondence . May, ,, 

The king accepts the crown of Greece for his 
relative, prince William-George, and gives 
him sound political advice , . 6 June, , ,, 

Death of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdi- 
nand, the king's uncle . . 29 June, ,, 

The German diet demands annulment of the 
patent of 30 March, and that Holstein and 
Schleswig should be united with the same 
rights ; and threatens an army of occupation, 

9 July, „ 

The king replies that he will consider occupa- 
tion to be an act of war . . 27 Aug. ,, 

Vain efforts for alliance with Sweden . Aug. ,, 

Extraordinary levy to strengthen the army de- 
creed I Aug. „ 

New constitution (uniting Schleswig with Den- 
mark) proposed in the rigsraad . 29 Sept. ,, 

Death of Frederick VII. and accession of 
Christian IX 15 Nov. ,, 

Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the 
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein 16 Nov. ,, 

Great excitement in Holstein ; many officials 
refuse to take oath to Christian, 21 Nov. et seq. „ 

Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German 
powers resolve to support the prince of 
Augtistenburg ... 26 Nov. et seq. „ 

New constitution aflBrmed by the rigsraad, 
13 Nov. ; signed by king, 18 Nov. ; published, 

I 2 Dec. ,, 



The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that 
they will quit Copenhagen if the constitution 
of 18 Nov. is not annulkd . . . Dec. 1863 
Great excitement in Norway : proposals to 

support Denmark .... Dec. ,, 
Prince Frederick's letter to the emperor Napo- 
leon, 2 Dec. ; an ambiguous reply 10 Dec. ,, 

Denmark protests against federal occupation, 

19 Dec. ,, 

900 representatives of different German states 
meet at Frankfort, and resolve to support 
Prince Frederick as duke of Schleswig and 
Holstein, and the inseparable union of those 
duchies 21 Dec. ,, 

The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon 
regiment enters Altona, 24 Dec. ; and the 
federal commissioners assume administrative 
powers 25 Dec. ,, 

The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid col- 
lision with federal troops . 24 Dec. et seq. „ 

Prince Frederick enters Kiel, as duke cf Schles- 
wig and Holstein .... 30 Dec. ,, 

The Danes evacuate Rendsburg . . 31 Dec. ,, 

iilinisterial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop 
Monrad forms a cabinet . . 31 Dec. „ 

Dissension among Germans : the Austro-Prus- 
sian proposition rejected by the diet 14 Jan. 1864 

Austria and Prussia demand abrogation of the 
constitution (of 18 Nov.) in 2 days, 16 Jan. ; 
the Danes require 6 weeks' time . 18 Jan. „ \ 

The German troops, under marshal Wrangel, 
enter Holstein . . . . 21 Jan. ,, 

The Prussians enter Schleswig, and take 
Eokenforde i Feb. ,, 

They bombard Missunde, 2 Feb. ; which is 
burnt 3 Feb. ,, 

The Danes abandon the Dannewerke to save 
their army, 5 Feb. ; great discontent in 
Copenhagen 6 Feb. „ 

The Danes defeated by Wrangel at Oever-see, 

6 Feb. „ 

Schleswig taken ; prince Frederick proclaimed, 

6 Feb. „ 

The alUes occupy Flensburg, 7 Feb. ; com- 
mence their attack on Diippel . 13 Feb. „ 

The federal commissioners protest against the 
Prussian occupation of Altona . 13 Feb. ,, 

The Prussians enter Jutland ; take Kolding, 18 
Feb. ; Danes fortify Alsen . 18 Feb. et seq. „ 

A conference on Danish affairs proposed by 
England ; agreed to by allies . 23 Feb. „ 

A subscription for the wounded Danes begun 
in London 24 Feb. ,, 

De Gertaoh becomes general of the Danes, 

I Mar. ,, 

Defeated at Sonderbygaard and Veill . 8 Mar. ,, 

The rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, 
26 Feb. ; adjourned . . 22 March, „ 

The Prussians bombard and take the village of 
Diippel, or Dybbol, 16, 17 March ; and bom- 
bard Fredericia, 20 March ; repulsed in an 
attack on the fortress ... 28 March, ,, 

The opening of the conference adjourned from 

12 to 20 April, „ 

The Prussians take the fortress of Diippel, by 
assault, with much slaughter . iS April, „ 

Meetings of the conference at London : result 
imfavourable to Denmark . 25 April, et seq. „ 

The Danes retreat to Alsen ; evacuate Frede- 
ricia and fortresses of Jutland. 29 April, „ 

Agreement for an armistice for one month from. 
12 May 9 May, ,, 

Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a 
war contribution to Prussians, 6 May, et seq. „ 

The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle off 
Heligoland 9 May, ,, 

The armistice prolonged a fortnight . 9 June, „ 

The conference ends ... 22 June, ,, 

Hostilities resumed, 26 June ; the Prussians 
bombard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 
prisoners ..... 29 June, „ 



DEN 



233 



DEO 



DENMARK, continued. 
The Monrad ministry resigns ; count Moltke 

charged to form an administration, 8-10 July, 1864 
Alstjn taken ;— Jutland placed under Prussian 
administration ; — Prince John of Denmark 
sent to negotiate at Berlin . . g July, „ 
Formation of the Bluhme ministry . 11 July, ,, 
Armistice agreed to ... 18 July, ,, 
Conference for peace at Vienna . . 26 July, ,, 
Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ; — the king of 
Denmark resigns the duchies to the disposal 
of the allies, and agrees to a rectification of 
his frontier, and to pay a large sum of money 
to defray the expenses of the war . 30 Oct. „ 
Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of 
the duchies, releasing them from their alle- 
giance 16 Nov. ,, 

Project of a new constitution preserrced to the 

chambers 21 Dec. „ 

Rejected 25 Feb. 1S65 

New ministry formed under count Frijseuborg, 

6 Nov. ; a new constitution proposed, 7 Nov. 

1865 ; approved by the two chambers, ig and 

27 July, san';tioned by the king 28 July, 1866 

Princess Dagmar married to prince Alexander 

of Russia g Nov. ,, 

New rigsraad opened ... 12 Nov. ,, 
The king visited England . . . March, 1867 
The Danish West Indies, St. Thomas and St. 
John, sold to the United States for i,5oo,ooo(. 
— pioclamation in the islands dated 25 Oct. ,, 

A.D. SOVEREIGNS. 

7g4. Sigurd Snogoje. 

803. Hardicanute. 

850. Kric I. 

854. Eric II. 

883. Gormo, the Old; reig^ied 53 years. 

941. Harold, surnamed Blue Tooth. 

ggi. Sucnon, or Sweyn, the Forked-beard. 
1014. Canute li. the Great, king of J)enmark and 

England. 
1035. Canute III.'s son, Hardicanute of England. 
1042. Magnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. 
1047. Suenon, or Sweyn II. (Denmark only). 
1073. [InteiTegnum] 
1076. Harold, called the Simple. 
1080. Canute IV. 
io36. Olaus IV. the Hungry. 
1095. Eric I. styled the Good. 
1103. [Interregnum.] 
H05. Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 
1135. Eric II. surnamed Harefoot. 
1137. Eric III. the Lamb. 

J Suenon, or Sweyn III. : beheaded. 
'147- I Canute V. until 1157 (civil war). 
1157. Waldemar, styled the Great. 
1 182. Canute VI. surnamed the Pious. 
1202. Waldemar II. the Victorious. 
1241. Erie IV. 
1250. Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; 

killed m an expedition against the Frisons. 
1252. Christopher I. : poisoned. 
1259. Eric V. 
1286. Eric VI. 
1320. Christopher II. 
1334. [Interregnum of seven years.] 
1340. Waldemar III. 



1376. Olaus V. 

1387. Margaret, styled the " Semiramis of the 
North," queen of Sweden, Norway, and Den- 
mark. 

i3g7. ^Margaret and Eric VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) 

1412. Eric VII. reigns alone; obliged to resign both 
crowns. 

1438. [lutorregnum.] 

1440. Christopher III. king of Sweden. 

1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg: elected king 
of Denmark, 1448 ; of Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded 
by his son, 

1481. John ; succeeded by his son, 

1513. Christian II. called the Cruel, and the "Nei-o 
of the North ; " among other enormous crimes 
he caused all the Swedish nobility to be mas- 
sacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 1523 ; 
died in a dungeon in issg. 

[In this reign Sweden succeeded in separating 
itself irom the crown of Denmark.] 



1523- 
1533- 



1 559' 
1588, 



i6gg. 



1730- 



DENMAEK AND NORWAY. 

Frederick I. duke of Holstein, son of Christian 

I. ; a liberal ruler. 
Christian III. son of Frederick ; established 
the Lutheran religion ; esteemed the " Father 
of his People." 
Frederick II. son of Christian III. 
Cliristian IV. son. 

Frederick III. ; changed the constitution from 
an elective to an hekeditaky monarchy, 
vested in his own family, 1665. 
1670. Christian V. son of Frederick III. ; succeeded 
Viy his son, 
Fredei-ick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter 
and the king of Poland against Charles XII. 
of Sweden. 
Christian VI. his son. 

Frederick V. his son : married the princess 
Louisa of England, daughter of George II. 
1766. Christian VII. his son. See p. 231. 
1784. Prince Fi-ederick declared regent, in conse- 
quence of the mental derangement of his 
father. 
1808. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. 

DENMAHK. 

1839. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of 
Christian VII.) 

1S48. Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII. ; 20 Jan. ; 
born 6 Oct. 1808 ; separated from his first 
wife, Sept. 1837 ! from his second wife, Sept. 
1846 ; married iiiorganatically Louisa, coun- 
tess of Danner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; died 15 Nov. 
1863. 

1863. Christian IX. sonof Wilham, dukeof Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-GUlcksburg ; 15 Nov. 
(succeeded by virtue of the protocol of Lon- 
don, 8 Mny, 1852, and of the law of the Danish 
succession, 31 July, 1853). He was born 
8 April, 1818 ; married princess Louisa of 
Hesse-Cassel, 26 May, 1842. [He is descended 
from Christian III. and she from Fredericli 
V. ; both from George II. of England.] 

Heir: Christian (his son), born 3 June, 1843. 



1375. [Interregnum.] | 

DENNEWITZ (Prussia), here a victory was obtained by marshal Bemadotte (afterwards 
Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, 6 Sept. 1813. The loss of the French , 
exceeded 13,000 men, several eagles, and much cannon ; of the allies, 6000. The defeat of 
Napoleon at Leipsic, on the i8th of October following, closed his disastrous campaign, 

DENOxMlNATlONS, The Thiiee (presbyterians, congregationalists or independents, 
and baptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, with the privilege of direct appeal to 
the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. 

DEODAND (Latin, "to be given to God") : formerly, anything which had caused the 
«leath of a human being became forfeit to the sovereign o'r lord of the manor, and was to be 
.sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 62 (1846). 



DEO 



234 



DER 



D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and 
heen minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was affirmed to be a, female, at a trial 
at the King's Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex. He subsequently 
wore female attire : but at his death he was proved to be a male. 

DEPARTMENTS, see France. 

DEPTFORD (near London). The hospital here was incorporated by Henry VIII., about 
16 14, and called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond ; the brethren of Trinity -house hold 
their corporate rights by this hospital. On 4 April, 1581, Queen Elizabeth dined at 
Deptford on board the Golden Hind, the ship in which Drake had made his voyage round 
the globe. The Deptford victualling-office was burnt 16 Jan. 1748-9 ; the store-house, 2 
Sept. 1758 ; the red-house, 26 Feb. 1761 ; and the king's-mill, i Dec. 1755. Peter the 
Great of Russia lived at Evelyn' s-house, Say's-court, while learning ship-building, &c. in 
1698. 

DEPUTIES, Chamber of, the title borne by the French legislative assembly, from the 
restoration of the Bourbons in i8i4till 1852 ; when it took the name of Corps Legislatif. 

DERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert (about 828). Alfred expelled the Danes 
from it and planted a colony in 880. His heroic daughter, Ethelfieda, again expelled the 
Danes in 918. William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son William Peveril. Lombe'& 
silk- throwing machine was set np in 1718; and in 1756, Jedidiah Strutt invented the Derby 
ribbed stocking-frame. The young Pretender reached Derby, 3 Dec. 1745, and retreated 
thence soon after.* 

DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first formed after the resignation of lord John 
Russell, 21 Feb. 1852. 

FIRST ADMINISTllATION, 27 Feb. 1852. 

First lord oft!ie treasury, Edward, earl of Derby.! 
Lord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously sir 

Edward Sugden). 
President of the council, earl of Lonsdale. 
Lord 'privy seal, marquess of Salisbury. 
Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, Spencer 

Horatio Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John 

Pakington. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 
Jioard of control, John Charles Herries. 
Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. 
Postmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke. 
Secretary-at-war, William Beresford. 
First commissioner of ivorks and pvMic hidldings, lord 

John Manners. 
Robert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. 

[Defeated on the budget, i6 Dec. ; resigned 17 Dec. 
1852 ; succeeded by the Aberdeen administration.] 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION', 25 Feb. 1858. 

First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously Sir F. 

Thesiger). 
Chancellor of the exchequer, B. Disraeli. 
Secretaries— ^foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, 

Spencer H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. 

Sotheron Estcourt ; colonies, lord Stanley — in 

June, 1858, sir B. Bulwer Lytton; war, col. Jona- 
than Peel. 
Presidents— of the council, marquess of Salisbury : of 

board of control (India), 1, earl of Ellenborough 

(who resigned in May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, 

on his own authority, censuring the proclamation 

of lord Canning to the Oude insurgents; the 

government hardly escaped a vote of censure) ; 2, 

in June, 1858, lord Stanley ; — board of trade, Mr. 

Joseph W. Henley (resigned in March, 1859); earl 

of Donoughmore ; — board of works, lord John 

Manners. 



Lord privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakington. 

Postmaster, lord Colchester. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. 

[This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of 
want of confidence, n June, 1859 ; it was succeeded 
by the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (which see)]. 

THIRD ADMINISTRATION, CONSTITUTED 6 July, 1866. 

First lord of the treasunj, Edward, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, Frederic, lord Chelmsford. 

President of council, Richard, duke of Buckingham; 
succeeded by John, duke of Marlborough, 8 March, 
1867. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries — home, Horatio Spencer Walpole, resigned ; 
Gathorne Hardy, 17 Maj', 1867 ;— /orfijr^i, Edward, 
lord Stanley ; — colonies. Henrj', eai-1 of Carnarvon, 
resigned ; Richard, duke of Buckingham and 
Chandos, 8 March, 1867; — war, lieut.-gen. sir Jona- 
than Peel, resigned ; sir John Somerset Pakington, 
8 March, 1867 ; — India, Robert, lord Cranborne,, 
resigned ; sir Stafford Henry Northcote, 8 March, 
1867. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

First lord of admiralty, sir John Pakington ; suc- 
ceeded by Henry Thon^as Corry, 8 JTarch, 1867. 

Cliief commissioner of works, dx., Lord John Manners. 

President of board of trade, sir Stafford Northcote ; 
succeeded by Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, 
March, 1867. 

Cliief secretary for Ireland, Richard, lord Naas, after- 
wards earl of Mayo. 

President of poor-law board, Gathorne Hardy; suc- 
ceeded by Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon (not in 
cabinet), 17 May, 1867. 

Horatio Spencer Walpole, without office. 

The above formed the cabinet, Feb. 1868. 

Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 

Lord chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 



* Derby Trials. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, Ludlam junior, Weightman, and others, Lud- 
dites, convicted at a commission of high treason, 15 Oct. 1817 ; and Brandreth, Turner, and the elder 
Ludlam executed, 7 Nov. following. 23 were tried, and 12 not tried. Phillips. 21 prisoners were indicted 
at Derby for the murder of several miners in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted on the ground that 
the mischief was not wilful, 23 March, 1834. 

t Bom 1799; M.P. for Stockbridge (as hon. E. G. S. Stanley) in 1820; chief secretary for Ireland, 
1830-33 ; secretary for the colonies, 1833-4, '^^^ 1841-3 ; termed the " Rupert of debate " by Lord Lytton 
in "the New Timon," 1845 ; succeeded his father as earl of Derby, 30 June, 1851. 



DER 2'6r> DIA 



DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS, continued. 

[The earl of Derby resigned througli ill-bealth, 25. 
Feb. i86S ; and Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the 
ministry ; see Disraeli.] 



Cliancdlor nf the duchy of LancaaUr, William, earl of 
Devon ; succeeded by colonel John Wilson Patten, 
June, 1S67. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl of Abercorn. 



DERBY DAY (see Races), generally (not always) the Wednesday in the week preceding. 
Whitsunday, the second day of the Grand Spring meeting at Epsom. 

DERRICKS are lofty, portable, crane-like structures, used on land and water for lifting 
enormous loads, and in some cases depositing them at an elevation. They are extensively 
used in the United States, and were introduced into England as floating derricks for raising 
sunken vessels, by their inventor, A. D. Bishop, in 1857. 

DERRY (IST. Ireland), a bishopric first planted at Ardfrath ; thence translated to 
Maghera ; and in 1158 to Deny. Tiie cathedral, built in 1164, becoming ruinous, was- 
rebuilt by a colony of Londoners, who settled here in the reign of James I. The see is 
valued in the king's books at 250Z. sterling ; but it has been one of the richest sees in 
Ireland. Beatson. The see of Raphoe \s'as united to Derry, 1834 ; see Bishops ; 
Londonderry. 

DESIGN", Schools of, established by government, began at Somerset-house, London, 
in 1837. In 1852 the head school was removed to Marlborough house, and became eventually 
*' the department of science and art" ; transferred to south Kensington in 1857. It is under 
the direction of the committee of council on education. 

DESPARD'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Edward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland, 
Broughton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and Wratten, conspired to kill the king, 
and establish a republic, on the day of opening parliament, 16 Nov. 1802. Above 30 persons 
including soldiers were taken in custody; of those tried, 20 Jan. 1803, Despard and six 
others were executed, 21 Feb. He had been a distinguished officer under Nelson. 

DETROIT (N. America), the oldest city in the west, was built by the French about 1670. 

DETTINGEN (Bavaria), Battle of, 16 June, 1743, between the British, Hanoverian, 
and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by king George II. of England and the earl of Stair, 
and the French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles and the due de Gramraont. The 
French passed a defile, which tliey should have merely guarded. The due de Grammont 
with his cavalry charged tlie British foot with great fury, but was received with such intre- 
pidity, that he was obliged to give way, and to repass the Maine, losing 5000 men. 

DEVELOPMENT (or evolution). Lamarck, the naturalist (who died Dec. iSag),^ pro- 
pounded a theory that all animals had been developed from "monads," living minute 
particles ; see Species and Vestiges. Butfon held a similar doctrine. In 1827 Ernst vort 
Baer of Konigsberg demonstrated that all mammals are developed from a minute egg not a 
hundredth of an inch in diameter. 

DEVIZES, Wilts ; at Roundway Down, near here, sir William Waller and the parlia- 
mentarians were defeated, 13 July, 1643. 

DEVONPORT, see Dockyards and PhjviouLh. 

DEVONSHIRE, the country of the Damnonii or Dumnonii. Odun, earl of Devon, in 
878, defeated the Danes, slew Ubbo or Hubba their chief, and captured his magic standard. 
A bishopric of Devonshire was founded in 909 ; see Exeler. 



Eichard de Eedvers, first earl of Divon, son of 
Baldwin, sheriff of Devonshire, died 1137. 

William Courtenay, the present earl, is descended 
from Hugh (son of Robert de Courtenay and Mary 
de Redvors) the loth earl, who died 1340. 



William Cavendish, created first earl of Devonshire. 
1618. 

William Cavendish (his grandson), created first duke 
of Devonshire, 1684, from him is descended Wil- 
liam Cavendish, the present duke. 



DEVONSHIRE and PITT ADMINISTRATION, formed 16 Nov. 1756 ; dismissed 
5 April, 1757. 

Secretaries of state, earl of noldomesse and Wm. Pitt 
(afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premier). 

George GrenviUe, earl of Halifax, dukes of Rutland 
and Grafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington, 
&c. The great seal in commission. 



First lord of the treasury, William, duke of Devon- 
shire. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 
Lord president, earl Granville. 
P7-ivy seal, earl Gower. 



DEW, the modern theory respecting its formation was put forth by Dr. Wells in his 
ti'eatise published in 18 14. 

DEWANGIRI, see Lidia, 1865. 

DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated 
to the gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with precious stones, and was tied 



DIA 



236 



DIA 



round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. 
Aurelian was the first Eoman emperor who wore a diadem, 272, TilUmont. 

DIALS. " The sun-dial of Ahaz," 713 B.C. (Isa. xxxviii. 8). Invented by Anaximander, 
550 B.C. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at Rome was placed on the temple of 
Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 B.C. Blair. In 
the times of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. They 
were first set up in churches in a.d. 613. Lenglet. 

DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical analysis, depending on the different 
degrees of diffusibility of substauces iu liquids, was made known in 1861, by its discoverer, 
professor Thomas Graham, the Master of tlie Mint. 

DIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed by nearly all bodies of behaving differently 
to iron, when placed between two magnets. The phenomena, previously little known, Avere 
reduced to a law by Faraday in 1845. 

DIAMOND, a hamlet, Armagh, IST. Ireland, where was fought the "battle of the 
Diamond,"2i Sept. 1795, between the " Peep-o'-day-boys" and the " Defenders, " and many 
of the latter were killed. To commemorate this conflict the first Orange Lodge was formed 
immediately after. 

DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor 
was the first known, and where the mines of Golconda, the realm of diamonds, were 
discovered in 1534. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a 
diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and 
was valued by Mr. Eomeo de I'lsle at 224 millions ; by others at 56 millions, and at 34 
millions ; its true value (not being brilliant) was 400,000?. 



The great "Russian diamond weiglis 193 carats, or 
I oz. 12 dwts. 4 gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. 
offered for it 104,166^. 13s. ^d. besides an annuity 
for life to the owner of 1041^. 13s. ,\d., which was 
refused ; but it was afterwards sold to Catherine's 
favourite, count Orloff, for the first-mentioned sum, 
without the annuity, and was by him presented to 
the empress on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in 
the sceptre of Russia. 

The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after 
cutting, 106 carats : it was sold to the king of 
France for 125,000?. in 1720. 

The PiGOTT diamond (bought by Mr. Pitt, grand- 
father of Wm. Pitt) was sold for 9500 guineas, 10 
May, 1802. 

The diamond called the Mountain of Light, or 
KoHiNOOR, was found in the mines of Golconda, in 
1550, and is said to have belonged in turn to Shah 
Jehan, Aurungzebe, Nadir Shah, the Afghan rulers, 
and afterwards to the Sikh chief Runjeet Singh. 
Upon the abdication of Dhuleep Singh, the last 
ruler of the Pimjab, and the annexation of his 
dominions to the British em-|)ire, in 1849, the 
Kohinoor was surrended to the queen. It was 
accordingly brought over and presented to her, 
3 July, 1850. It was shown in the Great Exhibi- 
tion, 1851. Its original weight was nearly 800 
carats, but it was reduced by the unskilfulness of 
the artist, Hortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 
carats. Its shape and size resembled the pointed 
half (rose cut) of a small hen's egg. The value is 
scarcely computable, though two millions stei-ling 
have been mentioned as a justifiable price, if cal- 
culated by the scale emploj'ed in the trade, This 
diamond was re-cut in London in 1852, and now 
weighs 1025 carats. 

The Sanci diamond, which belonged to Charles the 
Bold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir C. 
Jejeebhoy from the Demidoff family for 20,000?. in 
Feb. 1865. 

A diamond, termed the Star op the South, was 
brought from Brazil in 1855, weighing 254^ carats, 
half of which was lost by cutting. 



Inflammability of Diamonds. 

Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was 
inflammable, 1609. Boyle. 

Discovered that when exposed to a high temperature 
it gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was 
dissipated, 1673. Boyle. 

Sir Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting 
power, that it nuist be oom.bustible, 1675. 

Averani demonstrated, by concentrating the rays of ' 
the sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in 
vapour, and entirely disappeared, while other 
precious stones merely grow softer, 1695. 

It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, 
that although diamonds are the hardest of all 
known bodies, they yet contain nothing more than 
pure charcoal, or carbon. Diamonds were charred 
by the intense heat of the voltaic battery — by M. 
Dumas, in Paris, and by professor Faraday, in 
London, in 1848. 

Diamond Necklace Affair. — In 1785, Boehmer, the 
court jeweller of France, offered the queen, Marie 
Antoinette, a diamond necklace, for 64,000?. The 
queen desired the necklace, but feared the ex- 
pense. The countess de la Motte (of the ancient 
house of Valois) forged the queen's signature, and 
by pretending that the queen had an attachment 
for him, persuaded the cardinal de Rohan, the 
queen's almoner, to conclude a bargain with the 
jeweller for the necklace for 56,000?. De la Motte 
thus obtained the necklace and made away with 
it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced 
to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned 
for life. She accused in vain the celebrated Italian 
adventurer, Cagliostro, of complicity in the affair, 
he being then intimate with the cardinal. She 
made her escape and came to London, where she 
was killed by falling from a window-sill, in at- 
tempting to escape an arrest for debt. — De Ro- 
han was tried and acquitted, 14 April, 1786. The 
public in France at that time suspected the queen 
of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote 
at the tirae, that he should not be surprised if this 
miserable affair overturned the throne. 



DIANA, Temple of (at Ephesus), accounted one of the seven wonders of the world, 
was built at the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 B.C. ; the chief architect was 
Ctesiphon. Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing it. It was 425 feet long, 
225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons of 
Parian marble), furnished by so many kings. It was set on fire, on the night of Alexander's 



DIG 237 DIE 

nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, who confessed on the rack, that his 
sole motive was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 B.C. The temple 
was rebuilt, but again burnt by the Goths, in their naval invasion, A.D. 256 or 262. 

DIGE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, about 1244 b.c. The 
game of Tali and Tessera among the Romans was played with dice. Stow mentions two 
entertainments given by the city of London, at which dice were played.* Act to regulate 
the licences of makers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. 

DIGHROOSGOPE, an optical apparatus, described by the inventor, professor Dove of 
Berlin, in i860, who intended it to represent interferences, spectra in diifereut coloured 
lights, polarisation of light, &c. 

DICTATORS were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, appointed to act in 
critical times. Titus Lartius Elavus, the first dictator, was appointed, 501 B.C. Gaius 
Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian dictator, 356 B.C. This office became odious by the 
usurpations of Sylla and Jidius Gresar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, 
on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a law for ever forbidding a dictator to exist in 
Rome, 44 B.C. 

DIGTlOiSrARY. A standard/dictionary of the Ghinese language, containing about 40,000 
characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations, somewhat like our signs of 
the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about iioo B.C. Morrison; see 
Enmjclopcedias. 

A Latin one was compiled by Varro, bom B.C. 116 Schwan's great German-French dictionary ap- 

Varro's work " de Lingua Latina;" he died B.C. 28 pearedin 1782 

The "Unomasticon," a collection of vocabularies Richardson's English dictionary appeared in . 1836 

in Greek, by Julius Pollux, was published Lempriere's classical dictionary, which first 

about A.D. 177 I api^eared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr. 

The first noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the | AV. Smith's classical series .... 1842-57 

first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar ! The Philological Society of London issued 



in Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. 
Niceron. about 1500 

John E. Avenar's Dictionariwin Hebraicum was 
published at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtorf's 
great work, lexicon Hebraicum, &.C., appeared 1621 

The Lexicon Beptaglotton was pubhshed by Ed- 
mund Castell, in 1669 

The great English dictionary by Samuel John- 
son appeared in 1755 

Francis Grose's Diotionaiy of the Vulgar Tongue 
was compiled in 1768 

The following academies have published large 
dictionaries of their respective languages : 
the French academy, first in 1694 ; the Spa- 
nish, 1726; the Italian academy (della Crusca) 
1729; and the Russian .... 1789-94 



' proposals for a new English dictionary " . 1859 
The great German dictionary, by Jacob and 

Wilhelm Grimm .... 1854 et seq. 
Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Dictionary of 

Enghsh Etymology .... 1859-67 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible was published 1860-3 
The earliest known English-Latin dictionary is 
the Proinptorium Parvalorum, compiled by 
Galfridus Grammaticus, a preaching fi-iar of 
Norfolk, in 1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as 
Proiiiplorius Puerorum, in 1499. A new 
edition, carefully edited by Mr. Albert Way, 
from MSS., was publised by the Camden So- 
ciety 1843-65 

See EncycloiKtidia. 



DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Mosander in 1841. It appears to be always 
associated with lanthanum and cerium. 

DIEPPE (IST. France). This town was bombarded by an English fleet, under admiral 
Russell, and laid in ashes, July, 1694. It was again bombarded in 1794 ; and again, together 
with the town of Granville, by the British, 14 Sept. 1803. 

" DIES IKM" ("Day of Wrath "), a Latin medifeval hymn on the day of judgment, is 
ascribed to various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory the Great (died about 604) ; St. 
Bernard (died 1153) ; but is generally considered to have been composed by Thomas of 
Celano (died 1255), and to have been used in the Roman service of the mass before 1385. 

DIET OF THE German Empire (in which the supreme court of authority of the empire 
may be said to have existed) was composed of three colleges": one of electors, one of princes, 
and one of imperial towns, and commenced with the edict of Gharles IV. 1356 ; see Golden 
Bull; Wurzburg (1180) ; Nuremberg (1467) ; Worms (1521) ; Spires (1529) ; Augsburg {it^T,o) ; 
Ratislon (1541) ; Frankfort (1806, ct seq.) ; and Germany. 

^' DJBU-DONNJS," the name given in his infancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, the 
queen, his mother, having been barren for 23 years previously, 1638. Voltaire. One of the 
popes (672) was named Adeodatiis or God's gift. 

DIEU ET MON DROIT ("God and my right"), the royal motto of England, was the 

* In 1357, the kings of Scotland and France, being prisoners, and the king of Cyprus on a visit to 
Edward III., a great tournament was held in Smithfield, and afterwards Henry Picard, mayor of London, 
" kept his hall against all comers that were willing to play at dice and hazard. The lady Margaret, his 
wife, did keepe her chamber to the same intent. " The mayor restored to the king of Cyprus 50 mai-ks 
which he had won from him, saying, " My lord and king, be not aggrieved ; for I covet not your gold ; but 
your play," &c. Stow. 



DIF 238 DIR 

iparole of the day, given by Eicliard I. of England to his army at the hattle of Gisors, in 
France, 20 Sept. 1198, when the French army was signally defeated. " Bieu et mon droit" 
appears to have been first assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422-1461) ; see Semper Sadem. 

.DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE, see Calculating Machine. 

DIFFUSION OP Gases. In 1825, Dobereiner observed the transmission of a gas throngli 
a crack in a glass vessel, and professor Thomas Graham discovered the passage of gas through 
poi'ous porcelain and other substances, and established the law iu 1832, and to him we are 
indebted for other discoveries related to this subject ; see Atmolysis and Dialysis. 

DIFFUSION OF Useful KKOVifLEDGE Society, which published a number of books 
relating to history, science, and literature, and a useful atlas, in a cheap form, ridiculed 
.as the "Sixpenny Sciences," was established by Lord Brougham, Mr. William Tooke, Mr. 
Charles Knight, and others, and published its "Library" 1827-48. It patronised the 
publication of the Penii}'^ Magazine and the Penny Cyclopaedia. — The Royal Institution of 
Great Britain was established in 1800, for "the Promotion, Ditfusion, and Extension of 
Science and Useful Knowledge." 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws imder this title was prepared by Alfenus 
Varus, the civilian, of Cremona, 66 b.c. Quintil. The "Digest," so called by way of 
eminence, was the collection made by order of the emperor Justinian, 529 : it made the first 
part of the Roman law and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked 
with a fi'. Pardon. — The "Digest of Law" commissioners signed their first report 13 May, 
1867, recommending the immediate preparation of a digest of the English common law, 
.statute law, and judicial decisions. 

DIGITS, any whole number under 10 : 1,2, &c., are the nine digits. Arithmetical figures 
were known to the Arabian Moors about 900 ; and were introduced by them into Spain in 
1050, and thence into England about 1253. In astronomy, the digit is a measure used 
in the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of the luminary eclipsed ; see Figures. 

DILETTANTI, Society of, established in 1734 by several noblemen and gentlemen 
(viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke of Dorset, &c.), who had travelled and who were 
desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts in Great Britain. The society published, or 
.aided in publishing, Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and several' 
other finely illustrated works, having assisted the authors. The members dine together from 
time to time at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James's. 

DIMITY, see Damietta. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman Empire into dioceses, at that period civil 
governments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323 ; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had the 
departments called dioceses long before. In England the principal dioceses are coeval with 
the establishment of Christianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to the diocese of Canter- 
bury, and six to that of York ; see Bishojos, and the sees severally. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era of Martyrs, on account of the persecution in his 
reign) was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the 6th 
-century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on 
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29 Aug. 284. 

DIOPTRIC SYSTEM (from the Greek dia, through, and optomai, I see), an arrangement 
of lenses for condensing light in lighthouses, devised by Fresnel, about 1819, based on the 
discoveries of Buff'on, Condorcet, Brewster, and others ; see LighiJiouses. 

DIORAMA. This species of exhibitioji, which had long been admired at Paris, was first 
opened in London by MM. Bouton and Daguerre, 29 Sept. 1823. It was not successful 
•commercially, and was sold in 1848. The building in Regent's Park was purchased by sir S. 
M. Peto, in 1855, to be used as a Baptist chapel. 

DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphthera, a membrane), a disease resembling croup 
which has the essential chai'acter of developing a false membrane on the mucous membrane 
connected with the throat. It was named dipJitheritis by Bretonneau of Tours in 1 820. From 
its prevalence in Boulogne, it has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat ; many persons were 
afiected with it in England at the beginning of 1858. 

DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the relations of foreign states by means of ambassadors, 
envoys, consuls, charges d'affaires, &c. ; see Ambassadors and Consuls. New regulations for 
the British diplomatic service were issued 5 Sept. 1862. 

DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the science of Palaeography or ancient writings. 
Valuable works on this subject have been compiled by Mabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774)5 
Astle (1781), De Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries. 

"DIRECTORY for the Public Worship of God" was drawn up at the instance of 



DIR 239 DIS 

the parliament by an assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644, after tlie siippression of 
the Book of Common Prayer. The general hints given were to be managed with discretion ; 
for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer or manner of external worship, and enjoined 
the people to make no responses except Aiiien. It was adopted by the parliament of Scotland 
in 1645, and many of its regulations are still observed. 

DIRECTORY, The Fkrnch, established by the constitution of 22 Aug. 1795, and 
nominated i Nov. was composed of live members (MM. Lepeaux, Lctourneur, Rewbel, 
Barras, and Carnot). It nded in conjunction with two chambers, the Council of Ancients 
and Council of Five Hundred {which sec), at the revolution of the i8th of Brumaire (9 Nov. 
1799). It was deposed by Bonaparte, who, with Cambaceres and Lebrun, assumed the 
government as three consuls, himself the first, 13 Dec. 1799 ; see Consuls. 

DIRECTORY, theiirst London, is said to have been printed in 1677. The "Post-office 
Directory" first appeared in 1800. 

DISCIPLINE, ecclesiastical, originally conducted spiritually according to the divine 
■commands in Malt, xviii. 15, i Cor. v., 2 Thcss. iii. 6, and other texts, Avas gradually 
changed to a temporal character, as it now appears in the Roman and Greek churches. The 
"First Book of Discipline" of the presbyterian church of Scotland was drawn up by John 
Knox and four ministers in Jan. 1560-1. The more imjDortant " Second Book " was prepared 
with great care in 1578 by Andrew Melville and a committee of the leading members of the 
general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly presbyterian form of government, defines the 
position of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. 

DISCOUNT, see under Bank of England. 

DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical advice and medicines, began in London 
with the Royal General Dispensary, established in St. Bartholomew's Close, in 1770. It 
relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861 ; about 17,000 in 1866. Lotos Charities. 

DISPENSATIONS, ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. 
These exemptions from the discipline of the church, with indulgences, absolutions, &c., led 
eventually to the Reformation in Germany in 15 17, and in England in 1534, ct scq. 

DISPENSING POWER of the Ceown (for setting aside laws), asserted by some of our 
sovereigns, especially by Charles II. (in 1672 for the relief of nonconformists) and by James 
II. in 1686, was abolished by the bill of rights, 1689. It has been on cei'tain occasions 
exercised, as in the case of embargoes upon ships, the Bank Charter act, &c. ; see Indemnity. 

DISRAELI ADMINISTRATION* on the resignation of the earl of Derby through ill- 
health, 25 Feb., Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the ministry, 29 Feb. 1868 ; see Derby Adminis- 
trations, III. 

First lord of treasury, Benjamin Disraeli. 1 President of board of trade, Charles Heniy, duke of 

Lord chancellor, Hugh MaoCalmont, lord Gairns. I Richmond. 

Lord president of council, John, duke of Marlborough. ^ C/iief secretary for Ireland, Richard, earl of Mayo. 



Lord privy i-eal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries — home, Gathorne Hardy ;-/cn'c-J(/ft, Edward, 
lord Stanley; — colonies, Richard, duke of Bucking- 
ham and Chandos ; — loar, sir John S. Pakingtou ; — 
India, Sir Stafford Henry Northcote. 

Chancellor of exchequer, George Ward Hunt. 

.First lord of admiralty, Henry Thomas L. Corry. 

Chief commissioner of works, lord John Manners. 



President of poor-law board, Wm. Reginald, earl of 

Devon. 

The above form the cabinet. 
Postmaster-general, Jam.es, duke of Montrose. 
Lord great chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 
Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. John Wilson 

Patten. 
Lord iieutenard of Ireland, .James, earl of Abcrcom. 



DISSECTION, see Anatomy. 

DISSENTEES, the modern name of the Puritans and Nonconformvits {loMch sec). In 
185 1, in London, the miniber of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of dissenters 
amounted to more than 554. (The Church of England had 458; Roman Catholics, 35.) 
The great act (9 Geo. IV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil and religious disabilities 
was passed 9 May, 1828. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal act, so much 
of the several acts of preceding reigns as imposed the necessity of receiving the sacrament of 
the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c., was repealed. By 6 & 7 Will. 
IV. c. 85 (1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising marriages at their own chapels 
or at a registry office ; see ITorsA^jj. 

DISTAFF (or Rock) the staff to which flax or any substance to be spun is fastened. The 
art of spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught to English women by Anthonj"- 
Bonavisa, an Italian. Stow. St. Distafi"s or Rock day, was formerly the first free day after 
the Epiphany (6th Jan.) because the Christmas holidays were over and women's work was 
resumed. 

* Benjamin Disraeli (son of Isaac Disraeli, author of the "Curiosities of Literature," &c.,) bom 
21 Dec, 1805 ; pubhshed " Vivian Grey," 1825 ; M.P. for Maidstone, 1837-41 ; Shrewsbury, 1841-7 ; Bucks, 
1847-68; Chancellor of Kxchequer (see i)e)'6y cid)nims<j-c(iiofts), Feb. 1852; Feb. 1858; July, 1866. 



DIS 



240 



DOC 



DISTILLATION, and the various processes dependent on it, are believed to have been 
introduced into Europe by the Moors about 1150; see Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation 
of spirituous liqiiors was in practice iu Great Britain in the i6th centur)'. JBurns. The 
processes were improved by Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen's work (1861) contains 
the most recent improvements. An act to prevent the use of stills by unlicensed persons 
was passed in 1846. 118 licences to distillers were granted in the year ending 31 March, 
1858, for the United Kingdom. 

DITCH, see Expedition. 

DIVINATION was forbidden to the Jews, B.C. 1451. (Deict. xviii. 9.) It was common 
among their neighbours : and is described by Ezehiel (xxi. 21) 493 B.C. 

DIVINE EIGHT of Kings, the absolute and unqualified claim of sovereigns to the 
obedience of their subjects, a doctrine totally foreign to the genius of the English con- 
stitution, was defended by many persons of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by Hobbes the 
free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius (1640), by sir Kobert Filmer (about 1653), in his 
Patriarcha, published in 1680, and by the High Church party generally about 1714; but 
opposed by Milton (1651), Algernon Sydney, and others. 

DIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, about 325 B.C.) was 
used in Europe about a.d. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in 
searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. Halley (about 1721) 
greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, 
set his foot on the ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell in 
improving Eamsgate harbour, 1779-88. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a 
diving-bell in Ireland were drowned, i June, 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which 
was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving-bell in May, 1817. ' 
Latterly it has been employed in submarine surveys. The first diving-ieZZe was the wife of 
captain Morris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. 

DIVINING ROD (virgula divina, baculatorhos), formed of wood or metal, was formerly 
believed, even by educated persons, to have the property of 'indicating the position of 
minerals and springs of water. Instances were alleged in 1851 by Dr. H. Mayo, in his 
work on "Popular Superstitions." 

DIVINITY, see Theology. 

DIVOECE was permitted by the law of Moses [Dcut. xxiv. i), 145 1 B.C., but forbidden 
by Christ except for adidtery (Matt. v. 31, 32). It was put in practice by Spurius Carvilius 
Euga at Eome, 234 B.C. At this time morals were so debased that 3000 prosecutions for 
adultery Avere enrolled. Divorces are of two kinds ; one, a vinculo matrimonii (total 
divorce) ; the other, a mensd et thoro (from board and bed). Divorces were attempted to be 
made of more easy obtainment in England in 1539. 

Bill to prevent women marrying their seducers 

brought into parliament 1801 

The commissioners on the law of divorce issued 

their first report April, 1857 

In 1857 there had been in England, since tbe 

Eeformation, 3 17 divorces by act of parliament; 

in Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since . 1846 
Prom the establishment of the divorce court, to 

March, 1S59, 37 divorces had been granted out 

of 288 petitions; from Nov. i860 to July, 1861,164. 
By 20 &, 21 Vict. c. 85, the jurisdiction of the ec- 
clesiastical courts respecting divorce, &c., was 

abolished, and the Divorce and Matrimonial 



Causes court instituted, to consist of three 
judges, the judge of the Probate court to be 
one (if possible) 1857 

A full court sat — lord Campbell, chief baron 
Pollock, sir Cresswell Cresswell (judge of the 
Probate court — ^when five marriages were dis- 
solved 10 May, 185S 

The above mentioned act, amended by acts 
passed in consequence of the increase of the 
business of the court 1858-60 

An act respecting divorces in Scotland passed . 1861 

Sir Cresswell Cresswell died in July ; sir James 
P. Wilde was appointed his successor in Sept. 1863 



Here a siege was sustained for six weeks against the array 
The allies here defeated the French under Napoleon, 27 



DIZIEE, St. (N.E. France), 
of the emperor Charles V., 1544, 
Jan. and 26 March, 1814. 

DOBEUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria; in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents 
of the Eusso-Turkish war (which see). 

DOCET/E, a sect of the ist century, said to have held that Jesus Christ was God, but 
that his body was an appearance, not a reality. 

DOCKS OF ENGLAND. The following are the principal commercial docks : — 
Eotherhithe, originated about 



Commercial Docks. 
1660. 

"West India Docks commenced 3 Feb. 1800; opened 
27 Aug. 1802, when the " Henry Addington," West 
Indiaman, first entered them, decorated with the 
colours of the different nations of Europe. 



London Docks were commenced 26 June, 1802, and 

opened 20 Jan. 1805. 
East India Docks commenced 1803 ; opened 4 Aug. 

1806. 
St. Katherine's Docks began 3 May, 1827 ; and 2500 

men were daily employed on them until they were 

opened, 25 Oct. 1828. 



DOC 



241 



DOG 



Imogene frigate, of 28 guns, and immense stores, 
were destroyed ; the relics and figure heads of the 
favourite ships of Boscawen, Rodney, Duncan,_aud 
other naval heroes, which were preserved iu a 
naval museum, were also burnt : the loss was 
estimated at 200,000^, 27 Sept. 1840. 

Sheerness dock-yard was built by Charles II. after 
the insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war 
at Chatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheer- 
ness dock-yard, on board the Camperdown, 9 Oct. 
1S40. 

Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1790; removed to Pem- 
broke in 1814. 

The Dock-yard battalionshavebeen named since 1S47. 



DOCKS OF ENGLAND, continued. 

Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) completed and 

opened in 1855. 
Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead 

erected 1810-57. 
Millwall Docks, near London, formally opened, 

14 March, 1S68. 

ROYAL DOCK-TARDS. 

Woolwich was an extensive one in 1509. 
Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513. 
Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. 
Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. 
P]ymo\ith dock, now Devonport, about i68g. Great 
fire here, by which the Talavera, of 74 guns, the 

DOCTOR. Doctor of tlie Clmrch was a title given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory 
Naziauzen, and Cbrysostom in the Greek churcli ; and to Jerome, Angnstin, Ambrose, and 
Gregory the Great in the Eoniish chnrch, 373, ct seq. In later times the title has been 
conferred on certain persons with distingnishing epithets : viz. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicus), 
Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander de Hales (Irrefragabilis), Duns Scotus (Subtilis), Eoger 
Bacon (Mirabilis), William Occam (Singularis), Joseph Gerson (Christianis-simns), Thomas 
Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the law, was a title of honour among the 
Jews. The degree of doctor Avas conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. Spelman. Some give 
it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the 
former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge about 725. 

DOCTORS' COMMONS, the college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in 
London ; the name of commons is given to it from the civilians commoning together, as in 
other colleges. It was founded by Dr. Henry Hervie. In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, 
dean of the arches and master of Trinity -halloa seminary founded at Cambridge chiefly for the 
studjr of the civil and canon laws) procured from the dean and chapter of the diocese of London 
a lease of Montjoy-house and.buildings in the parish of St. Bene't, Paul's wharf, for the accom- 
modation of the society. Other courts being held here, the whole place received the appellation 
of "Doctors' Commons." The original college was destroyed in the great fire of 1666 ; in 
1672 it was rebuilt on the old site. After the great fire, and until 1672, the society held its 
courts at Exeter house in the Strand. It was incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Coote. 
The buildings were pulled down in April, 1867, for a new street. Till 1857 the causes taken 
cognisance of hereAvere blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, 
probate of wills, &c. ; see Ecclesiastical Courts, Civil Law, &c. 

DOCTRINAIRES, a name given since 18 14 to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, 
due de Broglie and others), who upheld the constitutional principles, as opposed to arbitrary 
monarchical power. The party came into office in 1830 under Louis Philippe, and fell with 
him in 1848. The term has been applied in tliis country to the writers iu the " Westminster 
Review," (1824, etseq.), Bentham, Molesworth, and others. 

DODONA, Epirus. The temple of Jui^iter here, renowned for its ancient oracle, 
delivered by the sound of wind in a grove of trees, was destroyed by the Jitolians, 219 B.C. 

DODSON'S ACT (brought forward by Mr. John G. Dodsou, and passed i Aug. 1861) 
provides that votes for electing members of parliament for the universities may be recorded 
by means of polling papers. 

DOG. Buff on considers the shepherd's dog as "the root of the tree," assigning as his 
reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is 
supposed to be the earliest dog known in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall 
mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on 
board a vessel, landed at Calais, and, after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to 
Vienna. Statute against dog stealing, 10 Geo. III. 1770. Dog-tax imposed, 1796, and 
again in 1808 ; in 1866 12s. a year realised 2 19, 3 13L On 29 March, 1867, the assessed taxes 
on dogs Avere repealed, and an annual excise duty of 5s. Avas imposed on all dogs more than 
six months old, to begin on 5 April folloAving. The employment of dogs in draAving carts, 
&c., in London AA-as abolished, 1839 ; in the United Kingdom, 1854. JDog shoivs are 
frequently held in London in 1861 ; since 1862 at the Agricultural Hall, Islington. A 
"Dogs' temporary home," HollingAvorth-street, London, N,, Avas opened in 186 1. About 
2200 animals have been sheltered in a year. 

DOG-STAR. The canicular or dog-days now commence on 3 July and end 11 Aug. 
The rising and setting of Sirius or the dog-star Avith the sun has been eiToneously regarded 
as the cause of excessive heat and of consequent calamities. 

E 



DOG 242 DON 

DOGE or Duke : Venice was first governed by a doge named Anafesto Paululio, 
or Paoluccio, 697 ; see Venice. The Genoese cliose their first doge, Simone Boccanegra, in 
1339. Muratori. 

DOGGERBANK (German Ocean). Here a gallant but indecisive battle was fought 
between the British, under admiral sir Hj-de Parker, and the Dutch, 5 Aug. 1781. 

DOGGET'S COAT and BADGE. Thomas Dogget, an eminent actor of Drury-laue, at 
the first anniversary of the accession to the throne of George I., i Aug. 1715, gave a water- 
man's coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six young watermen in honour of the day, 
and bequeathed at his death a sum of money, the interest whereof was to be appropriated 
annually afterwards. 

DOIT. A silver Scottish penny, of which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. Some 
of those struck by Charles I. and II. are in the cabinets of the curious. The circulation of 
" do5rdekyns " (small Dutch coins) was prohibited by statute in 1415. 

DOLLAR, the German thaler. Stamped Spanish dollars were issued from the Mint in 
March 1797, but called in Oct. following. The doUar is the principal silver coin in the 
United States of North America. 

DOM-BOC or Doom-Book (Liber Judlciales), the code of law compiled by king Alfred 
from the West-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. Alfred reigned from 871 to 901. 

DOME'S-DAY BOOK or DOOM'S-DAY {Liher Censualis Anglice), a book of the 
general survey of England, commenced in the reign of "William I. 1080 (some say 1085), and 
completed in 1086. It was intended to be a register whereby to determine the right in the 
tenure of estates ; and from it the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is some- 
times still decided. The book is still preserved in the Chapter-house, Westminster-alibey, 
fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of 
England, except Northumberland, Durham, Westmorland, and Cumberland, are surveyed. 
"This Dome's-day book was the tax-book of Kinge William." Camden. It was printed in 
four vols, folio, with introductions, &c., 1783 — 1816. The taxes were levied according to 
this survey till 13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey was taken, called by the 
people the New Doom's-Day Book. Photo-zinco-graphic copies of various counties have been 
published since 1861. 

DOMINGO, St., see Hayti. 

DOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 
3 Nov. 1493. It was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the 
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace 
in 1783. Their Admiral Villeneuve iueffectually attacked it in 1805. It suffered great 
damage by a hurricane in 1806. 

DOMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the 
week, reckoned as beginning on the i Jan., are designated by the first seven letters of the 
alphabet, A (i Jan.), B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the 
Dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical letter ; if on Monday, 
G ; on Tuesday, F ; and so on. Generallj'- to find the Dominical letter call New Year's 
day A, the next B, and go on thus until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that 
answers to it is the Dominical letter ; in leap j^ears count two letters. The letters for 
1868, E, D ; 1869, C ; 1870, B ; 1871, A. 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, see JImjti, 1844—61. 

DOMINICANS, formeiiy a i)owerful religious order (called in France, Jacobins, and in 
England Black friars), founded to put down the Albigenses and other heretics by 
St. Dominic, approved by Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius III. in 1216, 
under St. Austin's rules and the founder's particular constitution. In 1276 the corporation 
of London gave the Dominicans two streets near the Thames, where they erected a large 
convent, whence that part is still called Blackfriars. A Dominican establishment at Haver- 
stock hill near London was consecrated 10 Oct. 1867. 

DONATISTS, an ancient puritanical sect, formed about 313 — 318, by an African bishop, 
Donatus, who was jealous of Cascilian, bishop of Carthage : it became extinct in the 7th 
century. The Donatists held that the Father was above the Son, and the Son above the 
Holy Ghost. Their discipline was severe, and those who joined them were re-baptized. 

DONAUWERTH (Bavaria). Here the French and Bavarians were defeated, by the 
Duke of Marlborough, after a severe conflict, 2 July, 1704. 

DONCASTER (Yorkshire), the Roman Damim, the Saxon Donne ceastre. The races 
here (held annually in September) began about 1703 ; see Races, 



DON 243 DOV 

DONKEY SHOW. An exhibition of donkeys and mules belonging to the upper and 
lower classes took place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, 9 Aug. 1864. 

DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547 ; died 1616). The first 
part of this work appeared in 1605, and the second ])art in i6o8. It is said that upwards 
of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before the second was printed. Watts. 

DOOM'S-DAY BOOK, see Domc's-day Book. DORADO, see El Dorado. 

DORCHESTER (Oxfordshire) was once a bishopric, founded about 636. The first 
bithop Birinus was called the apostle of the West Saxons {which see). He was succeeded in 
650 by Agilbert. In 659 the see was divided by the king. Dorchester remained with 
Agilbert, and Wina, established at Winchester, in 660 obtained the whole. The see of 
Dorchester was revived about 764. In 1072 the bishop Remigius de Feschamp removed the 
see to Lincoln. Much excitement was caused by six Labourers of Dorchester being sentenced 
to transportation 17 March, 1834, for administering illegal oaths. 

DORCHESTER (Dorsetshire), the Roman Durnovaria, the Saxon Bornccastcr. Here are 
found remains of a Roman theatre and of a British camp. Here Jefferies held his " bloody 
assize " (after Monmouth's rebellion) 3 Sept. 1685. 

DORIANS, Greeks, who claimed descent from Dorus, son of Hellen ; see Greece. The 
return of the Dorians, named Heraclidre, to the Peloponnesus is dated 1104 B.C. They sent 
out many colonies. To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second of the five orders. 
It is lighter than the Tuscan. 

DORMANS (N. E. France). The Huguenots and their allies, under Jlontmorency, 
were here defeated by the duke of Guise, 10 Oct. 1575. 

DORT, or DoRDEECHT, an ancient town in Holland. Here happened an inundation of 
the Meuse in 142 1, through the breaking down the dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 
10,000 persons perished ; and more than 100,000 round DuUart, in Friesland, and in 
Zealand. The independence of the thirteen provinces was declared here in 1572, when 
William Prince of Orange was made stadt-holder. A Protestant synod was held at Dort 
iu 16 1 8 and 1619 ; to which deputies were sent from England, and the reformed churches in 
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrmes of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, 
principally upon points of justification and grace. This synod condemned the tenets of 
Arminius. 

DORYL/EUM (Phrygia). Soliman, the Turkish Sultan of Iconium, having retired from 
the defence of Nicsea his capital, was here defeated with great loss by the crusaders 
I July, 1097. Michaud. 

DOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was taken from the Flemings by Plailip the 
Fair in 1297 ; restored by Charles V. iu 1368. It reverted to Spain, from whom it was 
taken by Louis XIV. iu 1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough in 1710 ; and 
retaken by the French 8 Sept. 1712. This town gives its name to the Roman Catholic 
edition of the Bible in use, by the consent of the popes, as the only authorised English 
version ; its text is explained by notes of Roman divines. The Old Testament was first 
published by the English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New had been published at Rheims 
in 1582. The Eughsh college for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by William Allen, 
afterwards cardinal. Dodd. 

DOURO, a river (separating Spain and Portugal), which, after a desperate struggle between 
Wellington's advanced guard imder Hill, and the French under Soult, was successfully crossed 
by the former on 12 May, 1809. So sudden was the movement, that Wellington at 4 o'clock 
sat down to the dinner prepared for the French general. A lison. 

DOVER (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near here Julius Cresar is said to have first landed 
in England, Aug. 26, 55 B.C., and its original castle to have beenbuUt by him soon after ; 
but this is disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred and succeeding kings, and 
rebuilt by Henry II. The earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, in the reign of 
Ethelred II. , followed by earl Godwin, Odo the brother of William I. , &c. In modern times, 
this ofiice, and that of warden of the Cinque Ports, have been frequently conferred on the 
prime minister for the time being,— e. g., lord North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and the duke 
of Wellington. The earl of Dalhousie, late governor-general for India, appointed in Jan. 
1853, died JDec. 19, i860. Lord Palmerston, appointed constable March, 1861, died Oct. 18, 
1865. Earl Granville appointed Dec. 1865. 

Part of the cliff fell, 27 Nov. 1810; and 13 Jan. 1853 
Railway to London opened . . .6 May, 1854 
A .submarine telegrapli laid down between 

Dover and Calais by Brett . . 28 Aug. 1850 
A telegraph between Dover and Calais opened, 

13 Nov. 1851 
Easter volunteer review here . . 22 April, 1867 

■R 2 



The priory was commenced by archbishop Cor- 

boyl, or Corbois, about . - . . . 1130 
At Dover, king John resigned his kingdom to 

Pandolf, the pope's legate . . 13 May, 1213 
The pier projected by Henry VIII. in . . 1533 
Charles II. landed here from his exile 26 May, i56o 
The foot barracks burnt byaccideut 30 July, 1800 



DOW 244 DEA 

DOWEE, the gifts of a liusband to a wife before marriage {Genesis xxxiv. 12). The 
portion of a man's lands or tenements which his wife enjoys for life after her husband's 
death. By the law of king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of her husband's lands 
or tenements for her life, 941. The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are debarred 
their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. By the Dower act passed in 1833, the power of the 
wife over her dower was much diminished. 

DOWN (ISr.E. Ireland). An ancient see, first bishop St. Cailan, in 499. At the instance 
of John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathedral, consecrated to the Trinity, was 
rededicated to St. Patrick about 1183. The sepulchre of St. Patrick (bmied here in 493, in 
the abbey of Saul, founded by himself) brought this place into great repute. The see was 
united with that of Connor in 1441 (see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to both 
by the Irish Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral 
of Downpatrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord deputy of Ireland ; for this and other crimes 
he was impeached and beheaded in 1541. Beatson. 

DOWNS, see Naval Battles, 1652-3. 

DEACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when archon of Athens, 621 B.C.), on account of their 
severitj'', Avere said to be written in blood. Idleness was punished as severely as murder. This 
code was set aside by Solon's, 594 B.C. 

DEAETS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed with a banker's name were made payable 
only to or through the same banker. This act was passed in consequence of a decision to the 
contrary in the case of Carlon v. Ireland, Dec. 12, 1855. In 1858 the crossing was made a 
material part of a cheque, but bankers are not held responsible when the crossing does not 
plainly appear, and a penny stamp was ordered to be alfixed to drafts on bankers, commencing 
May 25. In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, May, 1858, it had been decided that the cross- 
ing formed no part of the draft. The crossing had been erased, and the money paid to the 
holder of the draft, who had stolen it. 

DEAGONlsTADES, the fierce persecution of the Protestants in the reign of Louis XIV. 
by dragoons, by the minister Louvois, 1684, was consummated by the revocation of Henry 
IVth's edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, which drove 50,000 families from France. Duruy. 

DEAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, ' 'because mounted 
on horseback with lighted match he seemeth like a fiery dragon. " MeyricJc. The DuAcoisrARii 
were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons for ensigns. The first regiment of dragoons was raised 
in England, it is believed, in 1681. " King Cliarles II. at the Eestoration established a 
regiment of Life Guards, to which he added a regiment of Horse Guards, and two regiments 
of Foot Guards ; and a third regiment of Foot Guards Avas raised at Coldstream, on the 
borders of Scotland. Captain Curling. 

DEAINAGE of Land, in England, is of early date — remains of British works being still 
extant in the Fens district. The truly national works began in 1621, when Cornelius Ver- 
muyden, the Dutch engineer, was invited to England. Amidst much opposition, he and his 
successors drained the districts termed the Great Levels ; see Levels . In the present century 
gi'eat progress has been made in drainage. In 1861 was passed "an act to amend the laws 
relative to the drainage of land for agricultural purposes " ; see Sewers. 

DEAKE'S CIECUMNAVIGATIOK Sir Francis Drake sailed from Falmouth 13 Dec. 
1577, circumnavigated the globe, and returned to England after many perils, 3 Nov. 1580. 
He was vice-admiral under lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the confiict with the 
Spanish Armada, 19 July, 1588. He died at Panama, 28 Jan. 1596, during an expedition 
against the Spaniards. 

DEAMA, Ancient. Both tragedy and comedy began with the Greeks. 



The first comedy performed at Athens, by Susa- 
rion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold .B.C. 562 

The chorus introduced 556 

Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, 

on a waggon (A7-und. Marh.) .... 536 
Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, per- 
formed at Athens "Alcestis," and was re- 
warded with a goat (Piwiy) ,, 

.aischylus introduced dresses and a stage . . 4S6 
The drama was first introduced into Rome on 
occasion of a plague which raged during the 
consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. 
liicinius Stolo : the magistrates, to appease 
the deities, instituted games called the 
"Scenici;" actors from Etruria danced, 
after the Tuscan manner, to the flute . . 364 



Anasandrides first dramatic iDoet who intro- 
duced intrigues upon the stage ; he composed 
about 100 plays, of which 10 obtained the 
prize; he died B.C. 340 

Plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, 
who, abandoning satires, wrote plays with a 
regular and connected plot. He gave sing- 
ing and dancing to different performers ; he 
danced himself, and gave the singing to a 
younger exhibitor 240 

The greatest ancient dramatic wi-iters were — 
Greek, iEschyhis, Sophocles, Em-ipides (tra- 
gedy), and Aristophanes (comedy), 525 — 427 ; 
Latin, Plautus and Terence (comedy), 184 — • 
160; Seneca (tragedy) . . . 7 B.C. — a.d. 65 



DEAMA, MoDEPvN, arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in 



DEA 



245 



DRE 



France, Italy, and England. Stories from the Bible, represented by the priests, were the 
origin of sacred comedy. Warton. 

1603 



1660 



A licence granted to Shakespeare and others 

Plays opposed by the Puritans in 1633, sus- 
pended until the Restoration, in 

Two companies of regular perfoi-mers were 
licensed by Charles II., Kilhgrew's and sir 
William Davenant's. The first was at the 
BuU, Vere-street, Clare-market, which was 
immediately afterwards removed to Drury- 
lane ; the other in Dorset-gardens, 1662. Till 
this time, boys performed women's parts ; 
but Mrs. Coleman (the first female on the 
stage) had performed lanthe, iu Davenant's 
" Siege of Bhodes," in 1656 

Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and 
both companies united, 16S4, and continued 
together till 1694, when a schism under Bet- 
terton led to the opening of a theatre in 
Lincoln's-inn-fields, the parent of Covent- 
garden 1695 

Act for the revision of plays and for licensing 
them i^reviously to being performed . . 1737 

Author's Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 
Will. IV. c. IS June, 1833 

See Theatres, Covent-ganlen, Brury-lane, and Copyright. 



Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the 

Church, is said to have constructed a drama 

on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the 

profanities of the heathen stage, about . . 364 
Fitzstephen, in his "Life of Thomas il Becket," 

asserts that — " London had for its theatrical 

exhibitions holy plays, and the representation 

of -miracles, wrought by holy confessors ; " he 

died about 1190 

The Chester Mysteries * performed about . . 1270 
Plays performed at Clerkenwell by the parish 

clerks, and "miracles" represented in the 

fields, in 1397 

Allegorical characters introduced in the temp. 

Henry VI. 
Individual characters temp. Henry VII. 
Skelton and others wrote " Moralities " about . 1500 
The first regular drama acted in Europe was 

the " Sophonisba " of Trissino, at Rome, in 

the presence of pope Leo X. ( Fb/iairc) . . 1515 
Pirst royal licence for the drama in England 

(to master Burbage, and four others, servants 

to the earl of Leicester) to act plays at the 

Globe, Bankside 1574 

Shakespeare began to write about . . . 1590 

DEAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of distressed actors and their children, was^pro- 
posed 21 Jnly, 1S58, at the Princess's theatre, by Messrs. C. Dickens, Thackeray, C. Kean, 
B. Webster, and others. Mr. Henry Dodd's offer of land and money, with certain stipula- 
tions, was dechned in 1859. The first stone of the building was laid by the Prince Consort, 
I June, i860 ; and on the 29 Sept. 1862, seven annuitants were installed. The central hall 
was opened by the Prince of Wales, 5 June, 1865. The Queen is the patron. The viceroy 
of Egypt was present at the annual fete at the Crystal Palace, July 1867, and gave 500^. to 
the college. 

DEAPIEE'S LETTEES, by dean Swift, published in 1724, against WoocV s Halfpence 
(which see). 

DEEADNO TIGHT. In this ship, which was in the battle of Trafalgar, 21 Oct._ 1805, was 
established a hospital for the seamen of all nations, by the seamen's hospital society estab- 
lished 1831. The removal of the men to Greenwich hospital was proposed in 1867, 

DEEAMS are mentioned in Scripture, e.g., Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 1715 B.C. (Gen. 
xxxvii. and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 570 b.c. (Daniel ii. and iv.). The first at- 
tempt to interpret dreams and omens is ascribed to Amphicty on of Athens, 1497 B.C. A 
remarkable modern instance is attested in the life of Thomas, lord Lyttclton. 



Lord Lyttclton dreamt that a young female, dressed 
in white, solemnly warned him of his dissolution iu 
three days from that time. On the thhd day his 
lordship had a party to spend the evening with him, 
and about the time predicted, he observed to the 



company present, that "he believed he should 
jockey the ghost ;" but in a few minutes afterwards 
he was seized with a sudden faintness, carried to 
bed, and rose no more. He died in 1779, aged 35. 
Some assert that he committed suicide. 



DEED SCOTT CASE ; see U7iiied States, 1857. 

DEEPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the Carthaginian admiral Aldherbal totally de- 
feated the Eoman fleet under Publius Claudius, 249 B.C. 

DEESDEN, termed the German Florence, became the capital of Saxony in 1548.+ 

the prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French 
commanded by Napoleon t 26 and 27 Aug. 1813 

Marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 French troops, siu-- 
rendered Dresden to the allies . 11 Nov. 1813 

During a poUtical commotion the king abdi- 
cated, and prince Frederick, his nephew, was 
declared regent ... 9 Sept. ct stq. 1830 

An insurrection on 3 May; suppressed 6 May, 1849 



Alliance of Dresden between Saxony and Den- 
mark and Russia 1709 

Peace of Dresden between Hungary, Prussia, 
and Saxony 25 Dec. 1745 

Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756 ; by the 
Austrians 1759 

Bombarded in vain by Frederick . . July, 1760 

Severe contests between the allied army under 



* The Coventry, Chester, Townley, and other mysteries have been printed during the present century. 

+ The fine porcelain ware, Dresden china, was invented by JI. Boeticher, at the time an apothecary's 
boy, about 1709. A costly service, each piece exquisitely painted, with battles, &c., was presented to the 
duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816. 

% The allies, 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his position at Dresden, and the event had nearly 
proved fatal to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with 
dreadful loss, and were obUged to retreat into Bohemia; but Vandamme pursuing them too far, his 
division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made prisoners. _ In this battle, general Moreau 
ri-ceived his mortal wound, while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. 



DEE 246 DRU 

DRESS. The attire of tlie Hebrew women is censured in IscdaJi iii., about 760 b.c. 
Excess in dress among the early Romans was restrained by sumptuairy laws ; and also in 
England by numerous statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Caj)) ; and in the reign of 
Elizabeth, 1574. Stow. Fairholt's "Costume in England " contains a history of dress with 
numerous illustrations derived from MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. A "dress-making 
company" established in London, 6 Feb. 1865, with the view of improving the condition 
of the workwomen, was reported doing well in Oct. 1866.* 

DREUX (N.W. France). Here Montniorenci defeated the Huguenots under Condd, 19 
Dec. 1562. 

DRILLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. One was invented by Jethro TuU, early in the 
last century. 

DRINKHSTG-FOUlSrTAINS. Many Avere erected in Liverpool in 1857. An Association 
for their erection in London was formed in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the earl of 
Carlisle, Mr. S. Gurney, and others. The first of the numerous fountains since erected is 
that near St. Sepulchre's church. Skinner-street, on April 21, 1859. The magnificent foun- 
tain in Yictoria-park, London, was inaugurated by the donor. Miss Burdett Coutts, 28 June, 
1862. A remarkable drinking-fountain, the gift of the maharajali of Vizianigram, was in- 
augurated 29 Feb. 1868. 

DROGHEDA (Central Ireland, E.), formerly Tredagh, a place of great importance, having 
the privilege of C(5ining money. Here was passed Poynings' law (which see) in 1494. In 
the reign of Edward VI. an act was passed for the foundation of a university here. The 
town was besieged several times in the contests between 1641 and 1691. Cromwell took it 
by storm, and put the governor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garrison, to the sword, 
II Sept. 1649. More than 3000 men, most of them English, perished. It surrendered to 
William III. in 1690. 

DROMORE, BiSHOPKic of (KE. Ireland), founded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 
556. By an extent returned 15 James I., this see was valued in the king's books at $ol. 
Jeremy Taylor was bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of this see in 1661. In 1842 
Dromore was united to Down by the Irish Church Temporalities act of 1833. 

DRONTHEIM, capital of Norway, founded by Olaf I. about 998. 

DROWNING, an ancient punishment. The Britons inflicted death by drowning in a 
quagmire, before 450 B.C. Stow. It is said to have been inflicted on eighty intractable 
bishops near Nicomedia, a.d. 370 ; and to have been adopted as a punishment in France by 
Louis XI. The wholesale drownings of the royalists in the Loire at Nantes, by command of 
the brutal Carrier, Nov. 1793, were termed Noyadcs. 94 priests were drowned at onetime. 
He was condemned to death in Dec. 1794. ^ociqUqs, ioi th.Q recovery of drowning 2^&f sons 
were first instituted in Holland, in 1767. The second society is said to have been formed 
at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth at Paris, in 1772 ; and the 
fifth in London, in 1774. The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England is : Lateat 
scintillula forsan — "A small spark may perhaps lie hid." 

DRUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, so named from 
their veneration for the oak (Brit. derw). They administered sacred things, were the in- 
terpreters of the gods, and supreme judges. They headed the Britons who opposed Cesar's 
first landing, 55 B.C., and were exterminated by the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, 
A.D. 61. 

DRUM : the invention is ascribed to Bacchus, who, according to Polyajnus, ' ' gave his 
signals of battle with cymbals and drums." It Avas brought by the Moors into Spain, 713. 
Le Clerc. The drum, or drum capstan, for weighing anchors, was invented by sir S. Mor- 
land, in 1685. Anderson. 

DRUMMOND LIGHT ; see Lime-light. 

* Sir Walter Raleigh., we are told, wore a wbite satin-pinked vest, close-sleeved to the wi-ist, and over 
the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the feather of his hat a large 
ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and 
ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; an d buff shoes, which, on great court days, were so gorgeously 
covered with precious stones as to have exceeded the value of 66ooJ. ; and he had a suit of armour of solid 
silver, with sword aiid belt blazing with dianaonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favourite, the duke 
of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few 
off on the ground, he obtained aU the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally Us Dames 
de la Cour. We may here mention a novel dress, the Bloomer Costume, introduced into America in 1849, 
by Mrs. Ann Bloomer, and worn there by many of the women. It resembled male attii-e, being an open- 
fronted jacket and loose trousers, the latter wide like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. 
The Bloomer dress was first adopted by a few females in the western parts of London, in August, 1851 ; 
but thougli it was recommended by some American ladies in popular lectures, it was soon afterwards 
totally discontinued. 



DRU 



247 



DUB 



DRUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhonse. 
on I June, 1679. An account of the conflict is given by "Walter Scott, in " Old Mortality." 

DRUNKARDS were to be excommunicated in the early church, 59 (i Co7'. vii.) In 
England, a canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. Constantino, king of Scots, 
■l)unished it with death, 870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was liable to a penalty 
of five shillings, or six hours in the stocks. 

DRURY-LANE THEATRE derives its origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into 
a theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt and called the Phoenix ; and Charles II. 
granted an exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, 25 April, 1662. The actors were called 
"the king's servants," and ten of them, who were called gentlemen of the great chamber, 
had an annual allowance of ten yards of scarlet cloth, with a suitable ([uantity of lace ; see 
Theatj-cs. 

DRUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon, derive their 
origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, and iled to Pales- 
tine to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors : 
they do not practise circumcision, pray, or fast, and eat pork and drink wine. In the middle 
of i860, in consequence of disputes (in which doubtless both parties were to blame), the 
Druses attacked their neiglibours the Maronites {which see), whom they massacred, it was 
said, without regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July; but in the meantime a religious 
fury seized the Mahometan popirlation of the neighbouring cities, and a general massacre of 
Christians ensued. Fuad Pacha with Turkish troops ; and general Hautpoul with French 
auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. and Sept. The Druses surrendered, giving up their 
chiefs, Jan. 1S61 ; see I>amasc us and Syria. 

DUALISM, a term applied to the principles of the advocates for a separate government 
of Hungary under the emperor of Austria ; cHected in 1867. 

DUBLIISr, capital of Ireland, anciently called Aslicled, said to have been built 140. 
Auliana, daughter of Alpinus, a lord or chief among the Irish, having been drowned at the 
ford where now Whitworth-bridge is built, he changed the name to Auliana, by Ptolemy 
called Eblana (afterwards corrupted into Dublana), as a memorial. vUpinus is said to have 
brought " the then rude hill into the form of a town," about 155 ; see Jrelcmd. 

Foundling hospital inoorpornted . . . 1739 
St. Patrick's spite erected (see ^t. Patrick) . 1749 
Roynl Dublin Society originated, 1731 ; incor- 
porated , 

Hibernian society 1765 

Marine society 1766 

Queen's bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed 

by a flood, 1763 ; rebuilt 1768 

Act for a general pavement of the city . . . 1773 

Royal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened . . 1779 

Order of St. Patrick instituted . . . . 1783 

Bank of Ireland instituted (see Manic) . . „ 

Police established by statute 1786 

Royal academy incorporated . . . . ,, 

Custom house begun, 1781 ; opened . . . 1791 

DubUn libraiy instituted ,, 

Fire at the parliament house T792 

Carlisle bridge erected 1794 

City armed associatiuu 1796 

New law courts opened „ 

The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, 

in Thomas street .... 19 May, 1798 

Union with England (see Union) . i Jan. 1801 

Emmett's insurrection . . . 23 July, 1803 

Hibernian Bible society 1806 

Bank transferred to College-grecti . . . 180S 

Dublin institution founded .... 1811 

Riot at the theatre .... 16 Dec. 1814 

Visit of George IV 12 Aug. 1821 

The "Bottle coiisiDiracy" . . . 14 Dec. 1822 

Hibernian academy . . . .16 Aug. 1823 

Dublin lighted with gas . . .5 Oct. 1825 

Rd. Whately made archbishop (very active in 

education) 1831 

Great custom-house fire . . . .9 Aug. 1833 

Railroad to Kingstown 1834 

British Association meet here . . 6 Aug. 1835 

Dublin new police act .... 4 Jtily, 1836 

Cemetery, JMount Jerome, consecrated 19 Sept. ,, 

Royal arcade burnt ... 25 April, 1837 

Poor-law bill passed . . . .31 July, 1838 

Awful storm raged 6 Jan. 1839 



1171 
1173 
1 190 

1209 



• 1213 



1409 



Christianity established by St. Patrick, and St. 

Patrick's cathedral founded about . . . 432 
Dublin environed with walls by the Danes . 798 
Named by king Edgar in the preface to his 

cha,vter " ^'obilissima Civitas" . . . 964 

Battle of Clontarf (loldch see) . . 23 April, 1014 
Dubhn taken by Raymond le Gros, for Henry 

II. who soon after arrives 

Charter granted by this king .... 
Christ church built, 1038 ; rebuilt . . . 

Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens 

neax Duhlin (see Cullen's JVoud) 
Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear alle- 
giance to King John 

Foundation of Dublin castle laid by Henry de 

Loundres, 1205 ; finished 
John le Decor first jirovost; Richard de St, 

Olave and John Stakebold first bailiffs (see 

Mayor) 

Thomas Cusack, first mayor {idem.) . 
Besieged by the sou of the earl of Kildare, lord 

deputy . 1500 

Christ church made a deanery and chapter by 

Henry VIII. (see CUrUt Ckurch) . . . 1541 
BaiUff changed to sheriflts ; John Ryan and 

Thomas Comj'n, first 1548 

Trinity college founded 1591 

Charter granted by James I i6og 

Convocation which estabhshed the Thirty nine 

articles of rehgion 1614 

Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, defeated 

at battle of Rathmines (uhich .see) . 2 Aug. 1649 
Cromwell aiTives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 

400 horse Aug. 

Chief magistrate styled lord mayor . . . 
Blue coat hospital incorporated .... 
Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . 
Royal hospital, Kilmainham, foimded 

James II. arrives in Duhlin 

Great gunpowder explosion .... 
Lamps first erected in the city . . . . 
Infirmary, Jervis street, founded 
Parliament-house begim 



1665 
1670 
1676 
1683 
1688 
1693 
169S 
1728 



1729 O'Cormell's arrest (see Trials) 



14 Oct. 1843 



DUB 



248 



DUE 



DUBLIN, continued. 

He is found guilty . 
Liberated in . 
His death at Genoa 
Arrest of Mitchell, of the ' 
newspaper 



12 Feb. 1S44 
Sept. „ 

IS May, 1847 
United Irishman" 

13 May, 1S48 



of Wales, I July; and by the queen and 
prince consort 22 Aug. 1861 

National association for social science met, 

14-22 Aug. ,, 

Lord Rosso installed as chancellor of the uni- 
versity 17 Feb. 1863 

Abp. Whately dies, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by Rd. 
Chenevix Trench .... Nov. ,, 

Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by the 
lord-lieutenant, 5 Jan. ; who opens the 
national gallery of Ireland . . .30 Jan. 1864 

New Richmond hospital, to be called the 
" Carmichael School of Medicine," founded 
by lord Carlisle (Mr. Carmichael, the sur- 
geon, bequeathed io,oooZ. to it) 29 March, „ 

Industrial exhibition ojDened by the lord chan- 
cellor 25 May, 

The O'Connell monument founded . 8 Aug. 

St. Patiick's cathedi-al restored by Mr. Guin- 
ness ; re-opened .... 24 Feb. 1865 

The international exhibition opened by the 
prince of Wales .... 9 May, ,, 

The newspaper " The Irish People " seized, and 
several Fenians taken in custody. (See 
Fenians, qmA Ireland.) . . . 15 Sept. ,, 

International exhibition closed on . 9 Nov. ,, 

Great fire : Mrs. Delany and five others burnt; 
fire-brigade blamed ... 7 June, 

Great banquet to John Bright . . 30 Oct. 

Meeting of Royal Agricultural Society of Ire- ^ 

land 27 Aug. 1867 

Two policemen shot (probabl}^ by Fenians), 

31 Oct. „ 

Funeral demonstration for Allen, Gould, and 
Larkin, the Fenians ... 8 Dec. ,, 

Visit of prince of Wales (see Ireland) 15 April, 1868 



1864 



1 866 



State trial of Wm. Smith O'Brien and Meagher 

in Dublin 15 May, „ 

[These persons were afterwards tried at Clon- 

mel, and found guilty.] 
Trial of Mitchell ; guilty . . .26 May, ,, 
"Irish Felon," newspaper first published, i July, „ 
" Nation " and " Irish Felon" suppressed, 

29 July, ,, 
Conviction of O'Doherty . . .1 Nov. ,, 
The queen visits Dublin ... 6 Aug. 1849 
Royal exchange opened as a city hall, 30 Sept. 1852 
Dublin industrial exhibition, which owed its 

existence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced 

8o,oooZ. for the purpose, was erected by Mr. 

(afterwards sir) John Benson, in the Dublin 

society's grounds, near Merrion-square. It 

consisted of one large and two smaller halls, 

lighted from above. It was opened by earl 

St. Germains, the lord-lieutenant, 12 May, 1853 
Visited by the queen and prince Albert, 30 

Aug. ; and closed on ... i Nov. ,, 
Acts passed to establish a national gallery, 

museum, <&c. . 10 Aug. 1854 >" and 2 July, 1855 
Arrival of lord Eg;linton— disgraceful contest 

between the Trinity college students and the 

police.; the latter severely blamed, 12 March, 1858 
Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel 

M'Manus 10-12 Nov. 1861 

Fine art exhibition proposed, 20 July, i860 ; 

opened by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of 

Carlisle, 24 May, 1861 ; visited by the prince 

DUBLIN, Akchbishopric of. It is supposed that the hishopric of Dublin was 
founded by St. Patrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in 1121, became archbishoi) in 1152. It 
■was united to Glendalagh in 1214. Geoi'ge Browne, an Augustine friar of London (deprived 
by queen Mary in 1554), was tire first Protestant archbishop. Dublin has two cathedrals, 
Christ Church, and St. Patrick's. The revenue was valued, in the king's books, 30 Hen. VIII. 
at 534^. 15s. 2cl, Irish. Kildare, on its last avoidance, was annexed to Duiilin, 1846 ; see 
Bisliops. 

DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by dukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus, 
governor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia, 1140. 3io Cange, 
Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in 1240. 

DUCKING-STOOL ; see CucMng-stool. 

DUELLING took its rise from the judicial combats of the Celtic nations. The first duel 
in England, William count of Eu and Godfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in civil 
matters was forbidden in France, 1305. Francis I. challenged' the emperor Charles V. 1528. 
The fight with small swords was introduced into England, 29 Eliz. 1587. Proclamation that 
no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Char. II. 1679.* Duelling 
was checked in the army, 1792 ; and has been almost abolished in England, by the infiuence 
of public opinion, aided by the prince consort. A society "for the discouraging of dueUiug " 
was established in 1845 ; see Battel, Wager of, and Combat. 

Lord Townshend wounded lord BeUamont, i Feb. 1773 
Comte d'Ai-tois wounded by due de Bourbon, 

21 March, 1778 
Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson ; the latter 

killed 13 Nov. 1779 

Charles James Fox wounded by Mr. Adam, 

30 Nov. „ 
Col. FuUerton wounded lord Shelburne, 

22 March, 1780 
Rev. Mr. Allen killed Lloyd Dulany 18 June, 1782 
Col. Thomas killed by col. Gordon . 4 Sept. 1783 

1763 Lord Macartney wounded by maj.-gen. Stuart, 
1761; 8 June, 1786 



MEMORABLE DUELS. 

Between the duke of Hamilton and lord 
Mohun, fought .... 15 Nov. 

[This duel was fought with small swords, in 
Hyde-park. Lord Mohun was killed upon 
the spot, and the duke expired of his wounds 
as he was being cai-ried to his coach.] 

Capt. Peppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed . 

Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former kUled . 

Mr. S. Martin wounded Mr. Wilkes, M.P., 

16 Nov. 

Lord Byron killed Mr. Chaworth . 26 Jan. 



f' * «^g many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand climacteric." — Sir J. 
Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded ; 
in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sentence of 
the law, Hamilton. 



DUE 



249 



DUM 



DUELLING, continued. 

Mr. M'Keon murdered George N. Eeynolds, 

1787 ; executed .... 16 Feb. 1788 

Mr. Purefoy killed col. Koper . . . Dec. „ 
Duke of York and col. Lenox, aft. duke of Rich- 
mond (for an insignificant cause) 26 May, 1789 
Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrea : sir 

George killed 1790 

Mr. Curran and major Hobart . . i April, ,, 
Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed, 

4 June, „ 
Mr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the 

former severely wounded . . 25 June, ,, 
Mr. Anderson killed Mr. Stevena . 20 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Julius killed Mr. Graham . . 19 July, 1791 
Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatahty, 

I March, 1792 
Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert; no 

fatality 9 June, „ 

M. de Chauvigny wounded Mr. Lameth 8 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Carpenter killed by Mr. Pride . 20 Aug. 1796 
Lord Valentia wounded by Mr. Gawler, 28 June, ,, 
Wm. Pitt and Geo. Tiemey . . 27 May, ,, 
Henry Grattan wounded Isaac Corry . 15 Jan. 1800 
Lieut. Willis killed major Impey . 26 Aug. 1801 

George Ogle and Bernard Coyle ; no fatality . 1802 
Su- Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir 

Richard wounded .... 8 June, ,, 
Capt. Mac Namara killed Col. Montgomery, 

6 April, 1803 
General Hamilton and colonel Aaron Burr; 
the general killed, greatly lamented (in 

America) 1804 

Capt. Best killed Id. Camelford 6(died 10) March „ 
Surgeon Fisher killed lieut. Torrens, 22 March, 1806 
Baron Hompesch wounded Mr. Richardson, 

21 Sept. ,, 
Sir Francis Burdett and Mr. Paull ; both 

wounded 5 May, 1807 

Mr. Alcock killed Mr. Colclough ; and lost his 

reason 8 June, ,, 

M. de Granpree and M. Le Pique, in balloons, 

near Paris, and the latter killed . 3 May, 1808 
Major Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter 

murdered (former hanged, 2 Oct. 1808), 

23 June, „ 
Lord Paget and captain Cadogan; neither 

wounded 30 May, i8og 

Lord Castlereagh wounded Geo. Canning, 

22 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Clarke killed George Payne . 6 Sept. iSio 
Ensign de Balton killed capt. Boardman, 

4 March, 1811 
Lieut. Stewart killed lieut. Bagnal . 7 Oct. 1812 
Mr. Edward Maguire killed lieut. Blundell, 

9 July, 1813 
Captain Stackpole (of "Statira" frigate) and 



lieut. Cecil ; the captain killed (arose on ac- 
count of words spoken four years previously), 

April, 1 8 14 
Mr. D. O'Connell killed Mr. D'Bsterre . i Feb. 1815 
Colonel Queiitin and colonel Palmer . 7 Feb. ,, 
Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel; an affair, no 

meeting 31 Aug. ,, 

Major Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the 

latter killed, greatly lamented . . , 1816 
Lieut. Conroy killed lieut, Hindes 8 March, 1817 
Major Lookyer killed Mr. John Sutton, 10 Dec. ,, 
Mr. O'Callaghan killed lieut. Bayley 12 Jan. 1818 
Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . 7 June, 1820 

Mr. Henshaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both despe- 
rately wounded . . . .18 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Christie killed Mr. Scott . . 16 Feb. 1 821 

M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont . . 9 April, „ 
Mr. Jas. Stuart kiUed Sir Alexander Boswell, 

26 March, 1822 
The duke of Buckingham and the duke of 

Bedford ; no fatality ... 2 May, ,, 
Gen. Pep^ wounded gen. Carascosa 28 Feb. 1823 
Mr. Westall killed capt. Gourlay . . . . 1824 
Mr. Beaumont and Mr. Lambton ; no result, 

I July, 1826 
Mr. Hayes killed Mr. Brie . . .26 Dec. ,, 
Rev. Mr. Hodson wounded Mr. Grady Aug. 1827 
Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchilsea ; 

no injury 21 March, 1829 

Capt. Helsham killed lieut. Crowther i April, ,, 
Mr. W. Lambrecht killed Mr. 0. Clayton 8 Jan. 1830 
Capt. Smith killed JMr. O'Grady 18 March, ,, 

Mr. Storey wounded Mr. Mathias . 22 Jan. 1S33 
Sir John W. Jeflfcott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter 

wounded, and died on the i8th . 10 May, ,, 

Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell; 2 

shots each 4 May, 1835 

Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; no 

fataUty 29 May, „ 

Mr. Roebuck, 51. P. , and Mr. Black, editor of the 

" Morning Chronicle ;" 2 shots each 19 Nov. ,, 
Capt. Dickson wounded gen. Evans 8 April, 1836 
Mr. Riithven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven 
and Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second); the latter 

wounded 23 May, ,, 

The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuokett ; 

2 shots each ; the latter wounded (for this 

the earl was tried in the house of lords and 

acquitted, 16 Feb. 1841) . . 12 Sept. 1840 

Captain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley ; no 

fatality 15 July, 1842 

Lieut. Munroe killed colonel Fawcett 

I (died 3) July, 1843 
Lieut. Hawkey killed lieut. Seton . 2oMaj, 1845 
Due de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dillon 
at Paris, for a newspaper attack , Oct. 1862 



DUKE, Latin dux, a leader. In England, during Saxon times, the commanders of 
armies were called dukes, duces. Camden. In Genesis xxxvi. some of Esau's descendants 
are termed duJces. Duke-duke was a title given to the house of Sylvia, in Spain, on account 
of its possessing many duchies. 



Edward the Black Prince made duke of Corn- 
wall 17 March, 1337 

Robert de Vere was created marquess of Dub- 
lin and dv.ke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II. . . . 1385 

Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, 



duke of Rothesay, a title which afterwards 
belonged to the king's eldest son, 1398, and 
is now borne by the jsrincc of Wales. 
Cosmo de JMedici created grand-duke of Tus- 
cany, the first of the rank, by pope Pius V. . 1569 



DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey) called God's-gift College, founded by Edward AlleJ^l, 
an eminent comedian, was completed and solemnly opened 13 Sept. 1619. Alleyn was its 
first master, and died in 1626. In 16S6 Wm. Cartwright, an actor, gave a library and some 
portraits, and on 20 Dec. 1810 sir Francis Bourgeois bequeathed his collection of pictures, 
the gallery for which was erected by sir John Soane, and opened in 1812. Sir Francis died 
8 Jan. 181 1. In 1857, an act was passed by which the college was reconstituted. Two 
schools were established ; and the.numbcr of the almspeople increased. In 1S60 the annual 
income was 11,482?. New school buildings founded 26 June, i865. 

DUMB, see Deaf and Duml. 

DUMBLANE or Dunblake (Perth), near which took place a conflict called the battle of 



DUjST 250 DUP 

Sheriifmuir, between tlie royalist army under the duke of Argyle, aud the Scots rebels under* 
the earl of Mar, 13 Kov. 17 15. Both claimed the victory. 

DUNBAR (Haddington). Here the Scottish army and king John Baliol were defeated 
by Warrenne, earl of Surrey, and Scotland was subdued, 27 April, 1296. Here also 
Cromwell obtained a signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Char. II. 3 Sept. 1650. 

DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by Alexander Pope, was published in 1728. 

DTJNDALK (Louth, Ireland). In 13 18, at Foughard near this place, was defeated and 
slain Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 13 15. The walls and fortifications of 
Dundalk were destroyed in 164 1. It was taken by Cromwell in 1649. The first cambric 
manufacture in Ireland was established in this town by artisans from France in 1727. 

DUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The site was given by "William the Lion (reigned 
1 165— 12 14), to his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, who built or strengthened the 
castle, and erected a large church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, still remains. The 
town was taken by the English in 1385 ; pillaged by Montrose, 1645 ; stormed by Monk in 
1651 ; and was visited by queen Victoria in 1844, It has thriven since 1815, through its 
extensive linen manufactories ; at one of these (Edwards's) a steam explosion took place on 
15 April, 1859, when twenty persons were killed. Claverhouse, viscount Dundee (killed 
1689), had a house here. The Baxter park, the gift of sir David Baxter, was opened by 
earl Russell, 9 Sept. 1863. The British association met here, 4 Sept. 1867. Population in 
1861, 90,425. 

DUNES, see DunhirJc. 

DUNGAN-PIILL (Ireland). Here the English army, commanded by colonel Jones, 
signally defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain, while the loss on tlie 
side of the English was inconsiderable, 8 Aug. 1647. 

DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric by Da-^-id I. in 1127 ; the ancient Culdee 
church, founded by king Constantine III., becoming the cathedral. The beautiful bridge 
over the Tay, erected by Thos. Telford, was opened in 1809. 

DUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th century, was taken by the Spaniards, 
Sept. 1652, and retaken from them by the English and French (after Turenne's victory over 
them under Conde on the dmies (or sands), 14 June, 1658, and put into the hands of the 
English, 25 June folloAving. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000?. to Louis XIV., 17 Oct. 
1662. Dunkirk Avas one of the best fortified i3orts in the kingdom ; but all the works were 
demolished in conformity with the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The French resumed the 
works, but they were ordered to be demolished at the peace of 1763 ; but in 1783 they were 
again resumed. The English attempted to besiege Dunkirk ; but the Duke of York was 
defeated by Hoche, and forced to retire with loss, 7 Sept. 1793. It was made a free port 
in 1816. 

DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of the manor (made by Robert Fitz-Walter, 
1244), "that whatever married couple will go to the priory, and kneeling on two sharp- 
pointed stones, will swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented of their marriage 
within a year and a day after its celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." * 

DUNSE (S. Scotland). Here on 18 June, 1639, by treaty between the Scots commission 
and Charles I., their demands were acceded to, and they agreed to disband their army. 
Disputes arose, and the treaty was not carried into effect. 

DUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hUl was foiight the battle between JMacbeth the 
thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northumberland, 27 July, 1054. Edward the Con- 
fessor had sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father Duncan, the thane and 
usurper had murdered. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumphanan, 
in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 1057. 

DUPES (day of), 11 Nov. 1630, when Richelieu energetically and adroitly frustrated 
the plan for his ruin, formed by the queen Marie de Medicis and Gaston, duke of Orleans, 
and others, during the king's illness. 

DUPPEL or Dtbbol. See under Lenmarlc, 1864. 

DUPPLIN (Perthshire). Here Edward Balliol and his English allies totally defeated 
the Scots under the earl of Mar, li Aug. 1332, and obtained the crown for three months. 

* The earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, since when to 1855 it had only been 
demanded five times. The last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shakeshanks and his wife 
20 June, 1751 ; they made a large sum by selling slices of the flitch to witnesses of the ceremony 
(5000 persons). On ig July, 1855, flitches were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chipping- Ongar, and 
the Chevalier Chatelaine and his lady. The lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. Harrison 
Ainsworth, the novelist, aud some friends, defrayed the expense, and superintended the ceremonials. A 
flitch was awarded in i860. 



DUR 



251 



DYE 



DUKBAK, an East Indian tenn for an audience-chamber or reception. On i8 Oct. 
1864, a most remarkable durbar was held at Lahore by the vicero}"- of India^ sir John Law- 
rence, at which 604 of the most illustrious princes and chieftains of the north-west province 
were present, magnificently clothed. Similar ones were held in 1866 and 1867. 

DURHAM, an ancient city, the DicnJiohne of the Saxons, and Dureme of the Normans. 
The BiSHOPPJC was removed to Durham from Chester-le-street in 995 ; whither it had been 
transferi'cd from Liudisfarne or Holy Island, on the coast of Northumberland, in 634, in 
consequence of the invasion of the Danes. The bones of St. Cuthbert, the sixth bishoi), 
were brought from LindisFarue, and interred in Durham cathedral. The palatine privileges, 
granted to the bishop by the Danish Northumbrian prince Guthrum, Avere taken by the 
crown in June 1836. Durham was ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland in 1070, and was occu- 
pied by the Northumbrian rebels in 1569; and by the Scots in 1640. In 1650 Cromwell 
quartered his Scotch prisoners in the cathedral. Near Durham on 12 (or 17) Oct. 1346, was 
foirght the decisive battle of N^eville's cross {icliich see). This see, deemed the richest in 
England, was valued in the king's books at 2S21Z. Present income, 8000/. 



1826. Wm. Van Mildert (the last prince-bishop); died 

21 Feb. 1836. 
1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856 ; died 3 July, 

1859, awed 90. 
1856. Chaiies^Thomas Longley ; became abp. of York, 

May, i860. 
i860. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (trans, from Carlisle); 

died 10 Aug. 1861. 
1861. Charles Baring (presekt bishop). 



College founded in 1290 ; abolished at the 
Reformation, in 1657 

Cromwell established a college, which was sup- 
pressed at the Restoration, 1660 ; present 
C^jiivr/'si^y established in 1S31, opened in 1S33, 
and chartered in . . . , . . 1837 

Certain reformed ordinances, recommended by 
a commission, set aside in 1863 

BISHOPS. 

1791. Hon. Shute Barrington, died in 1826. 

DURHAM LETTER, see Papal Aggression. DUTCH REPUBLIC, see Holland. 

DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed by Tarquin the Proud 520 B.C. to take 
care of the books of the Sibyls, Avhich were supposed to contain the fate of the Roman em- 
pire. The books were placed in the Capitol, and secured in a chest under the ground. The 
number'of keepers was increased to ten (tlie Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to lifteen; the 
added five called quinque viri. 

DWARFS : Ancient. Philetas of Cos, distinguished about 330 B.C., as a poet and 
grammarian, is said to have carried weights in his pockets, to prevent his being blown away. 
He was preceptor to Ptolemy Philadelphus. ^lian. Julia, niece of Augustus, liad a 
dwarf named Coropas, two feet and a hand's breadth high ; and Andromeda, a freed-maid of 
Julia's, was of the same height. Pliny. Aug. Cresar exhibited in his plays a man not two 
feet in stature. Sucton. Alypius of Alexandria, a logician and philosopher, was but one 
foot five inches and a half high ; "he seemed to be consumed into a kiud of divine nature." 
Vos. Inslit. 

bom in Nov. 1739. His growth was at one year 
of age, 14 inches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 
inches ; and at thirty, 39. He had a sister, named 
Anastasia, seven years younger than himself, and 
so much shorter that she could stand under his 
arm. He visited many of the courts of Europe, 
and died in England in 1837. 
Charles Strattou (termed general Tom Thumb), an 
American, was exhibited in England, 1846. In 
Feb. 1863, in Xew Yoi'k, when 25 years old and 31 
inches high, he married Lavinia Warren, aged 21, 
32 inches high. He, his wife, and child, and com- 
modore Nutt, another dwarf, came to England in 
Dec. 1864, and remained there some time. 



Modern Dwarfs. — John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was 

brought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he 

was 35 years of age, having a long beard. He was 

skilled in languages, and not more than three feet 

high. 
Jeffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, "when a youth of 

18 inches high, was served up to table in a cold 

pie, before the king and queen, by the duchess of 

Buckingham, in 1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts 

to fight a duel, but the latter came armed with a 

squirt. At another meeting the dwarf shot his 

antagonist dead, 1653. 
Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great ac- 
complishments and elegant manners, well known 

in England, where he resided many years, was 

DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 1500 b.c. The English sent their goods to 
be dyed in Holland, till the art was brought to them in 160S. "Two dyers of Exeter were 
flogged for teaching their art in the north " (of England), 1628. A statute against abuses in 
dyeing passed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved by chemical research. A dis- 
covery of Dr. Stenhouse in 1848, led to M. Marnas procuring viauve from lichens; and Dr. 
Hofmann's production of aniline from coal-tar, has led to the invention of a number of 
beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta red, Sac); see Aniline. 



EAG 



252 



EAR 



E. 



EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and current in tlie first years 
of Edward I. about 1272 ; was so named from the figure impressed upon it. The American 
gold coinage of eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began 6 Dec. 1792 ; an eagle is of the 
value of 10 dollars, or about two guineas. — The standard of the eagle was borne by the Per- 
sians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Eomaus carried gold and silver eagles as ensigns, and. some- 
times represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, on the p)oint of a spear, 102 B.C. 
Charlemagne added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of 
Eome and Germany were united in him, a.d. 802. The eagle was the standard of Napoleon 
I., and is that of Napoleon III. ; as well as of Austria, Russia, and Prussia ; see KnigJdhood. 

EARL, or 'co7nes, introduced at the conquest, superseded, the Saxon ealdorman, and con- 
tinued the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes in 1337 and 135 1, and 
Richard II. created marquesses (1385), both above earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a 
substitute for king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of Hereford by "William the 
Conqueror, ic66. Gilchrist was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by king Malcolm III. 
in 1037. Sir John de Courcy created baron of Kingsale and earl of Ulster in Ireland, by 
Henry II. 1181. 



Eael Maeischal of Scotland was an officer who 
commanded tlie cavalry, whereas the constable 
commanded the whole army; but they seem to 
have had a joint command, as all orders were ad- 
dressed to "our constable and marischal." The 
office was never out of the Keith family. It was 
reserved at the Union, and when the heritable 
jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to the 
crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George 
Keith, earl marischal, in 1715. 



Eael Maeshal of England, the eighth great officer 
of state. This office, until it was made hereditary, 
always passed by grant from the king. Gilbert de 
Clare was created lord marshal by king Stephen, 
1135. The last lo7-d marshal was John Fitz-AUan, 
lord Maltravers. Camden. Richard II. in 1397 
granted letters patent to the earl of Nottingham 
by the style of earl marshal. In 1672, Charles II. 
granted to Henry lord Howard the dignity of 
hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's court 
was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.) 

EARRINGS were worn by Jacob's children, 1732 B.C. [Gen. sxxv. 4). 

EARTH, see Globe. EARTHENWARE, see Pottery. 

EARTHQUAKES. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were produced by subter- 
raneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, 435 
B.C. Diog. Lacrt. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, siipposed that there were many vast 
cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound 
with waters, others with exhalations, arising from iuliammable substances, as nitre, bitumen, 
sulfthur, &c. Dr. Stukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed earthquakes to electricity. It 
appears probable that steam generated by subterraneous heat contributes to occasion them. 
An elaborate Catalogue of Earthqiiakes, (from B.C. 1606 to a.d. 1842) with commentaries on 
the phenomena, by R. and J. W. Mallet, was published by the British Association in 1858. 
In i860 the velocity of their propagation was estimated by Mr. J. Brown at between 470 
and 530 feet per second*. 

At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and 

thousands perished a.d. 

In Africa ; many cities overturned . . . 
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more 
than 500 towns were destroyed, and the loss 
of hfe surpassed all calculation 
In Prance. Germany, and Italy . . . . 
Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken 
One felt throughout England .... 10B9 
One at Antioch; many towns destroyed, among 

them Mariseum and Mamistria . . . . 1114 
Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 per- 
sons buried in tbe ruins 1137 

One severely felt at Lincoln 1142 

In Syria, (fee, 20,000 perished .... 1158 
At Calabria : one of its cities and all its inhabi- 
tants overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea Sept. 1186 

In Cilicia, 60,000 perished 1268 

One again felt throughout England; Glaston- 
bury destroyed 1274 

In England ; the greatest known there, 14 Nov. 1318 



One which made Euboea an island . .B.C. 425 
Helice and Bura in Peloponnesus swallowed up 373 
The chasm in the Boman Forum into which 
Quintus Curtius leaped, was 'prohably an 

earthquake 364 

Duras, in Greece, buried, with all its inhabi- 
tants ; and 12 cities in Campania also buried 345 
Lysimachia and its inhabitants buried about . 283 
Ephesus and other cities overturned . a.d. 37 
One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius ; 
the cities of Pompeii and Heroulaneum 

buried yg 

Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in 
Galatia overturned .... 105 or 106 

Antioch destroyed 115 

Nicomedia, Cffisarea, and Nicea overturned . . 126 
In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and 

towns damaged 157 

Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabi- 
tants buried in its ruins 358 

One felt by nearly the whole world . . , 543 



557 
560 



742 
8or 
936 



* Mrs. Somerville states that about 255 earthquakes have occurred in the British Isles ; all slight. To 
avoid the effects of a shock predicted by a madman, for the 8th of April, 1750, thousands of persons, 
particularly those of rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in their carriages and in tents in 
Hyde-park. 



EAR 



253 



EAR 



EARTHQUAKES, continued. 

At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished . 5 Dec. 1456 
Constantinople; thousands perished 14 Sept. 1509 
At Lisbon; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons 
bm-ied in the ruins ; several neighbouring 

towns engulfed 26 Feb. 1531 

One felt in London ; part of St. Paul's and the 

Temple churches fell . . .6 April, 1580 
In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thou- 
sands perish .... 2 July, 1596 
In Naples ; 30 towns or villages ruined ; 17,000 

lives lost 30 July, 1626 

Awful one at Calabi-ia ... 27 March, 1638 
Ragusa ruined ; 5000 xjerished . . 6 April, 1667 
At Schamaki, lasted 3 months ; 80,000 perished ,, 
At Rimini ; above 1500 perished . 14 Api'il, 1672 
One severely felt at Dublin, ifec. . 17 Oct. 1690 
One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port 
Royal, whose houses were engulfed 40 fathoms 
deep, and 3000 perished . . 7 June, 1692 

One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and 
towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 
18,000 inhabitants, not a trace remained ; 
more than 100,000 lives were lost . Sept. 1693 
Aquila, in Italy, ruined ; 5000 perished, 2 Feb. 1703 
Jeddo, Japan, ruined ; 200,000 perished . . ,, 
In the Abruzzi ; 15,000 perished. . 3 Nov. 1706 
At Algiers ; 20,000 perished . May & June 1716 
Palenno nearly destroyed; nearly 6000 lives 

lost I Sept. 1726 

Again in China ; and 100,000 people jswallowed 

up at Pekin 30 Nov. 1731 

In Naples, &c. ; 1940 perished . . 29 Nov. 1732 
Lima and Callao demolished; 18,000 persons 

buried in the ruins .... 28 Oct. 1746 
In London, (fee, a slight shock . 19 Feb. 1750 
Port an Prince, St. Domingo, i-uined 21 Nov. 1751 
Adrianople nearly overwhelmed . 29 July, 1752 
At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 
persons swallowed up . , . . Sept. 1754 

Quito destroyed April, 1755 

Kaschan, N. Persia, destroyed ; 40,000 perished, 

7 June, 175s 
Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight 
minutes most of the houses and upwards of 
50,000 inhabitants were swallowed up, and 
whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, 
Oporto, and Braga, suffered dreadfully, and 
St. Ubes was wholly overturned. In Spain, 
a large part of Malaga became ruins. One 
half of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 
more than 12,000 Arabs perished there. 
Above half of the island of Madeira became 
waste ; and 2000 houses in the island of Mete- 
line, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. 
This awful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; 
even to Scotland . . . . i Nov. ,, 
Comorn, Pesth, ifec, much damaged, 28 June, 1763 
In Syria, e.Ktended over 10,000 square miles ; 
Balbec destroyed ; here 20,000 pei-ished, 

30 Oct. 1759 
AtMartinico; 1600 persons perished . Aug. 1767 
At Guatemala ; Santiago, with its inhabitants, 

swallowed up 7 June, 1773 

A destructive one at Smyrna . 3 July, 1778 

At Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and 

multitudes buried 1780 

Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily 

overthrown ; thousands perished . 5 Feb. 1783 
Ezinghian, near Erzeroum ; destroyed, and 

5000 persons buried in its ruins . 23 July, 1784 
St. Lucia, W. Indies ; goo perished . 12 Oct. 1788 
At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and 

1000 persons swallowed ip . .30 Sept. 1789 
In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 

Torre del Greco June, 1794 

The whole country between Santa F6 and 
Panama destroyed, including Cusco and 



Quito ; 40,000 people buried in one second, 

4 Feb. 1797 
Cumana, S. America, ruined . . 14 Dec. ,, 
At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal 

palace, and many buildings . 26 Sept. 1800 

From Cronstadt to Constantinople . 26 Oct. 1802 
A violent one felt in Holland . end of Jan. 1804 
At Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost 26 July, 1805 
At the Azores ; a village of St. Michael's sunk, 
and a lake of boiling water appeared in its 

place II Aug. 1810 

Awful one at Caracas {which see) . 26 March, 1812 
Several throughout India ; district of Kutch 

sunk; 2000 persons buried . 16 June, 1819 
Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 

greatly damaged ; thousands perish . . „ 

Aleppo destroyed ; above 20,000 perish ; shocks 

on . . . 10 & 13 Aug., and 5 Sept. 1822 
Coast of Chili peiTaanently raised . 19 Nov. ,, 
In Spain; Mercia and numerous villages devas- 
tated ; 6000 persons perish . 21 March, 1S29 
Canton and neighbourhood; above 6000 pe- 
rished 26 & 27 May, 1830 

In the duchy of Parma; 40 shocks at Bor- 
gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many houses 

thrown down 14 Feb. 1834 

Concepcion, <&c., in Chili; destroyed 20 Feb. 1835 
In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed; 

1000 persons buried ... 29 April, 1835 
In Calabria ; 100 perish at Castiglione, 12 Oct. „ 
At Martinique ; nearly half of Port Royal de- 
stroyed ; nearly 700 persons killed, and the 
whole island damaged . . . 11 Jan. 1839 
At Temate ; the island made a waste, and 

thousands of lives lost . . 14 Feb. 1840 
Awful and destructive earthquake at mount 
Ararat, in one of the districts of Armenia ; 
3137 houses were overthrown, and several 
hundred persons x^erished . -27 July, ,, 
Great earthquake at Zante, where many per- 
sons ijerished 30 Oct. ,, 

At CapeHaytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed 
nearly two-thirds of the town ; between 4000 
and 5000 lives were lost . . 7 May, 1842 
At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was en- 
tirely destroyed . . . . 8 Feb. 1843 
At Rhodes and Maori, when a mountain fell in 
at the latter i^lace, crushing a village, and 
destroying 600 persons . 28 Feb. — 7 March, 1851 
At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses 

were destroyed . . . .2 April, „ 

In South Italy ; Melfi. almost laid in ruins ; 

14,000 lives lost .... 14 Aug. „ 
At Philippine isles ; Manilla iujiu-ed, 

16—30 Sept. 1852 
In N.W. of England, slight . . .9 Nov. „ 
Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed 18 Aug. 1853 
St. Salvador, 8. America, destroyed 16 April, 1854 
Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphou, 

destroyed ; Jeddo much mjured . 23 Dec. ,, 
Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed 28 Feb. 1855 
Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 

25, 26 July, „ ■ 
Jeddo, Japan, nearly destroyed . 11 Nov. ,, 

At the island of Great Sanger, one of the 
Moluccas, volcanic eruption and earthquake ; 
nearly 3000 lives lost . . .2 March, 1856 
In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 Uves lost ; 

Rhodes, 100; and other islands, 150 12 Oct. ,, 
In Calabria,* Jlonteniurro and other towns de- 
stroyed, and about 10,000 Uves lost 16 Dec. 1857 
Corinth nearly destroyed . . 21 Feb. 1858 

At Quito ; about 5000 i)ersons killed, and an 
immense amount of property destroyed, 

22 March, 1859 
Erzeroum, Asia Minor ; thousands perished, 

2 June — 17 July ,, 



* In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, at least, 111,000 inhabitants 
by the effects of earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, out of an average population of 6,000,000 ! 



EAR 



254 



EAS 



of property ; about 10,000 persons perish, 

2, 3 July, 
Central, west, and north-west of England, at 

3 h. 22 m. A.M. 6 Oct. 

At Macchia, Bendinella, <fec., Sicily ; 200 

houses destroyed, 64 persons killed, 18 July, 

Slight earthquake near Tours and Blois, in 

France 14 Sept. 

Argostoli, Cephalonia ; ahove 50 perished, 

4 Feb, 
At Mitylene ; about 1000 killed, 8, 9 March, 
Djocja, Java ; above 400 perished ; town de- 
stroyed TO June, 



1865 
1866 
1867 



EARTHQUAKES, continued. 

At San Salvador; many buildings destroyed, 
no lives lost 8 Dec. 1859 

In Cornwall, slight, . 21 Oct. 1859; 13 Jan. i860 

In Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost 8 May, 1861 

At Mendoza, South America ; about two-thirds 
of the city and 7000 lives lost . 20 March, ,, 

In Greece ; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places 
injured 26 Dec. „ 

Guatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 chiu-ches de- 
stroyed 19 Dec. 1862 

Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 per- 
sons perished, and much cattle and property 
lost 22 April, 1863 

Manilla, Philippine isles; immense desti'uction 

EAST ANGLES, the sixtli kingdom of the Heptarchj', was commenced by TJfFa, 575, 
and ended with Ethelbert in 792 ; see Britain. The bishop's see foimded by St. Felix, who 
converted the East Angles in 630, was eventually settled at Norwich {which see), in 1094. 

EASTER, instituted about 68, the festival observed by the church in commemoration of 
Our Saviour's resurrection, so called in England from the Saxon goddess JSostre. After much 
contention between the eastern and western churches it was ordained by the council of Nice, 
325, to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. " Easter-day 
is the Sunday following that fourteenth day of the calendar moon which happens upon or 
next after the 21st March : so that, if the said fourteenth day be a Sunday, Easter-day is 
not that Sunday but the next." Easter-day may be any day of the five weeks which com- 
mence with March 22 and end with April 25. The dispute between the old British church 
and the new Anglo-Saxon church respecting Easter was settled about 664.' — Easter Sunday^ 
1868, 12 April; 1869, 28 March; 1870, 17 April; 1871, 9 Ai>riL 

EASTER ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, was discovered by Davis in 1686; it was visited 
by Roggewein, in 1 722, and from him obtained the name it now bears ; it was visited by 
captain Cook, in 1774. At the south-east extremity is the crater of an extinguished volcano, 
about two miles in circuit and 800 feet deep. 

EASTERN (or GREEK) Church, see Greek Church. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. After the death of the Emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals 
at Nice elected Valentinian as his successor : in June, he made his brother Valens emperor 
of the West. The eastern empire ended with the capture of Constantinople, and death of 
Constantiue XIIL, 29 May, 1453; see Turkey. 



Nestorius, the bishop, nominated the first 

patriarch of Constantinople . . 9 July, 381 
Theodosius X. the Great, succours Valentinian 
II. , the western emperor, and defeats the ty- 
rant Maximus, at Aquileia . . . . 388 
Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, 

who makes Eugenius emperor . . . . 392 
Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, 

who re-unites the two empires . 6 Sept. 394 
Death of Theodosius; the era-ph-e finally divided 
between his sons — Arcadius receives the east, 
Eonorius the west . . . . 17 Jan. 39s 
Constantinople walled by Theodosius II. . 413 

Alai'ic the Goth begins to ravage the empire . „ 
Violent religious dissensions ; Theodosius II. 

establishes schools, and revives learning . 425 
The Theodosian code promulgated . . . 438 
The councils of Ephesus, 431, 449; of Chalcedon, 451 
Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the 
Blues and Greens, circus factions at Constan- 
tinople 498-520 

The Justinian code published .... 529 
War with Persia ; beginning of the victorious 

career of BeUsarius, the imperial general 529-531 
He suppresses the " Nika " (" conquer ") insur- 
rection of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greens 
slain, and Constantinople burnt . . . 532 

Dedication of St. Sophia 537 

Victories of Bel isarius in Africa, Italy, and the 

East 533-541 

Eecalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542 ; 

again, 548 ; again, 549 : disgraced . . .562 
Beginning of the Turkish power in Asia . . 545 
The Slavonians ravage lUyria .... 551 
Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome 552 
Death of Belisarius, aged 84 ; of Justinian, (83) . 565 



Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East, 

579 et seq. 
Disaffection of Narses .... 561 

Severe contests with the Avars . . . 594-620 
Narses burnt at Constantinople . . . 606 

The flight (Hejra) of Mahomet from Mecca to 
Medina, where he estabhshes himself as a 
prophet and prince ... 16 July, 622 
Victorious career of Heraclius II. . . 622 et seg. 
He recovers his lost territories . ... 627 
The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat 
Heraclius at Aiznadin, 633 ; at Yermuk, 636 ; 
take Alexandria, 640 ; and the Greek pro- 
vinces in Africa, 648 ; Constaus purchases 
peace with them '. . . . ■ . . 660 
They besiege Constantinople seven times 672-677 
The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia 
(now Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country 

up to Constantinople 711 

The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 

718 ; defeated 720 

Leo III. the Isaurian, forbids the worship of 
images : (this leads to the Iconoclast contro- 
versy, and eventually to the separation of the 
eastern and western churches) . . . . 726 
A great invading Arab force (90,000) defeated 

by Acronius 739 

The monasteries dissolved 770 

Destruction of images throughout the empire 
decreed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the 
empress Irene (for which she was canonized) 787 
The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; 

Dalmatia, 825 ; SicUy and Crete . . . 827 
Image-worship persecuted, 830 : restored, 842 ; 
forbidden at Constantinople by one council, 
869 ; restored by another 879 



EAS 



255 



EAS 



9S7, 



EASTERN EMPIRE, continued. 

South Italy annexed to the empire . 

Five empcroi-s reigning at one time 

Naples added to the empire 

Basil subdues the Bulgarians 

Bulgaria annexed to the empire 

The Turks invade Asia Minor . . . . 

The Normans conquer South Italy 

The first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia . . 

The Venetians victorious over the Greeks 

The Hiingarians repelled, 1152 ; peace made 
with the Normans in Sicily .... 

"Wars with the Turks and the Venetians . . 

Cyprus lost to the empire 

The fourth crusade begins 

Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the 
crusaders take Constantinople, and restore 
Isaac and his son Alexis IV. . . 19 July, 

Alexis Bucas naurders Alexis IV. aiid usurps the 
throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople, 
kill Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, 
under Baldwin, count of Flanders, 9 llay, 

Kingdom of Epirus and jEtolia established 

Constantinople recovered, and the empire re- 
established by Slichael iPalieologus, 25 July, 

Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, 
under Othman I 

The Genoese trade in the Black sea . . . 



1014 
1018 
1068 
loSo 
1097 
1125 

1156 
1172 
1190 
1202 



1204 
1208 



1299 
1303 



53 



1373 
1390 



The Turks ravage Mysia, &c., 1340 and 1345; 

and settle in the coast of Thrace . 
The sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and 

makes it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, 

greatly reduces the emperor's territories 
All the Greek possessions in Asia lost . . . 
Sultan Bajazet defeats the Christians under 

Sigismund of Hungary, at Nicopolis, 28 Sept. 1396 
The emperor Manuel vainly sohcits help from 

the western sovereigns 1400 

A Turkish pacha established at Athens . . 1401 
The Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 

1402 ; who subjugates the Turkish sultan, 

and dismembers his empire, 1403 ; death of 

Timour, on his way to Chma .... 1405 
Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall 

of Constivutinople, 1403-12; Mahomet I. aided 

by the emperor Manuel, becomes sultan . 141 3 
Amurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 

1422 ; peace made 1425 

John PaliBologus visits Rome and other places, 

soliciting help in vain .... 1437-40 
Accession of Constantine XIII., last emperor . 1448 
Accession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; begins the siege 

of Constantinople, 6 April ; takes it 29 May, 1453 
(He granted the Christians personal security 

and free exercise of their reUgion.) See 



EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. 



364. Valens. 

379. Theodosius I. the Great. 

395. Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 

408. Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 

450. Mareian, a Thracian of obscure family. 

457. Leo I. the Thracian. 

474. Leo the Younger, died the same year. 
,, Zeno, called the 7,*ni',rian. 

491. Anastasius I. an lUyrian, of mean birth. 

518. Justin I. originally a private soldier. 

527. Justinian I. founder of the Digest. 

565. Justin II. nephew of Justinian. 

578. Tiberius II. renowned for his virtues. 

582. Maurice, the Cappadocian : murdered with all 
his children, by his successor, 

602. Phocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose 
crimes and cruelties led to his own assas- 
sination in 610 

610. Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 

641. (Heracleouas) Constantine III. reigned a few 
months ; poisoned by his step-mother 
Martina. 
,, Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath. 

668. Constantine 111. (or IV.) Pogonatus. 

685. Justinian II. son of the preceding; abhon-ed 
for his exactions, debaucheries, and cruel- 
ties : dethroned and mutilated by his sue 
cessor, 

€95. Leontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 
Aspimar. 

698. Tiberius III. Aspimar. 

705. Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 
degraded in the Hippodrome, and put to 
death. Justinian slain in 711. 

711. Philippious-Bardanes : assassinated. 

713. Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theo- 
dosius in 716 ; afterwards deUvered up to 
Leo III. and put to death. 

716. Theodosius III. 

718. Leo III. the Isaurian. 

[In this reign (726) commences the great 
Iconoclastic controversy ; the alternate pro- 
hibition and restoration of images involves 
the peace of several reigns.] 

741. Constantine IV. (or V.) Copronymus, son of the 
preceding ; succeeded by his son, 

775. Leo IV. 

7S0. Constantine V. (or VI.) and his mother Irene. 

790. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 
Irene having become unpopular. 



I 792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and after- 
wards alone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties 
and murders, and exiled. 

802. Nicephorus I. sumamed Logothetes : slain. 

3ii. Staurachius : reigns a few days only. 
,, Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the 
throne, and retires to a monastery. 

813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at 
Constantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by 
conspirators in the interest of his successor, 

820. Slichael II. the Stammerer. 

829. Theophilus, son of Michael. 

842. Michael III. sumamed Porphyrogenitus, and 
the Sot, son of the preceding ; murdered by 
his successor, 

867. Basilius I. the Macedonian. 

886. Leo VI. styled the Philosopher. 

911. Alexander and Constantine VI. (or VII.) Por- 
phyrogenitus, brother and son of Leo, the 
latter only six years of age ; the former dying 
in 912, Zoe, mother of Constantine, assumes 
the regency. 

919. Romanus Lecapenus usurps the imperial 

power, and associates with him his sons : 

920. Christopher, and 

928. Stephen and Comstantine VII. (or VIII.) 

[Five emperors now reigTi : of these, Chris- 
topher dies in 931 ; Bomaniis is exiled by his 
sons Constantine and SteiDhen, who are 
themselves banished the next year.] 

945. Constantine VII. (or VIII.) reigns alone : 
poisoned by his daughter-in-law, Theo- 
phania, 959. 

959. Romanus II. son of the preceding : this mon- 
ster, who had contrived his father's death, 
banishes his mother, Helena. 

963. Nicephorus II. Phocas : marries Theophania, 
his predecessor's consort, who has him as- 
sassinated. 

969. John I. iJimisces, celebrated general ; takes 
BasiUus II. and Constantine VIII. (or IX.) 
sons of Romanus II. as colleagues ; John 
dies, supposed by poison, and 

976. Basihus II. and Constantine VIII. reign alone : 

the former dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. 
1028. Romanus III. Argyropulus ; poisoned by his 

profligate consort Zoe, who raises 
1034. Jlichael IV. the Paphlagonian, to the throne : 

on his death Zoe places 
1041. Michael V. surnamed Cal.aphates, as his sue- 



EAS 



256 



ECH 



Constantinople by the Latins, elected em- 
peror: made a prisoner by the king of 
Bulgaria, and never heard of afterwards. 

Henry I. his brother : dies in 1217. 

Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 

Eobert de Courtenay, his son. 

Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John de 
Briennc, of Jerusalem, regent and associate 
emperor. 

[Constantinople recovered, and the empire of 
the Franks or Latins terminates.] 

GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 

Theodore Lascaris. 
John Ducas Vataces. 
Theodore Lascaris II., his son, 
John Lascaris, and (1260) Michael VIII. Palaj- 
ologus. 

EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 

Michael VIII. now at Constantinople : he puts 
out the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 

Andronious II. Palaeologus the Elder, son of 
the preceding : deposed by 

Andronicus III. the Younger, his grandson. 

John Palffiologus, under the guardianship of 
John Cantaouzenus : the latter proclaimed 
emperor at Adrianople. 

John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 

John PaliSBologus, restored. v 

Manuel II. Palaiologus, his son : succeeded by 
his son and colleague, 

John Palseologus II. The throne claimed by 
his three brothers. 

Constantino Palseologus XII. (XIII. or XIV. 
some of the other emperors being called 
Constantine by some writers) killed, when 
Constantinople is taken, 29 May, 1453. 



EASTERN" EMPIRE, continued. 

cesser : Zoe dethrones him, has his eyes put 

out, and marries 
1042. Constantine IX. (or X.) Monomaehus, and Zoe 

reign jointly : Zoe dies in 1050. 1206. 

1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 1216. 

1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato : deposed. 1221. 

1057. Isaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. 1228, 
1059. Constantine X. (or XI.) Ducas. 
1067. Eudooia, consort of the preceding, and Ro- 

manus IV. sni-named Diogenes, whom she 1261 

marries, reign to the prejudice of Michael, 

Constantine's son. 
1071. Michael VII. Parapinaces, recovers his throne, 

and reigns jointly with Constantine XI. (or 1204. 

XIL) 1222. 

1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 1255. 

1081. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 1259. 
1118. John Comnenus, his son, surnamed Kalos : 

died of a wound from a poisoned arrow. 
1143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 
1180. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, 1261. 

under the regency of the empress Maria, 

his mother. - 1282, 

1183. Andronicus I. Comnenus, causes Alexis to 

be strangled, and seizes the throne : put to 1328. 

death by 1341, 

1185. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, 

imprisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 

brother, 1347. 

1195. Alexis III. Angelus. called the Tyrant: this 1355. 

last deposed in his turn, and his eyes put 1391. 

out ; died in a monastery. 

1203. Isaac II. again, with his son, Alexis IV. ; de- 

prived. 

1204, Alexis V. Ducas, murders Alexis IV ; is killed 

by the crusaders. 

LATIN EMPERORS. 

1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of 

EAST INDIES, see India. EAST S AXONS, see Britain, p. 124. 

EBELIANS, a German revivalist sect, which began at Konigsberg in Prussia, about 
1836, its leaders being archdeacon Ebel and Dr. Diestel, who were tried and condemned for 
unsound doctrine and impure lives in 1839 ; but the sentence was annulled in 1842, it is 
said, by royal iniluence. The sect is popularly termed "Mucker," German for hypocrites. 
Their theory and practice of spiritual marriage is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his 
' ' Spiritual Wives, " 1 868. 

EBIONITES, heretics, in the 2nd century, who seem to have been abranch of the ISTazarenes, 
Avere of two kinds : one believed that our Saviour was born of a virgin, obsei-ved all the 
precepts of the Christian religion, but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the other believed 
that Christ was born after the manner of all mankind, and denied his divinity. Pardon. 
Photinus revived the sect in 342. 

EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber), see Caoutclioxie. 

EBRO, a river in Spain — the scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards by the French, 
under Lannes, near Tudela, 23 Nov. 1808 ; and also of several important movements of the 
allied British and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war (1809 and 1813). 

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS. One was appointed by queen Elizabeth, 1584; 
by James I. in Scotland, 1617; by the English parliament in 1641 ; and by James II. to 
coerce the imiversities in 1687. The present Ecclesiastical Commissioners (bishops, deans, 
and laymen) were appointed in 1835 ; incorporated in 1836; and their proceedings regulated, 
in 1840 and 1841, 

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesias- 
tical courts in England imtil after the Norman conquest, 1066 ; see Arclics and Consistory 
Courts. Till the establishment of the Divorce and Probate courts {lohich see) in 1857, the 
following were the causes cognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from. 
Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institiitious to benefices, matrimony, divorces, 
bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, &c. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States of the Chuech, see FMme, Modern. 

ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL, see Papal Aggression. 

ECHOES. The time which elapses between the utterance of a soiind and its returrt 



ECK 257 EDE 

must be more than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. The whispering gallery of St. 
Taul's is a well-known example. 

ECKMUHL (Bavaria\ the site of a battle between the main armies of France (75,000) 
and Austria (40,000) ; JSTapolcon and marshal Davoust (hence prince d'Eckmiihl) defeated 
the archduke Charles, 22 April, 1809. 

ECLECTICS (from Greek, cklcgo, 1 choose), ancient philosophers (called Analogctid, 
:nid also Philalcthes, or the lovers of truth), who, without attaching themselves to any sect, 
chose what they judged good from each : of theiu was Potaiuon of Alexandria, about A.D. i. 
Drydcn. Also a Christian sect, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the 
spirit of Christianity. 

ECLIPSE (the race-horse), see Races. 

ECLIPSES. Their revolution was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. 
The Egyptians said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the 
moon, m the period from "Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The theory of eclipses 
is said to have been known to the Chinese before 120 B.C. The first eclipse recorded hap- 
pened 19 March, 721 B.C., at SA. 40)». p.m., according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was 
observed with accuracy at Babylon. A list of eclipses to the year 2000 is given in '■'■ V Art 
do Verifier Us Dates." 

REMARKABLE ECLIPSES : — 

OF THE SUN. • Remarkable one, central and annular in the 

That predicted by Thales ; see ifaZys (Pfi»,'/, ^;6. B.C.' interior of Europe .... 7 Sept. 1802 

ii. 9), believed to have occurred . 28 Jlay, 5S5 Total eclipses of the sun— 17 July, 1833 ; 8 July, 

[Mr. Airy thinks the date should be 610; i 1842; 28 July, 1851. 

others say 603 or 584 B.C. It is the one re- An annular eclipse; it w.as seen and photo- 

corded by Herodotus as interrupting a I graphed at Oundle; but not seen well at 

battle between the Medes and Lydians. J ! other places .... 15 March, 1858 

One at Athens (r/iuc^/rf/rfcs ;i6. iv.) . . . 424 ■ Total eclipse of the sun; well seen by Mr. G.B. 
Eclipse of A gathoclesC^i)-.)/). . . 15 Aug. 310 j Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain ; 
Total one : three days' supplication decreed at 1 Mr. Warren de la Bue took photogi-aphs, 

Rome (^Livii) 188 1 18 July, i860 

One general at the death of Jesus Christ a.d. i Total eclipse of the sun of the longest possible 

(Josephus) 33 duration ; (the Royal Society have provided 

One observed at Constantinople . ... 968 means for its observation in India, by col. 

At the b.attle of Sticklestadt . . 29 Aug. 1030 Walker, Mr. Herschel, and others.) 18 Aug. 1868 

In France, when it was dark at noon-day (Da \ [The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a pe- 

Frennoy) 29 June, 1033 ! riod of 18 years loi days.] 

In England; a total darkness {Wm. Maimsb.) \ 

20 March, 1140 1 of the moon. 

Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning 1 The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon B.C. 

(Cmnden) 23 June, 1191 | (Ptolemy iv.) 721 

The true sun, and the appearance of another, i A total one observed at Sardis (Thucydides vii.) 413 

so that astronomers alone could distinguish | Again, in Asia Minor (Polybiu.t) .... 219 

the difference by their glasses • . . . ,, One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus 
A total one ; the darkness so great that tho | (Livy xliv.) 168 

stars shone, and the birds went to roost at ■ One terrified the Roman troops and quelled a.d. 

noon (Oldmixon's Annals) . . 22 April, 1715 \ their revolt (Tacitus) 14 

lECOLE POLYTECHKIQUE, a military academy at Paris, established in 1794, and 
reorganised and given its present name on i Sept. 1795. The "Journal" (1795-1^67) 
contains profound mathematical papers. The school was reorganised 4 Sept. 1816. The 
pupils defended Paris in 1814 and 1830. 

ECONOMIC MUSEUM (or ]\Iuseum of Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twicken- 
ham, open free, was established chiefly by the agency of Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It 
originated from the Paris exhibition of 1855. 

ECUADOE, see Equator. 

EDDAS, two books containing the Scandinavian mythology (or histoiy of Odin, Thor, 
Frea, &c.), written about the nth and 12th centuries. Translations have been made into 
French, English, &c. MSS. of the Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. 

EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by the Trinity-house 
to enable ships to avoid the Eddystone rock. The first lighthouse was commenced under 
Mr. "Winstanley, in 1696 ; was finished in 1699 ; and was destroyed in the dreadful tempest 
of 27 Nov. 1703, when Mr. Winstanley and others perished. It was rebuilt by act of 
parliament, and all ships were ordered to pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards 
towards supporting it, 1708. This liglithouse was burnt in 1755 ; and one on a better plan, 
erected by Mr. Smeaton, was finished 9 Oct. 1759. The woodwork of this, burnt in 1770, 
was replaced by .stone. 

EDESSA (now Orfat), a town in Mesopotamia, said by some to have been built by 
Nimrod ; by Appian to have been built by Seleucus. It became famous for its schools of 



EDG 



258 



EDI 



tlieology in the 5th ceutuiy, and in 11 84, when it was taken by the Saracens, it contained 
fifteen hirge churches. Its ancient kings or rulers were named Abgarus and Mannus. 
EDGEOOTE, see Banbury. 

EDGEHILL FIGHT (23 Oct. 1642), "Warwickshire, "between the royalists under prince 
Rupert and the parliament army under the earl of Essex, was the first important engagement 
in the civil war. Charles I. was present. The earl of Lindsay, who headed the royal foot, 
was mortally wounded. The king lost 5000 dead. Owing to the great loss, the action 
Ijroved indecisive, though the parliament claimed the victory. 

EDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, usually set forth by sovereigns ; the name 
originated with the Romans. The Pekpetual Edict : Salvius Jidianus, of Milan, a civilian 
at Rome (the author of several treatises on public right), was employed by the emperor 
Adrian to draw up this body of laws for the Praetors, promulgated 132. 

EDICT OF ]Sr ANTES, by which Henry I"V. of France granted toleration to his Protestant 
subjects, 13 April, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1610, and by Louis XI'V". in 
1652. It was revoked by Louis XIV. 22 Oct. 16S5. This unjust and impolitic act cost 
France 50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England and Germany thousands of indus- 
trious artisans who carried with them the art of manufacturing silks. Some settled in 
Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain ; others settled in Soho and St. Giles's and 
pursued the art of making crystal glasses and various fine works in which they excelled ; 
among these, jewellery, then little understood in England. 

EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, derives its name — in ancient records Dun 
Edin, " The hill of Edin"— from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northum- 
bria, who having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the protection of his newly 
acc[uired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, 626. But it is said the castle 
was first built by Caraelon, king of the Picts, 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, 
standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and, before the use of great 
guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 



Cliristianity introduced (reign of Donald I.) . 201 
Edinburgh taken by the Anglo-Saxons . . 482 

Betaken by the Picts 695 

City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm 

Canmore 1074 

Besieged by Donald Bain 1093 

Holyrood abbey founded by David I. . . . 1128 
Edinburgh constituted a burgh . : . . * * 
Castle surrendered to Henry II. of England . 1174 
A parliament held here under Alexander II. . 1215 

City taken by the English 1296 

Grant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh . . 1329 

Surrenders to Edward III 1356 

St. Giles's cathedral built 1359 

Burnt by Richard II 1385 

And by Henry IV 1401 

James II. first king crowned here . . . 1437 
Execution of the earl of Athol . . . , ,, 
Annual fair granted by James II. . . . 1447 

City strengthened by a wall 1450 

Charter of James III 1477 

Edinburgh made the metropolis by James III. 1482 
Boyal College of Surgeons incorporated . . 1505 
Charter of James IV 1508 

[The palace of Holyrood is built in the reign 
of James IV.] 

High school founded 1518 

A British force, landing from a fleet of 200 

ships, burns both Edinburgh and Leith, May, 1544 
Leith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is sijared . 1547 

Tolbooth built 1561 

Marriage of queen Mary and lord Darnley . . 1565 

David Rizzio murdered 1566 

Lord Darnley blown up in a private house by 

gunpowder 10 Feb. 1567 

Mary marries James, earl of Both well, 15 May, ,, 
Mary's forced resignation ; civil war . 

Death of John Knox 

University chartered ; see Bd. University, 14 Ap. 
Bothwell's attempt on Holyrood-house 27 Dec. 
Biot in the city ; the mob attacks tbe king 
James VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, 

5 April, 1603 ; he revisits it . 16 May, 1617 

George Heriot's Hospital founded by his will . 1624 
Charles I. visits Edinburgh . ' . June, 1633 
Biots in Greyfriars church at the reading the 



1570 
1572 



1 591 
1596 



1736 



1737 
174s 



1753 
1754 



English liturgy .... 23 July, 1637 

Parliament house finished 1640 

Charles again visits the city 1641 

The castle is surrendered to Cromwell . . 1650 

Coffee-houses first opened 1677 

Merchants' Company incorporated . . . 1681 
College of Physicians incorporated . . . ,, 

Earl of Argyll beheaded . . . 30 June, 1685 

African and East India Company incorporated 1695 

Bank of Scotland founded ,, 

Union of the kingdoms 1707 

Boyal bank founded 1727 

Board of trustees of trade and manufactures 

appointed ,, 

Boyal Infirmary incorporated .... 
Affair of captain Porteous (see Porteous) 7 Sept. 

Medical Society instituted 

The y o 1 uig Pretend er occupies Holji'ood 1 7 Sept. 
Battle of Preston Pans . . .21 Sept. 
Modern improvements commenced . . . 
Magistrates assigned gold chains 

Boyal Exchange completed 1761 

Foundation of the North Bridge . 21 Oct. 1763 

Theatre Royal erected 1769 

Great fire in the Lawir-market . . . . 1771 

Begistcr-office, Pi-inces-street, commenced . 1774 

Calton-hill observatory founded . . 25 July, 1776 

Great commotion against popery . . 2 Feb. 1779 

Society of Antiquaries 1780 

Boyal Society of Edinburgh instituted . . 1783 

South Bridge commenced . . .1 Aug. 1785 

Boyal College of Surgeons incorporated . . 1788 

First stone of present university laid, 16 Nov. 1789 

Bobertson, the historian, dies here 11 June, 1793 

Bridewell, Calton-hill, erected .... 1796 
Holyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. and his 

brother, afterwards Charles X. . 1795 to 1799 

New Bank commenced ... 3 June, 1801 

" Edinburgh Review " first published . 10 Oct. 1802 
New system of pohce estabhshed 
Alarming riots here .... 
Nelson's monument completed . 
Gas company incorporated 
"Water company incorporated 
Professor Playfair dies 



1805 



31 Dec. 181 



20 July, 



181S 
1818 
19 



Society of Arts instituted 1821 



EDI 



259 



EDIT 



EDINBURGH, continued. 

Union Canal completed 1822 

George IV.'s visit; foundation of the national 
monnment .... 14-29 Aug. ,, 

Royal Institution erected 1823 

Destructive fires . . June and Nov. 1824 

Scottish Academy fovuided 1826 

Lord Melville's monument erected . . . 1828 
Edinburgh and Dalkeith railway opened, July, 1831 

Statue of George IV. erected 1832 

Death of sir Walter Scott . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Chambers's Edinburgh Journal published . . ,, 
Association of the Fine Arts .... 1833 
The British Association meets here . 8 Sept. 1834 
Edinburgh and Granton railway begun . . 1836 

Art-union of Scotland 1837 

Monument to sir Walter Scott commenced . 1840 
Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorijorated . 1842 
Edinburgh and Glasgow railway opened, 21 Feb. ,, 
Queen Victoria visits Edinburgh, (fee. 31 Aug.- 

'15 Sept. „ 
Secession, and formation of the Free Church, 

1 8 May, 1843 

New College instituted ,, 

North British railway commenced 

The monument to the political martyrs of 

1793-4, l^i'i l^y Mr. Hume . . 21 Aug. 
Walter Scott's monument completed . . . 
British Association (2nd time) meets 31 July, 
The Queen again visits Edmburgh . 29 Aug. 
Prince Albert lays the fomidation-stone of the 

Scotch national gallery . . 30 Aug. 

Meeting for vindication of Scottish rights, <&c. 

2 Nov. 
Old buildings in Lawn-market burnt 5 Aug. 
Act passed for building new Post-office July, 
National gallery opened . . 21 March, 



1S44 



1850 



1853 
1857 



1859 



Agitation against Mmisters' Annuity tax Sept. 1859 

Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the uni- 
viersity, Edinburgh . . . .1 Nov. ■„ 

Ministers' tax abolished, and other arrange- 
ments made which did not give satisfaction : 
riots were renewed .... Nov. t86o 

20,000 Volunteers reviewed by the Queen in 
Queen's Park y Awg. ,. 

Industrial Museum Act passed . . 28 Aug. ,, 

Edinburgh visited by empress Eugenie 20 Nov. ,, 

The prince consort lays foundation of new Post- 
office and Industrial museum . 23 Oct. 1861 

Pall of a house in High-street, 35 persons killed 

24 Nov. ,, 

Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow railway — 
17 killed; above 100 wounded . . 13 Oct. 1862 

Lord Palmerston's visit . 31 March-4 April, 1864 

Theatre Royal burnt : George Loriraer, dean of 
guild, and seven other persons, killed by fall 
of wall, while endeavom-ing to extricate 
others 13 Jan. 1863 

Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson in- 
augurated . . . . .25 March, ,, 

New Post office opened ... 7 May, 1866 

National museum of science and art opened by 
prince Alfred (who is created duke of Edin- 
burgh, &c. 24 May) ... 19 May, „ 

Great reform demonstration by the working 
classes 17 Nov. „ 

Explosion in the Canongate, at Hammond's, a 
firework-maker's ; 5 killed, many injured 

9 Oct. 1S67 

Visitor Mr. Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer, 
conservative demonstration . 29, 30 Oct. „ 

Meeting to propose restoration of St. Giles's 
cathedral i Nov. ,, 



EDINBURGH, Bishopric of, was created b)- Charles I. when that monarch was in 
Scotland in 1633 ; and William Forbes, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, Avas made first 
bishop. The king allotted the parishes of the shires of Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, 
and a part of Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the see. The sixth and last prelate 
was Alexander Ross, who was ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the period of the 
revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh became a post-revolution bishopric in 1720; see Bishops. 

EDINBURGH REVIEW (by Francis Jeffrey, rev. Sydney Smith, Henry Brougham, and 
other whigs) published first on 10 Oct. 1802. 

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college was commenced by the town council of 
Edinburgh, in 1581, for which queen Mary had given the site of ancient religious houses, 
and Robert Reid, bishop of Orkney, the funds in 1558. In 1582 the university was chartered 
by James VI. afterwards James I. of England. The first principal was appointed in 1585. 
The foundation-stone of the new buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand-master 
of the masons of Scotland, 16 Nov. 1789. In 1845, the library contained upwards of 80,000 
volumes, besides numerous curious and rare MSS. and documents. 

EDOM, see Idumcca. 

EDUCATION, the art of developing the physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of 
man, has occupied the greatest minds in all ages, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, (t)uintilian. Bacon, 
Milton, Locke, Rousseau, &c. In England the earliest schools for the lower classes were 
those attached to the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and colleges were gradually 
founded ; see Oxford and Cambridge. 



WiUiam of Wykehani jdanted the School at 
Winchester, whence arose his colleges at that 

place and Oxford 1373 

Eton college was founded by Henry VI. . . 1440 
In the thu-ty years f ollowuig the reformation 
education was greatly promoted, and many 
gi-ammar schools were erected and endowed 
by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . . . 1535-65 
Christ's hospital, the bluecoat school, esta- 
blished 1553 

Westminster school founded by Elizabeth . . 1560 
Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence 
Sheriff, 1567 ; of Harrow school, by John 

Lyon 1571 

The Charterhouse founded by Thomas Sutton, 1611 
Queen Anne, zealous friend of education, 



founded the Greycoat school, AVestminster, 
in 1698, and cordially supported parochial 
charity schools (one established at St. Mar- 
garet's, Westminster, 16S8). 
Nearly 2000 of these schools establi-shed in 
Great Britain and Ireland, principally by the 
instrumentaUty of the Society for the Pro- 
motion of Christian Knowledge . 1698-1741 
Robert Raikes began Sunday Schools about . 17S1 
In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 

1,548,890 scholars. 
Sunday School Union foiTned in . . . 1S02 
Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to 

instiiict the children of the XJOor . . . 1796 
He had 90 pupils before he was 18 years old, 
and 1000 pupils in 1798 

s 2 



EDU 



2f)0 



EGY 



EDUCATION, continued. 

To provide, teachers, he invented the monitorial 
system. In consequence of his exertions, the 
present British and Foreign School Society 
was founded with the name of the " Boyal 
Lancasterian Institution," <&c 1805 

This being unexclusive, was followed by the in- 
stitution of the Church of England " National 
Society for Educating the Poor," on Dr. BeU's 
system 1811 

Infant Schools hegan .... about 1815 

The Charity Commission, appointed at the 
instance of Mr. (now lord) Brougham, pub- 
lished their reports on Education, in 37 
volumes folio • 1819-40 

Irish National School System (to accommodate 
both Roman Cathohcs and Protestants) or- 
ganised mainly by archbishop Whately and 
the Roman Catholic archbishop Murray . 1831 

In 1834, the government began annual grants 
(the first 2o,oooJ ), which continued till 1839, 
when the Committee of the Privy Council on 
Education was constituted for the distribu- 
tion of the money. The grant for Public 
Education in Great Britain, in 1852, was 
150,000?.; 1856-7, 451,213?.; i860, 798,951?.; 
1861, 803,794?. • 1^64, 705,404?. ; 1S67, 705,865?. 
For Ireland, i860, 270,722?. ; 1861, 285,377?. 5 
1863, 316,770?. Prom 1839 to i860, 3,655, 067?. 
were granted for ediication. The grant for 
education, science, and art, in 1861, was 
11358,996?. ; for 1867-8, 1,487,554?. 

In 1836, the Home and Colonial School Society 
was instituted, and about 1843 were formed 
the Voluntary School Society and the Con- 
gregational Board of Education. In 1851, 
out of a population of 17,927,609, there were 
2,466,481 day scholars. Primary schools in 
Great Britain, 1854, 3825 ; 1863, 7739. 

Ragged School Union established . . . 1844 

A great educational conference took place at 
Willis's Rooms, the Prince Consort in the 
chair 22-24 June, 1857 

The Industrial Schools act passed in . . ,, 

Middle Class Examinations from the University 
of Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners 
granted the degree of A. A. to many persons 
at Liverpool, Leeds, Ac. ; similar examina- 
tions from Cambridge took place in the 
autumn, and are to be continued . . . 1858 

Report of commis.sioners on popular education 
(appointed 1858), published 18 March, 1861, 
led to the Minute of the Committee of the 
Privy Council on Education, establishing a 
Revised Code of Regulations, adopted 21 July, 

1861, to come into operation, after 31 March, 

1862. It decreed regular examinations of the 
pupils, payment by results, evening schools 
for adults, and other changes, which raised 
a storm of opposition from the clergy and 
schoolmasters. The subject was much agi- 
tated in parliament (25, 28 March, 1862) ; but 
eventually a compromise was effected, 5 May, 1862 

Official instructions for the administration of 
the Revised Code issued . . . Sept. ,, 



" Con.icience-dau.ie," fo\inded on the Endowed 
Schools act, March, i860, introduced by the 
Committee of Council on Education for 
parishes where only one school is required. 
It provided for the admission of children of 
Dissenters, and exemisted theni from reli- 
gious teaching, and attendance at public 

worship Nov. 1863 

(Report, 10 June, 1865). 

It has been much opposed by the clergy ever 
since, and created much controversy in 1866-7 

College and Public School Commission Report, 
signed 16 Feb. 1864 

Royal Commission appointed, to inquire into 
the state of education in Scotland. First 
meeting at Edinburgh . . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Miss Burdett Coutts proposes the establish- 
ment of small village-schools, to be taught 
by " ambulatory " teachers . . Jan. 1865 

Parliamentary Committee appointed to inq\iire 
into the best mode of benefiting schools un- 
assisted by the state . . . 28 Feb. ,, 

Training ship established for homeless boys of 
London ; 50 boys placed there by Boys' 
Refuge committee ... 18 Dec. 1866 

Foundation of the London College of the Inter- 
national Education Society laid by the Prince 
of Wales 10 July, 1867 

Four establishments in England, France, Ger- 
many, and Italy proposed ; the idea is attri- v 
buted to Mr. Cobden and Mr. Michel 
Chevalier 1862 

Committee appointed at a meetmg for estab- 
lishment of higher sc/wo/s /or midiile clnsses in 
London, by means of funds of lapsed chari- 
ties, &c., 7 Nov. ; nearly 28,000?. subscribed 
by end of Dec. 1865 ; 51,349?. received Oct. 1866 

The subscribers incorporated by charter ; their 
first school opened by lord mayor and others 
in Bath-street, St. Luke's . . .1 Oct. ,, 

Great prosperity reported at the annual meet- 
ing 18 March, 1867 

Resolutions moved in the lords by earl Russel 
(asserting that every child has a right to 
education; and recommending appointment 
of a cabinet minister of education), with- 
drawn 2 Dec. ,, 

Technical Instruction. — Minute of Committee of 
Education, recommending the foundation of 
scholarships for giving scientific instruction 
to artisans 21 Dec. ,, 

Important report of schools inquiry commis- 
sioners signed 2 Dec. ,, 

Conference at Manchester recommend com- 
pulsory education, to be paid for by rates 

IS Jan. 1868 

Public Schools bill brought into the commons 

7 Feb. „ 

Public Elementary Education bill brought into 
the lords by duke of Marlborough, 24 March. ,, 

Mr. Whitworth's offer to found 30 scholarships 
of annual value of 100?. each, for insti-uction 
of young men in mechanics, dec, 18 March, ac- 
cepted by the lords of the council, 27 March, ,, 



EGALITE (Equality), see Orleans. 

EGGS. The duty on imported eggs was repealed in i860, whereby the revenue lost about 
20,oooZ. a yeai'. 

EGLINTOUN TOURNAMENT, see Tournament. 

EGYPT.* The early seat of political civilisation. ist epoch ; the dynasty of its 
Pharaohs, or "great kings," commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, second sou of Noah, 
2188 B.C. to the conquest by Cambyses, 525 B.C. 2nd epoch, to the death of Alexander the 
Great, and establishment of the Ptolemies, 323 e.g. 3rd epoch, to the death of Cleopatra 

* Three most magnificent works on Egypt have been published : in France (commenced by Napoleon, 
and the savans who accompanied him to Egypt), Description de VEgyptR, 1809 22 ; in Italy, Rosellini's 
MoHumenta deW Egitto, 1832-44; and in Prussia, Lepsius' D nkmUlcr aus JEgypten, 1848-56. All these are 
in the Library of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. 



EGY 



261 



EGY 



and the subjugation of the Romans, 30 B.C., see Alexandria and Cairo. Population of the 
present viceroyalty about 7,465,000. 



Dynasty of Mcnes (conjectural) 'b.c. 2717 or 2412 

Mizraiin builds Mcmplii; (Ulair) . . . 2188 

Egypt made four kingdoms, viz., Upper Egypt, 
Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis {AObe 
Lenglet, bkur) . 2126 

Athotes invents hieroglvphics .... 2122 

Busiris builds Thebes (f/.'/iir) . . . . 2111 

Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into 
Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his ex- 
ploits to be represented in sculpture and 
painting (Z7«to-, i<?j(7(e«) 2100 

The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt, and hold 
it 260 years (Unlier); the dynasty of Shepherd 
kings begins 20S0 

The Luke of Moeris constructed by him. . . 1938 

The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt . . . 1920 

Syphoas introduces the use of the common let- 
ters (i/*7(e)-) 1891 

Memnon invents the Egyptian characters {Blair, 
Lenglet) 1822 

Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king of all 
Egypt (If j)£//rf) 1 82 1 

Joseph is sold into Egypt as a slave . . . 1728 

He interprets the king's dreams . . . . 1715 

His father and brethren settle here . . . 1706 

Rameses III., or Sesostris, reigns : he extends 
his dominion by conquest over Arabia, Per- 
sia, India, and Asia Minor (Le>iglet) luicertain 1618 

Settlement of the Ethiopians (i7ai)-> . . . 1615 

Kameses, who imposed on his subjects the 
building of walls and pyramids, and other 
labours, dies (Lengltt) 1492 

The persecution of the Jews ; the exodus of the 
Israelites 1491 

Amenophis II. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, 
with all his army (Xenj?/' f, Blair) . . ■ ,, 

Reign of jEgyptus, from whom the country, 
hitherto called Mizraim, is now called Egypt 
(Blair) 1485 

Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks) ; 
his faculty of assuming whatever form he 
pleased, as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, 
fire, fiction, probably intended to denote his 
policy 1189 

Pseusennes (Shishaki enters Palestine, ravages 
Judea, and carries off the sacred vessels . . 971 

The dynasty of kings called Tanites begins with 
Petubastes iBlmr) 825 

The dynasty of Saites {Blair) . . . . 781 

Sebacou (the Ethiopian) invades Egypt, sub- 
dues the king, Bocphori<, whom he orders to 
be roasted alive (f/s/ier) 737 

The Dodekarchy (12 rulers) expelled by Psam- 
metiohus the Powerful 650 

He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, 
the longest siege of antiquity (Z7Wie/-) . . 647 

Necho begins the famous canal between the 
Arabic gulf and tlie Mediterranean sea {Blair) 610 

This canal abandoned alter costing the lives of 
120,000 men {Herodo'us) . . ... 609 

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries . 581 

Apries taken prisuner and strangled iu his 
palace (Biod. Siculxis) 571 

The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos 
into Egypt, and is insi ructed in the mysteries 
of Egyptian theology ( Us!c r) . . . . 535 

The line of the Pharaohs ends in the murder of 
Psammenitus by CHmbyst-s (Blair). . . 526 

Dreadful excesses of Cambyses ; he puts the 
children of the grandees, male and fenaale, 
to death, and makes the country a waste 
(Herodotus) 524 

He sends an ai-my of 50,000 men across the 
desert to destroy the temple of Jupiter Am- 
mon, but they all perished in the burning 
sands (Justin) „ 

Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again sub- 
dued by Xerxes (Blair) 487 

A revolt under Inarus (Blair) .... 463 



414 



350 



332 



246 
222 



17 
205 



146 



117 



82 



Successful revolt under Amyrtaeus, who is pro- 
claimed king (XeHj/?eJ) . . . B.C. 

Egypt again reduced by Ochua, king of Persia, 
and its temples pillaged (Z7s/ter) . . . . 

Alexander the Great conquers Egypt and founds 
Alexandria 

Ptolemy I. (Lagus), Soter, re-establishes the 
monarchy 323 

Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (with his father) 285 ; 
alone [the museum of Alexandria founded ; 
the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures made ; the Pharos completed] . 283-247 

Ambassadors first sent to Rome . . . . 269 

Ptolemy III. Eucrgetes, reigns .... 247 

Overruns Syria, and retmns laden with rich 
spoils and 2500 statues and vessels of gold 
and silver, which Cambyses had taken from 
the Egyptian temples (Blair) . . . . 

Ptolemy IV. Philopator . . . Nov. 

Battle of Raphia ; Ptolemy defeats Antioohus, 
king of Syria 

Ptolemy V. Epiphanes . . . Nov. 

Embassy t-o Rome 200 

Ptolemy VI. Philometor . . . Oct. 181 

At the death of Philometor, his brother Phys- 
con (Ptolemy VII. Euergetes) marries his 
queen, and on the day of his nuptiaLs mur- 
ders the infant son of Philometor in its 
mother's arms Nov. 

His subjects, wearied b.y his cruelties and 
crimes, compel him to fly .... 

He defeats the Egyptians and recovers his 
throne, 128; dies 

Ptolemy VIII. Soter II. and Cleopatra his 
mother ,, 

Alexander I. and Cleopatra 107 

Ptolemy VIII. restored 8q 

Revolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroyed 
after a siege of three years (Biod. Siculus) 

Alexander II. and Cleoi^atra I 

Ptolemy IX. Auletes 

Berenice and Tryphsena 

Auletes restored, 55 : leaves his kingdom to 
Ptolemy ami Cleopatra 

During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleo- 
patra It., Alexandria is besieged by Csesar, 
and the Ubi-ary ueai-ly destroyed by fire 
(Blair) 47 

Cajsar defeats the king, who, in crossing the 
Nile, is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy 
and Cleopatra reign 46 

Cleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone 

She appears before Marc Antony, to answer for 
this crime ; fascinated by her beauty, he 
follows her into Egypt 41 

Cleopatra in Syria 36 

Antony defeated by Octavius Cajsar at the 
battle of Actium (Blair) . . .2 Sept. 

Octavius enters Egypt ; Antony and Cleopatra 
kill themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a 
Roman province .... Sept. 

Egypt visited by Adrian, 122 ; by Severus a.d. 

Monaohism begun in Egypt by Antony. . . 

Destruction of the temple and worship of Se- 
rapis 389 

Invasion of the Saracens under Amrou June 

Conquest of Alexandria ... 22 Dec. 

Egypt conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia 

Cairo founded by the Saracens .... 969 

Conquest by the Turks 1163-69 

Government of the Mamelukes established . 1250 

Selim I., emperor of the Turks, conquers Egj-pt 1517 

It is governed by beys till a great part of the 
country is conquered by the French, under 
Boua.lta.rtc (see Alexandria) . . . .1798-99 

The invaders disjiossessed by the British, and 
the Turkish government restored . . . iSoi 

Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes, and 
obtains the supreme power . 1 March, 181 1 



51 



43 



31 



30 
200 

305 



638 

640 

16 



EGY 



262 



ELD 



EGYPT, continued. 

Arrival of Belzoni, 1815 ; he removes young 

Memnon, 1816; explores ancient temples, &c. 1817 
Formation of tlie Mahmoud canal, connecting 

Alexandria with the Nile .... 1820 

Mehemet Paoha revolts and invades Syria . . 1831 
His son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May ; overruns 

Syria; defeats the Turks at Konieh, 21 Dec. 1832 
He advances on Constantinople, which is en- 
tered by Kussian auxiliaries, 3 April; war 
ends with convention of Kutayah, 4 May, 1833 
Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary 
power ; Ibrahim defeats the Turks at iNezib, 

24 June, 1839 
England, Austria, Russia, and Pi-ussia under- 
take to expel Ibrahim from Syria ; Napier 
bombards Beyrout, 10 Sept. ; Acre taken by 
the British and Austrian fleets, under sir R. 
Stopford, 3 Nov. ; the Egyptians quit Syria, 

21 Nov. et seq. 1840 
Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet is made 
hereditary viceroy of Egypt, but is deprived 

of Syria 15 July, 1841 

Ibrahim Pacha dies (see Suez) . 10 Nov. 1848 

The Suez canal begun 1858 

Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened i Nov. 1861 
The viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and Eng- 
land, May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria, 

I Oct. 1862 



Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt . 7 April, 1863 
Increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt 1863-67 

At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends 

troops to repress the insm-gents in Arabia, 

May, 1864 
Direct succession to the viceroyalty granted by 

the porte May, 1866 

Designated " sovereign " by the sultan g June, 1867 
Opening of part of the Suez canal {which see), 

IS Aug. 1865 
Egyptian legislative chamber opened with a 

speech from the viceroy . . 27 Nov. 1866 

Viceroy invested with Order of the Bath (as 

G.C.B.)by lord Clarence Paget . 30 Jan. 1867 
The viceroy visits Paris . 16 June-s July, „ 
He arrives in London 6 July ; received by the 

queen at Windsor, 8 ; by lord Derby, 10 ; by 

the lord mayor, II ; departs . . 18 July, ,, 

HEREDITARY VICEROYS (nearly independent). 
1S06. Mehemet Ali Pacha ; abdicated Sept. 1848; dies 

2 Aug. 1849. 
1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept. ; dies 10 Nov. 1848. 

,, Abbas (his son), 10 Nov. ; dies 14 July, 1854. 
1854. Said (brother), 14 July; dies 18 Jan. 1863. 
1863. Ismail (brother;, 18 Jan. ; born 26 Nov. 1816. 
Heir, his son, Mehemet, five years old. 



EGYPTIAIST EEA,* &c. The old Egyptian year was identical with the era of Nabonassar, 
beginning 26 Feb. 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days only. It was reformed 30 B.C., at 
which period the commencement of the year had arrived, by continually receding to the 
29 Aug., which was determined to be in future the first day of the year. To reduce to the 
Christian era, subtract 746 years 125 days. 

EHRENBEEITSTEIN (Honour's broadstone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine, 
formerly' belonged to the electors of Treves. It was often besieged. It surrendered to the 
French general Jourdain, 24 Jan. 1 799. The fortifications were destroyed on its evacuation, 
9 Feb. iSoi, at the peace of Luneville. The works have been restored since 1814. 

EIDER, a river, separating Schleswig from Holstein, was passed by the Austrians and 
Prussians, 4 Feb. 1864. 

EIDOGEAPH, see Pantagraph. 

EIKON BASILIKE ("the Portraiture of His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Suffer- 
ings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to king Charles L, but now generally believed 
to have been -written partially, if not wholly, by bishop Gauden, and possibly approved by 
the king : it was published in 1648, and sold with great rapidity. 

EISENACH DECLARATION, see Germany, 1859. EISTEDDFODD, see Bards. 

EL ARISCH, Egypt, captured by the French under Reynier, 18 Feb. 1799. A conven- 
tion was signed here between the grand vizier and Kleber for the evacuation of Egypt by the 
French 28 Jan. 1800. He beat the Turks at Heliopolis on 20 March ; and was assassinated 
on 14 June following. 

ELBA, Isle of (on the coast of Tuscany), taken by lord Kelson in 1796 ; but abandoned 
1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with the title of emperor) on his relinquishing 
the throne of France, 5 April, 1814. He secretly embarked hence with about 1200 men in 
hired feluccas, on the night of 25 Feb. 1815, and landed in Provence, i March, to recover 
the Imperial crown ; see France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand duke of Tuscany, 
July, 1815. 

ELCHINGEN, Bavaria. Here Ney beat the Austrians, 14 Oct. 1805, and became duke 
of Elchingen. 

ELDERS (in Greek, freshuteroi), in the early church equivalent with episcopoi, or bishops 
(see I Tim. iii. and Titus i. ), who afterwards became a distinct and superior order. Elders 
in the Presbyterian churches are laymen. 

EL DORADO (the "Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and 
Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of a golden city ruled 
by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which report was founded on a 



* The canicular or heliacal period of the Egyptians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when Sirius 
or the dog star emerged from the rays of the sun, on 20 July, 2785 B.C., and extended to 1325 B.C. This 
year comprised 12 months of 30 days, with 5 supplementaiy days. 



ELE 



263 



ELE 



merely annual custom of the Indians), they organised various expeditions into the interior 
of South America, which were accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Kaleigh's 
expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 161 7 led to his fall. 

ELEASA, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabreus was defeated and slain by Bacchides and 
Alcimus, and the Syrians, about 161 B.C. (i Mace, ix.) 

ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, byXenophanes,'of Colophon, aboiit 535 B.C. 
He had been banished to Sicily on account of his wild theory of God and natui'e. He sup- 
posed that the stars were extinguished every morning and rekindled at night ; that eclipses 
were occasioned by a partial extinction of the sun ; that there were several suns and moons 
for the convenience of the different climates of the earth, &c. Slrabo. Zeno (about 364) 
was an Eleatic. 

ELECTIONS Petitions Act, ii & 12 Vict. c. 98, passed 1848, amended, 1865. New 
bill proposing the establishment of two judges to try election petitions brought in, March, 
1868. 

ELECTOR PALATINE, see Palatinate. 

ELECTORS for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings 
a-year in land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating to electors are the following : 
Act depriving excise and custom-house officers and contractors witli government of their 
votes, 1782. Act to regulate polling, 1828. Reform in parliament act (see iZf/brni ^t'ZZ), 
1832. County elections act, 1836 ; see Bribery, The forty shilling freeholders in Ireland 
lost their privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 1861, university electors are per- 
mitted to vote by sending balloting papers. 

ELECTORS OF Germany. In the reign of Conrad I. king of Germany (912-918), the 
dukes and counts, from being merely officers, became gradually independent of the sove- 
reign, and subsec^uently elected him. In 919 they conlirmed the nomination of Henry I. 
duke of Saxony by Conrad as his successor. In the 13th century seven princes (tlie arch- 
bishops of Meutz, Treves, and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the electors of Brandenburg 
and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the 
emperor. Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) was made in 1648; and a ninth (Hanover) 
in 1692. The number was reduced to eight at 1777 (by the elector Palatine acquiring Ba- 
varia) ; and was increased to ten at the peace of Limeville, in 1801. On the dissolution 
of the German empire, the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804-1806 ; see 
Germany. 

ELECTRIC CLOCK ; see p. 266, 

ELECTRICITY, — from the Greek tleJdron, electrum, ambei\ The electrical properties 
of rubbed amber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 B.C. ; see Magnetism. 

FEICTIONAL OR STATIC ELECTRICITY. 

Gilbert records that otlier bodies besides amber 

generate electricity when rubbed, and that 

all substances may be attracted . . . . 1600 
Otto von Guericke constructs the first electric 

machine (a globe of stilphur), about . . 1647 
Boyle publishes his electrical experiments . . 1676 
Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered 

that the hviman body conducts electricity, 

that electricity acts at a distance (motion in 

light bodies being produced by frictional elec- 
tricity at a distance of 666 feet), the fact of 

electric induction, and other remarkable phe- 
nomena 1720-36 

Dufay originates his dual theory of two electric 

fluids: one vitreous, from rubbed glass, (fee, 

the other resinovs, from rubbed amber, resin, 

i&c. ; and showed that two bodies similarly 

electrified repel each other, and attract bodies 

oppositely electrified, abovit . . . . 1733 
The Ley den jar (vial or bottle) discovered by 

Kleist,'i745, and by Cunseus and Muschen- 

broek, of Leyden ; Winckler constructed the 

Ley den battery . . . • . . . 1746 
Desaguliers classifies bodies as electrics and 

non-electrics 1742 

Important researches of Watson, Canton, Bec- 

caria and NoUet 1740-7 

Franklin announces his theory of a single fluid, 

tei-ming the vitreous electricity positive, and 

the resinous nc^aJiw, 1747; and demonstrates 



the identity of the electric spark and light- 
ning, drawing down electricity from a cloud 
by means of a kite.* .... June, 1752 

Professor Richmann killed at St. Petersburg, 
while repeating Franklin's experiments Aug. 

Beccaria publishes his researches on atmo- 
spheric electricity, 1758 ; and .aSpinus his 
mathematical theory 

Electricity developed by fishes investigated by 
Ingenhousz, Cavendisli, and others, aboiit . 

Lichtenberg produces his electrical figures 

Eledro-statics : Coulomb applies the torsion 
balance to the measurement of electric force. 1785 

Electro-chemistry — water decomposed by Caven- 
dish, Fourcroy, and others .... 1787-90 

Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic 
Electricity, p. 264) 1 791-3 

CErsted, of Copenhagen, discovers electro-mag- 
netic action (see Electro-Magnetism, p. 264) 

Thermo- ElectricitT/ (currents produced by heat) 
discovered by Seebeck : it was produced by 
heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered 
together, 1S21 ; the Thermo-electrometer in- 
vented by Snow Harris, 1827 ; the Thermo- 
multiplier constructed by Melloni andNobili, 
1831. [Marcus constructed a powerfvil ther- 
mo-electi-ic battery in 1865.] 

Faraday produces a spark by the sudden sepa- 
ration of a coiled keeper from a permanent 
magnet (see Mar/neto-Electricit>/, p. 264) . 

Wheatstone calculates the velocity of electricity. 



I7S3 



1759 



1773 
1777 



iSig 



* In 1748, at a pic-nic, he " killed a turkey by the electric spark, and roasted it by an electi-ic jack 
before a fire kindled by the electric bottle." — Penny Ci/clopcedia. 



ELE 



264 



ELE 



ELECTEICITY, continued. 

on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles 
a second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 
miles a second 1834 

Armstrong discovers, and Faraday explains, 
the electricity of high pressure sream, ■which 
produces the hj'dro-elt'Ctric machine . . 1840 

Electkic Maci-iines. Otto von Guericke ob- 
tained sparks by rubbing a gloV>e of sulphui-, 
about 1647 ; Newton, Boyle, and others used 
glass, about 1675; Hawksbee improved the 
machine, about 1709 ; Bose introduced a 
metallic conductor, 1733 ; Winckler contrived 
the cushion for the rubber, 1741 ; Gordon 
employed a glass cylinder, 1742; for which a 
plate was substituted about 1770 ; Canton 
introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751 ; 
Van Marum constructed an electric machine 
at Haarlem, said to have been the most 
powerful ever made, 1785 ; Dr. H. M. Noad 
set up at the Panopticon, Leicester-square, 
London, a very powerful electric machine 
and Leyden battery [in possession of Mr. 
Edwin Clark, 1862J 1855 

The Hydro-Eleclric machine, by Armstrong, was 
constructed 1840 

The Electrophokus, a useful apparatus for 
obtaining frictional electricity, was invented 
by Volta in 1775, and improved by him in . 1782 

Elkctrometee and Elkctroscope, as the terms 
signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the 
presence and quantity of electrical excita- 
tion. Pith-balls were employed in various 
ways as electfoscopes by Gilbert, Canton, and 
others. Dr. Milner invented an electrometer 
similar to Peltier's, 1783. The gold leaf elec- 
trometer was invented by rev. A. Bennet, 
1789, and improved by Singer, about 1810 ; 
Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 
1767 ; Henley's, 1772 ; Bohnenberger's electro- 
scope, 1820; Peltier's induction electrometer, 

about 1848 

GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, AND 
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 

Sulzer noticed a peculiar senpationin the tongue 
when silver and lead were brought into con- 
tact with it and each other .... 1762 

Madame Galvani observed the convulsion in the 
muscles of frogs when brought into contact 
•with two metals, in 17S9 ; and M. Galvani, 
after studying the phenomena, laid the foun- 
dation of the galvanic battery . . . . 1791 

Volta announced his disci )verj' of the "Voltaic 
pile," composed of discs of zinc and silver, and 
mc.iistened card 1800 

By the voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle de- 
compose water, and Dr. Henry decomposes 
nitric acid, ammonia, &c ,, 

Behrens forms a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, 
copper, and gilt paper 1805 

By means of the large voltaic battery of the 
Eoyal Institution, London, Davy decom- 
poses the alkali potash, and evolves the metal 
potassium 6 Oct. 1807 

Zamboni constructs a dry pile of paper discs, 
coated with tin on one side and peroxide of 
manganese on the other 1809 

Children's battery fuses platinum, &c. . . ,, 

Davy exhibits the voltaic arc .... 1813 

Wollaston's thimble battery ignites platinum 
wire 1815 

Multipliers or rheometers, popularly termed 
"galvanometers," invented by Ampfere and 
by Schweigger, 1820; by Gumming, 1821 ; De 
la Rive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830; Joule 
(magnetic), 1843. 

Far<iday described his discovery of electro- 
magnetic rotation Jan. 1822 



1827 



Ohm enunciates his formulas relating to the 
galvanic current. 

Improvement in constructing the YoVaic bat- 
leri/ made by WuUaston, 1815; Becquerel, 
1829; Sturgeon, 1830; J. F. Haniell, 1836; 
Grove (nitric acid, &e.), 1839; Jaoobi, 1840; 
Smee, 1840 ; Bunsen (carbon, &c ), 1842 ; 
Gi'ove (gas battery), 1842 

Faraday reads the "first series of his " Experi- 
mental Researches on Electricity " at the 
Royal Society 21 Nov. 

Faraday demonstrates the nature of electro- 
chemical decomposition, and the principle 
that the quantity and intensity of electric 
action of a galvanic battery depends on the 
size and number of plates employed . . . 

Wheatstone invents his electro-magnetic chro- 
noscope 

Electro-Magnetism begins with (Ersted's dis- 
covery of the action of the electric current 
on the magnetic needle, 1819; proved by 
Ampere, who exhibits the action of the vol- 
taic pile upon the magnetic needle, and of 
terrestrial magnetism upon the voltaic cur- 
rent ; he also arranges the conducting wire 
in the form of a helix or spiral, invents a gal- 
vanometer, and imitates the magnet by a 
sj^ii-al galvanic wire 

Arago magnetised a needle by the electric cur- 
rent, and attracted iron filings by the con- 
necting wire of a galvanic battery . 

Induction of electric currents discovered by 
Faraday and announced 

Faraday discovers the electvo-magnetic rotative 
force developed in a magnet by voltaic elec- 
tricity, 1831 ; experiments on the induction 
of a voltaic current, &c. . . . . i 

Sturgeon makes a bar of soft iron magnetic by 
surrounding it with coils of wire, and send- 
ing an electric current through the wire . . 

Becquerel invents an electro-magnetic balance . 

Joseph Henry announces his discovery of 
secondary currents .... 2 Nov. 

Magneto-electricity applied to electro-plating 
by Woolwich 

Breguet uses electro-magnetic force to manu- 
facture mathematical instruments, about 

Magneto-Electricity (the converse of ffirsted's 
discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered 
by Faraday, who produced an electric spark 
by suddenly separating a coiled keeper from 
a permanent magnet ; and found that an elec- 
tric current existed in a copper disc rotated 
between the poles of a magnet . . . . 

The Magneto-Electvic machine arose out of Fara- 
day's di."covery, and was first made at Pai'is 
by Pixii, 1832 ; and in London by Saxton 

Ruhmkorfi's magneto-electric induction coil 
constructed, about 

H. Wilde's description of his machine, a power- 
ful generator of dynamic electricity, by means 
of permanent magnets and the magneto- 
electric machine (constructed in 1865) sent to 
the Royal Society by professor Faraday and 
reported 26 April, 

The light (resembhng bright moon-light) ex- 
hibited on the top of Burliugton house, 

2 March, 

Dynamo-magneto-electric machines, by Wheat- 
stone and Siemens, described at the Royal 
Society, Feb. ; by Ladd . . 14 March, 

" Faraday as a Discoverer," by professor Tyn- 
daU, published March, 



electric TELrORAPH.* 

The transmission of electricity by an insulated 

wire was shown by Watson and others . . 1747 
Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Le- 



1831 



1S37 

1838 
1842 
1S54 



1831 

1833 
1850 



1867 



* The Electric Telegraph may be said to have run a race with Time, and beaten him. New Orleans is 
westward of New York, and the clocks are thus later in the former city than in the latter, in proportion to 



ELE 



265 



ELE 



ELECTRICITY, continued. 

sarge, 1744 ; Betaucourt, 1787 ; Cavallo, 1795 ; 
Salva, 1796 ; Scemmering', exhibited 29 Aug. 
1809 ; Roualds 1816 

Amp&re invents his telegraphic arrangement, 
employing the magnetic needle and coil, and 
the galvanic battery 1820 

F. Ronalds publishes an account of his electric 
telegraph 1823 

Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro- 
magnetic apparatus, by which 30 signals are 
conveyed through nearly four miles of wire, 

June, 1S36 

Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and 
Weber (magneto-electric), 1833 ; by Steinheil 
and by Masson, 1837 ; by Morse . . . . 1S37 

The magnetic needle telegraph patented by W. 
F. Cooke and (now sir Charles) Wheatstone. 
(The Society of Arts Albert gold medal was 
awarded to them in June, 1867) . 12 June, ,, 

Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on the 
Great Western Railway, from Faddington to 
West Drayton, 1838-9 ; on the BlackwaU line, 
1840 ; and in Glasgow 1841 

Wheatstone's alphabetical printing telegi'aph 
patented ,, 

The first telegraph line in America set up from 
Washington to Baltimore 1844 

The murderer Tawell apprehended by means of 
the telegraph 1845 

The electric telegraph company established 
(having purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's 
telegraphic inventions) 1846 

Gutta-percha suggested as an insulator by 
Faraday 1847 

Over-house electric telegraphs (first erected at 
Paris) set up between their premises in the 
City and West-end by Messrs. Waterlow, in 
1857; extended throughout London . . 1859-62 

House's printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain's electro- 
chemical telegraph, 1S46 ; Hughes's system, 
1855 ; the American combination system (of 
the preceding), which can convey 2000 words 
an hour, adopted by the American telegraph 
company Jan. 1859 

^Vheatstone's automatic printing telegraph 
patented 1S60 

Bill to enable the government to buy up and 
work the electric telegraphs in the United 
Kingdom, read 2nd time . . i April, 1868 

SUBMARINE TELEORAPH. 

Professor Charles Wheatstone drew plans of a 
projected submarine teli graph between Dover 
and Calais, 1840, in 1847 

Mr. John Watkms Brett submitted a similar 
plan to Louis Philippe without success . . ,, 

He obtained permission from Louis Napoleon 
to make a trial, 1847 ; took place 28 Aug. 1830 

The connecting wires (27 miles long) were place d 
on the government pier in Dover harbour, 
and in the Goliath steamer were coiled about 
30 miles in length of telegraphic wire, en- 
closed in a covering of gutta-percha, half an 
inch in diameter. The Goliath started from 
Dover, unrolling the telegraphic wire as it 
proceeded, and allowing it to drop to the 
bed of the sea. In the evening the steamer 
arrived on the French coast, and the wire was 
run up the chff at cape Grisnez to its terminal 
station, and messages were sent to and fro 
between England and the French coast. But 
the wire, in settling into the sea-bottom, 
crossed a rocky ridge, and snapped in t.vo, 
and thus the enterprise for that time failed. 

New arrangements were soon made, and on a 



scale of greater magnitude ; and the tele- 
graph was opened; the opening and closing 
prices of the funds in Paiis were known on 
the London stock exchange within business 
hours, and guns were fired at Dover by com- 
munication from Calais . . -13 Nov. 1S51 
Communications complete between Dover and 
Ostend, and between Portpatrick and 

Donaghadee May, 1853 

Holyhead and Howth .... June, 1854 

Paris and Bastia Nov. ,, 

London and Constantinople . . May, 1858 

Cromer and Emden ,, 

Aden and Suez May, 1859 

Malta and Alexandria . . . 28 Sept. 1861 
England and Bombay, opened . . i March, 1865 
Marsala, Sicily, and La Callc, Algeria 21 June, „ 
Atlantic Tklegraph. A plan to unite Europe 
and America by telegraph was entered at the 
government registration office in June, 1S45, 
by Mr. J. Watkins Brett, who made proposals 
to the government, which were not accepted. 
This plan was attempted to be carried out by 
a company in 1857 and 1858, with the con- 
currence of the British and Ameiican govern- 
ments. 
2500 miles of wire were manufactured, and 

tested in March, 1S57 

The laying it down commenced at Valentia, iu 

Ireland, on 5 Aug. „ 

The vessels employed were the Kingara and 
Susquehanna (American vessels), and the 
Leopo.rd and Aganuvinon (British vessels). 
After sailing a few miles the cable snapped. 
This was soon repaired ; but on 1 1 Aug. after 
300 miles of wire had been j^aid ow, it snap- 
ped again (and the vessels returned to Ply- 
mouth) II Aug. ,, 

A second attempt to lay the cable failed through 

a violent storm, on . . . 20-21 June, 185S 
The third voyage was successful. The junc- 
tion between the two continents was com- 
pleted by the laying down of 2050 miles of 
wire from Valentia, in Ireland, to Newfound- 
land. The first two messages, on s Aug wei'e 
from the queen of England to the president 
of the United States, and his reply 5 Aug. ,, 
This event caused great rejoicing in both coun- 
tries ; but, unfortunately, the insulation of 
the wire gradually became more faulty, and 
the power of transmitting intelligence ut- 
terly ceased on 4 Sept. „ 

A new company was formed .... i860 
The Great Hoftern steamer, engaged to Lay down 
2300 miles of wire, with 25,000 tons burden, 
sailed for Valentia, Ireland, from the Thames, 
commanded by cai)t. Anderson, accompanied 
by professor Win. Thomson and Mr. Crom- 
well F. Varley, to superintend the paying out 

the cable 15 July, 1865 

After connecting the wire with the land, the 

Great Eri.itern .sailed from Valentia 23 July, ,, 
Telegraphic communication with the vessel 
(iuteiTupted by two faults, due to dafective 
insulation, caused by pieces of metal pressed 
into the gutta-percha coating, which were 
immediately repaired) finally ceased on 
2 Aug. The apparatus for raising the wire 
proving insufficient, the vessel returned, and 
arrived at the Medway . . -19 Aug. ,, 
Atlantic telegraph company reconstituted 
as the Anglo-American telegraph company 

limited March, 1866 

The Gri^at Eautern, with a new cable, sailed 
from the Medway, 30 June ; the shore-end at 



the difference of longitude. When the Atlantic made her first return voyage from LiveiTiool, a brief abstract 
of her news was telegr.aphed to New Orleans at a few minutes after noon (New York time) ; it reached its 
•destination at a few minutes he/ore noon (New Orleans time), and was published in the New Orleans ijapers 
•on the evening of the very day when the ship arrived at New York : the evening papers of New York and 
New Orleans gave the same news at the same hour (April, 1850). 



ELE 



266 



ELE 



ELECTRICITY, continued. 

Valentia was spliced with the main cable, 
and the Great liastera sailed, 13 July ; 1200 
miles of cable had been laid, 22 July ; the 
cable was completely laid at Heart's Con- 
tent, Newfoundland, and a message sent to 
lord Stanlej', 27 July ; message from the queen 
to president of the United States sent, 28 
July ; * to which he replied . . 30 July, 1866 

The lost cable of 1865 recovered, 2 Sept. ; and 
its laying completed at Newfoundland 8 Sept. ,, 

The Great Eastern arrived at Liverpool 19 Sept. ,, 

Messrs. Samuel Canning, Daniel Gooch, and 
capt. Anderson knighted . . . Oct. „ 

[It was stated (in Sept. 1866) that the engineer 
of the cable passed signals through 3700 
miles of wire by means of a battery formed 
in a lady's thimble.] 

The U. S. congress voted a gold medal to Cyrus 
Field, for his exertions connected with At- 
lantic telegraphs . . . .7 March, 1867 

It was stated that there are in work 15,000 miles 
of electric telegraph wire in Great Britain ; 
80,000 on the continent of Europe ; and 
48,000 in America ; and altogether about 
150,000 miles laid down in the world . July, 1862 

Bonelli's typo-electric telegraph, made known 
and company established, i860 ; and adopted 
between Liverpool and Manchester, 1863 ; 
XDronaised revival .... June, 1864 

An "electric telegraph " conference, at which 
16 states (not Great Britain) were represented, 
met first at Paris .... March, 1865 

Electkic Clock, &c. Professor Wheatstone 
invented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock 
in 1840. Clocks worked by electricity, in- 
vented by Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, 
and others, appeared in the exhibition of 
1851. An electric clock, with four dials, illu- 
minated at night, was set up in front of the 
oifice of the electric telegraph company, in 
the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time ball 
was set up by Mr. French, in Conihill, in 1856. 
In i860, Mr. C. v. "Walker so connected the 
clock of the Greenwich observatory with that 
of the South-eastern station, London, that 
they could be controlled by electricity. 

Electric Light. Apparatus for regulating the 
electric light were devised in 1846, and shown 
by Staite and Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault 
soon after. Jules Duboscq's Electric Lamp 
(the most perfect of the kind) appeared at 
the Paris exhibition in 1855 ; and was first 
employed by professor Tyndall, at the Royal 
Institution, London, for illustrating lectures 
on light and colours, in 1856. The works of 
new Westminster bridge were illuminated 
by Watson's electric light, in 1858. M. Serrin, 
of Paris, exhibited his improved electric 
lamp, in 1862. The Magneto-Electric light 
(the most brilliant artificial light yet pro- 
duced), by means of apparatus devised by 



Professor Holmes, was successfully tried in 
1858 and 1859, at the South Foreland light- 
house, Dover. In April, 1861, the French 
government ordered eight lighthouses on 
their coast to be illuminated by electric light. 
MM. Dumas and Benoit constructed an elec- 
tric safety lam],^ in. ...... 1862 

Electric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, 
devised a plan of employing magnets and 
electro-magnets in weaving, thereby super- 
seding the tedious and costly Jacquard sys- 
tem of cards. His loom was set up in London 
in 1859, s-^d lectured upon at the Royal 
Institution by professor Faraday, on 8 June, i86<> 

Electro-Physiology was not much cultivated 
after the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, till 
about 1830, when the researches of Matteucci 
commenced ; all the phenonaena of electro- 
physiology or animal electricity being con- 
sidered by Volta as due to an ordinary electric 
current. Fowler experimented on animals 
witli galvanism, 1793 ; and Aldini, 1796, who 
produced muscular contractions in a criminal 
recently executed, 1803 ; Ure did the same, 
1818 ; Du Bois Raymond lectured on animal 
electricity at the Royal Institution, and 
showed the existence of an electric cur- 
rent, developed by action of the human 
muscles, in 1855 

Elkctbophone, invented by Dr. Strethill \ 
Wright, for producing sound by electric cur- 
rents of high tension : one laid before the 
Royal Scottish Society of Arts . 25 April, 1864. 

Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, 
London, patented inventions by which en- 
gravings may not only be copied from other 
engraved plates, but the engraving itself 
actually produced, by electrical agency, and 
one process he termed glyphography . . 1841-2: 

Electeo-Type or Deposit. Mr. Spencer, in 
England, and professor Jacobi, in Russia, 
made the first successful experiments m this 
art in 1837 and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee 
and others have perfected the processes. In 
1840, Mr. Rob. Murray applied black-lead to 
non-metallic bodies as a conducting surface. 
In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and Mr. Elkington applied 
it to gilding and silver plating. Since 1850, 
printing types and woodcuts, and casts from 
them, have been electrotyped with copper, 
and the process is now largely adopted in 
the arts. 

Messrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experi- 
ment on the application of electricity to mili- 
tary purposes in . . . . . . . i86r 

The Electro-block company established, i860 ; 
by their processes the enlargement and reduc- 
tion of engravings, obtained by india-rubber, 
can be immediately transferred to a Utho- 
graphic stone, and multiplied at pleasure. 
Leech's engravings, so enlarged, were coloured 
by himself, and exhibited in . . . . 1862 



ELEGY. Elegiac verse (consisting of a hexameter and pentameter alternatel}') was the 
first variation from the hexameter or epic measure, used by Tyi-tsus and other early poets. 
The elegies of Ovid and Catullus are celebrated. Gray's "Elegy, written in a country church- 
yard," was published in 1749. 

ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four : earth, air, fire, and water. The chemical 
elements now are about 63 (1868). 

ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to war. The histoiy of the Maccabees informs- 
lis, that " to every elephant they appointed 1000 men armed with coats of mail, and 500 
horse : and npon the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The elephants in the army 
of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the ' ' blood of grapes and mulberries. " 
The first elephant said to have been seen in England was one of enormous size, presented by 

* "From the queen, Osborne, to the president of the United States, Washington. The queen con- 
gratulates the president on the successful completion of an imdertaking which she hopes may serve as an 
additional bond of union between the United States and England." 



ELE 267 EMB 

the king of France to our Hen. III. in 1238. Baker's Chron. But Polysenus states that Cajsar 
brought one to Britain 54 b. c. , which terrified the inhabitants greatly ; see Knigldhood. 

ELEUSINI AN MYSTERIES. The institution of these secret annual religious ceremonies 
(in honour of Ceres) at Athens, is attributed to Cadmus, 1550, Erechtheiis, 1399, orEumoIpus, 
1356 B.C. If any one revealed them, he was to be put to death. They were introduced from 
Eleusis into Eome ; lasted about 1800 years, and were abolished by Theodosiiis A.D. 389. 
The laws were — i. To honour parents ; 2. To honom- the gods with the fruits of the earth ; 
3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civilisation of mankind one of the 
beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. 

ELGIN MARBLES, derived chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the 
Acropolis at Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and pediment, the work of Phidias, 
under the government of Pericles, about 500 b.c. Thomas lord Elgin began the collection 
of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; and from him they were 
piu'chased by the British government for 35,000?. and placed in the British Museum, in 
1816. The sbix) conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo, and Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who 
was on board, remained several months at Cerigo, and recovered them from the sea. 

ELIS, a Greek state termed the " Holy Land," in the Peloponnesus, founded by the 
Heraclida% 1103 b.c. Hei-e Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 884, which were regidarly 
celebrated after Coroebus gained the prize in 776. The city of Elis was surrendered to the 
Spartans in a war, 399. Elis joined the Achaean league, 274 ; and with the rest of Greece 
was subjugated by the Romans in 146 B.C. 

ELL (so named from xdna, the arm) was fixed at 45 inches, by king Henry I. in iioi. 
The old French ell, or aune, was 46790 inches. 

ELLISON GALLERY. In Ai^ril, i860, Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison (in conformity with the 
msh of her deceased husband, Richard), presented to the South Kensington Museum a series 
of 50 original water-colour drawings, by the first masters. 

ELLORA or Eloka, Central India ; remarkable for its very ancient rock-cut temple ; 
excavated according to Hindoo legends nearly 8000 years ago ; but more probably about 
800 A.D. The town was ceded to the British byHolkar in 1818, and transferred by them to 
the Nizam of the Deccan in 1822. 

ELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her husband, loses her dower by the statute 
of Westm. 1285 — unless her husband, without coercion of the church, be reconciled to her. 
Earlier laws punished elopement with death when adulteiy followed. 

ELPHIN (Ireland). St. Patrick founded a cathedral near Elphin, "by a river issuing 
from two fountains," in the 5th century, and placed over it St. Asicus, whom he created 
bishop, and who soon after filled it with monks. After many centuries, Roscommon, Ard- 
carn, Drumclive, and others of less note, were also annexed to El2)hin, which became one of 
the richest sees in Ireland. It is valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 28 Eliz., 
at 103?. 185. sterling. The see was united to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the 
Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. 

ELSINORE, Zealand, Denmark, the station for receiving the Sound dues {ivMch sec). 

ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, 
queen of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded a religious house, filled it with 
virgins, and became herself first abbess. The Danes ruined the convent about 870 ; but a 
monastery was built in 879, on which king Edgar and succeeding monarchs bestowed great 
privileges and grants of land ; whereby it became the richest in England. Richard, the 
eleventh abbot, wishing to free himself from the bishop of Lincoln, made great interest with 
Henry I. to get Ely erected into a bishopric, 1108, and his successor Hervreus was the 
first prelate, 1109. It is valued in the king's books at 2134?. i8s. ^d. ; present stated 
income, 5500?. 

1836. Joseph Allen, died 20 March, 1845. 
1845. Thomas Turton, died 7 Jan. 1864. 



RECENT BISHOPS. 

1781. James York, died 26 Aug. 1808. 
1808. Thomas Dampler, died 13 May, 1812. 
1812. Bowyer Bdw. Sparke, died 4 April, 1836 



1864. Edward Harold Browne (present bishop). 



ELZEVIRS, a celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on 
fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683. 

EMANCIPATION, see Roman Catholics and Slavery. 

EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believing that their souls, after many thousand 
years, would reinhabit their bodies, if these were preserved entire, embalmed the dead. 
Some of the bodies, called mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are still perfect. ' ' The physi- 
cians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. Gen. 1. 2; see Mummies.* 

* The raost perfect specimens of modern embalming are preserved in the museum of the royal college of 



EMB 268 EMI 

EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected Tjy the ancients, for preservation from their 
enemies and tbe inundations of the tide. Those of the Egyptians are described by Hero- 
dotus and Strabo. To the Eomans are attributed the first dykes of Holland, and the 
embankments of Romney Marsh, considered to be the oldest in Britain. In 1250 Henry III. 
issued a ■writ enforcing the support of these works ; and his successors followed his example. 
James I. greatly encouraged the embankment of the Thames. Sir W. Dugdale's " History 
of Embanking" fiist appeared in 1662 ; see Drainage, and Levels. Since 1830, millions of 
pounds have been expended in embankments for railways. 

EMBAKGO, from the Spanish emhargar, to detain, applied to the restraining ships from 
sailing. This power is vested in the crown, but is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, 
and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those 
for the prevention of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention of all 
Eussian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the 
armed neutrality, 14 Jan. 1801 ; see Armed Neutrality. 

EMBER WEEKS, instituted, it is said, by pope Callixtus II. (219, 222), to implore 
the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting, in which penitents 
used to sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In the English church 
the Ember days are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday, after— the first Sunday in Lent, 
Whit-sunday, 14 Sept. (Holy Cross), and 13 Dec. (St. Lucia). 

EMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the Phr3'^gians ; but we learn from Homer, and 
other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particularly excelled in this species of needlework. 
Mention is made of this art in 1491 B.C. Exodus xxxv. 35 and xxxviii. 23 ; see Eayeux 
Tapestry. Embroidery is now done by machinery. The first embroidery machine is said 
to have been invented by John Duncan of Glasgow in 1804. Heilman's embroidery machine v 
was patented by Kochlin. Berlin Wool-work has been much improved of late years by the 
production of more elegant patterns, first published by Mr. Wittich in Berlin, about 18 10. 

EMERALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, found in the East and in Pern. It has 
been erroneouslj' alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of 
Peru ; but there is one in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II. who 
died in 15 13, and Peru was not conquered till 1545. 

EMESA, now Hems, Syria, renowned ibr a temple of the sun, the priest of which, 
Bassianus, was proclaimed emperor with the name Heliogabalus or Elagabalus, 218. His 
atrocities led to his assassination, 18 March, 222. 

EMIGRANTS. The French aristocracy and clergj' (emigres) began to leave their country 
in July, 17519, at the breaking out of the revolution : their estates were confiscated in Dec. 
A large number returned in 1802, after the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified after 
the restoration in 1815. 

EMIGRATION. Phoenician and Greek emigrants colonised the coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean and the Black Sea ; see Magna Gra:cia, Marseilles, &c. The discovery of America 
opened a vast field for emigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in 1637. It has heen 
greatly encouraged since 1819. Regulations for emigration were made In 1831, and in Jan. 
1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration Board was established. 

Emigi-ation from the United Kingdom, in 1815, 2081 ; 

in 1820, 25,729; in 1830, 56,907; in 1840, 90,743; 

in 1850, 280,843; in i86c, 128,469; in 1866, 204,282. 
1846. 1851. 

From England 86,611 254.970 

„ Scotland . . . .3,427 18,646 

,, Ireland 38,813 62,350 



_ . ,. 128,851 335.966 

Emigration to Korth American colonies, West 

Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, 

Swan River, Van iJiemen's Land, &e., in 1820-30, 

154,291 ; in 1830-40,277,695. 



To North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123; in 1847, 
109,680; in 1856, 16,378; in 1857, 21,001 ; in 1861, 
12,707; in 1863, 18,083; in 1864, 12,721; in 1866, 
13.255- 

To United States, m 1842, 63,852 ; m 1847, 142,154; m 
1857, 126,905 ; in 1861, 49,764; in 1863, 146,813; in 
1864, 147,042; in 1866, 161,000. 

To Australia and New Zealand, in 1842, S534 ; in 
1845, 830; ill 1850, 16,037; ill 1^52 (gold discovery), 
87,881; in 1853, 61,401; in 1854, 83,237; in 1855, 
52,309; in 1856, 44,584; in 1857, 61,248; in 1861, 
23,738; in 1S63, 53,054; in 1864, 40,942; in 1866, 
24,097. 



EMILY ST. PIERRE, see United States, 1862. 

EMINENCE, a title conferred upon cardinals by jiope Urban YIII. Jan. 10, 163 1, as 
more honourable than "Excellency." Previously cardinals had the title of lllustrissimi. 
Ashe. The grand-master of Malta also obtained this title. Pardon. 

EMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks and Persians, first awarded to the desceu- 

surgeons, one being the body of the wife of Van Butchell, preserved by John Hunter by injecting campho- 
rated spirits of -wine, (fee, into the arteries and veins ; and tlie other, the body of a young woman, who died 
about 1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method of embalming ro> al personage.s in modern 
times is fully described in " Hunter's Posthumous "Works." He died in 1793.— During the American War 
(1861-5) many soldiers' bodies were embalmed and sent home. 



EMI 269 ENC 

clants of Mahomet's daughter Fatiraa, about 650. Ricaut. To sucli only vras originally 
given the privilege of wearing the green turban. 

EMISSION THEORY of Light (advocated by Newton, about 1672) supposes that 
individual particles pass from the luminous body to the eye, and that each ray of liglit 
passes from the sun to the earth. It is opposed to the UiidiUatory Thsory [which sec) now 
generally received. 

EMLY, an Irish see, said to have been founded by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca- 
Ibair : St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. It is now an inconsiderable village. In 1568, 
the see was united to Cashel {-which sec). 

EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often 
inflicted in Rome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In England the dead bodies of mur- 
derers were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried ; see Suicide. 

EMPEROR, from Impercdor (ruler), a title conferred on victorious Roman generals. 

AiigTistus Csesar the first Roman emperor B.r. 27 I Iturbide, emperor of Mexico, Feb. 1822; shot 
Valeutinian I. first emperor of the west, and 19 July, 1824 

Valens first empei-or of the east . a. d. 364 Don Pedro IV. of Portugal the fir.st emperor of 
Charlemagnefirstemperorof Germany, crowned Brazil 1825 

by Leo. Ill 800 Paiistin I. the first emperor of Hayti, in 1S49 > 

Othman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the deposed . . . . . . . . 1859 

first emperor of Turkey 1299 I Maximilian I. emperor of Mexico, 10 April, 

The Czar the first emperor of Russia . . 1722 1 1864 ; shot 19 June, 1867 

Xapoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1804 I 

EMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 3rd century before Christ, who contended 
that all reasoning I'especting the animal economy was useless, and that experience and 
observation alone were the foundation of medicine. The sect adopted the principles of 
Acron of Agrigentum, who flourished about 430 B. c. 

ENAMELLING was pi-actised by the Egyptians, Chinese, and other nations, and was 
known in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel, which 
belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscrijitLon, was made by his order, in his 
reign, about 8S7. Limoges enamelled ware was popular in the i6th century. Magnificent 
specimens by Lepec, Elkington, Emanuel, and others, appeared at the exhibition at Paris, 
1867. On 19 June, 1862, Madame Rachel sued captain Carnegie for 928Z. for enamelling 
his loife's face : and was non-suited ; see Mosaic. 

ENCiENIA, Greek festivals kept on days on which cities were built and temples con- 
secrated ; and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebrations of founders and benefactors. 
Oldisworih. They were the origin of church- wakes in England, about 600. They were also 
feasts celebrated by the Jews on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration of the 
Maccabees cleansing the temple, which had been polluted by Antioclius Epiphanes, 131 B.C. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, enamelling by fire. Painting with burnt wax is said to 
have been known to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art was revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, 
by count Caylus, 1765, and by Miss Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 

ENCRATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, denounced marriage, and abstained from 
flesh, and from wine even at the Lord's sup]ier. 

ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, passed July 1849, to enable owners of land or 
leases in Ireland, subject to encumbrance, to apply to commissioners appointed under it to 
direct a sale of such property. These commissioners held their first court in Dublin, 
24 Oct. 1849, and their last 28 Julj^, 1858. A new court was established under the Landed 
Estates act (1858). The number of estates sold up to 1858 was 23S0, producing twenty-two 
millions of pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the West Indies. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA or Cyclopaedia, a general dictionary of art, science, and literature. 
This name has been given to a work by Abulpharagius in the 13th century. 



iVlsted's Kncyclopredia 1620 

Louis Moreri's Dictionnaire Historiquo . . 1673 
Hofmanu's Lexicon Universale .... 1677 
Comeille's Dictionnaire des Arts . . . 1694 

Bayle's Dictionnaire 1696 

Lexicon Technicum of John Harris (earliest 

EngUsh encyclopaedia) 1704 ; sujjplements, 

1710, 1741 
Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopedia . . . . 1728 
Zedler's Univers il Lexicon . . . 1732-50 

EncyclopJdie (by Diderot and D'Alembert) 1751-80 
[The contributors were termed Encyclope- 

DisTES, and their bold writings are believed 

to have hastened the French revolution iu 

1789.] 



Enoyclopredia Britannica, 1st edition (hj ^m. 
Smellie) 1778 

I The 8th completed, iSGr.J 
Encycloi5.3dio M^thodique (by Pancoucke) 1782-1832 
Chambers' Cyclopasdia (.edited by Eees) . . 1785 

Kees' Cyclopaedia 1802-19 

Brockhaus's Conver.^ations Lexicon, ist edition 1818 

[Xew edition -i fi'equent.J 
Encyclop;edia Metropolitana . . . 1817-45 

Cabuiet Oyc op2edia(a collection of treatises) 1829-46 

Penny Cyclopiedia 1833-46 

Knight's En'Tl'sh Cyclopsedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61 
Chimbers' Cyclopedia .... 1859-68 
Ersoh and Griiber's Allgenieine Encyclopiidie, 
began i3i8; 125 vola. published . • . 1861 



END 



270 



E¥G 



ENDEEBY LAND, see Southern Continent. 

ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, found that if two fluids, gases or vapours, 
of unequal density, are separated by an animal or vegetable membrane, the denser will 
attract the less dense through the medium. This property he called cnclosmose, when the 
attraction is from the outside to the inside, and cxosmose when it operates fi-om the inside 
to the outside. Many natural phenomena are thus more clearly understood. Brancle. 

ENFIELD MUSKET, see Fire-arms. 

ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the Austrians, May 3, i8cx). 

ENGHIEN or Steenkirk (S.W. Belgium). Here the British under "William HI. were 
■defeated by the French under marshal Luxemburg, 24 July, 1692. — The due d'Enghien, a 
descendant of the great Conde, was seized in Baden by order of Bonaparte, conveyed to 
Yincenues, and, after a hasty trial, shot by torch-light, immediately after condemnation, 
21 March, 1804. The body was exhumed, 20 March, 1816. 

ENGINEERS, formerly called Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench- 
master in 1622 ; the chief engineer was called camp-master general in 1634. Captain 
Thomas Eudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king about 1650. The corps of engineers 
was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military force, and directed to ' rank with the 
artillery, 25 April, 1787. It has a colonel-in-chief, 16 colonels-commandant, and 16 
colonels. Civil Engioieering became important in the middle of the last century, when 
Smeaton began the Eddystone lighthouse, and Brindley the Bridgewater canal. Since then 
the Eenuies, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels, Locke, and others have constructed 
breakwaters, docks, bridges, railways, tunnels, &c., which are the marvel of our age. 



The first society of Civil Engineers formed by 
Smeaton and others, afterwards termed the 
Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers . . 1793 

Institution of Civil Engineers established 
2 Jan. 1818 ; obtained a charter . 3 June 1828 
1472 members Jan. 1868 

Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which 



has its head-quarters in Birmingham, estab- 
lished 1847 

Isambard Kingdon Brunei, projector of the 
Ch-eat Eaitirn, aged 53, died 15 Sept. ; Robert 
Stephenson, railway engineer, aged 59, died 

12 Oct. 1859 



ENGLAND, so named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the English, in a general 
council held at 'Winchester, 829. This appellative had been used as far back as 688, but 
had never been, until then, ratified by any assembly of the nation; It came from Angles, a 
tribe of Saxons, and lond, the Saxon for countiy ; see Anglo-Saxons. England was united 
with Wales, 1283 ; with Scotland in 1603 ; and the same legislature in 1707, when the tln-ee 
were styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with them, by the act of legislative 
union, i Jan. 1801, and the whole was called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland. For x^revious history, see Britain, and for further details, population, revenue, &c. , 
see separate articles. Histories of England, byRapin (in English), 1725-31 ; Thomas Carte, 
1747-55; David Hume, 1755-62; Tobias Smollett, 1757-65; John Lingard, 1819-30; 
Charles Knight, 1856-62. 

Egbert, "king of the English," 827; defeats 
the Welsh, Danes, &c., at Hengestdown . 835 

Alfred, king, 871 ; after many -vicissitudes, 
vanquishes the Danes 871-896 

He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia 
and navy, surveys and subdivides the coun- 
try, and promotes education .... 8g5 

Athelstan"s great victory over the Danes, Scots, 
&c. at Brunanburg 937 

Predommance of Dunstan ; he promotes mona- 
chism and the celibacy of the clergy, about . 952 

Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace 991 

Causes their general massacre . . 13 Nov. 1002 

Avenged by Sweyn, king of Denmark : Ethel- 
red flees to Normandy 1003 

Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014 ; dies 1016 



1017 
1042 



1066 



Canute the Dane sole monarch 

Edward the Confessor king ; Saxon dynasty 
restored 

Harold II. crowned, 6 Jan. ; defeats the Nor- 
wegians, 25 Sept. ; defeated and slain at 
Hastings by William of Normandy 14 Oct. 
William I. crowned ... 25 Dec. ,, 

The northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the 
Humber to the Tyne 1069-70 

Introduction of the feudal system, about . 1070 

Justices of peace appointed .... 1076 

Domesday book compiled .... 1085-6 
William II. crowned . . .26 Sept. 1087 

The crusades beg-in 1096 



Henry I. cro-wiied ; restores Saxon laws, 

&c 5 Aug. iioo 

Defeats his brother Bobert, and gains Nor- 
mandy . 1106 

Stephen crowned . . .26 Dec. 1135 
Ci-vil war between the empress Maud, Henry's 
daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the 
Scots defeated at the battle of the Standard, 

22 Aug. 1138 
She lands in England, and is successful . . 1139 
Cro-wned at Winchester . . . 3 March, 1141 

Defeated ; retires to France .... 1147 
Concludes a peace -with Stephen . . . . 1153 

Henry II. cro-wned . . . 19 Dec. 1154 
Constitutions of Clarendon enacted . Jan. 1164 
Arrogance of Becket ; murdered . 29 Dec. 1170 

Conquest of Ireland 1172 

England df-vided into six circuits for the ad- 
ministration of justice 1176 

English laws digested by Glanville, about . 1181 

BiCHARD I. cro-wned . . .3 Sept. 1189 

He joins the crusades 1191 

Defeats Saladin 1192 

Made prisoner by Henry VI. of Germany Dec. 1192 
Ransomed for 400,000?. ..... 1194 

John crowned .... 27 May, 1199 

Normandy lost to England .... 1204 

England put under an interdict . . . . 1208 
Magna Charta signed . . . .15 June, 1215 

Henky III. crowned . z8 Oct. 1216 



ENG 



271 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

Gold first coined in England .... 1257 
The Barons' war (lohicli, see) .... 1262-8 
The first regular parliament .... 1265 

Edward I. crowned ... 20 Nov. 1272 

"Wales united to England 1283 

Death of Roger Bacon 1292 

Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts . . . 1297 

Edward II. crowned . . .8 July, 1307 
Defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn 24 June, 1314 
Insurrection of the barons agamst his favourites 1 308, 

131S. 1325 

Edward III. crowned ... 25 Jan. 1327 

Defeats the Scots at Hallidown-hill . . . 1333 

Invades France ; victorious at Crecy 26 Aug. 1346 

Takes Calais 1347 

Order of the Garter instituted . . . . 1349 
Victory at Poictiers . . . -19 Sept. 1356 

Peace of Bretigny 8 May, 1360 

Law pleadmgs in English 1362 

Richard II. crowned . . 22 June, 1377 
Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed 15 June, 1381 

Death of Wickliffe 1385 

Henry IV. crowned . . 30 Sept. 1399 

Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . ,, 
Insun-ection of the Percies and the Welsh . 1402-5 
Henry V. cro^vned . 21 March, 1413 

France invaded by Henry V. who gains the 

battle of Agincourt ... 25 Oct. 1415 
Treaty of Troj^es ; the French crown gained . 1420 
Henry VI. crowned at Paris . Dec. 1430 
Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the French 

conquests lost, excej)t Calais . . . 1429-31 

Cade's insurrection .... June, 1450 

War of the Roses fseo iJoses and Battles) 1455-71 

Edward IV. deposes Henry VI. 4 March, 1461 

Printing introduced by Caxton . . . . 1471 

Edward V. accession . . .9 April, 1483 

Mui'dered in the Tower (soon after) • . . ,, 

Richard III. deposes Edward V. 25 Jmie, ,, 

Valuable statutes enacted 1484 

Henry VII. accession ; Richard defeated 
and slain at Bosworth Field 22 Aug. 14S5 

Henry marries Elizabeth daughter of Edw. IV. i486 
Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . 14S6-7 
Court of Star Chamber instituted . . . 1487 
Yeomen of the guard, the first appearance of a 

standing army in England, instituted . . 1488 
Henry sells the sovereignty of France . . . 1492 
Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled . 1492-8 
Gardening introduced into England, princi- 
pally from the Netherlands, about . . 1502 
Death of prince Arthur ... 2 April, ,, 
Henry VIII. accession. . . 22 April, 1509 

Rise of Wolsey 1514 

Henry VIII. 's interview with Francis I. at 
Ardres (see "Field of the Cloth of Gold ") 

4-25 June, 1520 
First map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about ,, 
Henry VIII. becomes " Defender of the Faith" 1521 
Fall of Wolsey : he dies . . .29 if ov. 1530 
Henry VIII. divorces Catherine ; marries Anne 

Boleyn 23 May, 1333 

Henry VIII. styled " Head of the Church " . 1534 
The pope's authority in England is abolished . ,, 
Sir Thomas More beheaded . . 6 July, 1535 

Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded . 19 May, 1536 
Queen Jane Seymour dies ... 24 Oct. 1537 

Monasteries suppressed 153S 

Statute of Six Articles passed .... 1539 
Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, &c., executed ,, 
The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cran- 

mer's) printed ,, 

Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded . . . 1540 
Aime of Cleves divorced . . .9 July, ,, 

Queen Catherine Howard beheaded . . . 1542 
The title of "king of Ireland" confirmed to the 

English sovereigns 1543 

Henry marries Catherine Parr . . 12 July, ,, 
Edward VI. accession, 28 Jan. ; promotes 
the Reformation (Somerset, jsrotector) . 1547 
Somerset deprived of power, 1549 ; beheaded . 1552 



Book of Common Prayer established . . 1552 

Mary, accession 6 July ; restores popery . 1553 
Execution of lady Jane Grey and her friends . 1554 
Mary marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the 

Protestants ,, 

Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer burnt 1555 & 1556 
Calais re-taken by the French . . 7 Jan. 1558 
Elizabeth, accession 17 Nov. ; the church 
of England re-established . . . ,, 
Mary, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1568 ; 

executed 8 Feb. 1587 

The Spanish armada repulsed . . July, 1588 

Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . . . 1601 

James I. accession ; union of the two 

crowns 24 March 1603 

Styled "king of Great Britain " . .24 Oct. 1604 
The Gunpowder Plot .... Nov. 1605 

The present translation of the Bible completed 161 1 
Baronets first created .... May, ,, 
The Overbury murder . . .15 Sept. 1613 
Shakspeare dies .... 23 Api-il, 1616 
Raleigh beheaded .... 29 Oct. 1618 
Book of Sports published . . .24 May, ,, 

Ch.\.rles I. accession . . .27 March, 1625 
Death of lord Bacon . . . .9 April, 1626 
Duke of Buckingham assassinated . 23 Aug. 162S 
Hampden's trial respecting " ship money " . 1637 
Contest between the king and paiiiament ; im- 
peachment and execution of lord Strafford . 1641 
" Arrest of the five members," . . 4 Jan. 1642 
Civil war begins : battle of Edgehill (see 

Battles) 23 Oct. ,, 

Archbishop Laud beheaded . . 10 Jan. 1645 
Charles defeated at Naseby . . 14 June, ,, 
He flees to the Scotch, 5 May ; is given up, 

21 Sept. 1646 
Execution of Charles I. . . .30 Jan. 1649 
Cromwell's victory at Worcester . . 3 Sept. 165 1 
Oliver Cromwell protector of the Com- 
monwealth .... 16 Dec. 1653 
Naval victories of Blake .... 1652-7 
Richard Cromwell, protector . 3 Sept. 1658 
Richard resigns .... 25 May, 1659 

Charles II. : monarchy re-established, 

29 May, 1660 
Act of imiformity passed ; church of England 

restored 1662 

The great plague 1665 

The great fire of London . . 2, 3 Sept. 1666 
Disgrace of lord Clarendon . . Nov. 1667 

Death of John Milton . . . .8 Nov. 1674 
Gates's "popish plot" creates a panic, 13 Aug. 1678 
Su-Edmondbury Godfrey found mui-dered i70ot. ,, 
Many Roman Catholics executed . . 167S-9 
The Habeas Corpus act, for protecting English 
subjects against false arrest and imprison- 
ment, passed .... 27 May, 1679 
"Rye-house plot ;" William, lord Russell (ex- 
ecuted 21 July), and Algernon Sydney 

executed 1683 

James II. accession . . . .6 Feb. 1685 
Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defeated at Sedg- 

moor, 6 July ; he is beheaded . 15 Julj% „ 

Acquittal of the seven bishops . 30 June, 1688 

Abdication of James II. . . . 11 Dec. ,, 

William III. and Mary proclaimed by the 

convention parliament . . 13 Feb. 1689 

National debt begi7as 1692 

Bank of England incorporated . 27 July, 1694 
Death of the queen regnant, Mary . 28 Dec. ,, 

Peace of Ryswick 1697 

Death of James II. in exile . . .16 Sept. 1701 
Anne, acocs-sion ... 8 March, 1702 
Victory of Marlboi-ough at Blenheim . . 1704 

Union of the two kingdoms under the title of 

Great Britain i May, 1707 

Sacheverell riots 1710 

Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great 

Britain n April, 1713 

George I. of Hanover, accession i Aug. 1714 
The Scots' rebellion quelled . . . .1715 



ENG 



272 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

South-sea bubVile 1720 

Death of the duke of Marlborough . 16 June, 1722 
Order of the Bath revived (wte/i sec) . .1725 
Georgk II. accession . . . n June, 1727 
Death of Newton .... 20 March, ,, 
George II. at victory of Dettingen 16 June, 1743 
Second Scots' rebellion : pi-ince Charles-Edward 
gains Edinburgh, 17 Sept. ; victor at Preston- 
pans 21 Sept. 1745 

At Falkirk, 18 Jan; defeated totally at CuU 

loden 16 April, 1746 

Death of prince Frederick Loiiis, son of George 

II. and father of George III. . 20 March, 1751 

New style introduced into England, 

3 Sept. (made 14) 1752 

Seven years' war begins 1756 

Conquest of India begins, under colonel (after- 
wards lord) Olive (see India) . ... 1757 
Death of general Wolfe (see SwcSec) . . . 1759 
George III. accession . . 25 Oct. 1760 

His nuptials with Charlotte Sophia, of Meck- 
lenburg StreUtz, 8 Sept. ; crowned, 22 Sept. 1761 
Peace of Paris ; Canada gained . . 10 Feb. 1763 
Lsle of Man annexed to Great Britam . . . 1765 
Death of the Old Pretender, the " chevalier de 

St. George" 30 Dec. „ 

Royal marriage act passed 1772 

Commencement of American war . . . 1773 
Death of earl of Chatham . . 11 May, 1778 

"No Popery" riots . . . . 2-7 June, 1780 
Separation of America from England 30 Nov. 1782 
Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of 

George III 2 Aug. 1786 

Trial of Warren Hastings begins . 13 Feb. 1788 
Death of Young Pretender, at Rome 3 March, „ 
The king's illness made known . .12 Oct. ,, 
He recovers, and goes to St. Paul's to make 

thanksgiving 23 April, 17B9 

First coalition against France . 26 June, 1792 
Habeas Corpus act suspended . 23 May, 1794 

Howe's victory .... i June, ,, 

Marriage of the prince of Wales with the prin- 
cess Caroline of Brunswick . . 8 April, 1795 
Warren Hastings acquitted . . 23 April, ,, 
Princess Charlotte born ... 7 Jan. 1796 
Cash payments suspended . . 25 Feb. 1797 

Death of Edmund Burke . . .9 July, „ 

Battle of the Nile i Aiig. 1798 

Irish rebellion May, „ 

Habeas Corpus act again suspended . . . ,, 
Hatfield's attempt on the king's hfe 15 May, 1800 
Union of Great Britain with Ireland i Jan. 1801 
Nelson's victory at Copenhagen . 2 April, ,, 

Habeas Corpus act again suspended 19 April, „ 
Peace of Amiens concluded . . i Oct. ,, 
War against Bonaparte . . .18 May, 1803 
Nelson's victory and death at Trafalgar 21 Oct. 1805 

Death of Mr. Pitt 23 Jan. 1806 

" Delicate investigation " (wTiic?!. see) . May, ,, 

Lord Melville impeached, 29 April; acquitted, 

12 June, ,, 
Death of Charles James Fox . . 13 Sept. „ 
Orders in council against Berlin decree, 7 Jan. 1S07 
AboUtion of the slave trade by parliament, 

25 March, „ 
Death of sir J. Moore. (See Corunna) 16 Jan. 1809 
Duke of York impeached by col. Wardle Jan. ,, 
Jubilee celebrating king's accession . 25 Oct. ,, 
Unfortunate Walcheren expedition Aug. -Nov. ,, 
Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots 6 Api-il, 1810 
Death of princess AmeUa ; king's malady returns 

2 Nov. ,, 
Great commercial embarrassment . Dec. ,, 
Regent. — The prince of Wales . . g Feb. 1811 

Luddite riots Nov. ,, 

Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier, 11 May, 1812 
Earl of Liverpool premier . . 9 June, ,, 
War with America commenced . .18 June, ,, 
Peace with France, &c. ... 14 April, 1814 
Visit of the emperor of Russia and king of 
Prussia to England .... 7 June, ,, 



Centenary of the house of Hanover . i Aug. 181.; 
War with America .... Aug. ,, 
Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) 24 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Waterloo (close of French war), 18 June, 1815 
Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of 

Saxe-Goburg ..... 2 May, 1816 

Death of R. B. Sheridan . . . 9 July, ,, 
Spa-fields meeting (i(,7iic7t see) . . .2 Dec. ,, 
Green-bag inquiry (which see) . . 2 Feb. 1817 
Habeas Corpus act suspended . . 24 Feb. ,, 
Cash payments resumed . . .22 Sept. ,, 
Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth 6 Nov. ,, 
Queen Charlotte dies at Kew . . 17 Nov. 1818 
Queen Victoria born . . . .24 May, 1819 
Manchester reform meeting (Peterloo) 16 Aug. ,, 
Duke of Kent dies .... 23 Jan. 1820 

George IV. accession . . . 29 Jan. ,, 
Cato-street conspirators an-ested, 23 Feb. ex- 
ecuted I May, ,, 

Trial of Queen Caroline . 19 Aug. to 10 Nov. ,, 
Coronation of George IV. . . 19 July, 1821 
Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith 7 Aug. ,, 

Lord Byron dies 19 April, 1824 

Commercial panic 1825-6 

Duke of York dies .... 5 Jan. 1827 
Mr. Canning, first minister, 30 Ajiril; dies, 

8 Aug. ,, 

Battle of Navarino 20 Oct. ,, 

Roman Catholic Relief bill passed . 13 April, 1829 
Political panic in London ; — riots . . Nov. ,, 

William IV. accession . . .26 June, 1830 
Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of the 

Liverpool and Manchester railway 15 Sept. ,, 
Grey administration formed . . . Nov. ,, 
King opens new London bridge . . Aug. 1831 

The cholera morbus in England . 26 Oct. ,, 

Reform bill rejected by the lords, 7 Oct. ; fatal 

Bristol riots 29 Oct. ,, 

Reform act passed .... 7 June, 1832 
Sir Walter Scott dies .... 21 Sept. ,, 
Assault on William IV. by a discharged pen- 
sioner at Ascot .... 19 June, ,, 
S. T. Coleridge dies . . . .25 July, 1834 
Slavery ceases in the colonies . . .1 Aug. ,, 
Corporation reform act passed . . 9 Sept. 1835 
Victoria, accession ; Hanover separated 
from Great Britain . . 20 June, 1837 
Coronation of Victoria . . . .28 June, 1838 
Beginning of war with China . . . March, 1839 
Penny postage begins .... 10 Jan. 1840- 
Marriage of the queen with prince Albert of 

Saxe-Coburg (see p. 276) . . 10 Feb. ,, 

Oxford's assault on the queen . . 10 June, ,, 
Prince of Wales born . . . .9 Nov. i84r 
King of Prussia visits England . . 24 Jan. 1842 
John Francis fires at the queen . 30 May, ,, 
Bean presents a pistol at her . . 3 July, ,, 
Income tax act passed .... Aug. ,, 
Queen embarks for Scotland (ist visit) 29 Aug. ,, 
Peace of Nankin (with China) . . . Dec. „ 
Death of duke of Sussex ... 21 April, 1843 
Queen's visit to the Orleans family at Chateau ,, 

d'Eu 2 Sept. ,, 

Emperor of Russia visits England . i Jime, 1844 

King Louis Philippe's visit ... 7 Oct. ,, 
Tractarian or Puseyite controversy . . 1844-5 

Anti-corn-law agitation 1845. 

Queen's visit to Germany . . .9 Aug. ,, 
Peel's new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania Nov. ,, 
Commercial panic .... March, 1846 
Corn laws repealed . . . . 26 June, ,, 
Chartist demonstration in London . 10 April, 1848. 
Cholera re-appears in England in 1848 and 1849 

Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland, i Aug. ,, 
Adelaide, qiieen dowager, dies . . 2 Dec. ,, 
"Exhibition of 1851 " announced . . 3 Jan. 1850. 
Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) . . 23 April, ,, 
Pate's assault on the queen . . 27 June ,, 
Death of sir Robert Peel (aged 62) . 2 July, ,. ■ 
Duke of Cambridge dies . . .8 July, ,, 

Queen's visit to Belgium . . .21 Aug. ,,. 



ENG 



273 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

Grent excitement occasioned by the pope's 
establislimeut of a Koman Catholic hierarchy 
in England Nov. 

Census of United Kmgdom (see Fopuhition) 
(27,637,761) 30 March, 

The first " Great Exhibition" opened i May, 

Australian gold arrives .... Dec. 

Death of the poet Thomas Moore . . 26 Feb. 

Slight earthquake at Liverpool, (fee. . 9 Nov. 

Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sei)t. 14 ; public 
fiuieral 18 Nov. 

Camp at Chobham . . .14 Juue-19 Aug. 1853 

Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of 
Sciude 29 Aug. 

English & French fleets enter Bosphoi-us, 22 Oct. 

Protocol signed between England, France, 
Austria, and Prussia, for re-establishment of 
peace between Russia and Turkey 5 Dec. 

Many meetings on eastei-n question, favourable 
to Turkey .... Sept. to Dec. 

Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unem- 
ployed at one time 15 Oct. 1853, to i May, 1S54 

Queen reviews Baltic fleet . . 11 March, 

Treaty of alliance between England, France, 
and Turkey signed . . . .12 March, 

War declared against Russia (see Russo- 
Tnrkkh War) . . . . 28 March, 

Fast day on account of the war . . 26 April, 

Marquis of .iVnglesey dies . . .28 May, 

King of Portugal visits England . June, 

Crystal Palace opened by the queen 10 June, 

Cholera prevails in the south and west of 
London .... Aug. and Sept. 

Thanksgiving for abundant harvest . i Oct. 

Great explosion and fire at Gateshead and 
Newcastle 6 Oct. 

Meeting of Parliament . . . .12 Dec. 

Resignation of Aberdeen ministry . 29 Jan. 1855 

Formation of Palmerston ministry . Feb. 

Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) . 20 Feb. 

Sebastopol inquiry committee named . 23 Feb. 

Visit of emperor and empress of French, 
April 16 to 21, 

Loan of 16 millions agreed to . . . April, 

Distribution of Crimean medals . .18 May, 

Metropolitan cattle market opened . 13 June, 

Agitation and rioting concerning Sunday 
ti'ading bill, which is withdrawn . 2 July, 

The queen and prince visit Paris . 18 Aug. 

Peace with Russia proclaimed, 19 April ; thanks- 
giving day, 4 May; illuminations, &c. 29 May, 

War with China {which see) . . . Oct. 

War with Persia {lohicli see) . . . Nov. 

Dissolution of parUament, 21 March ; new 
parliament meets .... 30 April, 1857 

Death of duchess of Gloiicester (aged 81), the 
last of George III.'s children . . 30 April, 

Mutiny of Indian army begins (see India) Mar. 

Opening of the Pine Ai'ts exhibition at Man- 
chester S May, 

Educational conference in London, pi-ince 
Albert in the chair . . . .22 June, 

Victoria crosses {ichich see) distributed by the 
queen in Hyde-park ... 26 June, 

Meetings for i-elief of sufferers by the mutiny 
in India [by 15 Nov. 260,000^ raised] 25 Aug. 

Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension 
of Bank Charter Act of 1844 . . 12 Nov. 

ParUament meets 3 Dec. 

MaiTiage of princess royal to prince Frederick- 
William of Prussia .... 25 Jan. 

Excitement respecting attempted assassination 
of Louis Napoleon, 14 Jan. ; indiscreet ad- 
dresses of French colonels, published, 27 Jan. 

"Conspiracy to Murder" bill (introduced by 
lord Palmerston, 8 Feb.) rejected, 19 Feb. ; 
Palmerston ministry resigns . 22 Feb. 

Derby-Disraeli administration formed, 26 Feb. 

Dr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy 
against the life of Louis Napoleon 17 April, 

The Jewish DisabiUties bill pas.sed . 23 July, 



The India bill passed . . . .2 Aug. 

The queen visits Birmingham, 15 June ; Cher- 
bourg, 4, 5 Aug. ; the princess royal (at Pots- 
dam), 12 Aug. kc. ; and Leeds . Sept. 

Excitement about the confessional ; public 
meetings held against it, 12 July & 18 Sept. 

The Association for the Promotion of Social 
Science meet at Livci-pool . . .12 Oct. 

Excitement respecting the Italian war ; pro- 
clamation for manning the navy . 30 April, 

Thanksgiving for suppression of Indian mutiny, 

I May, 

Declaration of neutrality of England 12 May, 

Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer 
rifle corps : many formed . . May-Oct. 

The Derby ministry defeated on the Reform 

bill : dissolve parliament, 23 April ; again 

defeated, they resign, 11 June; and the 

Palmerston-Eussell administration is foi-med 

18 June, 

The Handel commemoration 20, 22, 24 June, 

The income-tax increased to provide for the 
defences of the country . . . July, 

Lord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . . 28 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with France, signed 23 Jan. ; 
approved by parliament . . . March, 

Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . 12 May, 

The queen reviews 18,000 vohmteers in Hyde- 
Park 23 June, 

Great failures in the leather trade . July, &c. 

National rifle shooting match at Wimbledon, 

2-7 July, 

The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lanca- 
shire volunteers at Knowsley . . i Sept. 

The queen and prince visit their daughter in 
Prussia Sept. 

Peace with China signed . . -24 Oct. 

Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies(aged 82) 

31 Oct. 

Prince of Wales visits Canada and United 
States, 24 July-20 Oct. ; returns . 15 Nov. 

Severe cold (see Cold) . Dec. 1S60, and Jan. 

Charter granted for Exhibition of 1862, 14 Feb. 

Death of duchess of Kent (aged 75), 16 March, 

Excitement about "Essays and Reviews" 

Seventh census taken ... 8 April, 

Great excitement through capt. Wilkes (of U.S. 
navy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and 
Mason from the Royal British mail steamer 
Trent (see United States) . . .8 Nov. 

King of Sweden and his son visit London Aug. 

Death of the prince consort of " typhoid fever, 
duration 21 days," 14 Dec. ; buried (see ^(6' rt 
Memorial) ...... 23 Dec. 

The United States' government release Messrs. 
Slidell and Mason . . . , . 28 Dec. 

International Exhibition opened by the duke 
of Cambridge i IMay, 

Inundations in Norfolk (see levels) . May, 

Marriage of princess Alice to Louis of Hesse, 

I July, 

Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens 
(declined) 23 Oct. 

Final closing of international exhibition, 15 Nov. 

Remains of the prince consort transferred to 
the mausoleum at Frogmore . . 18 Dec. 

Great distress in the cotton manufacturing dis- 
tricts begins. April: contributions received, 
central relief fund, 407,830^. ; Mansion-house 
fund, 236,926^ 20 Dec. 

Rupture with Brazil .... Jan. 

Prince Alfred elected king of Greece . 3 Feb. 

Princess Alexandi-a of Denmark enters London, 
7 March ; married to the prince of Wales, 

10 iLarch, 

The British, French, and Austrian governments 
remonstrate with Russia on crueltiesin Poland 

7 April, 

Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial 
to the prince consort in the Horticultural 
gardens, London . . . .11 June, 

T 



[S61 



1863 



ENG 



274 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

Arrival of captains Grant and Speke from ex- 
ploring the source of the Nile . . June, 

Great decrease of distress in cotton districts, Oct. 

Earthquake in central & N W. England 6 Oct. 

The government declines the French emperor's 
proposal for a congj-ess of sovereigns Nov. 

Death of Wilham Thackeray (aged 52) 24 Dec. 

Birth of prince Albert-Victor of Wales 8 Jan. 

PiHal judgment of the judicial committee of 
the privy council that the government had 
no authority to seize the ^Zexa'/icZra (Confede- 
rate) steamer 8 Feb. 

Garibaldi's visit to England causes great enthu- 
siasm 3-27 April, 

The Ionian isles made over to Greece i June, 

European conference at London on the Schles- 
wig-Holstein question ; no result ; 24 April — 

25 June, 

Great excitement through the murder of j\Ir. 
Briggs in a first-class carriage on the North- 
London railway .... 9 July, 

Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere 
magazine, near Woolwich . . i Oct. 

Death of John Leech (aged 47) . 29 Oct. 

Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . 2 April, 

Prince George of Wales born . . 3 Jime, 

Resignation of lord-chancellor Westbiiry 4 July, 

General election ; majority for Palmerston ad- 
ministration .... 10 July, (fee. 

Visit of Abd-el-Kader ; departs . . 6 Aug. 

Prevalence of a cattle plague, June-Oct. 
Royal commission appointed, met 10 Oct. 

English fleet visits Cherbourg, 15 Aug. ; French 
fleet visits Portsmouth . . 29, 30 Aug. 

Fine Art and Industrial exhibitions opened in 
London and the provinces . . July-Sept. 

Death of lord Palmerston, 18 Oct. ; public 
funeral 27 Oct. 

Earl Russell premier . . . . 3 Nov. 

Important commercial treaty with Austria 
16 Dec. 



1863 



New parliament opened by the queen in person, 

6 Feb. 

New refoi-m hill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 

12 March, 

Commercial panic in London 11 May, et seq. 

International botanical congress opened 22 May, 

Defeat of the government on the reform bill, 
18 June ; resignation of ministers 26 June, 

Man-iage of princess Helena to prmce Christian 
of Schleswig-Holstein ... 5 July, 

The third Derby cabinet formed . . 6 July, 

The Atlantic telegi-aph comjjletely laid, and 
messages sent to loi'd Stanley . 27 July, 

The cable of 1865 recovered, and communication 
established with Valentia, 2 Sept. ; and ■^dth 
Newfoundland 8 Sept. 

Projected attack of Fenians on Chester pre- 
vented by the authorities . II, 12 Feb. 

The queen laid foundation of the xUbert hall 
of arts at S. Kensington . . . zo May, 

Visit of the viceroy of Egypt (see Egyvt) 

6-18 Jxiiy, 

Visit of the Belgian volunteers (see Belgium), 
10-22 July, 

Visit of the Sultan (see TurheiJ) 12-23 July, 

" Early Vears of the Prince Consort," published 
end of ...... . July, 

Fenian outrages, rescue of prisoners at Man- 
chester (see Fenians) . . .18 Sept. 

New Reform act passed (see Reform) 15 Aiig. 

Meeting of parliament to provide for Abyssmiim 
war 19 Nov. 

Fenian explosionatClerkenwelliorison, London, 

13 Dec. 

Special constables called for; 113,674 (in the 
U.K.) sworn in by .... 28 Jan. 

" Leaves from our Journal in Scotland," <fec., 
by the queen, published . . . Jan. 

Resignation of earl of Derby, 25 Feb. ; the Dis- 
raeU ministry formed, ... 29 Feb. 

The queen holds a drawing-room again 1 2 March, 



KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 



827. 
837- 
8S7- 
860. 



901. 

925- 
940. 



975- 



BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Egbert, styled " king of England " in 828. 

Ethelwolf ; his son. 

Ethel bald ; his son. 

Ethelbert ; brother. 

Bthelred ; brother. 

Alfred the Great ; brother ; died 21 or 28 Oct. 

901. 
Edward the Elder ; son ; died 925. 
Athelstan ; eldest son ; died 17 Oct. 940. 
Edmund I., fifth son of Edward the Elder; 

bled to death from a wound received in an 

affray, 26 May, 946. 
Edred ; brother ; died 955. 
Edwy, eldest son of Edmund ; died of grief in 

958. In this reign Dunstan, a turbulent 

and ambitious priest, ruled the king, who 

afterwards banished him. 
Edgar the Peaceable ; brother ; died i July, 

975- 
Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 
Castle, at the instance of his mother-in-law 
Elfrida, 18 March, 979. 



979' 
1013. 
1014, 



I03S- 
1040. 



1042. 
io56. 



Bthelred II. ; half-brother ; retired. 

Sweyn, proclaimed king ; died 3 Feb. 1014. 

Canute the Great ; his son. 

Ethelrod restored in Canute's absence; died 
24 April, 1016. 

Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the king- 
dom with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, 
30 Nov. 1016 ; reigned seven months. 

Canute sole king ; married Emma, widow of 
Ethelred; died 12 Nov. 1035. 

Harold I. ; natural son ; died 17 Mar. 1040. 

Hardicanute, son of Canute aud Emma ; died 
of repletion at a marriage feast, 8 June, 1042. 

Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and 
Emma ; died s Jan. 1066, naming William 
of Normandy his successor. 

Harold II., son of earl Godwin; reigned nine 
months ; killed near Hastings, 14 Oct. 1666. 



THE NORMANS.* 

io65. William the Conqueror ; crowned 23 Dec. 
died at Rouen, 9 Sept. 1087. 



* The EEGNAL DATES are those given by sir H. Nicolas. The early Norman and Plantagenet kings 
reckoned their reigns from the day of their coronation ; the later Plantagenets from the day after the 
death of their predecessor. With Edward VI. began the present custom of beginning the reign on the 
death of the preceding sovereign. 



ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 

WilUam I. William II. and Henry I. — two lions or 
leopards passant : Stephen— Sagittarius, the archer 
one of the signs of the Zodiac {Traditional). 

Henry II. to Edward II. Three Uons passant. 

Edward HI. and his successors quartered the pre- 
ceding with fleuvs de lys, the arms of France. 

Henry V. used only 3 fleurs de lys. 



Mary I. quartered the preceding with the arras of 
her husband Philip II. of Spain. 

UNITED KINGDOM. 

James I. and his successors combined the ai-ms of 
England and France (ist and 4th quarter) ; 2nd, 
the lion ramioant of Scotland; 3rd, the harp of 



ENG 



275 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

Qneen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
Flanders ; married in 1054 ; died in 1083. 

1087. WiUiam II. Rxifus ; reign began, 26 Sept. ; 
killed by an arrow, 2 Aug. iioo'- 

1 100. Henry I, Beauclerc, his brother; reign began 
5 Aug. ; died of a surfeit, i Dec. 11 35. 
Queens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. 
king of Scotland; married 11 Nov. iioo; 
died I May, it 19. 2. Adelais, daughter of 
Godfrey, earl of Louvaine ; married 29 Jan. 
1129 ; survived the king. 

1135. Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry; 
reign began 26 Dec. ; died 25 Oct. 1154. 
Qxieen, Matilda, daugliter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogne; married in 1128; died 3 May, 1151. 
[Maud, daughter of Henry I. and rightful 
heir to the throne ; born iioi ; betrothed, 
in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry V. 
emperor of Germany, who died 1125. She 
married, secondly, Geoflfrey Planfcigenet, 
earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from 
the English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; 
landed in England and claimed the crown, 
1 1 39. Crowned, but soon after defeated at 
Winchester, 1141; concluded a peace with 
Stephen, which secured the succession to 
her son Henry, 1153 ; died 1165.] 

THE PLANTAGENETS. 

1 154. Henry II. fiantagemt, grandson of Henry I. 
and son of Aluud ; reign began 19 Dec. ; 
died 6 July, 1189. 

Queen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of 
Louis VII. king of France, and heiress of 
Guienne and Poitou ; mamed to Henry 
1151 ; died 1204; see Kouimond. 
1189. Richard I. Coeur de Lion, his son ; reign began 
3 Sept. ; died of a wound, 6 April, 1199. 

Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of 
Navarre; married 12 May, 1191 ; survived 
the king. 
1 199. John, the brother of Richard; reign began 
27 May ; died ig Oct. 1216. 

Queens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Glouces- 
ter: married in 11 89; divorced. 2. Isabella, 
daughter of the count of Angouleme : she 
was the young and virgin wife of the count 
de la Marche ; man-ied to John in 1200. 
Sui-vived the king, on whose death she was 
re-married t j the count de la Marche. 
1216. Henry III. son of John ; reign began 28 Oct. ; 
died i5 Nov. 1272. 

Queen, Eleanor, daxighter of the Count de 

Provence ; married 14 Jan. 1236 ; survived 

the king ; and died in 1291, in a monastery. 

1272. Edward I. son of Henry, sui-named Xo7i(7.>i/tc«its/ 

reign began 20 Nov. ; died 7 July, 1307. 

Queens, ELeanor of Castile ; married in 1253 ; 
died of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, 
atGrantham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Mar- 
garet, sister of the king of France ; marcied 
12 Sept. 1299 ; sui'vived the king, dying m 

1317- 
1307. Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 
8 July ; dethroned 20 Jan. 1327 ; inurdtred 
at Berkeley castle, 21 f*ept. following. 
Queen, Isabella, daughter of the king of 
France ; married in 1308. On the death, 
by the gibbet, of her favourite Mortimer, 
she was confined for the rest of her life in 
her own house at Risings, near London, 
and died in 1357. 



1327. Edward III. his son; reign began 25 Jan. ; 

died 21 June, 1377. 
Quee7i. Phihppa, daughter of the count of 

Hainault ; married in 1326 ; died 15 Aug. 

1369. 
1377. Richard II. son of Edward the Black Prince, 

and giandson of Edward III. ; reign began 

22 June; dethroned 29 Sept. 1399; murdered 

at Pomfret castle, 10 Feb. following. 
Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 

Wenceslaus of Germany ; married in Jan. 

1382 ; died 7 June, 1394- 2. Isabella. 

daughter of Charles V. of France ; married 

when only seven years old, i Nov. 1396. 

On the murder of her husband she returned 

to her father. 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

1399. Henry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 
30 Sept. ; died 20 March, 1413- 
Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Here- 
ford ; she died, before Henry obtained the 
crown, in 1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow 
of the duke of Bretagne ; married 1403 ; 
survived the king ; died 1437. 

1413. Henry V. his son; reign began 21 March; 
died 31 Aug. 1422. 
Queen, Catherine, daugliter of the king of 
France ; married 30 May, 1420. She out- 
lived Heni-y, and was married to Owen 
Tudor, grandfather of Henry VII., in 1423 ; 
died 1437. 

1422. Henry VI. his son ; reign began i Sept. ; de- 
posed 4 March, 1461 ; murdered by Richard, 
duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, 20 June, 
1471. 
Queen, Margaret, daughter of the duke of 
Anjou ; married 22 April, 1445 ; survived 
the king; died 25 Aug. 1481. 

HOI'SE OF YORK. 

1461. Edward IV. ; died 9 A.pril, 1483. 

Queen, Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir 
Richard Woodville, and widow of sir John 
Grey, of Groby ; married i March, 1463, or 
1464. Suspected of favouring the insurrec- 
tion of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life 
in confinement 8 June, 1492. 

1483. Edward V. his son ; deposed 25 June, 1483, 
and murdered in the Tower by Gloucester ; 
reigned two months and thirteen days. 
„ Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to 
reign 26 June ; slain at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 
1485. 
Queen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, 
and v/idow of Edward, prince of Wales, 
whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is 
supposed to have been poisoned by Richard 
(having died suddenly, 16 JIarch, 1485), to 
make way for his intended marriage with 
princess JElizabeth of York. 

HOUSE OF TODOR. 

14S5. Henry VII. ; began to reign 22 Aug. ; died 
21 April, 1509. 
Qimn, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; married 18 Jan. 
i486: died II Feb. 1503. 

1509. Henry VIII. his son ; began to reign, 22 April ; 
died 28 Jan. 1547. 
Queens, Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's 
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales ; mar- 
ried June 3, 1509; mother of queen Mary; 



Ireland. He introduced the unicorn as a supporter 

of the arms. 
George I. George II. and George III. inti-oduced the 

arms of Brunswick. 
In 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1S16 



the arms were modified through Hanover being 
made a kingdom. 
Victoria. In 1837 the arms of Hanover were omitted 
and the arms are now : 1st and 4th quarters, 3 
licius passant for England ; 2nd, lion rampant fur 
Scotland ; 5rd, harp for Ireland. 

T 2 



ENG 



276 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

repudiated, and afterwards formally di- 
vorced, 23 May, 1533 ; died 7 Jan. 1536. 

2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas 
Boleyn. and maid of honour to Catherine ; 
privately married, before Catherine was 
divorced, 14 Nov. 1532 ; mother of queen 
Elizabeth ; beheaded at the Tower, 19 May, 
1536. 

3. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- 
mour, and maid of honour to Anne Boleyn ; 
married 20 May, 1536, the day after Anne's 
execution ; mother of Edward VI. of whom 
she died in childbirth, 24 Oct. 1537. 

4. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of 
Cleves ; married 6 Jan. 1540 ; divorced 10 
July, 1540 ; died 1557. 

5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of 
Norfolk ; married 28 July, 1540 ; beheaded 
on Tower-hill, 12 Feb. 1542. 

6. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas 
Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer ; 
mairied 12 July, 1543 ; siu-vived the king, 
after whose death she married sir Thomas 
Seymour, created lord Sudley ; died 5 Sept. 
1548. 

1547. Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by Jane 
Seymour) ; died 6 July, 1555. 

1553. Jane, daughter of the duke of SuSolk, and 
wife of lord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed 
queen on the death of Edward; ten days 
afterwards returned to private life ; was 
tried 13 Nov. 1553; beheaded 12 Feb. 1554, 
when but 17 years of age. 
„ Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of 
Aragon) ; married Philip of Spain, 25 July, 
1554; died 17 Nov. 1558. 

1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne 
Boleyn), died 24 March, 1603. 

HOtrSE OF STUART. 

1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, son 

of Mary, queen of Scots ; died 27 March, 1625. 

Quern, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter 

of Frederick II.; married 20 Aug. 1590; 

died March, 1619. 

1625. Charles I. his son ; beheaded at Whitehall, 
30 Jan. 1649. 
Queen, Henrietta- Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 
king of France ; married 13 June, 1625 ; sur- 
vived the king; died in France, 10 Aug. i66g. 

1649. Commonwealth. OUver Cromwell made pro- 
tector, 12 Dec. 1653 ; died 3 Sept. 1658. 

1658. Richard Cronawell, his son, made protector, 
4 Sept. ; resigned 22 April, 1659. 



1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died 6 Feb. 1685. 

Queen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Por- 
tugal, daughter of John IV. and sister of 
Alfonso VI. ; married 21 May, 1662 ; sur- 
vived the king; returned to Portugal : died 
21 Dec. 1705. 
1685. James II. his brother ; abdicated by flight, 
II Dec. 1688 ; died in exile, 6 Aug. 1701. 

list Wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
earl of Clarendon ; married Sept. 1660 ; died 
1671 ; mother of queens Mary and Anne.] 

Queen, Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, 
daughter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; married 
21 Nov. 1673 ; in 16S8 retired with James to 
France; died at St. Germains, 1718. 
1689. William III. prince of Orange, king, and Mary, 
queen, daughter of James ; married 4 Nov. 
1677 ; began their reign, 13 Feb. 1689 ; Mary 
died 28 Dec. 1694 ; William died of a fall 
from his horse, 8 March, 1702. 
1702. Anne, daughter of James 11. ; married George, 
prince of Denmark, 28 July, 1683 ; succeeded 
to the throne, 8 March, 1702 ; had thirteen 
children, all of whom died young ; lost her 
husband, 28 Oct. 1708; died i Aug. 1714. 

HOUSE OF HANOVER. (See BruJiswick and Este.) 
1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of 
Brunswick-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who\ 
was daughter of Elizabeth, the daughter of 
James I. ; died 11 June, 1727. 
Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke 
of Zell ; died in prison, 2 Nov. 1726. 
1727. George II. his son ; died 25 Oct. 1760. 

Queen, Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of 
Brandenburg - Anspach ; married 1705 ; 
died 20 Nov. 1737. 
1760. George III. grandson of George II. ; died 
29 Jan. 1820. 
Queeyi, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke 
of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; married 8 Sept. 
1761 ; died 17 Nov. 1818. 
1820. George IV. his son ; died 26 June, 1830. 

Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of 
the duke of Brunswick ; married 8 April, 
1795 ; died 7 Aug. 1821 (see article Queen 
Caroline) 
1830. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died 
20 June, 1837. 
Queen, Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caro- 
line, sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; 
married 11 July, 1818 ; died 2 Dec. 1849. 
1837. Victoria, the reigning queen, whom God 

PRESERVE. 



THE PEESENT EOYAL FAMILY OF GEEAT BEITAIN. 

The Queen,* Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of Edward, duke of Kent : t born 24 May, 1819 ; suc- 
ceeded to the throne on the decease of her uncle, William IV. 20 Jime, 1837; crowned at Westminster, 
, 28 June, 1838 ; married (10 Feb. 1840) to her cousin 

Francis-ALBERT-Aug-ustus-Charles-Emmanuel, duke of Saxe, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; born 
26 Aug. 1S19 (ordered 20 June, 1857, to be styled Prince Consort) ; elected chancellor of the university 
of Cambridge, 28 Feb. 1847 ; died 14 Dec. 1861. 



ISSUE. 

Victoria-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa, princess royal, 
born 21 Nov. 1840 ; 'married to prince Frederick- 
William of Prussia, 25 Jan. 1858 (dowry 40,000?. 
and annuity of SoooJ.). Js-tue: Frederick- William, 
born 27 Jan. 1859 ; and other children. 

Albert-Edward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, 
duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Chester, 
Carrick, and Dublin, baron of Renfrew, and lord 



of the Isles, born 9 Nov. 1841 ; married princess 
Alexandra of Deumai-k (born 1 Dec. 1844) 10 
March, 1B63. Issue : Albert Victor, born 8 Jan. 
1864 ; Geoi-ge Frederick, born 3 June, 1865 ; 
Louisa Victoria, born 20 Feb. 1867 (see Wales) 
Alice-Maud-Mary, born 25 April, 1843 • carried 
prince Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt, i July, 1862 
(dowry 30,000?. , annuity 6ooof. ). Issue : Victoria, 
5 April, 1863 ; and other children. 



* On I Nov. 1858, tlie queen was proclaimed throughout India as " Victoria, by the grace of God, of 
the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the colonies and dependencies thereof, in Europe, 
Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia, Queen, defender of the faith," (fee. 

t He was born 2 Nov. 1767 ; and died 23 Jan. 1820 ; he married Victoria-Maria-Louisa (widow of the 
prince of Leiniugen, sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians, and aunt to the prince consort), 29 May, 1818. 
fcjhe was born 17 Aug. 17S6 ; and died 16 March, 1861. 



ENG 



277 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

4. Alfred-Ernest, bnrn 6 Aug. 1844 ; entered the 

Euryalus as midshipman, 31 Aug. 1858 ; created 
duke of Edinburgh, i&c. 24 May, 1866; visited 
Cape of Good Hope, Aug. ; Austraha, Nov. 
1867 ; escaped assassination by a Fenian at 
Port Jackson, 12 March, 1868. 

5. Helena-Augusta- Victoria, born 25 May, 1846; 

marritd to prince Christian of Schleswig- 



Holstein, 5 July, 1866; son born 14 April, 
1867. 

6. Louisa-Carolina-Alberta, bom 18 March, 1848. 

7. Arthur- William-Patrick-Albert, born i May, 1850. 

8. Leopold-George-Duncan-Albert, born 7 April, 

i353- 

9. Beatrice-Mary-Victoria-Eeodore, born 14 April, 

1857. 



The Queen's Aunt and Cousins, Augusta, duchess (widow of duke) of Cambridge, born 25 July, 1797. 
Her son, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief, born 26 March, i8iq ; and 
Her dai'ffhiers, Augusta, grand duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 60™ 19 July, 1822; and the princess 
Mary of Cambridge, borti 27 Nov. 1833 ; married to the prince of Teck, 12 June, 1866. 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the Frisian variety of the Teutonic or Germanic 
branch of the great Lido- European family. " The English tongue possesses a veritable 
power of expression such as, perhaps, never stood at the command of any other language 
of man." Grimm. 



Celtic prevailed in England . . . a.d. 1 

Latin introduced 1-450 

Saxon prevails (Beowulf, Csedmon, Alfred) 450-1066 
Latin re-introduced by missionaries . . 596 

Norman-French combining with English* 1066-1250 

Early English 1250-1400 

English formed 1550 

Law pleadings were made in EngUsh by order 

of Edward III. instead of in French . . 1362 

The English tongue and EngUsh apparel were 

ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. 1536 



The English was ordered to be used in all law- 
suits, and the Latin disused . . May, 

Per-centage of Anglo-Saxon words in the 
English bible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare, 
and Thomson, 85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and 
Milton, 81 ; Locke, 80 ; Young, 79 ; Pope, 76 ; 
Johnson, 75 ; Kobertson, 68 ; Hume, 65 ; 
Gibbon, 58. Marsh. 

Of 100,000 EngUsh words, 60,000 are of Teutonic 
oi'igin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 
from other sources. 



PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. 



Sorn. 
John "Wickliffe . . 1324 
John Gower about 1320 
Geoffrey Chaucer . 1328 
Paston Letters . . 1460 
Wm. Caxton . .1421 
!^ir Thomas More . 1482 
Sir Philip Sidney . 1554 
Holinshed's Chronicles, 1586 
John Fox 
Edmund Spenser 
JRichard Hooker . 
Wm. Shakspeare 
Walter Raleigh . 
Francis Bacon . 
George Herbert . 
Ben Jonson 
Philip Massinger 
Jeremy Taylor . 
John Milton 
Isaac BaiTow . 
Samuel Butler 
John Bimj'an . 
John Dryden 
John Locke 
Joseph Addison . 
Matthew Prior . 



Died. 

1384 
1402 
1400 
1482 
1491 
IS3S 



. 1517 


1587 


■ 1553 


159S 


• 1553 


1600 


• 1564 


1616 


• 1552 


1618 


• 1561 


1626 


• 1593 


1635 


■ 1574 


1637 


• 1584 


1640 


• 1613 


1667 


. 1608 


1674 


• 1630 


1677 


. 1612 


1680 


. 1628 


168S 


• 1631 


1700 


- 1632 


1704 


. 1672 


1719 


. 1664 


1721 



£orn. 
Bichard Steele . . 1671 
Daniel De Foe . . 1663 
John Gay . . . 1688 
Alexander Pope . 1688 
Jonathan Swift . . 1667 
James Thomson . 1700 
i Henry Fielding . . 1707 
Samuel Richardson . 1689 
Edward Young . .1681 
Laurence Sterne . 1713 
Mark Akenside . . 1721 
Thomas Gray . . 1716 
Tobias Smollett . . 1720 
Oliver Goldsmith . 1 728 
David Hume . .1711 
Samuel Johnson . 1709 
Benjiimin Franklin . 1706 
WilUam Robertson . 1721 
Edward Gibbon . . 1737 
Robert Burns . . 1759 
WilUam Cowper . . 1731 
Percy B. Shelley . 1792 
George loi-d Byron . 1788 
Walter Scott . . 1771 
Samuel T. Coleridge 1772 



Died. 
1729 
1731 
1732 
1744 
1745 
1748 
1754 
1761 
1765 
1768 
1770 
1771 
1771 
1774 
1776 
1784 
1790 
1793 
1794 
1796 



1834 



Born. 

1775 
1762 

1774 
1777 
1771 



Charles Lamb . 
William Cobbett . 
Robert Southey 
Thomas Campbell 
Sidney Smith . 
William Wordsworth 1770 
J. Fenimore Cooper. 1798 
Joanna BailUe . . 1763 
William Prescott . 1796 
Thomas Moore . . 1780 
John Wilson . . 1785 
Samuel Rogers . . 1763 
Henry HaUam . . 1778 
Thomas De Quincey. 1786 
Washington Irving . 1783 
T. B. Macaulay . . 1800 
Abp. Richd. Whately 1787 
Wm. M. Thackeray . 1811 
Thomas Carlyle . 1795 
George Bancroft . . 1800 
Edwd. BulwerLytton 1805 
Benjamin DieraeU . 1S05 
Alfred Tennyson . 1809 
Charles Dickens . . 1812 
John Ruskin . .1819 



Died. 
1834 
1835 
1843 
1844 

184s 
1850 
1851 
1851 

1859 
1852 

i8s4 
185s 
1859 

1859 
1859 
1859 



ENGEAVINGon signets is mentioned -ErocZ. xxviii. 11 (b.c. 149 i). Engi-aving on plates 
and wood began about the middle of the 1 5th century. Engraving on glass was perfected by 
Bourdier, of Paris, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been protected by several statutes; 
among the principal are the acts 16 and 18 Geo. III. 1775 and 1777 ; and the acts 7 & 8 Vict, 
6 Aug. 1844, and 15 Vict. 28 May, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing engravings 
by means of sheets of vulcanised india-rubber, was shown by the electro-printing block 
company in i860 ; see Lithograiyhy and Photo-Oalvanography.-f 

Engraving on Copper. Prints from engraved 
copper-plates made their appearance about 1450, 
and were first produced in Germany. Masso, sur- 
named Finiguerra, is considered to have been the 
first ItaUan engi-aver, about 1440. (See JSiello). 
The earUest date known of a coppei'-plate engrav- 



ing is 1461. BolUng-presses for working the plates 
were invented in 1545. Of the art of etching on 
copper by means of aqua-fortis, Francis Mazzuoh, 
or Parmegiano, is the reputed inventor, abou 
1532. De Files. Etching was practised by Albert 
Durer. The Etchmg Club was estabUshed in 1838. 



* William I. and his successors used English in their laws, (fee. ; it was superseded by Latin in the 
reign of Henry II. Norman French was not used in law-dee'ls tiU the reign of Henry III. 

t In " Lyra Germanica," published in 1861, are illustrations engraved upon blocks photographed from 
negatives taken by John Leighton, F.S. A. 



ENG 278 EPI 



Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col. 
von Siegen, who engraved a portrait of princess 
Amelia of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was im- 
proved by prince Rupert in 1648 ; sir Christopher 
Wren further improved it in 1662. 

Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is 
produced, was invented by the celebrated French 
artist, St. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his 
invention to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was dis- 
tinguished for his improvements in this kind of 
engraving, 1763. Chiar'-oscv.ro engraving origi- 
nated with the Germans, and was first practised 
by Mair, one of whose prints bears date 1491 (see 
Zinc, &c.) 



ENGRAVING, continued. 

Engraving on Wood, long known in China, began 
in Europe with the brief maJUers, or manufacturers 
of playing-cards, about 1400 (see Printing). The 
art is referred by some to a Florentuie, and by 
others to Reuss, a German ; it was greatly im- 
proved by Durer (1471-1528) and Lucas Van Leyden 
(1497). It was much improved in England by 
Bewick and his brother, and pupils, Nesbett, An- 
derson, ifec, 1789, et seq. The earliest wood engrav- 
ing which has reached our times is one represent- 
ing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over 
the sea ; it bears date 1423. 

Engraving on Soft Steel, to be hardened after- 
wards, was introduced into England by Messrs. 
Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. 

ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a 
magistrate in less than twenty-four hours after, and then they are at liberty to withdraw 
upon their returning the enlistment or bounty mone)'', and 21s. costs. Enlistment is now 
entirely voluntary. In 1847 the term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the infantry, 
and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, and royal marines ; and in 1867, to twelve years ; 
see Army, 1867. 

ENNISKILLEN (N.W. Ireland). This town made an obstinate defence against the army 
of Elizabeth, 1595, and against James II., 1689. i5ooEnniskilleners met general M'Carthy 
•with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, and nearly all the rest made prisoners), they 
losing but twenty men, 30 July, 1689. The dragoon regiment, the "InniskiUingers," is 
recruited here. x 

ENOCH, Book of, an apocryphal work, quoted by the fathers, disappeared about the 
8th century. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to 
England in 1773. Of this archbishop Lawrence published an English translation in 1821, 
and the Ethiopic text in 1838. 

ENSISHEIM (E. France). Here Turenne defeated the Imperial army, and expelled it 
from Alsace, 4 Oct. 1674. 

ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of "Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation 
broke the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the estate is to revert to the crown, and of 
bankruptcy (1833 and 1849), when it is to be sold. 

ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnaeus, 
1739. Bay's "Methodus Insectorum," 1705; " Insectorum Historia," 17 10. The Ento- 
mological Society of London was instituted in 1833. 

ENVELOPES for letters came into general use shortly after the establishment of the 
penny postal system in 1840. Machinery for their manufacture was patented by Mr. George 
Wilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. HiU and Warren de la Rue in 1845. 

ENVOYS AT Courts, in dignity below ambassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the 
ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. Wicq%iefort. The 
court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal 
carriages, 1639. 

EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the solar month above the lunar synodical month, 
I day, II hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 
44 minutes, 3 seconds ; and the excess of the solar year above the lunar synodical year 
(nearly 11 days), the lunar year being 354 days. The number of the Gregorian epact for 
1868, 6 ; 1S69, 17 ; 1870, 28 ; 1871, 9. 

EPERNAY (N.E. France), seat of the trade in champagne, was taken from the League 
by Henry IV., 26 July, 1592, when marshal Armand Biron was kQled. 

EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city founded by the lonians about 1043 b.c. It was 
subdued by Cyrus in 544 e.g. ; it revolted from the Persians 501 b.c. and was destroyed by 
an earthquake in A.D. 17. Paul preached here a.d. 55, 56 {Acts xviii. xix.). His epistle to 
the Ephesians is dated a.d. 64; see Diana, Temple of, and Seven Churches. The third 
general council was held here in 431. 

EPHORI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, iive in number, said to have been first created 
by Theopompus to control the royal power, about 757 B.C. 

EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), narratives in verse. Eminent examples : — 

Homer's " lUad " and " Odyssey " (G'rceil;), be- j Ovid's " Metamorphoses " (Zaiin), about a.d. r 

tween 8th and loth century e.g. (see Horner) Dante (died 1 321), "Divina Commedia" (Italian) 
Virgil's " .^neid " (Xaii?i) about . . b.c. 19 1 published 1472 



EPI 279 EQU 

EPIC POEMS, conHnued. 



Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " (/toiian) . . . 1516 

Camoens' "Lusiad" (Portur/uese) . . . 1569 

Tasso, " JerusaleiB Delivered " (/taJiaw) . . 1581 

Spenser's •' Faery Queen" . . . 1590-6 



Milton's " Paradise Lost " 1667 

Voltaire, " Hciwiade " (French) .... 1728 
Walter Scott, "Lay of tlio Last Minstrel," <!ic. 1805 



EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargcttus, near Athens, about 300 B.C., 
taught that the greatest good consists in peace of mind springing from vi['tue, as tending to 
prevent disi^uiet ; but tlie name ej)icurean is given to tliose who derive happiness from sensual 
pleasure. 

EPIDAURUS (Greece), celebrated for the temple of Asclepius, or iEsculapius, god of 
medicine, and enriched by gifts from persons healed. The Romans sent an embassy to seek 
the help of the god during a pestilence, and his worship was introduced at Rome 293 B.C. 
The temple was visited by iEmilius Paulus, after his conquest of Macedonia, 167 B.C. 

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, established in 1850. 

EPIGRAMS derive tlieir origin from tlie inscriptions placed b}'' the ancients on tombs. 
Marcus Valerius Slartialis, the Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about A.D. 83, is allowed 
to have excelled all others ancient or modern. The following Latin epigram on Christ's 
turning water into wine (John iii.)i3 an example : — " Viditeternbuit lymphapudicaDemn." 
"The modest water saw its God, and blushed." Crasluiw (died 1650). 

EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), termed Twelfth Day, celebrates the mani- 
festation of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which conducted the Magi to the 
place where he was to be found ; instituted 813. Whately. 

EPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history is very obscure. 



The fii-st Pyrrhus (Xeoptolemus) settled in 
Epirus, after the Trojan war, 11 70 B.C., and 
was killed in the temple of Delphi, about B.C. 1165 

Pyn-hus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Mace- 
don from Demetrius, 290 ; compelled to yield 
it to Lysimachus 287 

He invades Italy ; defeats the Romans, 280 ; 
again, 279 ; subdues Sicily .... 278 

He invades Italy again, and is totally defeated 
by Curius Dentatus at Beneventum . . . 275 



He takes Macedon from Antigonus , . B.C. 273 
He unsuccessfully invades Sparta ; enters 
Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown by a 

woman 272 

Phihp unites Epirus to Macedon . . . 220 

Its conquest by the Romans 167 

****** 

Ej)irus annexed to the Ottoman empire a.d. 1466 
All insiu-rection against the Turks put down . 1854 



EPISCOPACY, see Bishops. 

EPISTLES or Letters. The earliest known letter is that sent to ,Toab by David by the 
hands of Uriah, about 1035 (2 Sam. xi. 14) ; see under Bihle, p. 100. Horace Walpole, 
renowned for his letters, was born 5 Oct. 1717 ; died 2 March, 1797. The collection 
entitled "Elegant Epistles," commencing with Cicero, was published in 1790. It ends with 
an essay on letter writing by Dr. Johnson. 

EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the Egyptians, Jews, Greek.s, and Romans. 
Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published a collection entitled " Cbrouicles of the Tombs," in 1857. 

EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at marriage. Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have 
been the first writer of one. He received the name of Stesichorus, from the alterations 
made by him in music and dancing, about 536 e.g. Bossuet. 

EPOCHA, a point of time made remarkable by some event, from which subseriuent years 
are reckoned by historians and chronologers ; see Eras. 



Creation B.C. 4004 

Deluge 2348 

ist Olympiad 776 



Building of Rome js.c. 753 

The birth of Christ a.d. i 

The Hegira (or flight of Mahomet) . . . 622 



EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were discovered in 1618. The races began about 
1711, and have been held annually since 1730. 

EQUATOR or Ecuador, a South American republic, founded in 183 1, when the Colum- 
bian republic was divided into three ; the other two being Venezuela and New Granada. 
Tlie population of Equator is about 1,040,400, of which 76,000 are in (^uito, the ca2")ital. 
Presidents : general Franco, 21 Aug, 1859, defeated in battle by general Flores, Aug. i860 ; 
G. G. Moreno, Jan. 1861 ; Geronimo Carrion, 4 Aug. 1865. 

EQUESTRIAN ORDER in Rome began with Romulus, about 750 b.c. ; see Knighthood. 

EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress passes through the equator in one of the 
equinoctial points, the day and night are equal all over the globe. This occurs twice in the 
year ; about 21 March, the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept., the autumnal equinox. The 
equinoctial points move backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 years to 
accomplish a complete revolution. This is called the precession of the equinoxes, which is 
said to have been observed by the ancient astronomers. 



EQU 280 ESS 

EQUITY, Courts of, are those of the lord chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the 
master of tlie rolls, their office being to correct the operations of the literal text of the law, 
and supply its defects by reasonable construction not admissible in a court of law. The 
supreme court of session in Scotland combines the functions of law and equity. In 1865 
equity powers were conferred on the county courts for cases respecting sums under 500?. 

ERAS. The principal are more fully noticed in their alphabetical order. 
Common Era (English Bible, Usher, &o.), e.g. 4004 I A.D. 313 ; these, among ohronologers, are still 



Era of the Jews 3761 

Era of Nabonassar, after which the astronomical 
observations made at Babylon were reckoned, b. c. 
began 26 Feb. 747 
Era of the Sdeucidm (used by the Maccabees), 

commenced 312 
The Objmpiads belong to the Grecians, and date 
from I July, 776 B.C. ; they subsequently 
reckoned .by indictions, the first beginning 



used (see Indictions). 

The Romans reckoned from the building of 
their city, 753 B.C. ; and afterwards from 
the i6th year of the emperor Augustus (see 
Casars), which reckoning was long used by 
the Spaniards a.d. i Jan. 38 

The Mahometans began their era from the 
Hegira, or flight of their prophet from Mecca, 

16 July, 622 
See Creation, Anno Domini, Calendar. 



ERASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas Lieber (latinised Erastus), a German phy-sician 
(1524-83), who taught that the church had no right to exclude any person from church 
ordinances, or to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons who acknowledge the jurisdiction of 
the civil power in S2)iritual matters and the law of patronage, are now termed Erastians. 

ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, master of the rolls, in 1855, no document 
corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth received in the court of chancery. 
The errors must be corrected with the pen. 

ERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in 476 ; and its university established about 
1390. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian' 
troops surrendered, 16 Oct. 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered 
peace to England, 27 Sept. 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from Leipsic, 18 Oct. 
1813. A German parliament met here in March and April, 1850. 

ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE, see Heat, note. 

ERIVAN (Armenia), in the i6th century the residence of the shahs of Persia, was taken 
by the Turks in 1553 and 1582 ; but recovered by Abbas the Great, 1604. After being 
several times captured, it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken by Paskewitch in 1827, 
and annexed to Russia by treaty in 1828. 

ERZEROUM (Asiatic Turkey), a city built by Theodosius II., 415 ; taken by the Seljuk 
Turks in the 12th century, and by the Ottoman Turks in 15 17. It was captured by the 
Russian general Paskewitch in 1829, but restored in 1830. It was almost totally destroyed 
by earthquakes, 2 June to 17 July, 1859. 

ESCHEATS. Land or other property that falls to a lord within his manor by forfeiture 
or death. The escheator obseiwes the rights of the king in the county whereof lie is escheator, 
Coiuel, In London a court of escheats was held before the lord mayor to recover the property 
of a bastard who died intestate, for the king.; such a court had not been held in the city for 
150 years before— 16 July, 1771. Phillips. 

ESpURIAL or Escoiual (25 miles N.W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the 
sovereigns of Spain, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563, and completed in 1586, at a cost 
of 6,ooo,oco ducats. It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of St. Lawrence, on 
whose day (10 Aug. 1557) the Spaniards gained the victory of St. Quentin. According to 
Francisco de los Santos, the total length of all its rooms and apartments is above 120 English 
miles. Alvarez de Colmenar asserts that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows. 

ESPARTO, a Spanish grass^ a species of stipa, now largely employed in paper-making, 
was first imported into this country, as we are informed, in 1857. Living plants were received 
at Newcastle in July 1867. 

ESPIERRES (Belgium). At Pont-k-Chin, near this village, the French, under Pichegru, 
attacked the allied English and Austrian army (100,000 men) commanded by the duke of 
York, and were repulsed after a long and desperate engagement, losing the advantages gained 
by the victory at Turcoing, 23 May, 1 794, 

ESPRIT, Saint (or Holy Ghost), the title of an order of knighthood, founded by Henry 
III. of France in 1578, and abolished in 1791. 

ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, were armour-bearers to, or attendants on, a 
knight. Blount. In England the king created esquires by putting about their necks the 
collar of SS, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. The distinction of esquire 
was first given to persons of fortune, not attendant upon knights, 1345. Stow. 

" ESSAYS and REVIEWS," by six clergymen and one layman of the church of England 



ESS 



281 



ETH 



(the Revs. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, professor Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, 
Mark Pattison, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. Goodwin) were published in an 8vo. 
vol. in March, i860.* 

ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time of Christ. 

ESSEX, Kingdom of ; see Britain. 

EARLS OF ESSEX (from NicoUis.) 
Geoffrey de Mandeville, created earl of Essex 

by Matilda, was slain . . .14 Sept. 1144 
Ilumplirey de Bolaun, succeeded by right of 

Ms mother, Mary, sister of William, who died 

without heir iiSg 

Humphrey de Bohun, died without heir . . 1372 
Thomas of Woodstock, son of Edward III. 1372 ; 

murdered 1397 

Henry Bourchier (grandson) .... 1461 



Henry Bourchier, grandson ; died without 

heir (earldom extinct) 1539 

Thomas Cromwell, 1539 ; beheaded . . . 1540 

William Parr, 1543 ; attainted 1543 

Walter Dcvereux, 1572; died .... 1576 
Robert Bevereux, lord lieut. of Ii-eland, 1599 ; 
censured for misgovemmeut ; conspired 
against the government ; beheaded, 25 Feb. 1601 
Robert, son ; died without heir .... 1646 
Arthur Capel, ancestor of present (26th earl) 1661 



ESSLING, Battle of, see Aspcrnc. 

ESTE, Hou.se of. Boniface, count of Lucca and duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to 
have descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From Boniface sprang Albert Azzo II. 
marquess of Italy and lord of Este, born about 996, who married first Cunegonda of the house 
of Guelf, by whom he had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the house of Brunswick 
(see Bavaria and Brunswiclc) ; and secondly Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, the ancestor 
of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and Modena. 

ESTHONIA or Revel, a Russian province, said to have been conquered by the Teutonic 
knights in the 12th century ; after various changes it was ceded to SAveden by the treaty of 
Oliva in 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of ISTystadt in 1721, having been comiuered 
by Peter in 17 10. 

ETATS, see States. ETCHmG, see Engraving. 

ETHER was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, 
in 1681 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic 
ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriotic ether was first prepared 
by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay. The discovery that by 
inhaling ether the patient is rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, 
of Boston, U. S. Mr. Thomas Morton, of the same place, first introduced it into surgical 
practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions (1846) ; see Chloroform, and Aviylene. The term 
" ether " was applied to the transparent celestial space by the German astronomer Encke, 
about 1829, when studying the elements of Pons' comet, discovered in 1818. 

ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, contain 
heathen systems, the New Testament that of Christianity. Paley's Moral Pliilosophy 
appeared in 1785, and Whewell's Elements of Morality in 1845. 

ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants 
of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but is now considered to apply 
properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and northern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at 
Napata, the capital of Meroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. 



The Ethiopians settle near Egypt . B.C. 1615 

Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa . . 941 
A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over 

Egypt from 765 to 715 

Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, marches against 

Sennacherib 710 



Unsuccessful invasion of Cambyses, B.C. 525-522 

Ptolemy III. Euergetes extended his conquests 

in Ethiopia 225 

Candace, queen of Meroe, advancing against 
the Roman settlements at Elephantine, de- 
feated and subdued by Petronius . a.d. 22-23 



ETHNOLOGY, a branch of Anthropology, is defined as the science "which determines 
the distinctive characters of the persistent modifications of mankind, their distribution, and 
the causes of the modifications and distribution." The study of the relations of thediiferent 
divisions of mankind to each other is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was 
published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work. Researches on the Physical History of 
Manlcind, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, established in 1843, publishes its transactions. 
Dr. R. G. Latham's works, on the Ethnology of the British Empire, ajipeared in 1851-2. 
Professor T. H. Huxley gave courses of lectures on Ethnology at the Royal Institution, 
London, May & June, 1866, 1867. 

* The book did not excite much attention at first, but having been severely censured for heterodox 
views by nearly all the bishops and many of the clergy, it created much excitement in i86r, and was con- 
demned by convocation 24 June, 1864. The ecclesiastical com-t sentenced the revs. R. Williams and H. B. 
Wilson to suspension for one year, and costs, 15 Dec. 1862 ; but on appeal the sentence was reversed by 
the, judicial committee of the privy council, 8 Feb. 1864. The most remarkable amongst the works put 
forth in ojiposition (in i862)are the "Aids to Faith," edited by the bishop of Gloucester(W. Thomson, now 
abp. of York), and "Replies to Essays and Reviews," edited by the bishop of Oxford (S. Wilberforce). 



ETH 



282 



EUP 



ETHYL, a comjjound radicle, a colourless gas, with a slightly ethereal odour, a compound 
of carbon and hydrogen, first obtained in the free state by professor Edw. Frankland in 1849. 
Several of its compounds with metals take fire on exposure to the air. 

ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops : and it is called by 
Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 
1693 B.C., and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring 734, 477, and 425 B.C. 
There were eruptions, 125, 121, and 43 B.C. Livy. 



Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, iSii and in May, 
1830, when several villages were destroyed, 
and showers of lava reached near to Kome. 
The town of Bronte was destroyed . 18 Nov. 1832 
Violent eruption occurred in . Aug. & Sept. 1852 
The last eruption began on i Feb., and ceased 
in July 1865 



Eruptions, a.d. 40, 254, and 420. Carrera. 

One in 1012. Geoffrey de Fiterbo. 

One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabit- 
ants perished in the burning ruins 

Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 1445, 1536, 1537, 1564, etscq. 

In 1669, when tens of thousands of persons 
perished in the streams of lava which rolled 
over the whole country for forty days. 

ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), founded by Henry VL in 1440, and designed as 
a nursery to King's College, Cambridge. John Stanberry, confessor to Hem-y VL (bishop of 
Bangor, in 1448), was the first provost. Besides about three hundred noblemen's and 
gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's scholars on the foundation, who, when properly 
qualified, are elected, on the first Tuesday in August, to King's college, Cambridge, and are 
removed there when there are vacancies, according to seniority. In l3ec. i86o there were in 
all 820 scholars ; see Cambridge. The establishment of the Montem is nearly coeval with the 
college. It consisted in the procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, to Salt-hill 
once in three years ; the donations collected on the road (sometimes as much as 800Z.) were 
given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, for his support while studj'ing at Cambridge., 
The montem was discontinued in 1847. The regatta has taken its place. 

ETEUEIA (or Tukcia, hence the modern name Tuscany), a province of Italy, whence 
the Romans, m a great measure, derived their laws customs, and superstitions. Herodotus 
asserts that tlie country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. The subjugation of this 
country forms an important part of early Eoman history. It was most powerful under 
Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to reinstate the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veil was taken by 
Camillus, 396 b. c. A truce between the Eomans and Etrurians lor forty years was concluded 
351 B.C. The latter and their allies were defeated at the Vadimonian lake 310 ; with the 
Boii their allies 283 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 265 B.C. The vases and 
other works of the Etruscans still remaining, show the degree of their civilisation ; see Tus- 
cany. — Etruria, the site of Josiah Wedgwood's porcelain works, &c., was founded in l^^l. 

EUBCEA, the largest island in the iEgean sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, 
were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 B.C. and the latter by the 
Persians, 490. After the Persian war, Eubcea became wholly subj ect to Athens, its most valuable 
foreign possession. It revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. After the battle 
of Chseronea, 338, it became subject to Macedon. It was made independent by the Eomans 
in 194 ; but was afterwards incorporated in the province of Achaia. It now forms part of 
the kingdom of Greece. 

EUCHAEIST, thanksgiving, an early name for the Lord's Supper ; see Sacrament. 

EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. Euclid, a native of Alexandria, flourished about 300 B.C. 
The Elements are not wholly his ; for many of the demonstrations were derived from Thales, 
Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; Euclid first reducing them to order, and probably 
inserting many theorems of his own. The Elements were first printed at Basil by Simon 
Grynaeiis, in 1533. 

EUDIOMETEE, an apparatus to ascertain the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity 
of oxygen gas or vital air contained in it ; one was invented by Dr. Priestley, in 1772. 

EUNUCHS, first mentioned among the Egyptians and Assyrians, and said to have been 
first employed by Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 2007 B.C. Eunuchs frequently 
attained to political power in the later Eastern Empire, 

EUPATOEIA (Kosleff), a sea-port on the west coast of the Crimea. After the allied 
French, English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, 14 Sept. 1854, a detachment 
imder captain Brock occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced by the Turks. It 
was attacked 17 Feb. 1855, by 40,000 Eussians under Liprandi. The latter were repulsed 
with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, whose loss was ordy 50, among which, however, was 
Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian contingent. 

EUPHUISM, an affected style of language, prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from 
"Euphues ; the Anatomy of "Wit," by John Lyly, published in 1581, 



EUR 283 EXC 

EURASIAlSr PLAIF, the great central plain of Europe and Asia, so named by- 
ethnologists (1865). 

EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions of the old continent, really an appendage 
of Asia; area, nearly 3,800,000 square miles; population, 270,000,000, (1861). For the 
histoiy, see Greece, Rome, and the modern kingdoms. 

EURYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near wliich Cimon, son of Mittiades, destroyed 
the fleet of the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their kind forces, 466 B.C. 

EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels were defeated here, 14 Dec. 1837, and 
compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. 

EUSTATIUS, ST., a West India island, settled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the 
French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; again by the Britisli forces under Rodney and 
Vaughan, 3 Feb. 1781. It was recovered by the French under the marquis de Bouill^, 26 
Nov. same j'ear ; captured by the British, 1801, 1810 ; restored to the Dutch, 1814. 

EUTAW SPRINGS (S. Carolina). Here the Americans were defeated by the Britisli 
under Arnold, 8 Sept. 1781. 

EUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, an abbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 
446 that there was but one nature in Christ, the human having been absorbed in the divine. 
This doctrine was condemned by councils — at Constantinople in 448, and at Chalcedon in 
451. It has been also called Monophysite (of one nature), and Jacobite, from Jacobus 
Baradffius, its zealous defender in the 6t]i century. It is the form of Christianity now 
existing among the Copts and Armenians. 

EUXINE, see Black Sea. 

EVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion of the clergy of the Church of England 
(also called the low church), who profess to preach the gospel more jiurely than their brethren, 
termed the high churcli party ; see Church of England. — The Evangelical Alliance was 
founded by sir Culling Eardley Smith and others at Liverpool in 1845, with the view of 
promoting unity among all denominations of protestant Christians against Romanism and 
infidelity. It holds annual meetings. It met in Sept. 1857, at Berlin, where it was well 
received by the king. The 19th meeting was held at Hull, 3 Oct. 1865 ; the 20th at Bath, 
16 Oct. 1866 ; the 2 1st at Amsterdam, Aug. 1867. 

EVANGELISTS, preachers of the "gospel," or good news ; see Gospels. 

EVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower classes were strongly recommended by 
bishop Hinds in 1839, and by tlie committee of the Privy Council on Education in 1861. 
One was set u]) at Bala in Wales by the Rev. T. Charles in 181 1. 

EVESHAM (Worcestershire), where prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the 
barons headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 4 Aug. 1265, when the earl, his son 
Henry, and most of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at one period of the battle was on 
the point of being cut down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but was saved by his 
timely exclamation, "Do not kill me, soldier; I am Henry of Winchester, thy king!" 
This victory broke up the combination of the barons. 

EVIL MAY-DAY (i May, 1517), thus called on account of the violence of the apprentices 
and populace, directed against foreigners, particularl}'^ the French. ' ' The rioters were headed 
by one Lincoln, who, with 15 others, was hanged ; and 400 more in their shirts, and bound 
with ropes, and halters about their necks, were carried to AVestmiuster, but they cr3dng 
'mercy, mercy ! ' were all pardoned by the king (Henry VIII.), which clemency gained him 
much love." Delaune. 

EVOLUTION THEORY includes the nebular theory and Mr. Darwin's doctrine of 
natural selection ; see Development, and Progressionists. 

EXALTATION, see Cross. 

EXAMINATIONS of candidates for employment in the civil service has been enforced 
since 1855. Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present might be termed the " age of 
examinations. " 

EXARCHS, appointed by the Byzantme emperors of the East, to govern central Italy 
after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. They ruled from 568 to 752, when 
Eutychus, the last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. 

EXCHANGE, formerly -Surse, the Royal Exchange being "Britain's Burse;" that at 
Paris is still named " La Bourse," from bursa, a purse. One called Collegium Mercatorum 
existed at Rome, 493 B. c. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest stmcture 
of the kind in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are magnifi- 
cent ; see Royal Exchange, and Bills of Exchange. 



EXC 



284 



EXC 



EXCHEQUER, an ancient institution, consisting of ofBcers with, financial and judicial 
functions : the chancellor of the exchequer, the financial officer, formerly sat in the court of 
exchequer above the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Eauconbridge, bishop of 
London, in the reign of Henry III. about 1221. Sir Robert Walpole was the last chancellor 
of the exchequer who acted judicially (in 1735). The exchequer stopped payment from Jan. 
to 24th May, Charles II. 1673. Stoiv. The English and Irish exchequers were consolidated 
in 1816 ; see Chancellors of the Exchequers, and Tally Office. 



Exchequer Bills. The government securities, so 
called, said to have been invented by Montague, 
afterwards earl of Halifax, were first issued in 
1697, and first circulated by the bank in 1796. 
These bills, of which more than twenty millions 
sterling are often in circulation, are in effect ac- 
commodation notes of government, that are issued 
in anticipation of taxes, at daily interest ; and 
being received for taxes, and paid by the bank in 
lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, 
they usually bear a premium. Amount in circu- 
lation, 56,974,780?. in 1817 ; in 1854, 16,008, 700?. 

Robert Aslett, a cashier of the bank of England, 
tried for embezzling exchequer bills, and found 
not guilty, on account of the invalidity of the bills, 
though the actual loss to the bank amounted to 
342, 697?. 18 July 1803. 

Mr. Beaumont Smith tried for forging exchequer 
bills to the amount of 350,000?. ; pleaded guilty ; 
sentenced to transportation, 4 Dec. 1S41. 

Exchequer Bonds, a species of public securities, 
introduced by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, in 1853, have 
not been well received. 

Tellers of the Exchequer. Besides chamberlains 
of the exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor 
of the exchequer (offices which have all been dis- 
continued since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, 
or by surrender or abolition, in Oct. 1834), there 
were the four lucrative offices of tellers of the ex- 
chequer, also abolished, 10 Oct. 1834. 

John Jeffreys Pratt, earl and marquess Camden, 
was appointed a teller of the exchequer, in 1780, 
and held the appointment until his death, in 1840. 
During nearly half of this long term he relin- 
quished the income (amounting in the whole to 
upwards of a quarter of a million sterling} and 
placed it at the service of the state, as it annually 
accrued. 

Comptroller-Ge-neral of the Exchequer. This 
office was created on the abolition of the offices of 
the auditor and the four tellers of the exchequer, 
and the clerk of the pells, mentioned in the pre- 



ceding paragraph. The first comptroller-general 
was sir John Newport, appointed 11 Oct. 1834. — 
34,438?. per annum have been saved to the state 
by the retrenchments in this department of the 
government. 

CoDBT OF Exchequer Chamber. Erected by Ed- 
ward III. in 1357. It was remodelled by Eliza- 
beth, in 1584, and then made to compi-ise the 
judges of all the courts. This coui't is for error 
from the judgments of the courts of queen's bench, 
common pleas, and exchequer of pleas in actions 
commenced therein. Ee-modelled by act 11 Geo. 
IV. & I Will. IV. c. 70 (23 July, 1830). 

The Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted 
by Henry IV. in 1399. 

chancellors of THE EXCHEQUER. 

Henry Addington (aft. Id. Sidmouth), 21 March, 1801 

Wm. Pitt (jpreinier) . . . .16 May, 1804 
Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquess of 

Lansdowne) 10 Feb. 1806 

Spencer Perceval .... 31 March, 1807 

And pr«)iier 6 Dec. 1809 (assassinated 11 May, 1812) 

Nicholas Vansittart (aftcts. Id. Bexley), 9 June, ,, 
Fred. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich 

and earl of Ripon) . . . .31 Jan. 1823 

George Canning {'premier) . . . April, 1827 

John C. Herries .... 17 Aug. ,, 

Henry Goulburn 26 Jan. 1828 

Viscount Althorpe (aft. earl Spencer), 22 Nov. 1830 

Sir Robert Peel (premier) . . .10 Dec. 1834 

Thos. Spring Rice (aft. Id. Monteagle), 18 April, 1835 

Francis T. Baring (afterwards baronet), 26 Aug. 1839 

Henry Goulburn 3 Sept. 1841 

Charles Wood (afterwards baronet), . 6 July, 1846 

Benjamin Disraeli .... 21 Feb. 1852 

William Ewart Gladstone . . .28 Dec. ,, 

Sir George Cornewall Lewis . . 5 March, 1855 

Benjamin Disraeli, again . . 27 Feb. 1858 

William E. Gladstone, again . . June, 1859 

Benjamin Disraeli, again . . .6 July, 1866 

George Ward Hunt .... 29 Feb. 1868 



EXCHEQUER, Court of {Curia Regis), instituted by "William I. on the model of the 
Transmarine Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079 ; according to some authorities, by Henry I, 
It included the common pleas until they were separated, 16 John, 1215. Coke's Reports. 
The exchequer is so named from a chequered cloth which anciently covered the table where 
the judges and chief oflicers sat.* Here are tried all causes relating to the king's revenue ; 
such as are concerning accounts, disbursements, customs, and fines imposed, as well as all 
matters at common law between subject and subject. The judges are styled barons, first 
appointed 1234. There are a chief and four puisne barons : the fifth judge having been 
added 23 July, 1830. The office of Cursitor Baron was abolished in 1856. 



1689. Sir 

1695. Sir 

1714. Sir 

1716. Sir 

1722. Sir 

1723. Sir 

1725. Sir 

1726. Sir 
1730. Sir 



CHIEF BARONS. 

Robert Atkins. 10 April. 
Edward Ward. 10 June. 
Samuel Dodd. 22 Nov. 
Thomas Bury. 11 June. 
James Montagu. 9 May. 
Robert Byi-e. 5 Dec. 
Geoffrey Gilbert, i June. 
Thomas Pengelly. 29 Oct. 
James Reynolds. 30 April. 



1738. Sir John Comyn. ^^July. 

1740. Sir Edmund Probyn. 24 Nov. 

1742. Sir Thomas Parker. 29 Nov. 

1772. Sir Sydney Stafford Smythe. 29 Oct. 

1777. Sir John Skynner. 17 Dec. 

1787. Sir James Eyre. 26 Jan. 

1793. Sir Archibald Macdonald. 12 Feb. 

1813. Sir Vicary Gibbs. 8 Nov. 

1814. Sir Alexander Thomson. 24 Feb. 
1817. Sir Richard Richards. 22 April. 



* In process of time the court of exchequer became gradually enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at 
length it was not merely a revenue court and one at common law between subject and subject, but one 
in which suits in equity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict. c. 5 (1841), the court of ex- 
chequer possessed a triple jm-isdiction ; but by this statute its equity business was transferred to the 
court of chancery. 



EXC 



285 



EXE 



EXCHEQUER, Coukt of, continued. 

1824. Sir William Alexander. 9 Jan. ! 

1831. John, lord Lyndhurst. 18 Jan. Previously ; 

lord chancellor; again lord chancellor, 1834. \ 
1834. Sir James Scarlett. 24 Dec. Created lord 

Abinger, Jan. 1835. 
1844. Sir Frederick Pollock. 15 April. 
1866. Sir Pitzroy Kelly. 16 July. 

i 

CHIEF B.\KONS OF EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND. I 

1690. John Hely. 5 Dec. | 

1695. Robert Doyne. 10 May. 
1703. Nehemiah Donnellan. 27 Dec. 

1706. Richard Freeman. 25 June. 

1707. Robert Rochfort. 12 June. 

1714. Joseph Deane. 14 Oct. 

1715. Jeflfrey Gilbert. 16 June. 



1722. Bernard Hale. 9 June. 

1725. Thomas Dalton. 2 Sept. 

1730. Thomas Marlay. 29 Sept. 

1741. John Bowes. 21 Dec. 

1757. Edward Willis. 11 March. 

1766. Anthony Foster. 5 Sept. 

1777. James Dennis (aftds. baron Tracton). 3 July. 

1782. Walter Husscy Burgh. 2 July. 

1783. Barry Yelvertou (afterwards viscount Avon- 

more). 29 Nov. 
1805. Standish O'Grady (afterwards viscount Guilla- 

more). 5 Oct. 
183 1. Henry Joy. 6 Jan. 
1838. Stephen Woulfe. 20 July. 
1840. Maziere Brady. 11 Feb. 
1846. David Richard Pigot. i Sept. 



EXCISE. The system was established in England by the Long Parliament in 1643, 
duties being levied on wines, beer, &c., and tobacco, to support the army against Charles 
I. It was continued under Charles II. The present system was settled about 1733. The 
duty was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions. The old excise office was built 
on the site of Gresham college in 1774 ; the present is at Somerset-house. The officers 
of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for returning members to parliament 
in 1782. In 1849 the boards of excise, stamps and taxes, were united, as "the board of 
commissioners of inland revenue." Notwithstanding the abolition of the excise duty upon 
numerous articles, and the reduction of duty upon various others, of late years, the total 
excise revenue, so far from having decreased, has progressively advanced (1847 and 1861 
excepted) in its aggregate annual amount. Additional excise duties were charged by 17 
& 18 Vict. 0. 27, July 3, 1854. The excise duties were further modified in i860 ; see 
Revenue. 



REVEKUE FROM EXCISE. 

Great Britain. 
1744 .... £3,754,072 
1786 .... 5,540,114 
1808 . . . . 19,867,914 
1820 .... 26,364,702 
1827 {United Kingdom) 20,995.324 



1830 (United Kingdom) £18,644,385 

1834 . . . . 16,877,292 

1837 .... 14,518,142 

1840 . . . . 12,607,766 

1845 .... 13.585,583 



1850 (United Kingdom. 
1858 (to March 31) 



.) £15,278,208 
17,825,000 
20,361,000 
19,558,000 
20,708,323 
20,162,000 



- 13,919,652 

EXCLUSIOlSr BILL (to exclude the duke of York, afterwards James II., from the throne), 
was passed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 1679. The revival of the question 
led to the dissolution of parliament in 1681. 

EXCOMMUNICATION", or separation from Christian communion, founded on il/a<<. xviii. 
17 ; I Cor. v., &c., was originally instituted to preserve the purity of the church. The Roman 
church excommunicated by Bell, Book, and Candle {which see). See Interdict. 



Gregory "VII. excommmiicated the emperor 
Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from 
their allegiance 1077 

Innocent III. excommunicated John of England, 
placing the countiy under an interdict 1208-14 

Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor 
Frederic II. four times between . . 1228-45 

Louis XII. of France was excommunicated by 



Juhus II. 1510 ; Francis I. by Leo. X. 1521 ; 
Henry VIII. of England by Clement VII. iu 
1527, and by Paul III. in 1535 ; and Elizabeth 

by Paul IV 1558 

The emperor of France, the king of Sardinia, 
and others, were virtually excommunicated 
(but not by narae) on account of the annexa- 
tion of the Romagna by Sardinia 29 March, i860 



EXECUTIONS, see Crime. In the reign of Henry YIII. (38 years) it is shown that 
no less a ni;mber than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stow. In tiie ten years between 
1820 and 1830, there were executed in England alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became 
less severe, the number of executions decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the execu- 
tions in England and "Wales amomrted to 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were 
178; in tlie three years ending 1840, they were 62. The place of execution in London 
(formerly generally at Tyburn) has been in front of Newgate since 1783. The dissection of 
the bodies of executed persons was abolished in 1S32, see Death, 1868. 



EXECUTIONS IN LONDON. 



1820, 


43;— 1825, 17; 


—1830, 6 ;- 


-183s, 0;- 


-1836, 0;— 1837 


1 2 ; — I 


„ ;— 


-1844, I ; — 1845, 


3 ;— 1846, 


2. 


IN ENGLAND. 






England. 


London. 




England. 


Londo 


1847 


. 8 


I 


1854 


• • 5 





1848 


. . 12 


2 


1855 


7 


2 


1849 


• 15 





1856 


• ■ 15 


2 


1850 


. . 6 





1857 


• 13 


I 


1851 


. 10 





1858 


. II 


I 


1852 


• • 9 


I 


1859 


• 9 


I 


i»53 


. 8 


I 


i860 


. . 12 


I 



-1839, 





England. 


1 861 . 


• 15 


1862 


. . 16 


1863 . 


. 22 


1864 


. . 19 


1865 . 


. 8 


1866 


. . 12 



I ; — 1842, 2 ; — 



London. 



EXE 



286 



EXE 



EXECUTIONS, continued. 

EXECUTIONS OF 

Omipowder plot conspirators, Digby, R. Winter, 
Grant, and Bates, 30 Jan. ; T. Winter, Rook- 
wood, Keys, and Fawkes, 31 Jan. ; Henry 
Garnett, Jesuit ; at London . . 3 May, 

John Feltou, murder of duke of Buckingliam ; 
Tyburn 28 Nov. 

James duke of Monmouth, treason; Tower- 
hiU 15 July, 

Chamock, King, and Keys, 18 March ; sir John 
Friend, and sir Wm. Perkins ("assassination 
plot") 3 April, 

Capt. Wm. Kidd and three others, piracy 23 May, 

James, earl of Derwentwater, and William, earl 
of Kenmure, rebellion ; Tower-hill 24 Feb. 

Jack Sheppard, highwayman ; Tyburn, 16 Nov. 

Richard Turpin,highwayman ; York 7 or 10 April, 

Lord Balmerino and others, rebellion ; Tower- 
hill 18 Aug. 

Lord Lovat, rebellion ; Tower-hiU . 9 April, 

Richard Wm. Vaughan, first forger of Bank of 
England notes .... 11 May, 

Eugene Aram, murder ; Tork . . 6 Aug. 

Earl Ferrers, murder of his steward ; Tyburn, 

5 May, 

Theodore Gardelle, murder ; Haymarket 4 April, 

John Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithfield, 

II Nov. 

John M'Naughten, esq. , murder of Miss Knox ; 
Strabane 13 Dec. 

Elizabeth Brownrigg, murder of her apprentice ; 
Tyburn 14 Sept, 

Daniel and Robert Perreau, wine merchants, 
forgery ; Tyburn . . . 17 Ji3,n. 

Eev. Dr. Dodd, found guilty of forging a bond, 
in the name of lord Chesterfield for 4200I. : 
the highest influence was exerted to save 
him, but when the case came before the 
council, the minister of the day said to 
George III., "If your majesty pardon Dr. 
Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ; " 
Tyburn 27 June, 

Rev. Henry Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, 

mistress of earl of Sandwich; Tyburn, 

19 April, 

Capt. John Donellan, murder of sir Theodosius 
Boughton ; Warwick ... 2 April, 

Richard Parker and others, mutiny at the Nore, 

30 June, 

Mrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; Old Bailey, 

II Dec. 

Sir Edward Crosbie, high treason; Ireland, 

4 June, 

Messrs. Sheares, high treason; Dubhn, 12 July, 

Galloping Dick, highwayman; Aylesbury, 

4 April, 

Governor Joseph Wall, murder of serjeant 
Armstrong ; Old Bailey . . . zS Jan. 

Mr. Crawley, murder of two females ; Dublin, 

16 March, 

George Foster, murder of his wife and child ; 
Old Bailey 18 Jan. 

Colonel Despard, and others, high treason ; 
Horsemonger-lane .... 21 Feb. 

John Hatfield (a rank Impostor, who married 
bv means of the naost odious deceit, the cele- 
brated "Beauty of Buttermere "), forgery; 
Carlisle 3 Sept. 

Robert Emmett, high treason ; DubUn, 20 Sept. 

Richard Patch, murder of Mr. Bligh ; Horse- 
monger-lane 8 April, 

John HoUoway, Owen Haggerty, murder of Mr. 
Steele ; Old Bailey (thirty of the spectator.s 
of this execution were trodden to death, and 
numbers were pressed, maimed and wounded) 

23 Feb. 



BEMARKABLE CRIMINALS. 

T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder ; Hert- 
ford 7 March, 

Major Campbell, murder of capt. Boyd in a 

1606 duel ; Armagh 2 Oct. 

Capt. Sutherland, murder ; Execution dock, 

29 June, 
Richard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey, 24 June, 
John Bellingham, murder of Mr. Perceval ; Old 

Bailey 18 May, 

Philip Nicholson, murder of Mr. and Mrs. 
Bonar ; Pennenden-heath . . 23 Aug. 
1701 Francis Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; Dub- 
lin 9 Oct. 

1716 Charles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry ; Horse- 

1724 monger-lane 2 April, 

1739 William Sawyer, murder of Jack Hacket ; Old 
Bailey 15 May, 

1746 Eliza Penning, administering poison ; Old 

1747 Bailey 26 July, 

[Universally believed to be innocent. She denied 

1758 her gudt on the scaffold ; and thousands ac- 

1759 companied her funeral. In the "Annual 
Register " for 1857, p. 143, it is stated on the 

1760 authority of Mr. Gumey, that she confessed 

1 761 the crime to Mr. James Upton, a baptist 
minister, shortly before her execution.] 

John Cashman, Spa-fields riots ; Skinner-street, 

12 March, 
Murderers of the Lynch family. Wild-goose 
Lodge affair ; Ireland . . 19 July, 
1767 The three Ashcrofts, father and sons, murder ; 
Lancaster 8 Sept. 

1776 Brandreth and others, high treason ; Derby, 

7 Nov. 
Charles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his 

housekeeper ; Pennenden-heath 3 Aug. 

John Scanlan, esq., murder of KUenHanley; 

Limerick . . . . . 16 March, 
Arthur Thistlewood, John Brunt, James Ings, 

John Davidson, Richard Tidd (see Ccao-streit) ; 

1777 Old Bailey i May, 

John Chaimell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. 

Channell, senr. ; Godabning . . 17 Aug. 

1779 Josiah Cadman, forgery ; Old Bailey 21 Nov. 

Samuel Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old 

Bailey 27 Dec. 

John Thurtell, murder of Mr. W^eare ; Hertford, 

1797 9 Jan. 

John Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailey . 24 Feb. 

Henry Fauntleroy, banker, forgery ; Old 

Bailey 30 Nov. 

Wm. Probert, (an accomplice of ThurteU's in 

1799 the mru-der of Mr. Weare ; he became ap- 
prover), horse-stealing ; Old Bailey 20 June, 

1 800 Spitalfields' gang, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 

29 Nov. 

1802 Chas. Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey 2 Jan. 
*Edward Lowe, coining ; Old Bailey 22 Nov. 
Catherine Walsh, murder of her child ; Old 

Bailey 14 April, 

fWilliam Rea, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 

4 July, 
William Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury 

St. Edmunds 11 Aug. 

Joseph Hunton, quaker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 

8 Dec. 
Wm. Burke, murderer (see Burking); Edin- 
burgh 28 Jan. 

Anne Chapman, murder of her child ; Old 
Bailey 30 June, 

Stewart and wife, murder, Glasgow 24 July, 

Thomas Maynard, the last executed for for- 
gery ; Old Bailey .... 31 Dec. 

Mr. Comyn, arson ; Ennis. . 18 March, 

1807 John Bishop, Thomas Williams, mtxrder of a 



ibii 
1812 
1813 



1817 



1818 
1820 



1821 
1822 
1824 



1825 

1826 
1827 



1829 



1830 



* He was the last coiner drawn on a sledge to the scaffold. 

t Captain Charles Montgomery was ordered for execution this day for forgery ; but he took a dose (an 
ounce and a half) of prussic acid, to save himself from the ignominy of the gallows, and was found dead 
in his cell. 



EXE 



287 



EXE 



EXECUTIONS, continued. 

poor Italian boy (see Burling) ; Old Bailey, 

S Uec. 1831 
Jolin Sinitli, James Pratt, unnatural crime ; 

Old Bailey 8 April, 1835 

Maryanne Burdock, remarkable case of poison- 
ing ; Bristol .... 15 April, ,, 
John Pegsworth, murder ; Old Bailey, 7 March, 1837 
James Greeuacre, mui-der of Hannah Browii ; 

Old Bailey 2 May, ,, 

William Lees, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

16 Dec. 1839 
FranQois Benj. Courvoisier, murder of lord W. 

Eussell ; Old Bailey . . . .6 July, 1840 
Josiah Misters, wounding Mr. Mackreth; 

Shrewsbury 3 April, 1841 

Robert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burden ; Old 

Bailey 15 Nov. ,, 

John Delahunt, m.urder of Thomas Maguire ; 

Dublin 5 Feb. 1842 

Daniel Good, miirder of Jane Jones ; Old Bailey, 

23 May, ,, 
William Crovich, murder of his wife ; Old 

Bailey 27 May, 1S44 

James Tapping, mvu-der of Emma Whiter ; Old 

Bailey 24 March, 1845 

John Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury, 

28 March, ,, 
Thomas Henry Hooker, murder of Mr. Delarue ; 

Old Bailey 28 April, ,, 

Joseph Connor, m.urder of Mary Brothers ; Old 

Bailey 2 June, „ 

John Platts, murder of Collis ; Derby i April, 1847 
Catherine Poster, raurder of her husband ; 

Bury St. Edmunds . . 17 April, „ 

James Bloomfield Rush, miirder of Messrs. 

Jenny, sen. and jun. ; Norwich 21 April, 1849 
Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria 

Manning, murder of O'Connor; Horse- 
monger-lane 13 Nov. ,, 

James Barbour, murder ; York . 15 Jan. 1853 

Hy. Horler, murder of wife ; Old Bailey 15 Jan. „ 
Grant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas 

Bateson ; Monaghan ... 9 April, 1854 
Emanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore 

and C. CoUard ; Old Bailey . . 22 Jan. 1855 
William Bousfield, murder of his wife and 

three children ; Old Bailey . 31 March, 1856 

William Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. 

Cook by poison ; Stafford . . 14 June, ,, 
William Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; 

York 9 Aug. ,, 

Joseph Jenkins, aHo.% Robert Marley, murder 

of Cope, a shopman, in Westminster; Old 

Bailey 15 Dec. ,, 

William .Jackson, murder of two children; 

Chester 20 Dec. „ 

Lagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two 

officers and pu-acy ; Winchester . 23000. ,, 
Dedea Redaines, murder of two girls at Dover ; 

Maidstone i Jan. 1857 

Thomas Mansell (after seven months' respite), 

murder of a soldier ; Maidstone 6 July, ,, 

Capt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a black, 

with great ciaielty ; Liverjiool . 11 Sept. ,, 
Thomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 

16 Nov. ,, 
John Wm. Beale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, 

his sweetheart ; Taunton . .12 Jan. 1858 
John ThorQson, oliaa Peter Walker, murder of 

Agnes Montgomery by poison — discovered by 

a child ; Paisley . . . .14 Jan. , , 
Christian Sattler, a German, murder of in- 
spector Thain ; Old Bailey . . 8 Feb. ,, 
Giovanni Lani, murder of Heloise Thaubin ; 

Old Bailey 26 .\pril, ,, 

John B. Bicknell, murder of his grandfather 

and gi-andmother ; Taunton . 24 Aug. ,, 

Wm. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; Taunton, 

4 Jan. 1859 
Joseph Castle, murder of his wife ; Bedford, 

31 March, i860 



William Youngman, murder of sweetheart, 
Mary Streeter, and of mother and two 
brothers, on Aug. 16; Horsemonger-lane, 

4 Sept. i860 

James Mullins, murder of Mrs. Emsley, at 
Stepney ; Old Bailey . . . ig Nov. „ 

James Johnson, murder of two non-commis- 
sioned officers ; Winchester . . i Jan. 1861 

Matthew and Charles Wedmore, murder of 
their aunt ; Taunton . . . s April, ,, 

Wm. Cogan, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 

14 Oct. ,, 

Thomas Jackson, a soldier, murder of sergeant 
John Dickson ; Winchester . . 27 Dec. ,, 

Wm. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane 
Emmerson, to obtain the money she had 
saved for her funeral ; Carlisle 15 March, 1862 

G. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall, 
on her way to church ; Winchester 4 Aug. ,, 

Martin Doyle, barbarous attempted murder 
{laat execution for this crime) ; Chester 27 Aug. ,, 

William Taylor, murder of Mr. Meller from 
revenge ; he previously killed his own chil- 
dren ; Kirkdale . . . -13 Sept. ,, 

Catherine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soamea by 
poison [and of several other personis] ; Old 
Bailey ...... 20 Oct. ,, 

William Ockold (aged 70), murder of his wife, 
after 50 years marriage ; Worcester, 2 Jan. 1863 

Noah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, 

24 March ,, 

Robert A. Burton, murder of a boy ; Maidstone, 

II April, ,, 

Edward Cooper, murder of his deformed son ; 
Shrewsbury 11 April, „ 

Dennis Delano, hired Beckham and Walsh to 
murder his landlord, F. Fitzgerald, 13 April, ,, 

John Ducker, murder of Tye, a policeman ; 
Ipswich 14 April, ,, 

Wm Hope, violation and murder of Mary 
Corbett; Hereford . . . 15 April, ,, 

D. MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mrs. 
Walne ; Kirkdale . . . .25 April, „ 

Joseph Brooks, murder of Davey, a policeman ; 
Old Bailey 27 April ,, 

Joseph Kelly, murder of Fitzhenry, a school- 
master ; Wexford . . . .11 Aug. , , 

Thomas, Alvarez, Hughes, and O'Brien, fero- 
cious murderers ; Liverpool . 11 Sept. ,, 

Alice Bolt, murder of her mother ; Chester, 

28 Dec. ,, 

Samuel Wright, murder of his paramom-,i2 Jan. 1S64 

John Lyon and four others (foreigners) ; 
murder and piracy ; Old Bailey . 22 Feb. ,, 

Charles Bricknell, murder of his sweetheart, 

I Aug. „ 
Franz Miiller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a rail- 
way carriage (see rHo/s) ; Old Bailey 14 Nov. ,, 

Ferdinand Kohl, murder of M. Fuhrkop ; 
Chelmsford 26 Jan 1865 

Edw. William Pritchard, M.D., murder of wife 
and her mother ; Glasgow . . 28 July, „ 

John Currie, murder of major De Vere ; Maid- 
stone 12 Oct. ,, 

Stephen Forward, alias Ernest Southey, mur- 
der of wife and four children ; Maidstone, 

II Jan. 1S66 
Mary Ashford, murder of husband ; Exeter, 

28 j\larch, „ 
John Wm. Leigh, murder of wife's sister; 

Brighton 10 April, ,, 

Robert Coe, murder of a young man for his 

wages, 30.9. ; Swansea ... 12 April, ,, 
John Grant, a soldier, murder of a boy ; E.x:e- 

ter IS Aug. ,, 

J. R. Jeffreys, murder of his son (aged 7) ; Old 

Bailey 9 Oct. ,, 

Jas. Langhurst, brutal murder of HaiTiet Sax 

(6 years old) 16 April, 1867 

Hubbard Lingley, murder of his uncle, Benj. 

Black ; Norwich .... 26 Aug. „ 



EXE 



288 



EXH 



Frances Kidder, miirder of lier husband's child ; 

Maidstone 2 April, 

Timothy Faherty, for murder of his sweetheart, 

Mary Hanmer (for rejecting him), and 
Miles Weatherhill, murder of Bev. Mr. Plow 

of Todmorden, and his maid, (for revenge) ; 

Manchester 4 April 

Frederick Parker, marder of Daniel Driscoll ; 

York 4 April, 

John Mapp, murder of little girl ; Shrewsbury, 

9 April, 



EXECUTIONS, continued. 

George Britten, murder of his wife ; Taunton, 

29 Avig. 18 

John "Wiggins, murder of his concubine, Agnes 
Oakes ; Old Bailey .... 15 Oct. , 

Louis Bordier, murder of his concubine, Mary 
Ann Snow ; Horsemonger-lane . 15 Oct. , 

Allen, Gould (or O'Brien), and Larkin, Fenians; 
for murder of Brett, a policeman ; Salford, 

2^ Nov. , 

Frederick Baker, murder of a little girl, whom 
he aftei-wards cut up ; Winchester . 24 Dec. , 

Wm. Worsley, murder of Wm. Bradbury ; Bed- 
ford 31 March 18 

EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been early honoured with the name oi Augusta from 
having been occupied by the second Augustan legion commanded by Vespasian : its present 
name is derived from Excestre, "the castellated city of the Exe." It was for a considerable 
time the capital of the West Saxon kingdom. The bishopric anciently constituted two 
sees, Devonshire (founded about 909) and Cornwall. The church of the former was at 
Creditoii, of the latter at Bodmin, and afterwards at St. German's. About 1040 the sees 
were united. St. Petroc was the first bishop of Cornwall, before 900 ; OEdulphus, the first 
bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; and Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049. The cathedral 
originally belonged to a monastery founded by Athelstan : Edward the Confessor removed 
the monks to his new abbey of Westminster, and gave their church for a cathedral to the 
united see 1049 ; the see was valued in the king's books at 500Z. per annum. Present stated 
income 2700^. 



1003 
1067 
1136 
1200 
1236 
1250 



Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and 

compelled them to capitulate . . 877 & 894 
Exeter sacked by Sweyn . 
Besieged by Wilham the Conqueror 
The castle surrendered to king Stephen 
The city first governed by a mayor 
The celebrated nunnery founded 
The ancient bridge built 
Edward I. holds a parliament here 
The Black Prince visits Exeter 
The duchess of Clarence takes refuge in 
Besieged by sir WiUiam Courtenay . 
City assaulted by Perkin Warbeck 
Exeter constituted a county of itself 
Welsh, the vicar of St. Thomas's, hanged on the 
tower of his church, as a leader in the Cornish 

rebellion 2 July, 1549 

Annual festival established . . 6 Aug. ,, 

The guildhall bmlt 1593 

Prince Maurice takes Exeter for king Charles I. 

Sept. 1643 
It surrenders to the parliamentarians April, 1646 

The canal to Topsham cut 1675 

A mint estabUshed by James II 1688 

Water-works erected 1694 

The sessions house built 1773 

The new bridge built 1778 

The theatre erected 1783 



• • 1371 
the city 1469 



1497 
1536 



Lunatic asylum founded 1795 

County gaol built ....... 1796 

Subscription library founded .... 1807 

Devon and Exeter institution for the promotion 

of science established 1803 

New city prison built 1818 

The last of the ancient gates removed . . . ,, 
The subscription rooms opened .... 1820 

The public baths erected 1821 

Mechanics' institution opened .... 1825 

New cemetery commenced 1837 

Railway to Bristol opened . . . i May, 1844 
Great fire, 20 houses burnt . . .2 Aug. ,, 
Another great fire . . . .26 April, 1847 
Inauguration of a statue of John Denham, who 
died June, 1864, bequeathing 24,000!. to chari- 
ties 26 March, 1866 

Bread and meat riots ; suppressed 4-5 Nov. 1867 



EECENT BISHOPS. 

1803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. 
1807. Hon. George Pelham, translated to Lincoln, 

Sept. 1820. 
1820. Wilham Carey, translated to St. Asaph, 

March, 1830. 
1830. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830. 
1830. Henry Phillpotts (present) bishop. 



EXETER CHANGE (London), was buUt by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter and 
lord treasurer in 1319, beheaded by order of the queen-regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was 
entirely demolished at the period of the Strand improvements, in 1829. The new Exeter 
Change, built by the marquis of Exeter near its site, opened in 1845, was pulled down in 
i§62, for the Strand Music-hall. 

EXETER COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter, in 
13 14. The college buildings consist of a handsome quadrangle in the later Gothic style. 

EXETER HALL (Strand, Loudon), erected in 1830- 1 for the meetings of religious and 
philanthropic institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical societies, a large and magnificent 
apartment with a splendid orchestra and organ, and having rooms attached for committees, 
&c. See under J/itsM. Religious services were held here in 1856 by the Rev. C. Spurgeon, 
and in 1857 by ministers of the church of England, on Simdays. 

EXHIBITION OF 1851 (the gbeat exhibition). The original idea of a National 
Exhibition* is attributed to Mr. F. Whishaw, secretary of the Society of Arts in 1844. It 

* Industrial exhibitions began with the French ; i?a;po«i<io>is having been organised and opened at Paris 
in 179S, 1801, 1S02, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, and 1S49, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding 
all the preceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhibition of the kind in this country was the National 



EXH 



289 



EXO 



was not taken up till 1849, when prince Albert, president of the society, said, "Now is the 
time to prepare for a Great Exhibition, an exhibition worthy of the greatness of this country; 
not merely national in its scope and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole world ; and I 
offer myself to the public as their leader, if they are willing to assist in the undertaking ;" 
see Crystal Palace. 



Royiil commission appointed . . 3 Jan. 1S50 

A subscription list opened, headed by the queen 
for 1000/. 

Civic banquets in support of the plan, at Lon- 
don, 21-22 March ; and at York . . 25 Oct. ,, 

The building * commenced . . .26 Sept. „ 

Many persons admitted to it in Jan. ; it is 
virtually transferred to the royal commis- 
sioners by the contractors, Messrs. Fox and 
Henderson Feb. 1851 

Reception of goods began 12 Feb., and the sale 
of season tickets . . . .25 Feb. ,, 

The Exhibition opened by her majesty, i May, ,, 

The number of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of 
whom 2918 received prize medals and 170 
council medals. Tlie articles exhibited in 
arts, manufactures, and the various produce 
of countries, defy calculation. 

The palace coutinued open above 23 weeks, 
altogether 144 days (i May to 15 Oct.), within 
which time it was visited by 6,170,000 per- 
sons, averaging 43,536 a day, whose admis- 

EXHIBITION" OF 1862 (international). A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibi- 
tion, to be held in 1861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The 
scheme was revived in April i860, when the prince consort engaged to guarantee io,oooZ. if 
240,000?. should be subscribed for by other persons. 



sion at the respective prices of one pound, 
half-a-crown, and one shilling, amounted to 
505,1071. including season tickets, leaving a 
surplus, after payment of expenses, of about 
150,000?. 

The greatest number of visitors in one day was 
109,760 (8 Oct.) ; and at one time (2 o'clock, 
7 Oct. ) there were 93,000 ; these ijersons were as- 
sembled at one time, not in an open area, like 
a Roman amphitheatre, but (it should be recol- 
lected) within a windowed and floored and 
i-oofed building. There is no like vast assem- 
blage recorded in either ancient or modem 
anuals, as having been gathered together, it 
may be said, in one room. 

The Exhibition was closed to the public, 11 Oct. 

A memorial statue of the prince consort, by 
Joseph Durham, placed in the gardens of the 
Royal Horticultural Society, uncovered in 
the presence of the prince and princess of 
Wales 10 June, 



The Exhibition was closed on i Nov., when the 
total number of visitors (exclusive of attend- 
ants) had been 6,117,450. 

The Exhibition re-opened on 3 Nov. for the 
Sale of goods exhibited ; was finally closed on 

15 Nov. 1862 

The success of the Exhibition was much im- 
paired by tbe decease of the prince consort, 
14 Dec. 1861, and the breaking out of the 
civil war in the United States of America. 
The foreign exhibitors in 1851 were 6566 ; in 
1862, 16,456. 

Exhibitors at London, in 1851, 14,000 ; at Paris, 
in 1855, 24,000 ; at London, in 1862, 29,000 ; 
at Paris, in 1867, 50,000. 



A charter granted to the following commis- 
sioners : Eaii Granville, the marquis of 
Chrmdos, C. W. Dilke, jun., and Thomas 
Fairbairn 22 Feb. 

The guarantee fund amounted to 349,000/. in 
Nov. i860, and to 452, 300!. on . 22 Aug. 

The building, t erected at South Kensington, 
by Messrs. Kelk and Lucas, according to a 
design by capt. Fowke, made over to the 
commissioners on . . . .12 Feb. 

The Exhibition was opened by the duke of 
Cambridge and royal commissioners, i May 

The fine arts depai-tment included a noble col- 
lection of paintings and sculptures. 

The jurors' awards of medals were announced 
in the building on . . . 11 July, 

EXODUS (Greek, icay out), a terra applied to the departure of the Israelites from Egypt 
1491 B.C. ; and described in the book of Exodus. Chronologers vary in the date of this 
event : the LXX. give 1614 ; Hales, 1648 ; Wilkinson, 1495 ; Bunsen, 1320 or 1314. 

EX OFFICIO INFOEMATIOISrS are those filed by the attorney-general, hy virtue of 
his office, without applying to the court where they are filed for leave, or giving the defendant 
an opportunity of showing cause why they should not be filed. Cabinet Laivyer. _ They 
were used by the Liverpool administration about 181 7- 19. William Hone was tried on 

Repository, opened under royal patronage in 1828, near Ch.aring-cross. It was not successful. Other ex- 
hibitions wer« opened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at Birmingham in 1849. E.xhibitiong 
have since been held at Cork, Dubhn, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, Florence, Constantinopll^ 
Bayonne, Melbourne, and many other places (which see). 

* The palace, with the exception of the flooring and joists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was de- 
signed by Mr. (since sir Joseph) Paxton (who died 8 June, 1865), and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and 
Henderson, to whom it Wiis agreed to pay 79.800;., or 150,000!. if the building were permanently refciiued. 
It cost 176,030?, 13.'!. Sd. Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year ; the width 408 feet, with an 
addition.al projection on the north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central portion was 120 feet wide 
and 64 feet high, aud the great avenues ran east and west through the building; the transept near the 
centre was 72 feet wide and io8 feet high. The entire area was 772, 784 square feet, or about 19 acres. Four 
galleries ran lengthways, and others round the transept. The ground-floor and galleries contained 1,000,000 
square feet of flooring. There were altotrether 4000 tons of iron in the structure, and 17 acres of glass in 
the roof, besides about 1500 vertical glazed sashes. 

t The main building occupied about 16 acres of ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was 
1 1 50 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east and west fronts rose the two domes 260 feet high. The 
inte\ior was decorated by Mr. John G. Grace. The building was given up to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas on 
31 Dec. 1862, the house of commons having refused to purch.ase it for 80,000?. 2 July, 1863 ; and the pulling 
down commenced on 6 July. The domes and other parts of the structure were purchased for erection in 
Alexandra-park, Muswell-hill, near London (north), 

V 



EXP 



290 



FAB 



criminal information, Dec. 18-20, 1817, and acquitted. The British bank directors were 
thus tried, 1857. 

EXPEDITIONS. Many are described under their respective heads. 

Expedition of "the Nations" or " the Ditch." — St. Male ; 4000 men lost 
The third expedition of the Koreish {which see) 
against Mahomet, named from the nations who 
marched under their leader Abu Sophian, and from 
the ditch which was drawn before the city. They 
were principally vanquished by the fury of the 
elements. Gibbon. 



BRITISH EXPEDITIONS, 

France, near Port I'Orient . 
Cherbourg 



I Oct. 1746 
7 Aug. 1758 



Quiberon Bay (French emigrants) 
Ostend {all made prisoners) 
Holder Point and Zuyder Zee 
Ferrol, in Spain .... 
Egypt (Abercrombie) 
Copenhagen .... 
Walcheren (unfortunate) 
Bergen-op-Zoom 

Crimea 

linia . 



Sept. 1758 
. . 1796 

May, 1798 
. Sept. 1799 

Aug. 1800 
. March, 1801 

Sept. 1807 

July, 1809 
8 March, 1814 

Sept. 1854 



Oct. 1867-April, 18 

EXPENDITUEE, see under Revenue. 

EXPOETS. Edward III. by his encouragement of trade turned the scale so much in 
favour of English merchandise, that by a balance taken in his time, the exported commo- 
dities amounted to 294,000^. and the imported to only 38,oooZ. ; see Revenue. Tlie declared 
value is of much less amount than the official. 

OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPOETS FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE Vi^ORLD, VIZ. : — 
1700 
1750 . 
177s 



1851 
1853 
185s 



£6,097,120 
10,130,991 

16,326,363 


1800 
1810 
1820 


DECLARED V 


£74,448,722 
98,933,781 
95,688,085 


1856 
1857 
1859 



£38,120,120 I 1830 

. 45,869,839 183s 
51,733,113 1 1840 



£66,735,445 

78,376,732 
. 97,402,726 



1851 



£131,564,503 

. 175,126,706 

190,397,810 



DECLARED VALUE OF BRITISH AND IRISH PRODUCE EXPORTED. 



£115,826,948 

. 122,155,237 

130,440,427 



1861. 
1862 



£135,891,227 

125,102,814 

. 123,992,264 



1865 



£146,602,342 

• 165,835,725 

188,827,785 



EXTRACT OF MEAT, discovered by Liebig in 1847 ; a company was formed to manu- 
facture it in South America in 1 866. 

EXTRADITION" TREATY, between Great Britain and France, was concluded iu 1843. 
In Dec. 1865, the Frencli government gave notice of withdrawing from it in six months. It 
was renewed, with modifications, for six months, 21 May, 1866. 

the crown and the Bank of France. After argu- 



In 1866, M. Lamirand, charged with forgery and 
fraud against the Bank of France, fled to America. 
He was pursued, and while at Montreal, on i Aug., 
was arrested under the governor-general's war- 
rant. On 15 Aug., while his examination was still 
pending, he petitioned the governor-general not to 
warrant his surrender before he could apply for a 
writ of habeas corpus, and was assured on 17 Aug. 
that ample time should be allowed for this purpose. 
On 22 Aug. he was finally committed ; and on 
24 Aug. his petition for a writ of habeas corpus was 
presented to judge Drummond, twenty-four hoiirs' 
notice having been given to the representatives of 



ments had been heard and the case adjourned until 
the following day, he was surreptitiously carried 
off the same night by train to Quebec, and hurried 
on board a steamer bound for Europe, by virtue of 
an extradition warrant, purporting to be signed by 
the governor-general, at Ottawa on 23 Aug. He 
was conveyed to France, and on 5 Dec. was tried, 
found guilty, and condemned to ten years' imprison- 
ment. These circumstances led to much discussion, 
and the Canadian authorities were censured for 
irregularity and want of discretion. The discussion 
ended by Lamirand declining British intervention. 



EXTRA VAGANTES, see Decretals. 

EXTREME UNCTION, see Anointing, 

EYLAU (Prussia), where, on 7-8 Feb. 1S07, the French defeated the Russians in one of 
the most bloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded in person. Both armies by 
this and other battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the 
Russians on the Pregel. 

EYRE (old French for ire, to go), the itinerant court of justices, the justices in eyre, 
was instituted by Henry II. 1176 ; and when the forest laws were in force, its chief-justice 
had great dignity. These justices were to go their circuit every third year, and punish all 
abuses committed in the king's forests. The last instance of a court. being held in any of 
the forests is said to have been in 1671. Bcatson. 



F. 



FABII. A noble family at Rome, said to have derived their name from faha, a bean, 
because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse ; or to have descended from Fabius, a 
son of Hercules. They made war against the Veientes, and in an engagement near the 
Cremera, all the grown up males of the family (306 men) were slain in a sudden attack, 
477 B.C. From one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, arose the noble Fabii of 



PAB 



291 



FAL 



the following ages. Fabius Cundator (the delayer) kept Hannibal in check for some time 
without coming to an engagement, 217-216 B.C. 

FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees {Judges ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest ex- 
tant, and as beautiful as any made since." Addison. Nathan's fable of tlie poor man (2 
Sam. xii., about 1034 B.C.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collection of ftibles extant is of 
eastern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, or Pilpay, are 
the most beautiful, if not the most ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. The well- 
known yEsop's fables (ivhichsee), supposed to have been written about 565 or 620 B.C., were 
versified by Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.C. (Coraij), and turned into pi'ose by Maxi- 
mus Planudes, a Greek monk, about 1320, who added other fables and appended a worthless 
life of J<;sop. The fables of Lafontaiue (1700) and Gay (1727) are justly celebrated. 

FACIAL ANGLE (that contained by one line drawn horizontally from the middle of the 
ear to the edge of the nostrils, and another from the latter point to the ridge of the frontal 
bone) was invented by Peter Camper to measure the elevation of the forehead. In negroes 
this angle is about 70°; in Europeans from 75° to 85°. Camper died 7 April, 1789. His 
book on "Characteristic Marks of Countenance " was published in 1791. 

FACTIONS of the Circus among the Romans, were parties that fought on chariots in 
the circus, and who were distinguished by their colours, as green, blue, red, and white ; to 
which Domitian added two others, gold and scarlet, about 90. At Constantinople, the 
higher ranks took jiart in the games, and the emperors and people generally favoured one 
colour. 



come) for a watchword, from whicli the sedition 
has been named. The bhies soon repented, and 
massacred nearly all the greens. The conflict was 
suppressed by Belisarius mth difficulty. The 
games were abolished for a time. 



In Jan. 532, a conflict took place, lasting five days, 
when about 30,000 lives were lost, and Justinian 
was mainly indebted for his life and throne to the 
heroism of his empress Theodora, formerly a 
courtesan. The blues and greens united for a day 
or two against the emperor, taking Mka.' (over- 

FACTORIES, supplied with machinery for producing manufactures, have immensely 
increased in this country since 1815. The Factory act, regulating the hours of labour, &c., 
was passed in 1833. No child is to be employed under nine years of age, except in silk 
factories. Similar acts have been passed since ; and an act for the extension of the principles 
of the Factorj' acts was passed in 1867. 

FAIRLOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in circumference, the growth of five centuries, in 
the forest of Hainault, Essex, was blown down in Feb. 1820. Beneath its branches a fair 
was annually held on the first Friday in July, which originated with the eccentric Mr. Day, 
a pump and block maker of Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, annually 
repaired here with a party of friends, to dine on beans and bacon. 

FAIROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecisive 
battles between the Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson, and the Federal army of 
the Potomac, under general M'Clellan, 31 May and i June, 1862. 

FAIRS AND "VVakes, of Saxon origin, were instituted in England by Alfred, 886. Spcl- 
man. Wakes were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Fcrice, at 
which the monks celebrated the festival of their patron saint : the vast resort of people occa- 
sioned a great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were established in France about 800 by 
Charlemagne, and encouraged in England about 1071 by William the Conqueror. 

FALCONRY or Hawking in England cannot be traced with certainty until the reign 
of king Ethelbert, the Saxon monarch, 850. Pennant. The grand seignior at one time 
kept six thousand falconers in his service. Juliana Berners' book on " Hawkynge and 
Huntynge " was printed in 1496 ; see Angling. Recent attempts have been made to revive 
falconry. 

FALCZI, Peace OF, concluded between Russia and Turkey, 2 Julj^, 171 1, the Russians 
gi\dug up Azoph and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The Russians 
were saved from imminent destruction by the address of Catherine the emjiress. In 1712 
the war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constantinople, 16 April, 1712. 

FALERII, a city of the Falisci, air Etruscan people who joined the Veientes against 
Rome, and were beaten by Cornelius Cos.sus, 437 B.C. It is recorded that when the city was 
besieged by Camillus in 394, a school-master offered to betray to him the children of the 
principal citizens. On his refusal to accept the offer the citizens from gratitude surrendered. 
They opposed Rome during the first Punic war ; and in 241 B.C. the city was taken and de- 
stroyed after a fierce conflict. 

FALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil and Horace, was the produce of Falemus, 

V 2 



FAL 292 FAE 

or, as called by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. Horace in his Odes boasts of having 
drunk Falernian wine that had been, as it were, born with him, or which reckoned its age 
from the same consuls, 14 B.C. The Opimian wine is said to have been kept for 200 years. 

FALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site of a victory by the English under Edward I, 
over the Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose forces deserted him. It is said from 
20,000 to 40,000 of the latter were slain, 22 July, 1298. A battle was fought at Falkirk 
Muir between the royal forces and prince Charles Stuart, in which the former were defeated, 
17 Jan. 1746. 

FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain, 
seen by Americus Vespucius, 1502, and visited by Davis, 1592 ; taken possession of by France, 
1764. The French were expelled by the Spaniards; and in 1771, Spain resigns them to 
England. Not having been colonised by us, the republic of Bnenos Ayres assumed a right 
to these islands, and a colony from that country settled 'at Port Louis ; but owing to a dis- 
pute with America, the settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. In 1833 the British 
flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British, officer has since resided there. Governor, 
Wm. Cleaver F. Eobinson, 1866. 

FALLING STARS, see Meteors. FAMILY COMPACT, see Bourbon. _ 

FAMILY OF LOVE, a society, called also Philadelphians, from the love they professed 
to bear to all men, assembled at Brew-house yard, Nottingham. Their founder, David 
George, an Anabaptist, of Holland, propagated his doctrine in Switzerland, where he died 
in 1556. The tenets of the society were declared impious, and George's body and books 
ordered to be burned by the hangman ; see also Agapemonc. 

FAMINES. The famine of the seven years in Egypt began 1708 B.C. Usher; Blair. , 

Famine at Kome, when thousands of people | One in England and France [Rapin] . . . 1353 

threw themselves into the Tiber . .B.C. 436 1 Again, one so great, that bi'ead was made from 

Awful famine in Egypt .... a.d. 42 I fern-roots (Siow) 1438 

At Rome, attended by plague .... 262 ' One throughout these islands .... 1565 
In Britain ; people ate the bark of trees . . 272 j Awful one in France ( FoltaiTe) 
In Scotland ; thousands died .... 306 ! One general in these realms 
In England ; 40,000 perished . . . . 310 One which devastates Bengal 

Awful one in Phrygia 370 j At Cape de Verde ; 16,000 persons perish 

In Italy, when parents ate their children {Du- ' One grievously felt in France 

fresnoy) 450 One severely felt in England 

In England, Wales, and Scotland . . . . 739 j Again, throughout the kingdom . 
Again, when thousands starve .... 823 
Again, which lasts four years . . . . 954 
Awful one throughout Europe .... 1016 

In England, 21 William 1 1087 

In England and France : this famine leads to a 

pestilential fever, which lasts from 1193 to 1193 
Another famine in England .... 1251 j people, were made in the session of 1847, the 
Again, so dreadful that the people devoured I whole amounting to ten millions sterling. 

the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin . 1315 In N. W. provinces of India, thousands starved. 
One occasioned by long rains 1335 (See India) .... Jan. -March, 1867 

FAN. Used by the ancients ; Cape hoc flabellum, et ventulum huic sic facito. ' ' Take 
this fan, and give her thus a little air." Terence's £unuchus, 166 e.g. — Fans, together with 
muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to 
England from France. Siow. In the British Museum are Egyptian fan-handles. 

FARADISATION, the medical application of the magneto- electric currents which Fara- 
day discovered in 1837. Apparatus for this purpose was first made by M. Pixii, and em- 
ployed by Dr. Neef of Frankfort. 

FARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. 
The best English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstalf, &c.) appeared from about 1740 to 
1780. These species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were 
exhibited by charlatans and their buff'oons in the open streets ; see Drama. 

FARMERS-GENERAL, see Fermiers. 

FARNESE FAMILY became important through the elevation of Alexander Farnese to 
the papacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter the duchy of Parma, and his de- 
scendants ruled there till the death of Antony without issue in 1731. Alexander prince of 
Parma ivas governor of the Netherlands in 1579. 

FARRINGDON-MARKET, erected by the corporation of London, near the abolished 
Fleet-market, was opened 20 Nov. 1829. 

FARTHING, an early English coin. Farthings in silver were coined by king John; the 
Irish farthing of his reign (1210) is rare. Farthings were coined in England in silver by 
Henry VIII. First coined in copper by Charles 11. 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there 



1748 
1771. 
1775 
1789 
1793 
1801 

At Drontheim, owing to Sweden intercepting 
the supplies ....... 1813 

Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 
1814, 1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, in consequence of 
the failure of the potato crop. Grants by 
parliament, to relieve the suffering of the 



FAR 



293 



FEN 



was a large coinage of copper money. Half- farthings were first coined in 1843 '> ^^e Queen 
Anne's Farthings. 

FARTHINGALE, see Crinoline. 

FASTI CAPITOLINI, marble tablets dug up in the forum at Rome, 1547, contain a 
list of the consuls and other officers from the year of Rome 250 to 765. Other fragments 
were found in 1817 and 1818. The "Fasti Consulares," from 509 B.C. to A.D. 235, is given 
at the end of Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities." 

FASTS, observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Chron. 
XX. 3) ; by the Ninevites {Jonah iii.) ; see Isai. Iviii. A fast was observed by the Jews on 
the great day of atonement, Lev. xxiii. 1490 B.C. The first Christian ministers were ordained 
with fasting (45), Ads xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, 
and on particular occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the Christian church, in 
the second century, 138. The Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan ('which see). Fast days 
are appointed by "the Reformed churches in times of war and pestilence (as 2i March, 1855, 
for the Russian war, and 7 Oct. 1857, for the Indian mutiny) ; see Abstinence. 

FATHERS OF the CHURCH. The following are the principal :— 



FIKST CENTURY. Gveck. 

Clemens Romauus, d. 100 
Ignatius . . . rf. 115 
Polycarp . d. abt. 169 



SECOND CENTURY. Greel'. 
Jvistin Martyr, rf. abt. 166 
IreniBUS . . d. abt. 200 
Athenagoras. 



THIRD CENTURY. GvCtk. 

Clemens Alex. d. abt. 217 
Origen . . d. abt. 253 



Tertullian . d. abt. 220 

Minutius Felix, _;l. abt. 230 

' Cyprian . . d. abt. 258 



FOURTH AND FIFTH CEN- 

TURlE.s. Gretk. 
Eusebius . d. abt. 340 
Athanasius . . d. 373 
Ephrem Syrus, d. abt. 378 
Basil . . . d. 379 
Cyiil of Jerusalem, d. 386 
Gregory Nazianzen, d. 389 
6regorylSryssen,d.abt. 394 
Epiphanius . . d. 402 



Chrysostom . . d. 


407 


Cyril of Alexandria, d 


444 


Latin. 




Amobius . . . fl. 


303 


Lactantius . d. abt. 


330 


Ambrose . . . d. 


^q? 


Jerome . . . d. 


420 


Augustine . . d. 


430 



FATIMITES, see. All, and Mahometanisvi. 

FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. The researches of Chevreul since 181 1 on 
their chemical nature are very important ; see Candles. 

FAUGHARD, see Foughard. 

FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in cheap books, flourished about the end of 
the 15th century. Goethe's poem, " Faust," appeared in 1790. 

FEASTS AKD Festia^als. The "Feasts of the Lord," viz., those of the Passover, Pen- 
tecost, Trumpets, and Tabernacles, were instituted 1490 B.C. (Leviticus :s.xiu..) 



Rogation days appointed 469. 

Jubilees ia the Romish. Church were instituted by 

Boniface VIII. in 1300 ; see Jubilees. 
For fixed festivals observed in the Church of 

England, as settled at the Reformation, et seq., 

see Book of Common Prayer. 
Feasts of Charity ; see Agapce. 



Feast of Tabernacles, celebrated upon the dedication | 
of the Temple of Solomon, 1004 B.C. j 

Hezekiah (726 b.c.) and Josiah (623) kept the feast 
of Passover in a most solemn manner. 

In the Christian Church the feasts of Christmas, 
Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsun- 
tide (which see), are said to have been ordered to be 
observed by all Christians in the ist century. | 

FEBRUARY (from Fcbrmis, an Italian divinity), the second month of the year, in which 
were celebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of deceased persons. This month, with 
Januar}^ was added to the year by Numa, 713 B.C. 

FECIALES or Fetiales, twenty in number, heralds of Rome, to denounce war or pro- 
claim peace, appointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. 

FEDERAL STATES are those united by treaty as one state, without giving up self- 
government — as in Switzerland. The Federals were the people of the Northern of the 
United States of America during the great conflict in 1861-5 ; their opponents were styled 
Confederates. 

FEEJEE ISLANDS or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean, about 1500 miles from Sydney. 
There are 80 islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,000 inhabitants. 
The islands were offered by the chiefs to the British government, July, 1859 ; but not ac- 
cepted. In i860 the house of commons granted i68oZ. for expenditure in them. 

FELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in 1765), comprises every species of crime 
which occasions the forfeiture of land and goods. 

FEMALE MEDICAL SCHOOL, London, held its first session in 1865, when courses of 
lectures Avere given. Dr. Mary Walker attended Middlesex hospital, in a modified female 
dress, in 1S66. She gave an auto-biographical lecture at St. James's Hall, 20 Nov. 1866. 

FENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, a body of cavalry raised voluntarily in various 
counties of England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the Avar in any part of Great 



FEN 



294 



FEN 



Britain. This force (between 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with much judgment 
during a period of intense popular excitement, was disbanded in 1800. 

FENCING was introduced into England from France. Fencing-schools having led to 
duelling in England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 Edw. I. 1285. In 1859 there 
were eight teachers of fencing in London. 

FENIANS (an ancient Irish name^, a "brotherhood" in the United States and Ireland 
united to liberate Ireland and establish a republic* The agitation was begun, it is said, by 
Stephens in March, 1858, and in 1864 enlistments and secret drillings took place. A con- 



vention was formed in i i 
clergy ; see Ireland. 

Riot between the Fenians and tlieir opponents 

at the Rotondo, Dublin . . .22 Feb. i 
25 persons arrested in Dublin, and the news- 
paper the Irish PeoxiU (established Sept. 1863) 

seized 15 Sept. 1 

Other persons, principally of the lower classes 
of society, arrested at Cork, &c. 16-30 Sept. 
The Fenians in America published an address, 
stating that officers were going to Ireland to 
organise an army of 200,000 men . Sept. 
Fenians arrested at Manchester . 21 Sept. 
A ship laden with gunpowder seized at Liver- 
pool Sept. 

Allocution of the pope, condemning secret 

societies 30 Sept. 

Evidence adduced that 5000L and 2000 pike- 
heads had been received from America in 

Sept. 
O'Donovau and 5 others committed for high 

treason 2 Oct. 

33 Fenians committed for trial, up to 14 Oct. 
A Fenian provisional government at New York, 
and a congress of 600 members held at Phila- 
delphia Oct. 

Fenians in United States said to have raised 

2oo,oooZ. in ..... Oct. 

Capture of James Stephens, Irish head-centre, 

II Nov. ; he escapes from gaol . 24 Nov. 

Fierce disputes between the senate and 

O'Mahony. the head-centre, who is charged 

with corruption and deposed; Mr. Roberts 

appointed his siiccessor . ." . Dec. 

380,000 Fenians reportedin the United States, 

Jan. 
Habeas Corpus act suspended in Ireland, 
about 250 suspected persons arrested imme- 
diately . . . . . 17 Feb. 
Great mass meeting at New York, threatening 
to invade Canada ... 4 March, 
Fenian schooner Friend captures British 
schooner Wentworth, and scuttles her near 
Eastport, N. A. . . . .1 May, 
James Stephens arrives at New York 10 May, 
Col. O'Neil and Fenians cross the Niagara and 
enter Canada, 31 May ; a conflict ensued 
with the volunteers, with bloodshed 2 June 
The American generals Grant and Meade cap- 
ture many retreating Fenians, 2 June et seq. 
Sweeny and others arrested . . 6, 7 June, 
President Johnson's proclamation against the 

Fenians 7 June, 

Spear and others cross the boundary near Ver- 
mont, 7 June ; the corps demoralised ; many 
return . . . . . . 9 June 

Much dissensions among the Fenians, July et seq. 
They exercise much influence in the elections 

in America in Oct. 

Trials in Canada. — Col. Lynch and Rev. John 

MacMahon (sentenced to be hanged on 

13 Dec.) reprieved . . . 24-26 Oct. 

James Stepliens, "central organiser of the 

Irish republic," said to sail from America, 

24 Nov. 

The British government offer 2oooZ. for his 

apprehension Nov. 



in America. The movement is opposed by the Roman Catholic 



Meaney, a delegate, arrested in London i Dec. 186S 
Arms and ammunition seized in Dubhn, Cork, 

Limerick; many arrests . . . Dec. ,, 
Gen. Millen, head of 'the Fenian military depart- 
ment, denounces Stephens " as a cheat and a 
rascal," and declares the cause for the present 
hopeless, but exhorts to watchfulness for an 

opportunity 3 Dec. ,, 

Sweeny (released) rejoins the U. S. arrnj^ 

Jan. T867 
22 convictions at Toronto . . . Jan. „ 

67 Fenians from Liverpool arrested ia Dublin, 

12 Feb. „ 
Irruption of Fenians into Chester ; compelled 

to retire ... . 11, 12 Feb. ,, 

Outbreak in Kerry ; Killarney threatened ; 

capt. Moriarty and others captured 12 Feb. „ 
Attack on coastguard station, Cahirciveen, 

12 Feb. ; movement collapsed . 16 Feb. ,, 
Kilmallock police barrack defended for three 
hours by 14 coi\stables, who drove off 200 
armed Fenians, with loss, by a sally 5 March, ,, 
General Massey captin-ed . 4 or 6 March, ,, 
Rising at Midleton in Cork ; Daly, a leader, 
killed ; rails of South and Midland railway 

taken up 6 March, ,, 

Proclamation of the Irish republic sent to the 

jPtines and other papers . . 6 March, ,, 

Fenian rising near Dublin ; telegraph de- 
stroyed ; attack on the police station at 
TaUaght repelled ; several shot, 208 prisoners 
taken into Dublin ... 7 March, ,, 
1000 Fenians hold market-place at Drogheda, 

but retreat at the approach of police 7 March, ,, 
Capt. Maclure captured . . 31 March, ,, 
Special commission to try 230 Fenians ; White- 
side, ch.-j. ; Deasy and Fitzgerald, begin 
(Massey, Keogh, Corydon, and McGough, 
approvers) .... 9 April et seq. „ 
Burke and Doran sentenced to death i May ; 

reprieved 26 May, ,, 

Many convictions of treason (M'Afferty, 
M'Clurc, and others) and treason-felony, and 
many discbai-ged .... May, ,, 
Trials at Limerick begin . . . 11 June, ,, 
President Roberts retires ; the party in the 

United States said to be demoralised July ,, 
Many Fenians tried and convicted, July & Aug. ,, 
Several imprisoned Fenians released and sent 

to America . . . Aug. and Sept. , , 
Fenian congress at Cleveland, Ohio . Sept. „ 
Kelly and Deasy, two Fenians, remanded for 
further examination, rescued from the 
prisoners' van, near Manchester ; and Brett, 
a policeman, shot for refusing to give up bis 

keys 18 Sept. „ 

Many persons taken up ; 23 committed on 

charge of murder — tried, 5 condemned to 

death (2 reyirieved) ; 7 sentenced to 7 years' 

imprisonment . . 29 0ct.-i2 Nov. ,, 

Allen, Gould, and Larkin executed at SaUord, 

23 Nov. ,, 
Funeral demonstration in London on 24 Nov. „ 
Trials of Halpin and others at Dublin, 

Oct. -Nov. ,, 



_ * Fenian oath. " I promise by the divine law of God to do all in my power to obey the laws of the 
society P. B., and to free and regenerate Ireland from the yoke of England. So help me God." 



FEN 295 FER 



and. accuses Bai-rett or Jackson (captured at 
Glasgow 14 Jan.) of firing the barrel at 

Clerkenwell 28 Jan. 1S68 

Attack on Martello tower near Waterford 28 Jan. , , 
Capt. Mai-kay arrested at Cork, 7 Feb. ; 

much riotincf there . . . 11, 12 Feb. „ 
Conviction of Patrick Lennon, a leader 12 Feb. „ 
Habeas corpus act siisp. till i March, 1869, Feb. „ 
MuUady and Thonip.son convicted as acces- 
sories in murder of Brett . .18 March, ,, 
Capt. Mackay convicted ; sentenced to 12 years' 

imprisonment .... 20 March, ,, 
O'FaiTell, a Fenian, wounds the duke of Edin- 
burgh at Port Jackson, 12 March ; sentenced 

to death 31 March ,, 

Mr. Darcy M'Gee, M.P., shot dead by a Fenian 

at Ottawa 7 April „ 

Trial of Wm. and Timothy Desmond, Nicholas 
English, John O'Keefe, Michael Barrett, and 
Ann Justice, for murder (Clerkenwell out- 
rage) begun 20; acquittal of Justice, 23; of 
O'Keefe, 24; and of the two De.smonds and 
English, 27. Conviction of Barrett 27 April ,, 



FENIANS, continued. 

Funeral demonstrations for Allen, &c., at 

Cork, I Dee. ; Dublin and Limerick 8 Dec. 1867 
Address of the president and senate of the 

Fenian brotherhood of America to the 

"liberty-loving people of England," dated 

New York 12 Dec. ,, 

Keunion of the Roberts and Stephens parties 

under a new president, about . 20 Dec. ,, 
Premeditated explosion at Clerkenwell house 

of detention, London, to release Burke and 

Casey, leading Fenians, at 3.45: s persons 

killed (2 others died soon after) and about 50 

mutilated or wounded. A cask of gunpowder 

was fired close to the prison wall ; Timothy 

Desmond, Jeremiah Allen, and Ann Justice 

captured on suspicion . . . 13 Dec. ,, 
Capt. Mackay and others rifle a Martello tower, 

27 Dec. ,, 
Audacious seizure of arms and ammunition in 

a gunsmith's shop in Cork . . 30 Dec. ,, 
12 suspected Fenians captured at Merthyr 

Tydvil 31 Dec. ,, 

Mullany, a prisoner, turns Queen's evidence, 

FERE-CHAMPENOISE (France). Here the French army under Marmont, Mortier, 
and Arriglii, were surprised and defeated by tlie allies under the jirince of Suhwartzenberg, 
25 March, 18 14, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrendered six days after. 

FERI^ LATINiE, solemn Roman festivals, alleged to have been instituted by Tarquin 
the Proud, about 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of forty-seven towns of Latium 
assembled on a mount near Rome, where they and the Roman authorities oS'ered a bull to 
Jupiter Latialis. 

FERMENTATION, termed by Gay-Lussac one of the most mysterious processes in 
nature : he showed that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugar are resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 
of carbonic acid. His memoir appeai'ed in 1810. In 1861 Pasteur brought forward evidence 
to show that fermentation depends on the jireseuce of minute organisms in the fei'menting 
fluid, and that the source of all such organisms is the atmosphere. 

FERMIERS GENERAUX, officers who farmed the French revenues previous to 1789, 
frequently with much oppression. Lavoisier and 27 of these were executed 8 May, 1794. 

FERNDALE COLLIERY EXPLOSION; 8 Nov. 1867 ; about 178 lives lost. See 
under Coal. 

FERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once archiepiscopal. St. Edten was seated here 
in 598. Leighlin and Ferns were united in 1600 ; and by the Church Temporalities' act, 
passed Aug. 1833, both were united to the bishopiic of (Jssury. See Ossory. — Ferns, an 
order of cryptogamous plants, now much cultivated in Wardian cases ; which see, and also 
Nature-Printing. 

FEROZESHAH (India). The British, commanded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the 
entrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first line of works, 21 Dec. 1845 ; but night 
coming on, the operations were suspended till daybreak next day, when their second line 
was stormed by general Gilbert, and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to retake their 
guns, but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated towards the Sutlej, 22 Dec. ; and re- 
crossed that river unmolested, 27 Dec. The British loss was reckoned at 2415. 

FERRARA, a city in the Papal States, formerly part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, under 
the emperors of the East. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and taken 
from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it to pope Stephen 11. About 1208 it fell into the 
hands of the house of Este (lohich see), and became the principal seat of the literature and 
fine arts in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the long-claimed sovereignty in 1598,011 
the death of the duke Alphonso II., the last legitimate male of the Este family. His 
illegitimate nephew, Cfesar, became duke of Modena. The French under Massena took 
FeiTara in 1796 ; but it was restored to the pope in 18 14. An Austrian garrison held it from 
1849 ; it retired in June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for annexation to Sardinia, 
which was accomplished in March, 1 860. 

FERRARS' ARREST. In March, 1542, Mr. George Ferrars, a member of parliament, 
being in attendance on the house, was taken in execution by a sheriff's otficer for debt, and 
committed to the Compter prison. The house despatched their serjeant to require his 
release, which was resisted, and an atlVay taking place, his mace was broken. The house 
in a body repaired to the lords to complain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very 
great, and the punishment of the ofJ'enders was referred to the lower house. On another 



FEE 296 riG 

messenger being sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they delivered up the senator, and the 
civil magistrates and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the inferior officers to 
Newgate, and an act was passed releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. The king, 
Henry VIII., highly approved of all these proceedings, and the ti'ansaction became the basis 
of that rule of parliament which exempts members from arrest. Holinshed. 

FEREO, the most western of the Canary isles, from whose west point some geographers 
have taken their first meridian, was known to the ancients, and was re-discovered in 1402. 

FERROL (N.W. Spain). Ui^wards of 10,000 British landed near Ferrol under the 
command of sir James Pultene}', in Aug. 1800. They gained possession of the heights ; 
notwithstanding, despairing of success, on account of the strength of the works, he re- 
embarked his troops. His conduct was much condemned. Soult captured Ferrol 27 Jan. 
1809. 

FESCENNIFE VERSES were rude extemporary dialogiies, frequently licentious, in 
favour among the ancient Etruscans at weddings, and still popular in Italy. 

FESTIVALS, see Feasts. 

FETE DE DIEU, a feast of the Roman church in honour of the real presence in the 
Lord's Supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. See Coiyus Christi. Berengarius, 
archbishop of Angers, opposed the doctrine of transubstantiation, and to atone for his crime 
a yearly procession was made at Angers, called la fete d,e Dieu, 1019. 

FETE DE VERTU, an annual assemblage, chiefly of young persons, to whom were 
adjudged rewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held at Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, 
begun by Lady Harcourt in 1789, continued till her death. 

FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by suit and service to the lord or owner was 
introduced into England by the Saxons, about 600. This slavery was increased in 1068. 
The kingdom was divided into baronies, which were given on condition of the holders 
furnishing the king with men and money. The vassalage, restored, but limited by Henry VII. , 
1495, was abolished by statute 1660. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland b}'' 
Malcolm II. in 1008, and the hereditary jurisdictions were finally abolished in that kingdom, 
1746-7. The feudal laws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, were discountenanced 
by Louis XL in 1470. 

FEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by Jean de la Barriere in 1577 at the abbey of 
Feuillant, near Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 1587. The Feuillant club, formed in Paris 
by La Fayette and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of the Jacobins, was so 
named from the convent where they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall and 
obliged them to separate, 25 December, 1791 ; and the club was broken up in 1792. 

FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, 
about 787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. After long-continued struggles, it was 
annexed to Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as containing more than 700 
temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the 12th century. 

FICTIONS, see Romances. — Fictions in Law were invented by the lawyers in the 
reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the 
courts became checks to each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's 
Bench, emphatically declared, that "no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the 
real truth, as to prevent the execution of justice," 31 May, 1784. 

FIDENiE, a Sabine city, frequently at war with Rome. It was finally captured and the 
inhabitants enslaved, 426 B. c. by the Romans, whose ambassadors they had slain. 

FIEF, see Feudal La.ws. 

FIELD OF Makch and May, see Champ. — Field of the Cloth of Gold, a plain 
near Ardres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry VIII. met Francis I. of France, 7-25 
June, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their magnificence, and many 
involved themselves in debt. Paintings of the embarkation and interview are at Windsor 
castle. 

FIELD-MARSHAL, see Marshal. FIERY-CHAMBER, see Charnhre Ardente. 

FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT on Louis-Philippe, see Fraiiec, 1835. 

FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, about 1645, supposed the period of the Millennium to be 
just at hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
They proceeded so far as to elect Jesus Christ king at London. Cromwell dispersed them, 
1653. Kearsley. Another rising with loss of life was suppressed, 6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Ven- 
ner, a cooper, their leader, and 16 others, were executed soon after. 

FIG-TREE {Ficus Carica) brought from the south of Europe, before 1548. The Botany- 
Bay fig, Ficus Anstralis, brought from N.S. Wales in 1789. 



FIG 297 FIR 

' FIGURES, see Arithmetic, and Digits. 

FILES are mentioned (i Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 B.C. The manufacture of them has at- 
tained to great perfection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That set u]) by Mi\ T. 
Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was invented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that the price 
of files made by it is reduced from 320?. to ^d. per dozen. 

FILIBUSTERS, a name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts of America in 
the 17th century ; see Buccaneers and Nicaragua. 

FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted water was patented by Wra. Wollcott in 
1675. Other modes followed. James Peacock's method of filtration was patented in i79i- 

FINE AP1.TS, see Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, Engraving, &c. 

FINES AND Recoveries, conferring the power of breaking ancient entails and alienating 
estates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but was not, properly speaking, law, till Henry 
VII., by correcting some abuses that attended the practice, gave indirectly a sanction to it, 
1487. Fines and recoveries were abolished in 1833. 

FINLAND, a Russian grand duchy, in the middle of the 12th century was conquered 
by the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. It was several times conquered by the Rus- 
sians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 aiad 1743) ; but in 1809 they retained it by 
treaty; see Ah 0. Its political constitution was confirmed by the czar in 1800, 1825, and 
1855. Population in 1862, 1,746,229. Dreadful famine, whole villages starved, March, 
1868. 

FINNIAN, see Fenians. 

FINSBURY PARK, London, N. In 1866, laud had been purchased, and preparations 
for the park began, after many years' discussion. 

FIRE is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets supposed 
that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Heraclitus about 596 B.C. maintained that 
the world was created from fire, and deemed to be a god omnipotent. 

FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus invented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by 
him in 1849. "When put in action, steam and carbonic acid are formed, which extinguish 
flame. It was not successful in practice. 

FIRE-ARMS, see Artillery, Cannon, Needle-gun, and Pistols. The first small fire-arms 
were a species of cannon, borne by two men. 



Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . . 1364 
Employed by the Burguiidians at Arras . . 1414 
Edward IV., when he lauded at Eavenspur, is 
said to have been accompanied by 300 
Flemings, armed with hand-guns . . . 1471 
At Morat, the Swiss are said to have had 

10,000 arquebusiers (menarmed with firearms) 1476 
Fire-arms were used at the siege of Berwick . 1521 
The petronel (from jyoitrine, the chest) or ar- 
quebus came into use, 1480 ; and the musket 
employed in the armies of the emperor 

Charles V. about ,, 

All these were of very rude construction, being 
first discharged by a lighted match, after- 
wards, about 1517, by a wheel-lock, then by 
the flint. 
The match- lock and wheel-lock superseded by 
the flint lock, about 



Victoria carbine (for cavalry). 

Kegulation rifle musket ; pattern . . . 1851 

Application of macliinery in small arms factory 
established at Enfield (the old musket Brown 
Bess superseded) Jan. 1857 

Mr. Jacob Snider's system of breech-loading in- 
vented in 1859 ; presented to the British go- 
vernment ; finally adopted 1S66. He received 
loooi. for expenses in June ; died 25 Oct. . 1866 

100,000 breech-loaders said to have been ordered 
by the British government . . July, „ 

New govei-nment advertises for propositions 
for conversion of Enfield rifles into breech- 
loaders Aug. ,, 

" Chassepot " guns in use in France . i Oct. „ 

War-office advertises for proposals for breech- 
loading rifles, to replace those now in use, 

22 Oct. ,, 



The rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion I Nine systems selected for further trial ; loool. 

principle of igniting gunpowder iu muskets I to be awarded to the best . . June, 1867 

by means of detonating powder . . . 1807 Snider's rifle reported very successful at 

Percussion caps came into use between 1820 & 1830 ■ Wimbledon July, ,, 

Percussion musket ; pattern .... 1S42 61,682 new arms had been made at Enfield; 

Artillery carbine ; pattern . . . . ,, i 175,550 converted to Sniders, up to Dec. ,, 

FIRE-BRIGADE was established in London in 1832 by Mr. R. Bell Ford, director of the 
Sun fire-office. It then had 80 men and 19 stations. In 1863 it had 130 men and 20 stations. 
In May, 1862, a commission recommended the establishment of a fire-brigade, which was 
eff'ected by the Metropolitan Fire-brigade act, 1865. It is to be siipported by a \d. rate and 
by contributions from government and from the insurance offices. It came into action, and 
its energies were successfully tested at the great fire at St. Katherine's dock.s, i Jan. 1866. 

• FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, a small apparatus, about the size of a chronometer, in- 
vented by Mr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by which the presence of very 
small quantities of fire-damp or light carburetted hydrogen gas maybe detected in mines. It 
is an application of the law of the diflusion of gases. 

FIRE-ENGINES are said to have been invented by Ctesibius, 250 B.C. They are men- 



FIR 



298 



FIR 



tioned by Pliny, a.d. 70. A "water-bow " was patented by Thos. Grent in 1632, one was 
constructed by John Yander Heyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine was patented in 1793 ; 
and many others since. Mr. John Braithwaite constructed a steam fire-engine in 1830. A 
trial of steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, on i, 2, 3 July, 1863, 
when prizes were awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a small one by Shand and 
Mason. 

FIRE-ESCAPES have been patented by David Marie (1766), Joachim Smith (1773), and 
by many other persons, The Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was first 
established in 1836 ; its object was not fully attained till 1843, when it was re-organised, 
beginning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 1859, it possessed 67 ; in 1866, 
85. In 1861 it was stated that 84 lives had been saved by the society's officers. In 1858, 
504 fires had been attended, and 57 persons rescued. In 1866, 695 fires had been attended, 
and 78 lives saved. In Aug. 1867, the plant of the society was virtually presented to the 
Board of Works, in consequence of the passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade act, 1865. 
Yersmann's composition for rendering washing dresses j^rc-^^roo/ was published about i860. 

FIRE INSURANCE, see Insurance. 

FIRE-SHIPS. Among the most formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an 
explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use 
of them in the British navy was i)y Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, in the engagement 
with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. Rapin. 

FIRE- WATCH or Fire-Guakd, of London, was instituted Nov. 1791. 

FIRE- WORKS are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages . They were 
invented in Europe at Florence about 1360 ; and were exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. 

Macaulay states that the fire-works let off in Eiig- • A grand display of this kind (at a cost of 10,000?.) to 

land at the peace of Eyswick, in 1697, cost la.oooi. | celebrate the peace with Kussia, 29 May, 1856. 
Verygrandfire-workswereletoff fromamagniflcent I In consequence of explosions frequently occurring 



at fire-work makers (particularly one on 12 July, 
1858, at Mr. Bennett's in the Westminster-road, 
Lambeth, when five lives were lost, and about 300 
persons seriously injured, and much property de- 
stroyed), it was determined to enforce 9 & 10 
Will. III. c. 7 (1697), an act to prevent the throw- 
ing and forming of squibs, serpents, and other 
fire-works. An act regulating the making of fire- 
works was passed in i860. 



building erected in the Green-park, London, at the 

peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 1748. 
Exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 31 May, 1770, in 

honour of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards 

Louis XVI. ; nearly 1000 persons perished by pres- 
sure and drowning, through a panic. 
The display of fire-works, under sir Wm. Congreve, 

at the general peace, and the centenary of the 

accession of the Brunswick family to the throne, 

I Aug. 1814. 

FIRES IN London. The conflagration of a city, with all its tumult of concomitant 
distress, is one of the most dreadful spectacles which this world can off"er to haman eyes. 
Dr. Johnson ; see Santiago, Liverpool, 1 862, &c. 

1779 
1780 
1 781 



A great part of the city destroyed, including 
St. Paul's cathedral . . . 962 & 

One at London -bridge, began on the South wark 
side, and was communicated to the other side, 
and hemmed in a inimerous crowd. Of those 
who threw themselves into boats and barges, 
about 3000 were drowned. A great part of 
the city, north and south, burned . . . 

The Great Fire, whose ruins covered 436 acres, 
extended from the Tower to the Temple- 
church, and from the north-east gate to 
Holborn-bridge. It began at a baker's house 
in Pudding-lane, behind Monument-yard, and 
destroyed, in the space of four days, Sg 
churches (including St. Paul's), the city gates, 
the Royal Exchange, the Custom-house, 
Guildhall, Sion college, and many other 
public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, lay- 
ing waste 400 streets. About 200,000 persons 
encamped in Islington and Highgate fields. 
(See Moiiument.) ... 2-6 Sept. 

In Southwark, 60 houses burnt 

In Wapping, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost 

Customs-house burnt 

At Shadwell, 50 houses burnt . 10 Sept. 

In Comhill ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire 
began in Change-alley, and was the most 
terrible since the great fire of 1666, 25 March, 

At Covent-garden, 50 houses burnt 

In Smithfield, 28 houses burnt . 

At Shadwell, 30 houses burnt 

In Throgmorton-street, 20 houses 

At Wapping, 20 houses .... 



1666 
1676 
1715 
1718 
1736 



1774 
177s 



At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses .... 

At Horselydovyn, 30 houses, besides many 
warehouses and ships . . 30 April, 

Newgate, (fee. , by the Gordon mob . June, 

In the Strand, 40 houses 

In Aldersgate-street, 40 houses ; the loss exceed- 
ing ioo,oooi 5 Nov. 

The Opera-house . . . . 17 June, 

At Rotherhithe, 20 houses . . 12 Oct. 

Agam, when many ships and 60 houses were 
consumed 14 Sept. 

Pantheon, Oxford-street . . .14 June, 

At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India 
warehouse, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre 
were stored : the loss i,ooo,oooi. 21 July, 

Astley's amphitheatre ... 17 Sept. 

St. Paul's church, Covent-garden . 11 Sept. 

At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt . . i Nov. 

In the Minories, 30 houses . . 23 March, 

In the King's Bench, 50 residences 14 July, 

Near the Customs, three West India ware- 
houses ; loss 3oo,oooi. ... II Feb. 

At Wapping, 30 houses ... 6 Oct. 

In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense 
property destroyed ... 27 Sept. 

The great tower over the choir of Westminster 
abbey burnt 9 July, 

Astley's again, and 40 houses . . i Sept. 

Frith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many 
houses destroyed .... 2 Dec. 

Surrey Theatre .... 12 Aug. 

Covent-garden theatre . . .20 Sept. 

Drury-lane theatre . . . 24 Feb. 



1783 
1789 
1790 

1 791 
1792 



1794 

179S 
1796 

1797 
1799 

1800 



1803 



1805 



FIR 



299 



FIR 



FIRES IN London, continued. 

In Conduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to 
save Mr. North's library, received an injury 
which caused his death . . 9 July, 1809 

In Bury-street, St. Mary -axe, half the street 

made ruins .... 12 June, t8ii 

Custom-house, warehouses, and pubUc records 

destroyed 12 Feb. 1814 

At Kotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships 

destroyed ; loss 8o,oooi. . . 16 March, 1820 
At Mile-end ; loss 2oo,oooZ. . . 22 Jan. 1821 - 
In Smithfield ; loss 100,000?. . . 14 Aug. 1822 

Royalty theatre destroyed . . 11 April, 1826 
In Red Lion-street, 13 houses . . 6 June, 1828 
Argyle rooms destroyed ... 5 Feb. 1830 

English opera-house, (fee, burnt . 16 Feb. ,, 

Houses of parUament consumed . i5 Oct. 1834 
Fenning's-wharf, London-bridge, &c. ; loss 
250,000?. ...... 30 Aug. 1836 

The Royal Exchange destroyed . 10 Jan. 183S 

At Wapping, 12 houses . . .16 June, 1840 

Camberwell church 7 Feb. 1841 

Astley's theatre again . . . 8 June, ,, 
At the Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand 

of anns, &c. destroyed . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Raggett's hotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly; several 

eminent i^ersons perished . . 27 May, 1S45 
Several houses in New-square, Lincoln's inn, 

14 Jan. 1849 
Olympic theatre .... 29 March, ,, 
One in St. Mai-tin's-laue (at a publican's named 

Ben Caunt), three lives lost . . 15 Jan. 1851 
Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property 

lost estimated at 60,000?. . . 19 Feb. ,, 
At the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, City, four 

lives lost 18 May, ,, 

Foot of London bridge, four large hop ware- 
houses burnt ; loss 150,000?. . 23 June, ,, 
CoUard and Co., pianoforte makers, Camden- 

town ; loss 60,000?. .... 19 Dec. ,, 
The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's- 

churchyard, burnt ... 24 Feb. 1S53 

Works of Gutta Percha Company, near City- 
road ; loss 100,000?. ... 5 June, ,, 
Kirkman's pianoforte manufactory . 10 Aug. ,, 
Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.'s works, Mill wall ; 

loss 100,000?. .... 10 Sept. ,, 

Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, 

printers, Chandos-street, destroyed, 30 Sept. ,, 
Premises of Townend and Co., Bread-street, 

destroyed ; loss about 100,000?. . 31 Dec. ,, 
Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pimlico 17 Aug. 1854 

Whittington club-house . . .3 Dec. „ 
Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, 
(fee, Blackfriars-road ; loss, one life and 

150,000? 16 Feb. 185s 

Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell's 

works; loss about 120,000?. . . 3 May, ,, 

Pavilion theatre . . . .13 Feb. 1856 

Co vent-garden theatre . . . 5 March, ,, 
Messrs. Scott Russell's (third fire), much valu- 
able machinery destroyed . . 12 March, „ 
Messrs. Dobbs' premises, Fleet-street, i April, ,, 
Shad Thames flour-mill ; loss about loo.oooi. 

17 July, ,, 
Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, West- 
minster 12 Aug. ,, 

Premises of Messrs. Almond's, army accoutre- 
ment makers, and others, in fet. Martin's- 
lane : estimated loss 20,000?. . 9 Nov. „ 

Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm 

station g June, 1857 

Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury ; 15 lives lost, 

28 March, 1858 
Fresh-wharf; 25,000?. worth of silk 21 June, ,, 
London docks ; great explosion; man killed by 

fright ; loss about 150,000?. . 29 June, „ 

Limehouse ; Messrs. Forest, Dixon's, &c., pre- 
mises destroyed, and Blackwall railway 
arches ; insured . . . 19-20 July, ,, 
Gt. James-st., Marylebone; six lives lost, 

26 Feb. 1S59 



Messrs. Hubbuck and Co. , Lime-street ; one 
life and a large amount of property, 

' 20 May, 1859 
West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf ; 
destroyed property valued at 200,000?. : fire 
lasted nearly a month ; commenced 17 Aug. 1S60 
St. Martin's-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and 

other premises, destroyed . . 26 Aug. ,, 
Thames iron-worlis, Blackwall . . 31 Aug. „ 

Kilburn church, Maida-hUl, destroyed, 29 Nov. ,, 

Surrey music-hall de.'itroyed . . 11 June, 1861 

Cotton's wharf and depot and other wharves 
near Tooley-street, containing oil and other 
combustible substances, took fire about half- 
past 4 P.M., 22 June, and continued burning 
for a month. (Several persons were killed, 
including James Braidwood, the able super- 
intendent of the London firs-brigade ; the 
loss of property was estimated at 2,000,000?.) „ 

Davis's wharf, Horselydown, burnt : loss about 
15,000? I Aug. „ 

Near Paternoster-row ; Messrs. Longman's, 
booksellers, Messrs. Knight's, tallow-melters, 
and others ; loss above 50,000?. . . 4 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Price's, Fountain-court, Strand, three 
lives lost 3 Jan. 1862 

At Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and 
other valuable property of ilr. Woolley de- 
stroyed 23 March, „ 

Mr. Dean's, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three 
lives lost S M-ay, „ 

Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost, 

21 May, „ 

Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; ex- 
plosion ; two lives lost . . .7 June, ,, 

Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. S. 
Barrett and two daughters burnt 15 Aug. ,, 

Messrs. Price's oil-mills, Blackfriars, burnt ; 
great loss of property . . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Ancient Austin-friars church. City, partially 
destroyed 22 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Chard's, Portland-street, Soho ; six lives 
lost 26 Dec. ,, 

Messrs. Capel's, Seething-lane, City ; great de- 
struction of property . . .18 April, 1863 

Warehouses of Messrs. Grant and others, be- 
tween Wood-street and MUk-street ; property 
worth about 100,000?. destroyed 19 Dec. „ 

Meriton's wharf, Dockhead ; immense loss of 
property 7 June, 1864 

Royal Savoy chapel, Sti'and, destroyed 7 July, ,, 

Haberdashers' hall and Messrs. Tapling and 
others' warehouses . . . . ig Sept. „ 

Messrs. Barry, Sufferance whaiwes, Dockhead ; 
great loss . . . . . 25, 26 Nov. „ 

Surrey theatre destroyed . . 30, 31 Jan. 1865 

Saville house (where George III. ■was born), 
Leicester-square .... 28 Feb. ,, 

Poulterers' arms, Leadenhall market ; two 
lives lost 13 June, „ 

Messrs. Meeking and Co. , Holbom ; damage 
30,000?. 24 June, ,, 

Messrs. Sotheby and Co., auctioneers; valuable 
hbrary destroyed . . . .29 June, „ 

Great fire at Beale's wharf; about 18,000?. 
damage 3° Oct. ,, 

Immense fire at St. Katherine's-docks i Jan. i865 

Holland and Hennen's premises, Duke-street, 
Bloomsbury, destroyed . . 26 Aug. „ 

Great fire in Haydon-square, Minories ; dep6t 
of N. W. Railway company, and other ware- 
houses; great loss . . . .11 Sept. „ 

The Standard-theatre, Shoreditch, burnt down, 

21 Oct. „ 

In Hampstead-road, thirteen lives lost s Nov. ,, 

North wing of the Crystal-palace destroyed by 
fire 30 Dec. „ 

Quebec-street, Oxford-street ; six lives lost, 

II March, 1867 

Rotherhithe, 16 or 17 houses burnt ; about 100 
persons destitute . . . .12 Sept. „ 



FIR 



300 



FLA 



FIRES IN London, continued. 

The Queen's theatre, Eoyal opera-house, de- 
stroyed ; see Opera . ■ ■ -6 Dec. 

Oxford music-hall, Oxford-street, partially de- 
stroyed II Feb. 

Above 20 shops burnt in Portman-market, 
Marylebone 23 Feb. 

There were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 in 1857 ; 1114 



in 1858 (38 lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861. isosfires 
in 1862 ; 1404 in 1863 ; and 1715 in 1864. In 
but few cases were the premises totally 
destroyed. Several fires were occasioned by 
carele.-s use of coal oils in 1861-2. In 1867, 
1397 serious fires ; 1152 slight ones ; the new 
flie-biigude reported effective. 



FIRE-WORSHIPPERS, see Parsees. 

FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew 
priesthood. Fir.st-fruits (called Annates, from amncs, a year), in the Roman church, 
originally the profits of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of every benefice, 
were first claimed by pope Clement V. in 1306, and were collected in England in 1316 : 
but chronologers differ on this point. The exaction was submitted to till the 26th of 
Hen. VIII. 1534, when the first-fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and 
his successors. Mary gave up the Annates once more to the popes (1555) ; but Elizabeth 
resumed them (1559). They were granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes 
of the poor clergy, by queen Anne, in 1703. The offices of First-fruits, Tenths, and queen 
Anne's Bounty were consolidated by i Vict. c. 20, 1838 ; see Augmentation of Poor 
Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, but not totally suppressed till 1789. 

FISH, FISHERIES, &c. Laws for the protection of fisheries were enacted by Edward I. 
in 1284, and by his successors. The rights of the English and French fishermen were defined 
by treaty in 1839 ; see Herring, Whale, and Newfoundland Fisheries. 



In i860 great progi-ess had been made by M. 
Coste and others. 

Commissions to examine into British fisheries 
were appointed in 1S60, and acts to amend 
the law relating to fisheries in Great Britain 
and Ireland were passed in . . . 186: 

In April, 1863, Mr. Ponders placed in the 
Thames 76,000 young fish (salmon, trout, 
char, and grayling) ; and on 17 April, Mr. 
Frank Buckland demonstrated the impor- 
tance of fish culture before the members of 
the Eoyal Institution, London. 

In 1853 Mr. Buist began the culture of fish at 
Stormontfield, Perthshire : reported highly 
successful Bept. 



Fishmongers' company of London incorporated . 1384 

Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in . 1542 

Fishing on our coast forbidden to strangers . . 1609 

The Dutch paid 30,000?. for permission to fish 
on the coasts of Britain 1636 

Oorporation of Free British Fisheries instituted 1:750 

Fish-machines, for conveying fish by land to 
London, set up in 1761 ; and supported by 
parliament 1764 

The British Society of Fisheries established in 
London in 1786 

The Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 1818 

In 1849, two peasants, Eemy and Gehin, ob- 
tained medals for their exertions in culti- 
vating fish in France, and the government 
set up an establishment for this purpose at 
Huningue, under M. Coumes. 

FISHGUARD (Pembroke). On 22 Feb. 1797, 1400 Frenchmen landed near this ^jlace. 
On 24 Feb. they surrendered to lord Cawdor, and some countrymen, armed with scythes 
and pitchforks. 

FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM (Cambridge), founded by Richard viscount Fitzwilliam, who 
died in 1816, and bequeathed his collection of books, pictures, &c., to the university, with 
100,000^. to erect a buUding to contain them. This was begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and 
finished by Cockerell some years after. 

FIVE FORKS, near Richmond, Virginia. Here general Sheridan turned the front of 
the Federals and defeated them after a fierce struggle, i April, 1865. 

FIVE HUNDRED, Cou.vcil of, established by the new French constitution, 22 Aug. 
1795, was unceremoniously dissolved by ISTapoleon Bonaparte, 10 JSTov. 1799. 

FIVE-MILE ACT, 17 Chas. II. c. 2 (Oct. 1665), obliged non-conformist teachers who 
refused to take the non-resistance oath, not to come within five miles of any corporation 
where they had preached since the act of oblivion (unless they were travelling), under the 
penalty oi 40I. They were relieved by Will. III. in 1689. 

FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in the 6th century, in Spain ; it was pre- 
viously small and square. Ashe. It is said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, 
before whose time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon. The 
jwnour-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England from very early times ; but it was 
formally yielded by the Dutch in 1673, at which period they had been defeated in many 
actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
Renault. After an engagement of three hours between Tourville and the Spanish admiral 
Papachin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, 2 June, 1688. 
Idem ; see Salute at Sea, and Union Jack. 

FLAGELLANTS; They established themselves at Perouse, about 1268 during a plague. 
They maintained there was no remission of sins without flagellation, and publicly lashed 



FLA 301 FLI 

themselves. Clement VI. declared them heretics in 1349 ; and 90 of them and their leader, 
Conrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 1574, Henry II J. of France became a flagellant for 
a short time. 

FLAGEOLET, see Flute. FLAMBEAUX, Feast of, see Argos. 

FLAMMOCK'S REBELLION', see Rehcllions, 1497. 

FLANDERS, the principal part of the ancient Belgium, which was conquered by Julius 
Csesar, 51 B c. It became part of the kingdom of France in 843, and was governed by 
counts subject to the king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, Bras de Fer, who is 
said to have introduced the cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IV. became emperor at 
Constantinople. In 1369, Philip duke of Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count 
Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected successively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), 
and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, but afterwards returned to its 
allegiance to the house of Austria. In 17 13 it was included in the empire of Germany. 
France obtained a part of Flanders by treaty in 1659 and 1679 ; see Burgundy, Netherlands, 
and Belgium. 

FLAT- BUSH, Battle of, see Long Island. 

FLATTERY CAPE CVV. coast of North America), so named by captain Cook, because 
at a distance it had the deceptive appearance of a harbour, 1778. 

FLAVIAN CiESARS, the Roman emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 66-96. 

FLAX was brought from Egypt to Gaul about i B.C. ; and was ordered to be grown in 
England, by statute 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the 
flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods 
of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland 
about 1750; see Hemp. In 1851 chevalier Claussen patented a method of "cottoning" flax. 

FLEECE, see Golden Fleece. 

FLEET-PRISON, MARKET, &c. (London), were built over the small river Fleta, now 
used as a common sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this river was navigable to Holborn- 
bridge ; and the obelisk in Fleet-street denotes the extent of it in 1775. 



Fleet Prison was founded iii the first year of 
Eichard I., and was allotted for debtors, 1640 ; 
and pers ais were committed here who had 



Fleet Marriages. Between the 19th of Oc- 
tober, 1704, and 12 Feb. 1705, there were 
celebrated 295 marriages in the Fleet, with- 



inourred the displeasure of the Star Chamber, | out licence or certificate of banns. 20 or 30 

and for contempt of the court of chancery. i couple were sonaetimes joined in one day, 



It was burnt by the prisoners, 7 Jmie, 1780. 
Tt was pulled down in 1845 (and the debtors 
removed to the Queen's Bench prison). The 
site was sold to the London, Dover, and 
Chatham railway company for 60,000?. 



and their names concealed by private marks, 
if they chose to pay an extra fee. Pennant, 
at a later period, describes the daring manner 
in which this nefarious traffic was carried 
on. He says, that in walking by the prison 



2 June, 1864. Last vestige removed Feb. 1S68 in his youth, he has been often .accosted 



Fleet-market, originally formed in 1737, was 
removed, and the site named Farringdon- 
street in 1829. A new (Fan-ingdon) market 
was opened 20 Nov. 1829. The gi-anite obelisk 
in Fleet-street, to the memory of aldemian 
Waithman, was erected . . 25 June, 



with, "Sir, will you please to walk in and be 
married ? " And he states that painted 
signs, of a male and female hand conjoined, 
with the inscription. " Marriages performed 
within," were common along the building. 
This abuse abolished by the man-iage act in 



FLETA, an ancient English law treatise, an abridgment of Bracton dated about 1290, 
said to have been composed in Field, in the Fleet prison, by some lawyer. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said to have been brought from heaven by an 
angel to Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved victorious in a pending battle with 
the Alemaniii near Cologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It was the national emblem 
till the revolution in 1789, when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted. 

FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several battles :— 



form a junction with the armies of the 
Moselle, itbe Ardennes, and the north. (The 
French used a balloon to reconnoitre the 
enemy's army, which it is said contributed 
to their .success) .... 26 June, 1794 
Here Napoleon defeated Blucher at the battle 
of Ligny {which see) . . . .16 June, 1815 



Between the Catholic league under Gonzales de 
Cordova, and the Protestant union (indeci- 
sive) 30 Ang. 

The prince of Waldeck defeated by Luxemburg, 

I July, 

The allies under the prince of Coburg, defeated 
by the French revolutionary army com- 
manded by Jourdau, who was enabled to 

FLIES. An extraordinary fall of these insects in London covered the clothes of passengers, 
1707. Chamberlain. In the United States of America the .^css/«?i ^y, so called from the 
notion of its having been brought there by the Hessian troops in the service of England 
in the war of independence, ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and during the severe 
attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, the air was infested with small flies. 



FLI 



302 



FLO 



FLINTS, in form like arrow-heads, and considered by M. Boucher de Perthes to have 
been shaped by human hands, were found by him in 1847, near Amiens. His theory, which 
gives a much higher antiquity to man than is usually received, was much opposed ; but 
latterly has been received by some eminent geologists. Many have been since discovered in 
other countries. 

FLOATING BATTERIES, see Batteries, and Gibraltar, 1781. 

FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The site of a battle on 9 Sept. 1513, between 
the English and Scots ; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland having taken part with 
Louis XII. of France against Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his nobles, and 
upwards of 10,000 of his army were slain ; while the English, who were commanded by the 
earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. 

FLOGGING by the Jewish law was limited to forty stripes, "lest thy brother should 
seem vile unto thee," 145 1 B.C. {Deut. xxv. 3). Wm. Cobbett in 1810, and John Drakard 
in 181 1, were punished for jjublishing censures on flogging in the army. By orders issued 
9 Nov. 1859, this mode of punishment was very much diminished in the army (see Army) ; 
and on Dec. following it was ordered that first-class seamen should not be flogged, except 
after a trial. Still more diminished, in March, 1867 ; and, by an amendment on the 
clause in the mutiny bill, flogging was abolished in the army in the time of peace, April, 
1868. In 1863, flogging was made a punishment for attempts at garrotting. 
. FLOODS, see Inundations. 

FLOEAL HALL, adjoining Covent-garden theatre, is a large conservator}'-, 220 feet long, 
75 feet wide, and 55 feet high, erected from designs by Mr. E. M. Barry, and was opened 
with the volunteers' ball, 7 March, i860. It was opened as a flower-market, 22 May, 1861. 
Here was held the west London industrial exhibition, i May to 2 Aug., 1865. 

FLORALIA, annxial games at Eome in honour of Flora, instituted about 752, but not 
celebrated with regularity till about 174 B.C. 

FLORENCE {Florentia), capital of Tuscany {which see), and, since 1864, of Italy, is said 
to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla (80 B. c. ), and enlarged by the Roman triumviri. 
In its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the rarest 
works of scrilpture and painting in the world. The Florentine academy and Accademia 
della Crusca (established 1582) were instituted to enrich literature and improve the language 
of Tuscany ; the latter Avas so named, because it rejects like hran all words not purely 
Tuscan : both are now united under the former name. 



Destroyed by Totila, alDout .... 541 

Kebuilt by Charlemagne 781 

Becomes an independent republic, about . 1198 

Dante born beie 14 May, 1265 

The influence of the Medici begins with Cosmo 
de'Medici, " the lather of his country," about 1420 

Savonarola burnt 1498 

Appointment of Alexander de' Medici as per- 
petual governor 1530 

Cosmo de'Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany 1569 
Bevolution at Florence ... 27 April, 1859 



Annexation to Sardinia voted by people, 11, 

12 March; the king enters Florence, 7 April, i860 
The king opens the exhibition of the industrial 

products of Italy . . . .15 Sept. i86r 
Florence decreed the capital of Italy 11 Dec. 1864 
The king and court remove there 13 May, 1865 

The Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of 

his birth) opened by the king . 14 May, „ 
Inauguration of a national riSe meeting ; the 

king fires the first shot . . .18 June, ,, 
First assembly of Italian parliament 18 Nov. ,, 



FLORES, or Isle of Flowers (one of tlie Azores, which see), discovered by Vanderberg in 
1439 ; and settled by the Portuguese in 1448. 

FLORIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern states of North America, first discovered by 
Sebastian Cabot in 1497. It was visited by Ponce de Leon, the Spanish navigator, 4 April, 
15 12, in a voyage he had undertaken to discover a fountain whose waters had the property 
of restoring youth to the aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered "by the Spaniards 
under Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; but the settlement was not fully established until 1565. 
It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It 
was invaded by the British in 1702 ; and again by general Oglethorpe in 1740 ; ceded to the 
British crown in 1763 : taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaranteed to them in 1783. 
Revolution in 1810, when the American government took means for occupying the country ; 
and after a tedious negotiation it was finallj'^ ceded* by Spain to the United States in 1820-21 ; 
and admitted into the Union in 1845. It seceded in Dec. i860; and was reannexed in 
1865 ; see United States. 

FLORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. A florin was issued by Edward III. 
which was current in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. Camden. This English coin 

* In iSoi, the American government purchased Louisiana from the French, of which they contended 
West Florida formed a part. On the revolution, and in conseqiience of this purchase, Spain, unable to 
defend the country, ceded the whole of Florida to the United States, to which it was finally annexed after 
the negotiation above mentioned. 



FLO 



303 



FLU 



■was called floren after the Florentine coin, because tlie latter was of the best gold. Aslie. 
The florin of Germany is in value 2s. ^.d. ; that of Spain, 4,9. 4^^. ; that of Palermo and 
Sicily, 2S. 6d. ; that of Holland, 2S. Aylifj'e. A silver coinage of florins (value 2s.) was 
issued in England in 1849. 

FLOWERS. Our present common flowers were for the most part introduced into England 
from the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485-1603). The art of preserving 
flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of pi'eserving them from the effects of frost 
in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, by Geo. 
Morris, in 1 792. A very great number have been introduced from America, Australia, the 
Cape, &c. , during the present century. 



Acacia, N. America, before . 1640 
Allspice shrub, Carolina . 1726 
Aniseed tree, Florida, about 1766 
Arbor Vitee, Canada, before . 1596 
Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope 1774 
Auricula, Switzerland . . 1567 
Azarole, S. Europe, before . 1640 
Bay, royal, Madeira . . . 1665 
Bay, sweet, Italy, before . 1548 
Camellia, China . . . 1811 
Canary bell-flower. Canaries 1696 
Can iry Convolvulus, Canaries 1690 
Carnation, Flanders . . 1567 
Ceanothus, blue, New Spain 1818 
Chaste tree, Sicily, before . 1570 
Christ's thorn, Africa, before 1596 
Convolvulus, many-flowered 1779 
Coral tree, C;ipe . . . 1816 
Coral tree,bell-flowered, Cape 1791 
Coral tree, tremulous, Cape . 1789 
Creeper. Virginian,N. America 1603 
Dahlia, China . . . 1803 

Dryandria, New Holland . . 1803 
Evergreen, thorn, Italy . 1629 
Everlasting, gt.-flwd. Cape . 1781 
Everlasting, giant, Cape . . 1793 
Fernbush, sweet. N. America 1714 
Fox-glove, Canaries . . 1698 
Fuchsia f ulgens, Mexico,about 1835 
Geranium, Flanders . . . 1534 
Gillyflower, Flanders . . 1567 
Gold-plant, Japan . . . 1783 
Golden-bell-flower, Madeira . 1777 
Hawthorn, American, before 1683 
Heaths, Cape . . . 1774-1803 
Honeyflower, great. Cape . 1688 
Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 1806 
Honeysuckle, fly, Cape . . 1752 
Honeysuckle, trumpet,N. Am. 1656 



Hyssop, S. Europe, before . 1548 
Jasmine, Circassia, before . 1548 
Jasmine, Catalonia, E.Indies 1629 
Judas tree, S. Europe, before 1596 
Laburnum, Hungary . . 1576 
Laurel, Alexandrian, Portu- 
gal, before .... 1713 
Laurustine, S. Europe, before 1596 
Lavendei', S. Europe, before 1568 
Lily, Italy, before . . . 1460 
Lily, gigantic,N. South Wales iSoo 
Lily.red-ooloured, fS. America 1623 
Loblolly bay, N. America, bef . 1 739 
Lupine tree. Cape, about . 1793 
Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. 

America 168S 

^lagnolia, dwarf, China . 1786 
Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. 

America 1734 

Maiden-hair, Japan . .1714 
Mignonette, Italy . . . 1528 
Milk-wort, gt.-flwrd.. Cape . 1713 
Milk-wort, showj', Cape . 1814 
Mock orange, S. Europe, bef. 1596 
Mountain tea, N. Amer. bef. 1758 
Myrtle, candleben-y,N.Amer. 1699 
Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 
Nettle tree, S. Europe, before 1596 
Oleander, red, S. Eiu-ope . „ 
Olive, Cape, Cape . . . 1730 
Olive, sweet-scented, China. 1771 
Paraguay tea, Carolina,bef ore 1724 
Passion-flower, Brazil . . 1692 
Passion-flower, orange, Caro- 
lina . . . . . 1792 
Petunia, S. America . . 1823 
Pigeon-berry, N. America . 1736 
Pink, from Italy . . . 1567 
Eanunculus, Alps . . . 1528 



Koses, Netherlands . . . 

Rose, China, China 

Rose, damask, S. Rurope,abt. 

Rose, the Japan, China . . 

Rose, the moss, before 

Rose, the musk, Italy . . 

Rose, the Provence, Flanders 

Rose, sweet-scented guelder, 
from China .... 

Rose, tube, from Java and 
Ceylon 

Rose without thorns, North 
America, before . 

Rosemary, S. Europe . . 

Sage, African, Cape 

Sage, Mexican, Mexico . . 

St. Peter's wort, N. America 

Sassafras, N. America, bef. . 

Savin, S. Europe, before 

Snowdrop, Carohna . . . 

Sorrel-tree,N.America,before 

Sweet-bay, S. Europe, before 

Tamarisk plant, Germanj'- . 

Tea tree, China, about . 

Tooth-ache tree, from Caro- 
lina, before . . . . 

Trumpet-flower, N. America 

Trumpet-flower, Cape . 

Tulip, Vienna . . . . 

Verbena, S. America 

Victoria Regia, Guiana . . 

Virginia creeper, N. America, 
before 

Virgin's bower, Japan . . 

Wax -tree, China . 

Weeping wiUow, Levant, bef. 

Winter-berry, Virginia . . 

Youlan, China 



1522 
1789 
1543 
1793 
1724 
1522 
1567 

1821 

1629 

1726 
1548 
1731 
1724 
1730 
1663 
1584 
1756 
1752 
1548 
1560 
176S 

1739 
1640 
1823 
1578 
1827 



1629 
1776 

1794 
1692 
1736 
1789 



FLUORESCENCE. "When the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar 
spectrum are sent through uranium glass, or solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or 
stramonium datura, the)' become luminous. This phenomenon was termed " fluorescence " 
by its discoverer, professor Stokes, in 1852. By means of fluorescence Dr. Bence Jones and 
Dupre detected the presence of quinoidine {which see) in animal tissues ; see Calorescence. 

FLUORINE, a gaseous element, obtained from fluor spar ; first collected over mercury 
by Priestley. Its property of corroding all vessels is so great that it is separated with great 
difficulty. It was named by Amp^-e in 1810. Its chemical history was further elucidated 
by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), and succeeding chemists. The corroding property of 
fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1 760, by Schwankhard of Nuremberg. Gmclin. 

FLUSHING, Siege of, see Walchcrtn Expcditio'n. 

FLUTE. The transverse flute, incorrectly termed the " German " instead of the Swiss 
flute, was known to the ancients. It was described by Michael Pretorius, of Wolfenbuttel, 
in 1620, and by Mersenne of Paris, in 1636. It was much improved by the French in the 
17th century; by Quantz, Tacet, Florio, Potter, Miller, Nicholson, and others in the i8th. 
In the present century also the Nicholsons, Boehm of Munich, Godfrey of Paris, Carter, 
Rockstro, and Rudall and Rose of London, have gi-eatly contributed to the perfection of this 
instrument. The English flute or flageolet was patented by Wni. Bainbridge in 1803, with 
improvements in 1810 and 1819. 

FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathematics, invented by Newton, 1665, similar to 
the difi'erential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus 
are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. The first elementary work on fluxions in 



FLY 304 POR 

Euglaud is a tract of twenty-two pages in A New Short Treatise of Algebra, together with a 
Specimen of the Nature and Algorithm of Fluxions, by John Harris, M.A. London, 1702. 

FLYING, Artificial. In Greek mythology, Dtedahis is said to have attached wings 
of wax to the body of his son Icarus, who, neglecting the advice of his father, flew so high 
that the siin melted his wings, and he fell into the Icarian sea. Archytas is said to have 
made a flying dove, about 400 B.C. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility of the art of 
flying, and predicted it would be a general practice, 1273. Bishop Wilkins says (1651), it 
will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is 
now to hear him call for his boots ! Borelli (about 1670) showed the futility of these 
speculations. About 1800, sir George Cayley experimented on the subject, and in 1843 ^^^ 
Henson invented a flying machine ; but nothing has been devised capable of serving a 
practical purpose. The motion of birds in relation to aeronautics was much dis- 
cussed by scientific men in 1867-8. At a meeting ^of the Aeronautical society, 26 March, 
1868, it was stated that a member had actually, by his muscular force, aided by apparatus, 
risen from the ground and flown horizontally. 

FLY SHEETS, see under Wesleyans. 

FOG SIGNALS. In 1862, much attention was paid to the subject by the "Rojai com- 
mission on Light-houses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, a battery of whistles blown 
by steam, the transmission of sound through water, the sirene, &c., were considered. 

FOIX (S. France), a county established 1050, and united with Beam, 1290. About 
1494 Catherine de Foix, the heiress, married Jean d'Albret. His descendant, Henry IV., as 
king of France, united Foix to the monarchy, 1589. 

FONT. Formerly the baptistery was a small place partitioned off in a church, within 
which a large font was placed, where the persons to be baptized (frequently adults) were 
submerged. Previously, lakes and rivers were resorted to for' immersion. Fonts are said tO' 
have been set up about 167. 

FONTAINEBLEATJ, near the Seine, France. The royal palace, founded by Eobert 
le Pieux about 999, enlarged and adorned by successive kings, was completed by Louis 
Philippe, 1837-40. Fontainebleau was entered by the Austrians 17 Feb. 1814. Here 
Napoleon resigned his dignity, 4 April, and bade farewell to his army, 20 April, 18 14. 

Peace between Prance, Denmark, (fee. . . 1679 Treaty between Napoleon and Spain . 27 Oct. 1807- 
Treaty between Germany and Holland, 8 Nov. 1785 Concordat between Napoleon and pope Pins VII. 

25 Jan. 1813 

FONTENOY, near Tournay, in Belgium, the site of an obstinate sanguinaiy battle on 
30 April (11 May, N.s.), 1745, Isetween the French, commanded by marshal Saxe, and the 
English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the duke of Cumberland. The 
king Louis XV. and the dauphin were present. The success of the British at the com- 
mencement of it is still quoted as an illustration of 'the extraordinary power of a column. 
The advance of the Austrians during several hours at Marengo (14 June, 1800) was compared 
to it by Bonaparte. The allies lost 12,000 men, and the French nearly an equal number ; 
but the allies were compelled to retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the disorder of which he 
afterwards died) was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops that the 
day would be their own. 

FONTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 1796, the mansion of William Beckford, 
author of " Vathek," and son of alderman Beckford. He died in 1844. Within this edifice 
(which alone cost 273,000?.) were collected costly articles of vertii and art, and the rarest 
works of the old masters. The sale of the abbey and its contents to Mr. Farquhar took place 
in 1819 ; 7200 catalogues at a guinea each were sold in a few days. On 21 Dec. 1825, the 
lofty tower fell, and in consequence the remaining buildings were sold. 

FOOD, see Provisions. 

FOOLS, Festivals of, were held at Paris on the ist of Januar}', where we are told all 
sorts of absurdities and indecencies were committed, from 1198 to 1438. Fools or licensed 
jesters were kept at court in England up to the time of Charles I. 1625. 

FORBES MACKENZIE'S ACT (16 & 17 Vict. c. 67) "for the better regulation of 
public-houses in Scotland," passed in 1853. It permits grocers to sell spirits, &c., as usual, 
but forbids drinking on the premises, which is to be confined to places duly licensed. Much 
dram-drinking previously took place in grocers' shops. 

FORCE, see Conservation, and Correlation. FOREIGNERS, see Alien. 

FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to 
enter the service of a foreign state, without licence from the king or privy council, and also 
the fitting out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be employed against any power 
with which our government is at peace ; see Trials, 1862, 1863. In 1606, Englishmen were 



FOR 305 FOR 

forbidden to enter foreign service, without taking an oath not to be reconciled to the pope. 
The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of the British Legion (icJiich see). 

FOREIGN JURISDICTION ACTS were passed in 1843, 1865, and 1866. 

FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries in the 
l)ay of the British government ; see Hessians. An act (18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation 
of a Foreign Legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855), was passed 23 Dec. 1854.* 
The queen and prince Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally Swiss and Germans, at 
Shorncliffe, 9 Aug. 1855. On the peace in 1856, many were sent to the Cape of Good Hope ; 
but not prospering, returned. 

FOREIGN OFFICE was established at the re-arrangement of the duties of secretaries of 
state in 1782. It has the exclusive charge of British interests and subjects in foreign 
countries. The secretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, selects ambassadors, consuls, 
&c., for foreign countries, and grants passports. The new foreign office, building in the 
Italian style (designed by Gilbert Scott), was begun in 1864. A portion of it was inaugurated 
by Mr. Disraeli's reception, 25 March, 1868. 

FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is permitted to accept a foreign' order from 
the sovereign of any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, without her majesty's 
consent, — regulations published in London Gazette, 10 May, 1855. 

FORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes (in 1350, 1552, &c.), all repealed in 1844. 

FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68 forests, iS 
chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hampshire was made by William I., 
who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the 
country for 30 miles round, 1079-85. StoicY 

FORESTS, Charter op the, Charta de Foresta, granted by Henry III. in 12 17, was 
founded on Magna Clmrta, granted by king John, 15 June 1215 ; see Woods. 

FORFARSHIRE STEAMER, on its passage from Hull to Dundee, on 6 Sept. 1838, was 
wrecked in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of fifty-three perished. The Outer- 
Fern Lighthouse keei>er, James Darling, and his heroic daughter Grace, ventured out in a 
tremendous sea in a coble, and rescued several of the passengers. 

FORGERY. The forging deeds, or giving forged deeds in evidence, was made punishable 
by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut olf, the nostrils slit up and seared, 
the forfeiture of land, and perpetiral imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Since the establishment 
of paper credit many statutes have been enacted. 



Poi-gery first punished by death . . . 1634 

Forging letters of attorney made capital . . 1722 

Mr. Ward, M. P. , a man of wealth, expelled the 
house of commons for forgery, 16 May, 1726 ; 
and consigned to the pillory . 17 March, 1727 

The first forger on the bank of England was 
Eichard William Vaughan, once a linen-draper I The punishment of forgery with death ceases, 

of Stafford. Heemployedanumber of artists except in cases of forging or altering wills or 

on different parts of the notes fabricated. powers of attorney to transfer stock . . . 1832 

He filled up twenty of the notes and deposited These cases also reduced to transportable 

them in the hands of a j'oung lady whom he offences . 1837 

was on the point of marrying, as a proof of A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for 



The bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or 
the uttering of forged notes . . . . 1817 

Thos. Maynard was the last person executed 
for forgery 31 Dec. 1829 

Statutes reducing into one act all such forgeries 
as shall henceforth be punished with death . 1S30 



forgmg numerous drafts on bankers, 5 March, 1857 
The law respecting forgery amended in . . 1S61 
For W. Roupell's case, see Trials . Aug. Sept. 1862 
[See Executions (for forgery), 1776, 1777, et seq^.] 



his being a man of substance ; no suspicion 
was entertained. One of the artists was the 
informer. Vaughan was executed at Tj'burn 

I May, 1758 
Value of forged notes presented to the bank 
1801-10 nominally ioi,66il. 

FORKS were in use on the continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. Voltaire. This is 
reasonably disputed. In Fynes Moiyson's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, "At 
Yenice each person was served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat 
while he cuts it, for there thej^ deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his hand." 
Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of using forks in Italy, and 

* The endeavour to enUst for this legion, in 1854, in the United States, gave great offence to the Ameri- 
can government. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed 28 ;\lay, 1S56, in spite of all the judicious pacific 
efforts of lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our representative in 1857. 

t The commissioners appointed to inquu-e into the state of the woods and forests, between 17S7 and 
1793, reported the following as belonging to the crown, viz. : — In Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor 
Great and Little Park. In Dorset, Cranburn I'hase. In Essex, Waltham or Epping and Hainault Forest. 
In Gloucestershire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the New Forest, Alice Holt, Woolmer Forest, and Bere 
Forest. In Kent, Greenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James's, Hyde, Bushey, and Hampton-court Parks. 
In Northamptonshire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. In Nottingham, Sherwood 
Forest. In Oxford, Whichwood Forest. In Surrey, Richmond Park. Several of these have been 
disforested since 1851, viz., Hainault, Whichwood, and Whittlebury. 

X 



FOR 



306 



FOU 



adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate the Italian fashion since I came home to 
England," 1608. Two-pronged forks at ShefiBeld were made soon after. Three-pronged 
forks are much more recent. Silver forks came into use in England about 18 14. 

FORMA PAUPERIS. A person having a just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so 
poor that he cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, has an attorney and counsel assigned 
him on his swearing that he is not worth 5Z., by stat. 11 Hen. VII. 1495. — This act has 
been remodelled, and now persons may plead in forma pauperis in the courts of law. 

FORMIC ACID, the acids of ants {formicce). Its artificial production by Pelouze in 
183 1 is considered an event in the progress of organic chemistry. 

FORMIGNI (N.W. France). Here the constable de Richemont defeated the English, 
15 April, 1450. 

FORNOVO (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles VIII. of France defeated the Italians, 
6 July, 1495. 

FORT ERIE (Upper Canada). This fortress was taken by the American general Browne, 
3 June, 1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated by the Americans, 5 Nov. 1814. 

FORT GEORGE, Inverness, N.W. Scotland, was erected in 1747, to restrain the High- 
landers. — FoKT William, besieged by them in vain in 1746, is now in ruins. 

FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL, commenced 10 July, 1768, under the direction of Mr, 
Smeaton, and opened 28 July, 1790. A communication was formed between the eastern 
and western seas on the coast of Scotland. A railway-bridge across the Frith of Forth was 
projected, and a raft launched on June 1866; but the scheme was abandoned. 

FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people to fortify cities. ApoUodorus 
says that Perseus fortified Mycense, where statues were afterwards erected to him. The 
modern sj'stem was introduced about 1500. Albert Durer fii'st wrote on the science of 
fortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were made by Vaubau (1707) and others. 
The new fortifications of Paris were completed in 1846 ; see Paris. In Aug. i860, the 
British parliament passed an act for the expenditure of 2,000,000?. in one year upon the 
fortifications of Portsmouth, Pl3'mouth, Pembroke, and Portland, the Thames, Medway, 
and Sheerness, Chatham, Dover, and Cork, and on the purchase of a central arsenal estab- 
lishment ; the estimated expense being 9,500,000?. 

FORTUNATE ISLES, see Canaries. 

FORTUNE-TELLING is traced to the early astrologers, by whom the planets Jupiter 
and Venus were supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllse. were women said to be inspired 
by Heaven ; see Sibyls and Gi2ysies. In England the laws against fortune-telling were at 
one time very severe. A declaration was published in France 11 Jan. 1680, of exceeding 
severity against fortune-tellers and poisoners, under which several persons suffered death. 
Henault. Fortune-tellers, although liable by the acts of 1743 and 1824 to be imprisoned as 
rogues and vagabonds, still exist in England. 

FORTY-SHILLING FREEHOLDERS, see Freeliolders. 

FORUM, at Rome, originallj'- a market-place, became about 472 B.C. the place of assembly 
of the people in their tribes (the Comitia), and was gradually adorned with temples and 
public buildings. — Near Foktjm Tekebronii, in McEsia, the Romans were defeated by the 
Goths, Nov. 251. After a struggle in a morass, the emperor Decius and his son were slain 
and their bodies not recovered. 

FOTHERINGHAY CASTLE (Northamptonshire), built about 1400. Here Richard III. 
of England was born in 1450; and here Mary queen of Scots was tried, 11 -14 Oct. 1586, 
and beheaded, 8 Feb. 1587. It was demolished by her son, James I. of England, in 1604. 

FOUGHARD, near Armagh, N. Ireland. Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after 
invading Ireland in 131 5, was defeated by sir John Bermingham in 13 18. Bruce was killed 
by Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. 

FOUNDLING HOSPITALS are ancient. A species of foundling hospital was set up 
at Milan in 787, and in the middle ages most of the principal cities of the continent 
possessed one. The French government in 1790 declared foundlings to be the " children of 
the state." 



No Foundling hospital in England when Addi- 
son wrote ill 1713 

London foundling hospital, projected by 
Thomas Coram, a sea-captain, incorpo- 
rated, Oct. 1739 ; opened . . 2 June, 1756 

It succours about 500 infant children ; Coram's 
statue was put up in 1856 



Foundling hospital in Dublin instituted in 1 704. 
Owing to great mortality, and from moral 
considerations, the internal department was 
closed by order of government . 31 March, 1835 

Foundling hospital at Moscow, founded by 
Catherine II. in 1763 ; about 12,000 children 
are received annually. 



FOU 307 FRA 

FOUNTAINS are apparatus, natural or artificial, hj Avhich water is made to spring 
upwards. The fountain of Hero of Alexandria was Invented about 150 B.C. Among the 
remarkable fountains at Eome are the Fontana di Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. 
in 1735 ; the Fontana Paolina, erected for pope Paul V. in 1612 ; and Fontana dell' Acqua 
Felice, called also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains in the palace gardens at Versailles, 
made for Louis XIV., and the Grand Jet d'Eau, at St. Cloud, are exceedingly beautiful. 
There are above 100 public fountains in Paris, the most striking being the Chateau d'Eau on 
the Boulevard St. Martin (by Girard, 181 1) and that at the Palais Royal. London is not 
remarkable for fountains; the largest are in Trafalgar-square, constructed in 1845, after 
designs by sir Charles Barry. There are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, in Derbyshire, 
the seat of the duke of Devonshire. The magnificent fountains at the Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham, were first publicly exhibited on 18 June, 1856, in the presence of the queen and 
20,000 spectators. 

FOURIERISM, a social system devised by M. Charles Foiirier (who died in 1837). The 
Phalanstery (or association of 400 families living in one edifice) was to be so arranged as to 
give the highest amount of happiness at the lowest cost. All attempts to realise the system 
have failed ; caused, it is said, by the smallness of the scale on which they were tried. 

"FOUR MASTERS," a name given to Michael, Conary, and Cucogry O'Clery, and 
Ferfeasa O'Mulconry, who compiled from original documents the annals of Ireland from 
2242 B.C. to A.D. 1616. An edition of these "Annals," printed from autograph MSS., with a 
translation edited by Dr. John O'Donovan, was published at Dublin in 185 1. The "Four 
Masters " lived in the first half of the 17th century. 

FOX, see Reynard. 

FOX AND GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATION, see GrenvilU Administration. 

FOX-GLOVE. The canary fox-glove {Digitalis canariensis) came from the Canary 
i.slands, 1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here in 1777. The fox-grape shrub {Vitis 
Vulpina), from Virginia, before 1656. 

FRANC, the current silver French coin, superseded the Uvre tournois by law in 1795. 

FRANCE was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul (lohicli see). In the decline of 
their poAver it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Germany, then inhabiting Franconia, 
where they became known about 240. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom 
(Franken-ric, Franks' kingdom) ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, are the 
real ancestors of the modern French. The present constitution is chiefly based upon the 
plebiscitums of 21, 22 Dec. 1851 ; and 21, 22 Nov. 1852, For the dynastic changes, see list 
of sovereigns, p. 314. Previous to the revolution, France was divided into 40 governments. 
In 1790 it was divided into 83 departments, and subsequently into 130, including Corsica, 
Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. In 1815 the departments were reduced 
to 86 ; in i860 they were raised to 89 by the acquisition of Savoy and Nice.* For details 
of more important events, see separate articles. 



The Franks settle in that part of Gaul, till late 
called Flanders, about 418 

Clovis, 481 ; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at 
Soissons, 486 ; and the Alemauni at Tolbiac, 
near Cologne ; and embraces Christianity . 496 

He kills Alaric the Goth at the battle of Vougl^, 
near Poictiers, unites his conquests from the 
Loii'e to the Pyrenees, and makes Paris his 
capital 507 

He proclaims the Salique law ; and dies, leav- 
ing four sons (see p. 314) 511 

Frequent invasions of the Avars and Lom- 
bards 562-584 

The mayors of the palace now assume almost 
sovereign authority 584 

Charles Martel becomes Mayor of the palace. 



The Normans invade Neustria, 876; part of 
which is granted Rollo, as Normandy, by 

Charles the Simple 911 

Reign of Hugh Capet . .... 987 

Paris made capital of all France . . . 996 
Letters of franchise granted to cities and towns 

by Louis VI. 1135 

Louis VII. joins in the crusades . . . 1146 
Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bou- 

vines 1214 

Louis VIII., Cceur de Lion, frees his serfs . . 1224 
Louis IX., called St. Louis, defeats John of 
England ; conducts an army into Palestine ; 
takes Damietta ; and dies before Tunis . 1250-70 
Charles of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily . 1266 
His tyranny leads to the massacre called the 



and rules with despotic sway .... 714 1 Sicilian Vespers (which see) 1282 



Invasion of the Saracens, 720; defeated by 
Charles Martel. near Tours . . 10 Oct. 732 

Beign of Pepin the Short 752 

Charlemagne king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and 



Philip the Fair's quarrels with the Pope . ^301-2 
Knights Templars suppressed . . . 1307-8 
Union of France and Navarre .... 1314 
Enghsh invasion — Philip VI. defeated at 



Lombardy, 773-4 ; crowned emperor of the ] Cressy 26 Aug. 1346 

West 25 Dec. 800 Calais taken by Edward III. . . 3 Aug. 1347 



* Population of Franco in 1700, 19,669,320; in 1762, 21,769,163; in 1801, 27,349,003 ; in 1820, 30,451,187 ; 
in 1836, 33,540,910; in 1846, 35,401,761; in 1856, 36,039,364; in 1861, including the new departments, 
37,382,225. Population of the colonies (in Asia, Pondichen-y, &c. ; Africa, Algeria, <fcc. ; America, Mar- 
tinique, Gnadaloupe, <fec. ; Oceania, the Marquesas, &c. ), in 1858, 3,641,226. Population of France alone, 
Dec. i866, 38,192,094. In May, 1862, the Mnnileur asserted the effective aiTny to be 447,000, with a reserve 
of 170,000; virtuallj' raised to 1,200,000 in 1868. 

x2 



ERA 



308 



FRA 



FRAjSTCE, continued. 

Dauphiny annexed to France . . . . 1349 
Battle of Poictiers (w/tic/j see); king; John taken 

and brought prisoner to England . ig Sept. 1356 
Fran'ce laid under an interdict by the pope . . 1407 
Battle of Agincourt {roliich see) . . 25 Oct. 1415 
Massacre of the Armagnaos by the Burgun- 

dians June, 1418 

Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 

kingdom 1420 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; the duke of 

Bedford's regency 1422 

Siege of Orleans, 8 May ; battle of Patay ; the 

English defeated by /onn 0/ ^/-c . 18 June, 1429 
Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen . . 30 May, 1431 
England lost all her possessions (but Calais) in 

France, between .... 1434 and 1450 
" League of the public good" against Louis XI. 

by the nobles . . . Dec. 1464-Oct. 1465 
Edward IV. of England invades France . . 147s 
Charles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494; loses it . 1496 
League of Cambray against Venice . . . 1508 
Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League agamst 

France 1511 

English invasion — ^battle of Spurs . 16 Aug. 1513 
Interview of the Field of the Cloth of Gold be- 
tween Francis I. and Henry VIII. of England 1520 
Francis I. defeated and taken prisoner at 

Pavia 24 Feb. 1525 

Peace of Cambray 5 Aug. 1529 

Persecution of protestants begins . . . 1530 
Boyal printing press estabhshed 1531 ; Robert 

Stephens prints his Latin Bible . . . . 1532 
Brittany unites with France . . . . ,, 
League of England with the emperor Charles 

V. ; Henry VIII. invades France . . . 1544 
Peace with England .... 7 June, 1546 
Successful defence of Metz by the duke of Guise 1552 

He takes Calais (iohich see) 1558 

Religious wars ; massacre of protestants at 

Vassy I March, 1562 

Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux ig Dec. ,, 
Guise killed at siege of Orleans, 18 Feb. ; tem- 
porary peace of Amboise . . 19 March, 1563 
Huguenots defeated at St. Denis . 10 Nov. 1567 
At Jarnac, 13 March ; at Moncontour . 3 Oct. 1569 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew . . 24 Aug. 1572 
The " Holy Catholic League " established . . 1576 
Duke of Guise assassinated by king's order, 23 

Dec. ; and his brother, the cardinal 24 Deo. 1588 
Henry HI. assassinated by Jacques Clement, a 

friar, i Aug. ; died . . . .2 A\ig. 1589 
Henry IV. defeats the league atlvry, 14 March, 1590 
Henry IV. becomes a Roman Catholic 25 July, 1593 
The league leaders submit to him . . Jan. 1596 
He promulgates the edict of Nantes 13 April, 1598 
Silk and other manufactures introduced by 

him and Sully . . . . . . 1606-1610 

Quebec in North America settled . . . . 1608 

Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac . 14 May, t6io 
Regency of Mary de' Medici .... 1610-14 

The states general meet and complain of the 

management of the finances . . 27 Oct. 1614 
Rise of the Concinis, 1610 ; and their fall . . 1617 
Navarre annexed to France .... 1620 
Vigorous and successful administration of 

Richeheu, begins with finance . . . . 1624 
Rochelle taken after a long siege . . . 1628 
"Day of Dupes;" Richelieu's energy defeats 

the machinations of his enemies 11 Nov. 1630 

Richeheu organises the Acadc'inie de France 1634-5 
His death (aged 58) .... 4 Dec. 1642 
Accession of Louis XIV., aged four years (Anne 

of Austria regent) . . . .14 May, 1643 
Administration of Mazarine ; victories of Tu- 

renne 1643-6 

Civil wars of the Fronde .... 1648, <fec. 
Death of Mazarine, 9 March ; Colbert financial 

minister 1661 

"War with Holland, &.c 1672 

Canal of Languedoc constructed . . . 1664-81 
Peace of Nimeguen . . . .10 Aug. 1678 



, &c. 
1697 
1701 
1704 
1706 
1713 



1716 

1743 
1746 
1748 
1756 
1757 
1759 

1762 
1763 
1769 
1774 

1778 
1780 
1783 
1785 



1789 



Edict of Nantes revoked. . . .22 Oct. 1685 

Louis marries Madame de Maintenon 

War with WilHam III. of England . 16S9 

Peace of Ryswick . . . .20 Sept. 

War of the Spanish succession . . Sept. 

French defeated at Blenheim . .13 Aug. 

At RatBillies 23 May, 

Peace of Utrecht (which see) . .11 AprU, 

Dissensions of Jesuits and Jansenists ; the bull 
Unigenitus ...... Oct. 

Accession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the 
duke of Orleans . . . i Sept. 1715, 

Law's bubble in France (see Law) . ... 

French defeated at Dettingen . . 16 June, 

Successful campaign of marshal Saxe . . . 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ... 18 Oct. 

Seven years' war begun .... May, 

Damiens' attempt on life of Louis XV. s Jan. 

Canada lost — ^battle of Quebec . 13 Sept. 

The Jesuits banished from Franco, and their 
effects confiscated 

Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England 10 Feb. 

Loxiis XV. enslaved by Madame du Barry 

Death of Louis XV .... 10 May, 

Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its 
dependence on England, at first secretly 

Torture abolished in French judicature . . 

Peace of Versailles with England . 3 Sept. 

The diamond-necklace affair {which see) . . 

Meeting of the assembly of notables, 22 Feb. 
1787 ; again \ 6 Nov. 

Opening of states general (308 ecclesiastics, 285 
nobles ; 621 deputies, tiers dtat) . 5 May, 

The tiers 6tat constitute themselves the 
National Assembly . . . .17 June, 

The French revolution commences with the de- 
struction of the Bastille (lohich see) 14 July, 

The National Assembly decrees that the title 
of the " king of France" shall be changed to 
that of the "king of the French" . 16 Oct. 

The property of the clergy confiscated . 2 Nov. 

Confederation of the Ghain-p deMars ; Francois 
declared a limited monarchy ; Louis XVI. 
swears to maintain the constitution, 14 July, 

The silver plate used in the churches trans- 
ferred to the mint and coined . 3 March, 

Death of Mirabeau . ... 2 April, 

The Ijing, queen, and royal family arrested at 
Varennes, in their flight . . . 21 June, 

Louis (now a prisoner) sanctions the National 
Constitution 15 Sept. 

War declared against the emperor 20 April, 

The Jacobin club declare their sittings perma- 
nent 18 June, 

The multitude, bearing the red bonnet of 
Uberty, march to the Tuileries to make 
demands on the king ... 20 June, 

First coalition against France : commencement 
of the great French war . . . June, 
[See Battles, 1792 to 1815.] 

The royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre 
of 5000 persons .... 10 Aug. 

Decree of the National Assembly against the 
priests ; 40,000 exiled . . .26 Aug. 

Massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken open, 
and 1200 persons (100 priests) slain, 2-5 Sept. 

Murder of the princess de LambaUe . 3 Sept. 

The National Convention opened . 17 Sept. 

Convention establishes a republic 20-22 Sept. 

The French people declare their fraternity 
with all nations who desire to be free, and 
offer help 19 Nov. 

Flanders conquered .... Dec. 

Decree for the perpetual banishment of the 
Bourbon family, those confined in the 
Temple excepted ... 20 Dec. 

Louis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from 
the queen, and brought to trial, 19 Jan. ; 
condemned to death, 20 Jan. ; beheaded in 
the Place de Louis Quinze ... 21 Jan. 

War with England and Holland declared, i Feb. 



1790 
1 791 



FRA 



309 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

Insurrection in La Vendue . . . March, 
Beign of terror — proscription of Girondists, 31 
May; establishment of convention, 23 June, 
Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . 13 July, 
The Queen beheaded . . . .16 Oct. 
Philip Egalit(i, the duke of Orleans, who had 
voted for the king's death, is himself guillo- 
tined at Paris (see OrUanis), 6 Nov. ; and 
madame Roland .... 8 Nov. 
Adoption of the new republican calendar, 

24 Nov. 
Execution of Dantou and others, 5 April ; of 
madame EUzabeth . . . .12 May, 
Bobespierre and 71 others guillotined, 28 July, 
Peace with Prussia . . . s April, 

Louis XVIL dies in prison . . .8 June, 
French directory chosen . . .1 Nov. 
Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, 
Babeuf s conspiracy suppressed . 12 May, 

Pichegru's conspiracy fails . . . May, 
Expedition to Syria and Egypt (lohich see), Feb. 
European coalition against Borne . . June, 
Council of Five Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, 
who is declared First Consul . 10 Nov. 

He defeats the Austrians at Marengo 14 June, 
His life attempted by the infernal machine, 

24 Dec. 
Peace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and 
Holland) signed . . . 25-27 March, 
Amnesty to the emigrants . . . April, 
Legion of Honour instituted . . 19 May, 
Bonaparte made consul for life . . 2 Aug. 
The bank of France estabUshed . 14 April, 

Declaration of war against England 22 May, 
Conspiracy of Moreau and PichegTU against 
Bonaparte, 15 Feb. ; the latter was found 
strangled in prison (see Georges) . 6 April, 
Due d'Enghien executed . . 21 March, 
France formed into an empire ; Napoleon pro- 
claimed emperor, 18 May ; crowned by the 

Pope 2 Dec. 

He is crowned king of Italy . . 26 May, 
Another coalition against France . Aug. 

Napoleon defeats the allies at AusterUtz, 

2 Dec. 
And the Prussians at Jena ... 14 Oct. 
And the Bussians at Eylau . . .8 Feb. 
His interview with the czar at Tilsit, 26 June ; 

peace signed 7 July, 

His Milan decree against EngUsh commerce, 

17 Dec. 

New nobility of France created . i March, 

Abdication of Charles IV. of Spain and his son, 

in favour of Napoleon, 5 May ; insun-ection 

in Spain -27 May, 

Commencement of the Peninsular war (see 

Spain) July, 

Alliance of England and Austria against 

France April, 

Victories in Austria ; Napoleon enters Vienna, 

May, 

Peace of Vienna 14 Oct. 

Divorce of the emperor and empress Josephine 
decreed by the senate . . . 16 Dec. 
Marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa of Aus- 
tria I April, 

Holland united to France . . .9 July, 
Birth of the king of Rome (now styled Na- 
poleon II,) 20 March, 

War with Bussia declared . . .22 June, 
Victory at Borodino . . . .7 Sept. 

Disastrous retreat Oct. 

Alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia against 

France March, 

The British enter Prance ... 7 Oct. 
Surrender of Paris to the allies . 31 March, 
The constitutional charter estabhshed 4-10 June, 
Abdication of Napoleon ... 5 April, 



1794 
1795 



1797 
1799 



1S02 



1803 



1 80s 



1813 
18 14 



Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. 
arrives in Paris 3 May, 

Napoleon arrives at Elba ... 4 May, 

Quits Elba, aud lands at Cannes . i March, 

jVrrives at Fontainebleau («/;€ 100 days) 20 March, 

Joined by all the army . . 22 M arch. 

The allies sign a treaty against him . March, 

He abolishes the slave-trade . . 29 March, 

Leaves Paris for the army . . .12 June 

Defeated at Waterloo ... 18 June 

Returns to Paris, 20 June ; abdicates in favour 
of his infant son . . . .22 June, 

Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 
Bochefort 3 July, 

Louis XVIII. enters Paris . . .3 July, 

Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the 
Jiellerojikon, at Bochefort . . 15 July, 

TransteiTed at Torbay to the NoHhvmherland, 
and with admiral sir George Cockburn sails 
for St. Helena 8 Aug. 

Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life, 15 Oct. 

Execution of marshal Ney . . .7 Dec. 

The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from 
France by the law of amnesty . .12 Jan. 

Duke of Berry murdered . . 13 Feb. 

Death of Napoleon I. (see Wills) . 5 May, 

Louis XVIII. dies ; Charles X. king 16 Sept. 

National Guard disbanded . . .30 April, 

War with Algiers ; the dey's fleet defeated, 

4 Nov. 

Election riots at Paris ; barricades ; several 
persons killed .... ig-20 Nov. 

Seventy-six new peers created . . 5 Nov. 

The VilMe ministry replaced by the Martignac, 

4 Jan. 

B^ranger imprisoned for his political songs, 

10 Dec. 

Polignac administration formed . . 8 Aug. 

Chamber of deputies dissolved . . 16 May, 

Algiers taken 5 July, 

The obnoxious ordinances regarding the press, 
and reconstruction of the chamber of 
deputies 26 July, 

Revolution commencing with barricades 

27 July, 

Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- 
mately aided by the national guard) and the 
army 28-30 July, 

Charles X. retires to Bambouillet ; flight of the 
ministry, 31 July ; Charles X. abdicates, 

2 Aug. 

The duke of Orleans accepts the crown as 
Louis-Philippe 1 7 Aug. 

The constitutional charter of July published, 

14 Aug. 

Charles X. retires to England . 17 Aug. 

Polignac and other ministers tried and sent- 
enced to perpetual imprisonment . 21 Dec. 

The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 
by both chambers ; the peers (36 new peers 
being created) concurring by a majority of 
103 to 70 27 Dec. 

The A. B. C. (abaisscs) insurrection in Paris sup- 
pressed 5-6. June, 

Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the Con- 
tinent 18 Sept. 

Ministry of Soult, duke of Dalmatia 11 Oct. 

Bergeron and Benoit tried for an attempt on the 
life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted 18 March, 

The duchess of Berry, who has been delivered 
of a female child, and asserts her secret 
marriage with an Italian nobleman, is sent 
to Palermo 9 June, 

Death of La Payette ... 20 May, 

Marshal Gerard takes of&ce . .15 July, 

M. Dupuytren dies 8 Feb. 

Due de Broglie, minister . . . Feb. 

Fieschi attempts the king's * life . 28 July, 



1814 
iSis 



1816 
1820 
1821 
1824 
1827 



1829 
1830 



1831 
1832 

1S33 

» 

1834 
1835 



* He fired an infernal machine as the king rode along the lines of the national guard, on the Boulevard 
du Temple, accompanied by his three sous and suite. The machine consisted of twenty-five baixels, charged 



ERA 



310 



FRA 



PRAKCE, continued. 

He is executed ig Feb. 1836 

Louis Alibaud fires at the king on his way from 

the Tuileries, 25 June ; guillotined 11 July, ,, 
Ministry of count "Mole, vice M. Thiers 6 Sept. ,, 

Death of Charles X 6 Nov. ,, 

Attempted insun-ection at Strasburg by Louis 
Napoleon (now emperor), 29-30 Oct. ; he is 
sent to America . . . .13 Nov. ,, 
Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from 

Ham, and sent out of France . 23 Nov. „ 
Meunier fires at the king on his way to open 

the French Chambers . . . 27 Dec. ,, 
Amnesty for political offences . . 8 May, 1837 
" IdSes Napoleennes," by the present emperor, 

were pubhshed 1838 

Talleyrand dies .... 20 May, „ 
Marshal Soult at the coronation of the queen 

of England 28 June, ,, 

Birth of the count of Paris . . 24 Aug. „ 
Death of the duchess of Wurtemberg (daughter 

of Louis-Philippe), a good sculptor . 2 Jan. 1839 
Insurrection of Barbbs and Blanqui at Paris, 

12 May, ,, 
M. Thiers, minister of foreign affairs i March, 1840 
The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's 

remains from St. Helena to France * 12 May, ,, 
Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, general 
Montholon, and 50 followers, at Vimeroux, 
near Boulogne, 6 Aug. ; the prince sentenced 
to imprisonment for life ... 6 Oct. ,, 
Darmfes fires at the king . . .15 Oct. ,, 
M. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs 29 Oct. ,, 
Project of law for an extraordinary credit of 
140,000,000 of francs, for erecting the fortifi- 
cations of Paris .... IS Dec. ,, 
The duration of copjrright to 30 years after the 

author's death, fixed ... 30 March, 1841 
Bronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column 

of the grande armee, Boulogne . 15 Aug. „ 
Attempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale 

(king's son) on return from Africa 13 Sept. „ 
The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed 

by a fall from his carriage . . 13 July, 1842 
The queen of England visits the royal family at 

Chateau d'Eu . . . . 2 to 7 Sept. 1843 
An extradition treaty with England signed . ,, 
War with Morocco, May ; peace . 10 Sept. 1844 
Attempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king 

at Pontainebleau . . . .16 April, 1846 
Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham 25 May, ,, 

The seventh attempt on the life of the king : 

by Joseph Henri .... 29 July, „ 
Spanish marriages. Marriage of the queen of 
Spain with her cousin, and of the due de Mont- 
pensier with the infanta of Spain . 10 Oct. ,, 
Disastrous inundations in the south . 18 Oct. ,, 
The Praslin murder (see PrasHn) . 18 Aug. 1847 
Death of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio) at 
Paris, in his 91st year, 13 Sept. ; Soult made 
general of France, in his room . 26 Sept. „ 
Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an 

exile of 32 years 10 Oct. ,, 

Surrender of Abd-el-Kader ... 23 Dec. ,, 
Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 18 Dec. ; 

and of madame Adelaide . . .30 Dec. „ 
The grand reform banquet at Paris prohibited, 

21 Feb. 1S48 
Revolutionary tumult in consequence ; im- 
peachme)it and resignation of Guizot, 22 Feb. ; 
barricades thrown up, the Tuileries ran- 



sacked, the pri.sons opened, and frightful 
disorders committed . . 23-24 Feb. 1848 

Louis-Philippe abdicates in favoixr of his infant 
grandson, the comte de Paris,' who is not 
accepted ; the royal family and ministers 
escape 24 Feb. ,, 

A republic proclaimed from the steps of the 
H6tel de Ville 26 Feb. „ 

The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in 
England 3 March, ,, 

Grand funeral procession in honour of the 
victims of the revolution . . . 4 March ,, 

The provisional government, which had been 
formed in the great public commotion, 
resigns to an executive commission, elected 
by the National Assembly of the French 
Republic 7 May, „ 

[The members of this new government were : 
MM. Dupont de I'Eure, Arago, Garnier- 
Pagfes, Marie, Lamartine, Ledru-Rolhn, and 
Cr&nieux. The secretaries : Louis Blanc, 
Albert Flocon, and Marrast.] 

The people's attack on the assembly sup- 
pressed 15 May, „ 

Perpetual banishment of Louis-Philippe and 
his family decreed . . . . 26 May ,, 

Election of Louis Napoleon for the department 
of the Seine and three other departments to 
the National Assembly . . . 13 June, ,, 

Rise of the red republicans ; war against the 
troops and national guard ; more than 300 
barricades thrown up, and firing continues in 
all parts of Paris during the night 23 June, ,, 

The troops under Cavaignac and Lamoricifere, 
with immense loss, drove the insui-gents 
from the left bank of the Seine . 24 June, ,, 

Paris declared in a state of siege . 25 June, „ 

The Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, 
and the insurgents surrender . 26 June, ,, 

[The national losses caused by this dreadful 
outbreak were estimated at 30,000,000 francs ; 
16,000 persons killed and wounded, and 8000 
prisoners were taken. The archbishop of 
Paris was killed while tending the dying, 
26 June.] 

Cavaignac, president of the council . 28 June, ,, 

Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the National 
Assembly 26 Sept. „ , 

Paris relieved from a state of siege, which had 
continued four months ... 20 Oct. ,, 

Solemn pomulgation of the constitution of 
4 Nov., in front of the Tuileries . 12 Nov. ,, 

Louis Napoleon elected president of the French 
repubUc, II Dec. ; proclaimed . 20 Dec. ,, 

[He had 5,587,759 votes ; Cavaignac, 1,474,687; 
Ledru-Rollin, 381,026; Raspail, 37,121; La- 
martine, 21,032 ; and Changamier, 4,975] 

Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated 
insurrection of the reds . . .29 Jan. 1849 

Death of king Louis-PhiUppe, at Claremont, in 
England 26 Aug. 1850 

Liberty of the press restricted . 26 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Changamier deprived of the command of 
the national guard .... 10 Jan. 1851 

Death of the duchess of Angouleme, daughter 
of Louis XVI. at Frohsdorf . . 19 Oct. ,, 

Death of marshal Soult ... 26 Oct. ,, 

Electric telegraph between England and France 
opened 13 Nov. „ 

Coup d'itat : the legislative assembly dissolved ; 



with various species of missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a train of gunpowder. The king and his 
sons escaped; but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, was shot dead, many ofiacers were dangerously 
wounded, and upwards of forty persons killed or injured. 

* By the permission of the British government these were taken from the tomb at St. Helena (15 Oct. 
1840), and embarked on the i6th of October, 1840, on board the Belle Poule French frigate, under the com- 
mand of the prince de Joinville; the vessel reached Cherbourg on 30th November : and on isth December 
the body was deposited in the Hotel des Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 1,000,000 of persons ; 
150,000 soldiers assisted in the obsequies : and the royal family and all the high personages of the realm 
were present ; but it was remarkable that all the relatives of the emperor were absent, being proscribed, 
and in exile or in prison. The body was finally placed in its crypt on 31 March, 1861. 



FRA 



311 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

universal suffrage established, and Paris 
declared in a state of siege ; the election of a 
president for ten yeai-s proposed, and a second 
chamber or senate .... 2 Dec. 

MM. Thiers, Changamier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, 
Lamorici&re, and Charres arrested, and sent 
to the castle of Vincennes . . .2 Dec. 

About 180 members of the assembly, with M. 
Berryer at their head, attempting to meet, 
are arrested, and Paris is occupied by troops, 

2 Dec. 

Sanguinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops 
victorious 3-4 Dec. 

Consultative commission founded . . 12 Dec. 

Voting throughout France for the election of 
a president of the republic for ten years; 
afiSrmative votes 7,473,431, negative votes 
641,351 ..... 21-22 Dec. 

Installation of the prince-president in the 
cathedral of Notre Dame : the day observed 
as a national holiday at Paris, and Louis 
Napoleon takes up his residence at the 
Tuileries i Jan. 

Gens. Chang.arnier, Lamoricifere, and others, 
conducted to the Belgian frontier . 9 Jan. 

83 members of the legislative assembly 
banished ; 575 persons arrested for resistance 
to the coup d'etat of 2 Dec, and conveyed to 
Havre for transportation to Cayeime, 10 Jan. 

[The inscription " Liberty, Fraternity, Equality," 
ordered to be forthwith erased throughout 
France, and the old names of streets, public 
buildings, and places of resort to be restored. 
The trees of liberty are everywhere hewn 
down and burnt.] 

The national guard disbanded, and reorganised 
anew, and placed under the control of the 
executive, the president appointing the 
oflScers 10 Jan. 

A new constitution published . 14 Jan. 

Decree obliging the Orleans family to seU all 
their real and personal property in France 
within a year 22 Jan. 

Second decree, annulling the settlement made 
by Louis-PhiUppe upon his family previous 
to his accession in 1830, and annexing the 
property to the domain of the state 22 Jan. 

The birthday of Napoleon I. (15 Aug.) to be 
the only national holiday . .17 Feb. 

The departments of France released from a 
state of siege 27 March, 

Legislative chambers installed . 29 March, 

A crystal palace authorised to be erected in the 
Champs Elyseos at Paris . . 30 March, 

Plot to assassinate the prince-president dis- 
covered at Paris . . . . i July, 

President's visit to Strasburg . 19 July, 

M. Thiers and others permitted to return to 
France 8 Aug. 

The French senate prays "the re-estabUsh- 
ment of the hereditary sovereign power in 
the Bonaparte family " . . 13 Sept. 

Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president 
at Lyons 19 Sept. 

Infernal machine, to destroy the prince- 
president, seized at Marseilles . 23 Sept. 

Prince-president visits Toulon, 27 Sept. ; and 
Bordeaux, where he says "the empire is 
peace " (L'Bmpire c'est la paix) . . 7 Oct. 

He releases Abd-el-Kader (see Algiers), 16 Oct. 



iSsi 



1852 



He convokes the senate for November to deli- 
berate on a change of government, when a 
seiuttus consulticm will be proposed for the 
ratification of the French people . 19 Oct. 
Protest of comte de Chambord . 25 Oct. 
In his message to the senate, the prince-presi- 
dent announces the contemplated restoration 
of the empire, and orders the people to be 
consulted upon this change . . 4 Nov. 
Votes for the empire, 7,824,189 ; noes, 253,145 ; 
null, 63,326 21 Nov. 

The prince-president declared emperor; as- 
sumes the title of Napoleon III. . 2 Dec. 

Marriage of the emperor with Eugenie de 
Montijo, countess of T^a, at Notre-Dame, 

29 Jan. 

4312 political offenders pardoned. . 2 Feb. 

Bread riots Sept. 

Military camp at Satory, near Paris . Sept. 

Emperor and empress visit the provinces 
(many political prisoners discharged) Oct. 

Francis Arago, astronomer, &c., died 2 Oct. 

Attempted assassination of the emperor ; ten 
persons transported for life . . . Nov. 

Reconciliation of the two branches of the 
Bourbons at Frohsdorf . . .20 Nov. 

Marshal Ney's statvie inaugurated exactly 38 
years after his death on the spot where it 
occurred ...... 7 Dec. 

War declared against Russia (see Rusno-Turkish 
IVar) 27 March, 

Visit of prince Albert at Boulogne . 5 Sept. 

Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . 29 Sept. 

Emperor and empress visit London 16-21 April, 

Industrial exhibition at Paris opened 15 May, 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by 
Pianori, 28 April ; by Bellemarre 8 Sept. 

Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, 
18-27 Aug. 

Death of count Mol^ . . . .24 Nov. 

Birth of the imperial jirince ; amnesty granted 
to 1000 political prisoners . 16 March, 

Peace with Russia signed . . 30 March, 

Awful inundation in the south * . June 

Distress in money market . . .6 Oct. 

Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by 
Verger, a priest .... 3 Jan. 

Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 depu- 
ties) ; gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but 
declines to take the oath . 21, 22 June, 

Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris 
detected 11 July, 

Death of Beranger .... 16 July, 

Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. 
Helena, bought for 180,000 francs . 

The conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi, 
tried, convicted, and sentenced to transporta- 
tion, &c 6, 7 Aug. 

Emperor and empress visit England 6-10 Aug. 

The emperor meets the emperor of Russia at 
Stutgardt 25 Sept. 

Death of Eugfene Cavaignac (aged 55) 28 Oct. 

Death of Mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) . 4 Jan. 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by 
Orsini,t Pieri, Rudio, Gomez, &o., by the ex- 
plosion of three shells (two persons killed, 
many wounded) . . . .14 Jan. 

Public safety bill passed— bold protest against 
it by Olhvier .... 18 Feb. 

France divided into fl.ve military departments ; 



1852 



1853 



1854 



1857 



* The subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers amounted to 43,000^. Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, 
of Bombay, gave 500?. for the same purpose. 

t Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, intensely devoted to obtain Italian independence, was 
bom Dec. 1819 ; studied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a seoret^ociety in 1843 ; was arrested and condemned 
to the galleys for life in 1844 ; was released in 1846 : took part in the Roman revolution in 1848, when he 
was elected a member of the assembly ; and on the fall of the republic, fled to Genoa in 1849, .and came to 
England in 1853. Entering into fresh conspiracies, he was .arrested in Hungary, Jan. 1855, .and sent to 
Mantua ; he escaped thence and came to England in 1856, where he associated with Kossuth, JIazzini, <fec. ; 
delivered lectxires, and where he devised the plot for which he suffered. lu his will he acknowledged the 
justice of his sentence. 



fRA 



312 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

general Espinasse becomes rainister of the 
interior Feb. i 

" Napoleonlll. et I'Angleterre " published ii Mar. 

Intemperate speeches in Prance against Eng- 
land— misconceistions between the two 
countries removed in . . . March, 

A republican outbreak at Chalons suppressed, 

9 March, 

Orsini and Pieri executed . . 13 March, 

Simon Bernard tried in London as their ac- 
complice, and acquitted . . 12-17 April, 

Marshal Pelissier, ambassador to London 15 April 

Espinasse retires from ministry of the interior 
[he was killed at the battle of Magenta, 
4 June, 1859] June, 

Queen of England meets the emperor; visits 
Cherbourg .... 4, 5 Aug. 

Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian 
principalities closes . . -19 Aug. 

Dispute with Portugal respecting the Ckarles et 
Georges (which see) settled . . 23 Oct. 

Trial of comte de Montalembert* . 25 Nov. 

Emperor's address to the Austrian ambassador 
(see Austria) i Jan. i 

Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess Clotilde 
of Savoy 30 Jan. 

Publication of "Napoleon III. et I'ltalie," Feb. 

On the Austrians invading Sardinia, France 
declares war, and the French enter Sardinia ; 
the empress appointed regent ; the emperor 
arrives at Genoa . . . 12 May, 

Loan of 20,000,000 francs raised . 21 May, 

Victories of the allies (French and Sardinians) 
at MonteboUo, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 31 May ; 
Magenta, 4 June ; Melegnano (Marignano), 
8 June ; Napoleon enters Milan, 8 June ; vic- 
tory of allies at Solferino . . 24 June, 

Armistice agreed on . . . .6 July, 

Meeting of emperors of France and Austria at 
Villa Franca . . . . n July, 

Peace agreed on 12 July, 

Louis Napoleon returns to Paris . 17 July, 

The emperor addresses the senate, 19 July ; and 
the diplomatic body . . .21 July, 

Reduction of the army and navy ordered, Aug. 

Conference of Austrian and French envoys at 
Zurich (see Zv.rich) . . 8 Aug. -Nov. 

Amnesty to political offenders . 17, 18 Aug. 

Violent attacks of the French press on England 
repressed Nov. 

"Ze Pape et le Congres " published ; 50,000 sold 
in a few days ...... Dec. 

Count Walewski, the foreign minister, resigns ; 
M. Thouvenel succeeds him . . Jan. 1 

The emperor announces a free trade policy ; 
Mr. Cobden at Paris ... 5 Jan. 

Commercial treaty with England signed, 23 Jan. 

L'Univers suppressed for publishing the pope's 
letter to the emperor . . .29 Jan. 

Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice 
signed 24 March, 

The press censured for attacking England, 

7 April, 

The emperor meets the German sovereigns at 
Baden 15-17 June, 

Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies 
(aged 76) 24 June, 

The emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- 
claims hostility to England . . 25 July, 

The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, 
and Algiers .... 1-17 Sept. 



New tariff comes into operation . i Oct. 

Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and 
free issue of pastoral letters checked Nov. 

The empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glas- 
gow, (fee, privately . . Nov.-Dec. 

Important ministerial changes ; greater liberty 
of speech granted to the chambers ; two sets 
of ministers, appointed— speakers and admi- 
nistrators ; Pelissier made governor of Algeria ; 
Persigny, minister of the interior ; Flahault, 
English ambassador . . Nov. and Dec. 

Passports for Englishmen to cease after i Jan. 
1861 16 Dec. 

Six bishoprics vacant .... Dec. 

Persigny relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. 
II ; [but for a short time] . . 20 Dec. 

The emperor advises the pope to sun-ender his 
revolted provinces ... 31 Dec. 

" Rome et les Evdques" published . 6 Jan. 

Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Eliza- 
beth Paterson, an American lady f) claims his 
legitimate rights ; non-suited alter a trial 

25 Jan.-is Feb. 

Purchase of the principality of Monaco for 
4,000,000 francs, Feb. 2 ; announced 5 Feb. 

Meeting of French chambers, 4 Feb. ; stormy 
debates in the chambers Feb. and March, 

"La France, Rome, et I'ltalie " published, 15 Feb. 

Angry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who 
compares the emperor to Pilate . 27 Feb. 

Failure of Mu-fes, a railway banker and loan 
conti-actor, <fec. ; be is arrested . 17 Feb. 

Many influential persons suspected of partici- 
pating in his frauds ; the government pro- 
mise strict justice . Feb. and March, 

Eugfene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged 80) 20 Feb. 

Speech of prince Napoleon in favour of Italian 
unity, the English alliance, and against the 
pope's temporal government . i March, 

Strong advocacy of the temporal government 
of the pope in the chambers ; the French 
army stated to consist of 687,000 men, March, 

Circular forbidding the priests to meddle with 
politics II April, 

Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium, 

I May, 

Publication in Paris of the due d'Aumale's 
severe letter to prince Napoleon, 13 April. 
Printer and publisher fined and imprisoned, 

May, 

Declaration of neutrality in the American con- 
flict II June, 

OfiBcial recognition of kingdom of Italy, 24 June, 

Visit of king of Sweden ... 6 Aug. 

Conflict between French and Swiss soldiers at 
Ville-la-Grande . . . .18 Aug. 

Mirfes, the speculator, sentenced to five j-ears' 
imprisonment .... 29 Aug. 

Pamphlet " La France, Rome, et I'ltalie" appears 

Sept. 

Commercial treaty between France, Great 
Britain, and Belgium comes into operation, 

I Oct. 

Meeting of emperor and king of Prussia at Com- 
piSgne, 6 Oct. ; and king of Holland, 12 Oct. 

French troops enter the valley of Dappes (Swit- 
zerland) to prevent an arrest . 27 Oct. 

Convention between France, Great Britain, and 
Spain, respecting intervention in Mexico, 
signed (see Mexico) . . . 31 Oct. 

Embarrassment in the government finances; 



* In Oct. 1858, the comte published a pamphlet entitled " Un Dilbat sur I'Inde," eulogising English 
institutions and depreciating those of France. He was sentenced to six months' imprisonment and a fine 
of 3000 francs, but was pai-doned by the emperor, 2 Dec. The comte appealed against the sentence of the 
court, and was again condemned ; but acquitted of a part of the charge. Tlie sentence was once more 
remitted by the emperor (21 Dec). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a pamphlet entitled " Fie IX. et la, 
France en 1849 et 1859," in which England is severely censured for opposition to popery. 

t The marriage took place in America, on 24 Dec. 1803 ; but was ann\illed, and Jerome married the 
princess Catherine of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 1807 ; their children are the prince Napoleon and the princess 
Mathilde (see p. 316). 



FRA 



313 



FRA 



FRANCE, contimicd. 

Achille Fould becomes finance minister, 
14 Nov. ; with CElai-ged powers . 12 Dec. 

The emperor reminds the clergy of their duty 
" towards Ciesar " .... i Jan. 

French army lands at Vera Cruz . 7 Jan. 

The French masters of the pi'ovince of Bien- 
hoa, in Annam 20 Jan. 

Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss com- 
missioners respecting the Ville-la-Grande 
conflict 3 Feb. 

Fould announces his finance scheme (reduc- 
tion of 4i per cent, stock to 3 per cent., and 
additional taxes and stamp duties) 24 Feb. 

Fierce debate in the legislative chamber, in 
which prince Napoleon takes part 27 Feb. 

French victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces 
ceded to France) ... 28 March, 

The Spanish and British plenipotentiaries de- 
cide to quit Mexico ; the French declare war 
against the Mexican government (for the 
events, see Mexico) ... 16 April, 

Sentence against Mirfes examined and reversed 
at Douai ; he is released . . 21 AprO, 

Treaty of peace between France and Annam 
signed ...... 3 June, 

Duke Pasquier dies (aged 96) . . s July, 

New commercial treaty with Prussia 2 Aug. 

Newspaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, 
set up by Lagueronniere . . . Aug. 

Ship Prince Jerome, with reinforcements for 
Mexico, biu-nt near Gibraltar; crew saved, 

Aug. 

Camp at Chalons formed on account of Gari- 
baldi's movements in Sicily ; broken, v/hen 
he is taken prisoner ... 29 Aug. 

Great sympathy for him in France . Sept. 

Treaty of commerce with Madagascar 12 Sept. 

Drouyn de Lhuys made foreign minister in 
room of Thouveuel ... 15 Oct. 

Baron Gros, ambassador at London in room of 
comte de Flahault, resigned . . 18 Nov. 

Serjeant Glover brings an action in the court of 
queen's bench against the comte de Persigny 
and M. Billault, claiming 14,000?. for subsi- 
dismg the Morniny Chronicle and other news- 
papers 22 Nov. 

The emperor inaugiu-ates Boulevard Prince 
Eugene, Paris 7 Dec. 

Great distress in the manufacturing districts 
through the cotton famine and the civil war 
in America Dec. 

Treaty of commerce with Italy signed 17 Jan. 

Revolt in Annam suppressed . . 26 Feb. 

Convention regulating the French and Spanish 
frontiere concluded . . . .27 Feb. 

Resignation of M. lilagne, the "speaking 
minister " in the assembly . . 1 April, 

Dissolution of the chambers . . 8 May, 

Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors 

May, 

Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, and other opposition 
candidates elected in Paris, 31 May-15 June, 

Changes in the miuistrj' — resignation of Per- 
signy, Walewski, and Rouland . 23 June, 

The empress visits queen of Spain at Madrid, 

Oct. 

Baron Gros resigns, prince Tour d'Auvergne 
becomes ambassador at London . 14 Oct. 

Death of M. Billault (bom 1805) " speaking 
minister" in legislative assembly, 13 Oct. ; 
succeeded by M. Rouher, a " minister of 
state" 18 Oct. 

The emperor proposes the convocation of a 
European congress, and invites the sovereigns 
or their deputies by letter . . 4 Nov. 

Thiers and his friends form a new opposition, 

9 Nov. 

The invitation to the congress declined by 
England 25 Nov. 

Thiers speaks in the chamber . . 24 Dec. 

Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against 



ibbi 
1862 



the emperor's life, 3 Jan. ; tried and sentenced 

to ti-ansportation and imprisonment 27 Feb. 1864 

Convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Por- 
tugal, and Hayti, for establishing a telegraphic 
line between Europe and America 16 May, ,, 

Death of Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, 
governor of Algeria (born 1794) . 22 May, 

Convention between Fi'ance and Japan signed 
by Japanese ambassadors at Paris 20 June, „ 

Convention of commerce, &c., between France 
and Switzerland signed . . .30 June, ,, 

Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon 
Jerome and princess Clotilde, born i5 July, ,, 

Convention between France and Italy respect- 
ing evacuation of Rome, <fcc. . 15 Sept. „ 

Garnier-Pagfes and 12 others who had met at 
his house for election purposes, convicted as 
members of a society "of more than 20 
members " 7 Dec. „ 

Death of the emperor's private secretary and 
old friend, Mocquard ... 9 Dec. „ 

Death of Proudhon (bom 1809), who said 
" Propri^t^ c'est vol" . . . 19 Jan. 1865 

The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's 
encyclical letter of 8 Dec. in churches ; creates 
much excitement, and the archbishop of 
Besan(;on and other prelates disobey 5 Jan. „ 

The prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice- 
i president of the privy council . . Jan. ,, 

Decree for an international exhibition of the 
products of agriculture and industry, and of 
the fine arts, at Paris, on i May, 1867, i Feb. ,, 

Treaty with Sweden signed . . 14 Feb. „ 

The minister Duruy's plan of compulsory edu- 
cation rejected by the assembly 8' March, ,, 

Death of the due de Morny, said to be half- 
brother of the emperor . . 10 March, „ 

" Loi des suspects " (or of public safety) 
suffered to expire . . . 31 March, ,, 

Attempted assassination of a secretary at the 
Russian embassy .... 24 April, „ 

The emperor visits Algeria . . 3-27 May, ,, 

Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at 
Ajaceio, with an imprudent speech by prince 
Napoleon Jerome, May 15 ; censured by 
the emperor. May 23 ; the prince resigns his 
offices ...... 9 June, ,, 

The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg 
and Brest, 15 Aug. et seq. ; review of the 
fleets 15 & 21 Aug. „ 

The French fleet entertained at Portsmouth, 

29 Aug. -I Sept. „ 

Protest of the United States against French 
inten'cntion in Mexico — prolonged corre- 
spondence (see Mexico) Aug. 1865-Feb. 1866. 

Count AValewski nominated president of the 
corps legislatif .... 2 Sept. ,, 

Death of general Lamoricifere . 11 Sept. „ 

The queen of Spain visits the emperor at 
Biarritz 11 Sept. „ 

Notice given of the abrogation of the Extra- 
dition treaty in six months . . 4 Dec. ,, 

Riots of republican students at Paris (several 
expelled from the Academy of Medicine), 

18 Dec. „ 

Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speech, 

22 Jan. 1866 

At Auxerre, Napoleon expresses his detestation 
of the treaties of 1815 . . . 6 May, ,, 

In a letter says that in regard to the German 
war, "France wiU observe an attentive 
neutraUty" 11 June, „ 

The emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to 
France, and invites the emperor's interven- 
tion with Prussia . . . .4 July, ,, 
Empress of Mexico arrives at Paris . 8 Aug. „ 
Note to the Prussian government desiring recti- 
fication of the French frontier to what it was 
in 1814; declared by Prussia to be inad- 
missible Aug. „ 

Resignation of M. Drouyn de Lhuys, foreign 



FRA 



3U 



FKA 



FEANCE, continued. 

minister (succeeded by the Marquis de 
Moustier) 2 Sept. 

Inundations in the south ; railways destroyed, 

Sept. 

Pacific circular of the emperor sent to foreign 
courts i5 Sept. 

Death of JI. Thouvenel, once foreign minister, 

18 Oct. 

Commission appointed to inquire into the 
advisability of modifying the organisation of 
the army— the emperor president ; report, 

30 Oct. 

Tlie French troops quit Rome . 3- 11 Dec. 

Pubhcation of letter from the comte de Cham- 
bord to his adherents in favour of the pope's 
temporal power, dated . . .9 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with Austria signed 11 Dec. 

General opposition to the army organisation 
plan published . . . . .12 Dec. 

Richelieu's head, after many removals, deposi- 
ted in the Sorbonne ... 17 Dec. 

Imperial decree announcing political reforms ; 
interpellation in the chambers ; relaxation 
of the restriction on the press . 19 Jan. 

Ministerial changes ; Rouher becomes minister 
of finance ; Niel, of war, &c. . . Jan. 

The chambers opened by the emperor 14 Feb. 

Emile Gerardin fined for libel in La Libei-W, 

7 March, 

Severe speech of Thiers on foreign policy, 

18 March, 

International exhibition opened (see Paris), 

I April, 

Resignation of Walewski, president of the 

chamber 29 Mar.; succeeded by M. Schneider, 

II April, 

Scheme for organising the army rejected by 
committee . . . . . . May, 

Paris visited by the czar, 1-12 June ; and the 
king of Prussia . . . . 5-14 June, 

Three provinces in Annam annexed to the 
French empire .... 25 June, 

International conference at Paris respecting 
monetary currency . • 17 June-g July, 



1866 



Meeting of the emperors of France and Austria 
at Salzburg .... 18-23 A.ug. 

The emperor's letter recommending money to 
be expended in improving intercommunica- 
tion by means of railways, canals, and roads, 

15 Aug. 

Bmperor of Austria visits Paris 23 Oct.-5 Nov. 

Lord Lyons received as British ambassador, 

9 Nov. 

Pacific and liberal speech of the emperor on 
opening the chambers . . . 18 Nov. 

"Hapoleonlll. et I' Jiur 0216 en iS6j," published 

Nov. 

During a debate in the legislative assembly, 
Rouber, the minister, says: "We declare 
that Italy shall never seize upon Rome " 
(the government supported by 238 votes 
to 17) s Dec. 

12 persons convicted for belonging to a secret 
seditious society, about . . 24 Dec. 

Friendly reception of foreign ministers, i Jan. 

New army bill (allowing 100,000 men to be 
added to the army annually ; establishing a 
new national guard, <fcc. ; giving the empire 
virtually an ai'my of 1,200,000 men), passed in 
the corps legislatif (206 to 60) . i Jan. 

Ten journals fined for printing comments on 
legislative debates, end of . . . Jan. 

M. Magne announces a deficiency in the 
budget ; and a loan for 17,600,000^. 29 Jan. 

The army bi!(l passes the senate — 125 to i 
(Michel Chevalier, who spoke warmly against 
it), 30 Jan. ; becomes law . . i Feb. 

The ' ' Arcadians " (new ultra-conservative 
party) oppose the new press law; fierce 
debates on it Feb. 

New press law passed in legislative chamber, 
240 to I (M. Berryer) . . . March, 

" Les Titres de la Dyimstie Lnperiale " ap- 
peared, about .... 20 March, 

Riotous opposition to enlistments for "garde 
mobile " (new national guard) at Bour- 
deaux, Toulon, and other towns, 

20 March, et seq. 



1867 



1S6S 



KINGS OF FEANCE. 



MEROVINGIAN KACE. 

Pharamond (his existence doubtful). 
428. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son ; king 

of the Salic Pranks. 
447. Merovajus, or M^rovee ; son-in-law of Clodion. 
458. Childeric ; son of Mfirovfe. 
481. Clovis the Great, his son, and the real founder 
of the monarchy. He left four sons, who 
divided the empire : 
511. Childebert; Paris. 
„ Clodomir ; Orleans. 

,, Thierry ; Metz ; and 

,, Clotaire ; Soissons, 

S34. Theodebert; Metz. 
548. Theodebald, succeeded in Metz. 
558. Clotaire I. ; now sole ruler of France. Upon 
his death the kingdom was again divided 
between his four sons : viz., 
561. Charibert, ruled at Pai-is. 
,, Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy.' 
,, Sigebert, at Metz, and ) Both assassinated by 
,, Chilperic, at Soissons. J Predegond. 
S7S. Childebert II. 
584. Clotaire II. ; Soissons. 
596. Thierry II. , son of Childebert ; in Orleans. 
,, Theodebert II. ; Metz. 
613. Clotaire II. ; became sole king. 
628. Dagobert I. the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; he 
divided the kingdom, of which he had be- 
come sole monai'ch, between his two sons : 
638. Clovis II. has Burgundy and Neustria, 
,, Sigebert H. has Austrasia. 
656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. 
670. Childeric II. ; he became king of the whole 



670. 
674. 



695. 

711. 
7IS. 



737- 
742. 



realm of Fi-ance ; assassinated, with hi.s 

queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of 

Livri. HiiiauU. 
Thierry III. ; Burgundy and Neustria. 
Dagobert II., son of Sigebert, in Austrasia: 

assassinated 679. 
Covis III. Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules 

the kingdom in the name of this sovereign, 

who is succeeded by his brother, 
Childebert HI., surnamed the Just; in this 

reign Pepin also exercises the royal power. 
Dagobert III. son of Childebert. 
Chilperic II., governed, and at length deposed 

by Charles Martel, mayor of the palace, whose 

sway is now unbounded. 
Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by 

Charles Martel to the throne ; dies soon after, 

and Chilperic is recalled from Aquitaine, 

whither he had fled for refuge. Hc'nault. 
Chilperic II. restored ; he shortly afterwards 

dies at Noyon, and is succeeded by 
Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., surnamed 

de Ghelles; died in 737. Charles Martel now 

reigns under the new title of "duke of the 

French." Henault. 
Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, 

in 741. 
Childeric III., son of Chilperic II., surnamed 

the Stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons 

of Charles Martel, share the government of 

the kingdom in this reign. 

THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel ; he is 
succeeded by his two sons, 



FRA 



315 



FRA 



FRANCE, continiicd. 

768. Charlemagne and Carloman ; the former, sur- 

named the Great, crowned Emperor of thk 

"West, by Leo III. in 800. Carloman reigned 

but three years. 
814. Louis I. le Debonnaire. Emperor ; dethroned, 

but restored to his dominions. 
840. Charles, surnamed the Bald, King ; Emperor 

in 87s ; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish 

physician. 
877. Louis II., the Stammerer, son of Charles the 

Bald, Kino. 
879. Louis III. and Carloman 11. ; the former died 

in 882, and Carloman reigiied alone. 
884. Charles III. k Gro.<; a usurper, in prejudice to 

Charles the Simple. 
887. Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. 
898. Charles III. (or IV.), the Simple ; deposed, 

and died in prison in 920 ; he had mai-ried 

Edgiva, daughter of Edward the Elder, of 

England, by whom he had a son, who was 

afterwards king. 

922. Eobert, brother of Eudes ; crowned at Rhoims ; 

but Charles marched an army against him, 
and killed him in battle. Hetiautt. 

923. Budolf or Raoul, duke of Burgundy ; elected 

king, but he was never acknowledged by the 
southern jjrovinces. BtSnault. 

936. Louis IV. d'Oatreiaer, or Transmarine (from 
having been conveyed by his mother into 
England), son of Charles III. (or IV.) and 
Edgiva ; died by a fall from his horse. 

954. Lothaire, his son ; he had reigned jointly with 
his father from 952, and succeeds him at 15 
years of age, under the protection of Hugh 
the Great ; poisoned. 

986. Louis v., the Indolent, son of Lothaire ; also 
poisoned, it is supposed by his queen, 
Blanche. In this prince ended the race of 
Charlemagne. 



THE CAPETS. 

987. Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, &c., 
eldest son of Hugh the Abbot, 3 July ; he 
seizes the crown, in prejudice to Charles of 
Lorraine, uncle of Louis Transmarine. From 
him this race of kings is called Capevingians 
and Capetians. He died 24 Oct. , 
996. Robert II., surnamed the Sage ; son ; died 
lamented, 20 July, 

1031. Henry I., son ; died 29 Aug., 

1060. Philip I. the Fair, VAmoureux; son; succeeded 
at 8 years of age ; ruled at 14 ; died 3 Aug., 

1 108. Louis VI., surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros; son; 
died I Aug., 

1137. Louis VII. ; son; surnamed the Young, to dis- 
tinguish him from his father, with whom he 
was for some years associated on the throne ; 
died 18 Sept., 

1180. PhiliiJ II. (Augustus); son; succeeds at 15! 
crowned at Rheims in his father's lifetime ; 
died 14 July, 

1223. Louis VIII., Caur (?e Xion,- son; died 8 Nov., 

1226. Louis IX. ; son ; called St. Louis ; ascended 
the throne at 15, under the guardianship of 
his mother, who was also regent ; died in 
his camp before Tunis, 25 Aug. , 

1270. Philip III., the Hardy ; son ; died at Perpig- 
nan, 6 Oct. , 

1285. Philip IV., the Fair ; son ; ascended the throne 
in his 17th year ; died 29 Nov., 



1314. Louis X. ; son ; surnamed Hutin, an old word 

for headstrong, or mutinous ; died 5 June, 
1316. John, a posthumous son of Louis X. ; born 

15 Nov. ; died 19 Nov., 
„ Philip V. the Long (on account of his stature) ; 

brother of Louis ; died 3 Jan., 
1322. Charles IV., the Handsome; brother; died 

31 Jan. 1328. 

HOCSE OF VALOIS. 

1328. Philip VI., de Valois, the Fortunate ; gi-andson 

of Phihp III. ; died 23 Aug. , 
1350. John II. the Good ; son ; died suddenly in the 

Savoy in London, 8 April, 
1364. Charles V., the Wise ; son ; died 16 Sept., 
1380. Charles VI., the Beloved ; son ; died 21 Oct., 
1422. Charles VII., the Victorious; son; died 22 July, 
1461. Louis XI. ; .«on ; able but cruel ; died 30 Aug., 
1483. Charles VIII., the Affable ; son ; died 7 April, 
1498. houisXll., Duke of Orleans: the leather of his 
People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died 
I Jan. , 
1515. Francis I. of Angoulcme ; called the Father of 
Letters ; great-great-grandson of Charles 
V. ; died 31 March, 
1547. Henry II. ; son ; died of a wound received at 
' a tournament at the nuptials of his sister 
with the duke of Savoy, accidentally in- 
flicted by the comte de Montmorency, 10 
July, _^ 

1559. Francis II. ; son ; man-ied Mary Stuart, 

afterwards queen of Scots ; died 5 Dec., 

1560. Charles IX. ; brother ; Catherine of Medicis, 

his mother, obtained the regency ; died 
30 May, 
1574. Henry III. ; brother ; elected king of Poland : 
last of the house of Valois, assassinated by 
Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, i Aug. r 
died 2 Aug. 1589. 

HOrSE OF BOUBBON. 

1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of 
Navarre ; son-in-law of Henry II. ; murdered 
by Francis Rnvaillac, 14 May, 

1610. Louis XIII., the Just ; son ; died 14 May, 

1643. Louis XIV., the Gveat, Dkudonnc ; son; died 
I Sept. , 

17x5. Louis XV., the "WeU-beloved ; great-grandson ; 
died 20 May, 

1774. Louis XVI., his grandson ; ascended the thron& 
in his 20th year ; man-ied the archduchess 
Marie Antoinette, of Austria, in May, 1770 : 
dethroned, 14 July, 1789 ; guillotined, 21 Jan., 
1793,* and his queen, 16 Oct. following. 

1793. Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI. He never 
reigned; and died in prison, supposed by- 
poison, 8 June, 179s, aged 10 years 2 mopths. 

THE REPHBLIC. 

1792. The National Convention (750 members), 
first sitting, 21 Sept. 

1795. The Directory (Lareveillere Ldpaux, Letour- 
neur, Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nomi- 
nated I Nov. ; abolished, and Bonaparte 
Ducos, and Sieyfes appointed an executive 
commission. Nov. 1799. 

1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Cani- 
bacfJrl'S, and Lebrun appointed consuls, 24 
Dec. Napoleon appointed consul for 10 
years, 6 May, 1802 ; for life, 2 Aug., 1802. 



• Executed Monday, 21st January, 1793, at eight o'clock in the morning. On the scaffold he said, 
" Frenchmen, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me. I pardon all my enemies, and I implore of 
Heaven that my beloved France—" At this instant Santerre ordered the drums to beat, and the exe- 
cutioners to perform their office. When the guillotine descended, the priest exclaimed, " Son of St. Louis 1 
ascend to heaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a few of the populace shouted " Vive la 
BApvJbliqiie!" The body was interred in a grave that was immediately aftei-wards filled up with quick 
lime, and a strong guard was placed aromid until it should be consumed. Hist. French Revolution. 



FEA 



316 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

FRENCH EMPIRE.* 

[Established by the senate i8 May, 1804.] 
1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; born 15 Aug. 1769. 
He married, 

ist., Josephine, widow of Alexis, vicomte de 
Beauharnais, 8 March, 1796 (who was di- 
vorced 16 Dec, i8og, and died 29 May, 1814); 

and, Maria-Louisa of Austria, 2 April, 1810 (she 
died 17 Dec, 1847). 

He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, 
and accepted the isle of Elba for his retreat, 
5 April, 1814. 

Again appeared in France, i March, 1815. 

Was defeated at Waterloo. 

Finally abdicated in favour of his infant son, 
22 June, 1815. 

Banished to St. Helena, where he dies, 5 May, 
1821. (See iiofe; p. 310). 

BOTJEBONS RESTORED. 

1814, Louis XVIII. {Comte de Provence), brother of 
Louis XVI. ; born 17 Nov. 1755 ; married 
Marie-Josephine-Louise of Savoy; entered 
Paris, and took possession of the throne, 
3 May, 1814 ; obliged to flee, 20 March, 1815 ; 
returned 8 July, same year ; died without 
issue, 16 Sept. 

1824. Charles X. {comte d'Artois), his brother ; bom 
g Oct., 1757; married Marie-Th^rise of 
Savoy ; deposed 30 July, 1830. He resided 
in Britain till 1832, and died at Gratz, in 
Hungary, 6 Nov., 1836. 
[Heir : Henry, due de Bordeaux, called comte 
de Chambord, son of the due de Berry; bom 
29 Sept. 1820.] 

HOUSE OF ORLEANS. (See Orleans.) 
1830. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
Orleans, called Ego lite, descended from 
Phihppe, duke of Orleans, son of Louis 



XIII. ; bom 6 Oct. 1773 ; married 25 Nov., 
1809, Maria- Ameha, daughter of Ferdinand 
I. (IV.) king of the Two Sicilies ; died 24 
March, 1866. Baised to the throne as king 
of the French, 9 Aug., 1830; abdicated 24 
Feb. 1848. Died in exile, in England, 26 
Aug. 1850. 

NEW REPUBLIC, 1 848. 

The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection 
at Paris, 22 Feb., 1848. The royal family escaped 
by flight to England, a provisional government 
was established, monarchy abolished, and France 
declared a republic. 

Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the 
National Assembly (19 Dec.) peesident of the 
repubUc of France; and proclaimed next day, 
20 Dec. ; elected for ten years, 15 Jan., 1852. 

FRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED. 

[1821. Napoleon II. (decreed to be so termed by the 
present emperor on his accession). Na- 
poleon-Joseph, son of Napoleon I. and 
Maria-Louisa, archduchess of Austria ; born 
20 March, i8ii : created king of Eome. On 
the abdication of his father he was made 
duke of Keichstadt, in Austria; and died 
at the palace of Sohoenbrunn, 22 July, 1832, 
aged 21.] 
1852. Napoleon (Charles-Louis) III., 2 Dec. (formerly 
president;. (See note, below). 

JSmpress : Eugenie-Marie (a Spaniard, formerly 
countess of T^ba), born 5 May, 1826 ; married 
29 Jan., 1853. 

Heir : Napoleon - Eugfene - Louis - Jean - Joseph, 
son, born 16 March, 1856. 

[On 18 Dec, 1852, the succession, in default 
of issue from the emperor, was determined 
in favour of prince Jerome-Napoleon and 
his heirs male.j 



FRAIS; CE, Isle of, see Mauritius. 

FRA]!^CHE COMTE, successively part of the kingdom and duchy of Burgundy and the 
kingdom of France, was given to Philip II. of Spain as the dowry of Isabella of France, 
whom he married in 1559. It was conquered and retained by Louis XIV. in 1674. 

FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction, and anciently an 
asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, churches and monasteries were, 
until lately, franchises for criminals, as they were formerly in England ; see Sanctuaries. In 
1429, the ELECTIVE FRANCHISE for couuties Avas restricted to persons having at least 40s. a 
year in land, and resident ; see Reform. 



* THE BONAPARTE FAMILY. 

[The name appears at Florence and Genoa in the 13th 
century : in the 15th a branch settles in Cor- 
sica.] 

Charles Bonaparte, bom 29 March, 1746, died 24 
Feb., 1785. He married in 1767, Letitia Ramolina 
(born 24 Aug., 1750, died Feb. 1836); issue, 

Joseph, born 7 Jan. 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, 
1805; of Naples alone, 1806; of Spain, 1808; re- 
sides in United States, 1815; comes to England, 
1S32; settles in Italj', 1841 ; dies at Florence, 28 
July, 1844. 

Napoleon I., emperor, bom 15 Aug. 1769 (see 
above). 

LuciEN, prince of Canino, born 1775 : at first aided 
his brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress 
towards universal monarchy. He was takeii by 
the English on his way to America, and resided in 
England till 1814. He died at Viterbo, 30 June, 
1840. His son Charles (born 1803, died 1857) was 
an eminent naturaUst. 

Louis, born 2 Sept. 1778 ; made king of Holland, 
1806 ; died 15 July, 1846. By his marriage with 
Hortense Beauharnais (daughter of the empress 
Josephine), in 1802, he had tliree sons : Napoleon 
Louis (born 1803, diediSo?) ; Louis Napoleon(bom 
1804, died 1831) ; and 



Chaeles-Louis-Napoleon, born 20 April, 1808 : 
educated under the care of his mother at 
Aremberg, Switzerland, and at Thun, under 
general Dufour ; took part in the Carbonari 
insurrection in the Papal States in March, 
1831 ; attempted a revolt at Strasburg, 30 Oct. 
1836; sent to America, 13 Nov. 1836; repairs 
to London, 14 Oct. 1838 ; lands at Boulogne 
with fifty followers, 6 Aug. 1840 ; condemned 
to imprisonment for life, 6 Oct. 1840 ; escapes 
from Ham, 25 May, 1846 ; arrives at Boulogne, 
2 March, 1848 ; elected deputy, 8 June ; and 
takes his seat, 27 Aug. ; his coup d'etat, 2 
Dec. 1851 ; elected president of the republic, 
10 Dec. ; for 10 years, 21-22 Dec. 1851 ; elected 
emperor, 21 Nov. 1852 ; declared emperor, as 
Napoleon III., 2 Dec. 1852. 
Jerome, bom 15 Nov. 1784; king of Westphalia, 
I Dec. 1807-1814; made governor of the In- 
valides, 1848; and marshal, 1850; died 24 June, 
i860 ; his children are 

Napoleon, bom 9 Sept. 1822 ; married princess 
Clotilde of Savoy, 30 Jan. 1859: issue, 
Napoleon- Victor-Jerome, bom 18 July, 1862 ; 
Napoleon-Louis- Joseph, born 16 July, 1864. 

Mathilde, born 27 May, 1820; married to prince 
A. Demidofl in 1841. 



FRA 



317 



ERA 



FRANCIS' Assault on the Queen. John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen 
Victoria as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in an open barouche, accompanied by 
prince Albert, 30 May, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous intimation having 
reached the palace of the intention of the criminal, her majesty had commanded that none 
of the ladies of her court should attend her. Francis was condemned to death, 17 June 
following, but was transported for life. 

FRANCISCANS. Orey or Minor Friars, founded by St. Francis d'Assisi, about 1209, 
or 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and very austere regimen. About 
1220 they appeared in England, where, at the time of the dissolution of monasteries by 
Henry VIII. , they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, 1536-38. 

FRANKFORT-ox-the-Main, central Germany, said to have been a free city in 1 174, 
suffered much by the wars with France. 



Made part of the confederation of the 

Rhine 1806 

A grand duchy under Carl von Dalberg, . . 1810 

Bepubhc restored ; appointed capital of the 
Germanic confederation 1815 

The Frankfort diet pubUsh a federative consti- 
tution 30 March, 1848 

The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, 
Saxony, Hanover, Wiu-temberg, Mecklen- 
burg, (fee., here constitute themselves the 
council of the Germanic diet . . i Sept. 1850 

The German sovereigns (excepting the king of 
Prussia) met at Frankfort (at the invitation 
of the emperor of Austria), to consider a plan 
of federal reform, 17 Aug: ; the plan was not 
accepted by Prussia ... 22 Sept. 1863 



Meeting of diet of Germanic confederation ; 
condemn the treaty of Gastein . i Oct. 1865 

The diet adopts the Austrian motion, that 
Prussia has broken the treaty ; the Prussian 
representative declares the confedei-ation at 
an end, and proposes a new confederation, 

14 Jvme, 1866 

Entered by the Prussians, who exact heavy 
supplies 16 July, „ 

Annexed to Prussia by law of 20 Sept. ; pro- 
mulgated at Frankfort : (the legislative corps 
and 15,000 citizens protest against it) 8 Got. „ 

Visited by the king of Prussia ; an ancient 
cathedral, St. Bartholomew (founded 1315, 
completed 1512), destroyed by fire 14-15 Aug. 1867 

Population in 1859, 67,975 ; see Geruiany. 



FRANKFORT-on-the-Oder (N. Germany) ; a member of the Hauseatic league, suffered 
much from mauraders in the middle ages, and in the thirty years' war. The university was 
founded in 1506, and incorporated with that of Breslau in 181 1. Near Frankfort, on 12 Aug. 
1 759, Frederick of Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians ; see Cumiersclorf. 

FRANKING LETTERS, passing letters free of postage, was claimed b}^ parliament 
about 1660. The privilege was restricted in 1837, and abolished on the'introduction of the 
uniform penny postage, 10 Jan. 1840. The queen was among the first to relinquish her 
privilege. 

FRANKLIN, the English freeholder in the middle ages ; see "The Franklin's Tale," in 
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written about 1364). 

FRANKLIN, Search for. Su- John Franklin, with captains Crozier and Fitzjames, in 
H.M. ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 persons), sailed on his third arctic ex- 
pedition of discovery and survey, from Greenhithe, on 24 May, 1845 j ^^e North-west Passage. 
Their last despatches were from the Whalefish islands, dated 12 July, 1845. Then- pro- 
tracted absence caused intense anxiety throughout Europe, and numerous expeditions were 
sent from England and elsewhere in search of them. Quantities of coals, provisions, clothing, 
and other necessaries, were deposited in such places in the Arctic seas as the crews of the 
Erebus and Terror might visit by our own and by the American government, by lady Frank- 
lin, and numerous private persons. The Truelove, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, 
4 Oct. 1849, from Davis's Straits, brought inteUigeuce (not afterwards confirmed) that the 
natives had seen sir John Franklin's ships as late as the previous March, beset or frozen up 
by the ice in Prince Regent's inlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. Her Majesty's 
government, on 7 March, 1850, offered a reward of 20,oooZ. to any party of any country, that 
should render efficient assistance to the crews of the mis.sing ships. Sir John's first winter 
quarters were found at Beechy island by captains Ommamiey and Penny. 



1. H.M.S. Plover, capt. Moore (afterwards under 
capt. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to 
Behring's Straits, in search . . i Jan. 1848 

2. Land expedition under sir .John Bichardson 
and Dr. Rae, of the Hudson's Bay Company, 
left England .... 25 Marcli „ 

[Sir John Richardson returned to England 
in 1849, and Dr. Rae continued his search 
tiU 1851.J 

3. Sir James Ross, with the EnterprUe and In- 
vestigator (12 June, 1848), having also sailed 
in search to Ban-ow's Straits, returned to 
England (Scarborough) ... 3 Nov. 1849 

4. The Enterprise, capt. CoUinson, and Livesli- 
gator, commander M'Clure, sailed from Ply- 



mouth for Bclu'ing's Straits . 20 Jan. 

[Both of these ships proceeded through to 
the eastward.] 

5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : liesolute, 
capt. Austin, C.B. ; Assistance, capt. Omman- 
ney ; Intrepld,\ie:\xt. Bertie Cator ; fund. Pioneer, 
lieut. Sherard Osbom, sailed from England 
for Barrow's Straits . . .25 April, 

[Returned Sept. 1851.] 

6. The Lady Franklin, capt. Penny ; and Sophia, 
capt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Bar- 
row's Straits . . . . 13 April, 

[Returned home Sept. 1851.] 

7. The American expedition in the Advance 
and Rescue, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. 



1850 



FEA 



318 



FRA 



FRANKLIN, Search fob, contimted. 

Kane (son of the judge), towards which Mr. 
Grinnell subscribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for 
Lancaster Sound and Barrow's Straits ; after 
drifting iu the pack down Baffin's Bay, the 
ships were released in 1851 uninjured. May 25, 1850 

8. The Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly 
by the Hudson Bay Company, sailed to the 
same locality 22 May, „ 

[Returned in 1851.] 

9. H.M.S. North Slar, commander Saunders, 
which had saUed from England in 1849, win- 
tered in Wolstenholme Sound, and returned 

to Spithead 28 Sept. „ 

10. H.M.S. Herald, capt. Kellett, C.B., which 
had sailed in 1848, made three voyages to 
Behring's Straits, and returned in . . 1851 

Lieut. Pirn went to St. Petersburg with the 
intention of travelling through Siberia to the 
mouth of the river Kolyma ; but was dis- 
suaded from proceeding by the Russian 
government .... 18 Nov. 1851 

[The Enterprise and Investigator (see No. 4 
above) not having been heard of for two 
years,] 

11. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, consisting 
oi— Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B. ; 
Resolute, capt. Kellett, C.B. ; North tstar, capt. 
Pullen; Intrepid, capt. M'Clintock; and 
Pioneer, capt. Sherard Osborn, sailed from 
Woolwich 15 April, 1852 

[This expedition had arrived at Beechy 
Island 14 Aug. 1852. The Assistance and 
Pioneer proceeded through Wellington 
Channel, and the Resolute and Intrepid 
to Melville Island ; the North Star remain- 
ing at Beechy Island.] 

LADY FRAISTKLIN'S EQUIPMENTS. 

Lady Franklin, from her own resources, aided 
by a few friends (and by the " Tasmanian 
Tribute" of isooZ.), equipped four separate 
private expeditions : 

12. The Prince Albert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from 
Aberdeen to Barrow's Straits . 5 June, 1850 

[Returned i Oct. 1850.] 

13. The Pi-ince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accom- 
panied by Uout. Bellot, of the French navy, 
and John Hepburn, sailed from Stromness to 
Prince Regent's Inlet . . .4 June, 1851 

[Returned Oct. 1852.] 

14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for 
the head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and 
the Wellington Channel, July 6 ; and returned 

Nov. 1852 

15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on 

a renewed search to Behring's Straits . . 1853 

16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander TroUope, 
despatched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire 
(who succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow 
in April; met with it . . . Aug. ,, 

17. The second American expedition, the Ad- 
vance, under Dr. Kane, early in . . June, ,, 

18. The Phomix (with the Breadalhane trans- 
port), commander Ing:lefield, accompanied 
by lieut. Bellot, sailed in May ; he returned, 
bringing despatches from sir E. Belcher, &c. 

Oct. „ 
The Investigator and sir E. Belcher's squadron 
were safe ; but no traces of Franklin's party 
had been met with. Lieut. Bellot* was unfor- 
tunately drowned in August while voluntarily 



conveying despatches to sirE. Belcher. Capt. 
M'Clure had left the Herald (10) at Cape 
Lisburne, 31 July, 1850. On 8 Oct. the ship 
was frozen in, and so continued for nine 
months. On 26 Oct. 1850, while on an ex- 
cursion party, the captain discovered an 
entrance into Barrow's Sti*aits, and thus 
established the existence of a N.E. — N.W. 
passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again 
fixed in ice, and so remained till lieut. Pirn 
and a party from capt. Kellett's ship, the 
Resolute (u) fell in with them in April, 1853. 
The position of the Enterprise (4) was stUl im- 
known. 
Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded 
towards the magnetic pole ; and in July, 1854, 
he reported to the Admiralty that he had 
purchased from a party of Esquimaux a num- 
ber of articles which had belonged to sir J. 
Franklin and his party — namely, sir John's 
star or order, part of a watch, silver spoons, 
and forks with crests, &c. He also reported 
the statement of the natives, that they had 
met with a pai'ty of white men about four 
winters previous, and had sold them a seal ; 
and that four months later, in the same 
season, they had found the bodies of thirty 
men (some buried), who had evidently 
perished by starvation ; the place appears, 
from the description, to have been in the 
neighbourhcjod , of the Great Fish river of 
Back. Dr. Rae arrived in England on Oct. 
22, 1854, with the melancholy relics, which 
have since been deposited in Greenwich hos- 
pital. He and his companions were awarded 
io,oooZ- for their discovery. 

19. 'The Phcenix, North Star, and Talbot, imder 
the command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in 
May, and retuTTied in . . . Oct. 1854 

Sir E. Belcher (No. u), after mature delibera- 
tion, in April, 1854, determined to abandon 
his ships, and gave orders to that effect to all 
the captains under his command ; and capt. 
Kellett gave similar orders to capt. M'Clure, 
of the Investigator. The vessels had been 
abandoned in June t when the crews of the 
Pkcenix and Talbot (under capt. Inglefield) 
arrived (19). On their return to England the 
captains were all tried by court-martial and 
honourably acquitted . . 17-19 Oct. ,, 

Capt. Collinson's fate was long uncertain, and 
another expedition was in contemplation, 
when intelligence came, in Feb. 1855, that 
he had met the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort 
Clarence in Aug. 21, 1854, and had sailed 
immediately, in hopes of getting up with 
capt. Maguire in the Plover (i), which had 
sailed two days previously. Capt. Collinson 
having failed in getting th rough the ice in 1 850 
with capt. M'Clure, returned to Hong-Kong to 
winter. In 1851 he passed through Prince of 
Wales's Straits, and remained in the Arctic 
regions without obtaining any intelligence of 
Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once 
more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort 
Clarence, where he arrived as above men- 
tioned. Captains Collinson and Maguire 
arrived in England in . . . May, 1855 

20. The third American expedition in search of 
Dr. Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the 
Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque 
Eringo, and another vessel imder the com- 



* A monument to his memory was erected at Greenwich. His "Journal" was published in 1854. 

+ Capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 1000 miles distant from where she was left, by a 
Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, who brought her to New York. Ihe British 
government having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was bought by order of the American congress, 
thoroughly repaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. H. J. Hartstene, to be presented to queen 
Victoria. It arrived at Southampton 12 Dec, 1856 ; was visited by her Majesty on the i6th ; and formally 
surrendered on the 30th. 



FRA 319 FRE 



a tin cass, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 
1848, by capt. Fitzjames, which certified that 
the ships Erebtix and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, 
■were beset in lat. 70° 05' N., and long. 98° 23' 
W. ; that sir John Franklin died 11 June, 1847 ; 
and that the ships were deserted 22April, 1848. 
Capt. M'Clintock continued the search, and 
discovered skeletons and other relics. His 
journal was published in Dec. 1859; and on 
28 May, i860, gold medals were given to him 
and to lady Franklin by the Royal Geographi- 
cal Society. 

Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 
1865, circumstances that led hiui to hope 
that capt. Crozier and others were surviving. 

A statue of sir John Franklin, by Noble, set up 
in Waterloo-place, was inaugurated 15 Nov. 
1866. 



FRANKLIISr, Search for, contimced. 

inand of lieut. H. J. Hartstene, accompanied I On 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point 

by a brother of Dr. Kane as surgeon, 31 May, 1855 | Victory, near'Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, 
lOn 17 May, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party 

quitted the Advance, and journeyed over the 

ice, 1300 miles, to the Danish settlement ; on 

their way home in a Danish vessel, they fell 

in with lieut. Hartstene, 18 Sept. ; and 

arrived with him at New York, 11 Oct. 1855. 

Dr. Kane visited England in 1856 ; he died in 

1857.] 
The Hudson's Bay Company, xmder advice of 

Dr. Rae and sir G. Back, sent out an overland 

expedition, June 1855, which returned Sept. 

following. Some more remains of Franklin's 

party were discovered. 
21. The i8th British expedition (equipped by 

lady FrankUn and her friends, the govern- 
ment having declined to fit out another) — 

the Fox, screw steamer, under capt. (since 

sir) P. L. M'Clintock, R.N. (see No. 11)— 

sailed from Aberdeen i July, 1857 ; returned 

22 Sept. 1859 

FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a combination of the North-western German 
tribe.s about 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire with various success ; 
see Gatil and France. 

FRATEICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of the middle ages, originally Franciscan monks 
of the stricter sort. Their numbers increased, and they were condemned by a papal bull in 
1317 ; and suffered persecution ; but were not extinct till the i6th century. They resembled 
the "Brethren of the Free Spirit." 

FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 21 Yict. c. 54, was passed in 1857, in conse- 
quence of tlie delinquencies of sir John 1). Paul, the British Bank frauds, &c. It was brought 
in by sir R. Bethell, then attorney-general, and is verj^ stringent. 

FRAUNHOFER'S LINES, see Spectrum. 

FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia, N. America). On 10 Dec. 1S62, general Burnside 
and the federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river Rappahannock. On 1 1 Dec. 
Fredericksburg was bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the 13th commenced a 
series of most desperate yet unsuccessful attacks on the confederate works, defended by 
generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. General Hooker crossed the river with the 
reserves, and joined in the conflict, iu vain. On 15 and 16 Dec. the federal army recrossed 
the Rappahannock. The battle was one of the most severe in the Avar. 

FREDERICKSHALD (Norway). Charles XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot 
before its walls, while examining the works. His hand was on his sword, and a prayer- 
book in his pocket, 11 Dec. 17 18. 

FREE CHURCH (of Scotland*) was formed by an act of secession of nearly half the 
body from the national church of Scotland, 18 May, 1843. The difference arose on the 
question of the right of patrons to nominate to livings. The Free Church claims for the 
parishioners the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the first year by the ministers 
of the new church, although 366, 719Z. 14.S. 3^^. had been subscribed. In 1853 there were 
850 congregations. A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the sustentation fund 
amounted to 108,638^., from which was paid the sum of 138?. each to 700 ministers. 

FREE COMPANIES, see CondotlicH. 

FREEDMEN'S BUREAUS, established in the Southern States of North America in 
March, 1865, to protect the freed negroes. Having the support of martial law, these 
bureaus became very oppressive, and the act of congi'ess making them permanent Avas vetoed 
by president Johnson in Feb. 1866. 

FREEHOLDERS. Those under forty shillings per anntim were not qualified to vote for 
members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. Various acts have been jmssed for the 
regulation of the franchise at different periods. The more recent were, the act to regulate 
polling, 9 Geo. IV. 1828 ; act for the disqualification of freeholders iu Ireland, which deprived 
those of forty shillings of this privilege, passed 13 April, 1829; Reform acts, 1832 and 1867. 
County elections act, 7 WiU. IV. 1836 ; see Chandos Clmise. 

* The rev. H. Hampton, one of the curates of Islington, having been dismissed, a part of his congre- 
gation erected a temporary church. The bishop of London, after inquiry, refused to license it. On this 
the civngregation declared itself to be the Free Church of England, March, 1859. Eventually, he left the 
neighbourhood, and re-entered the establishment. 



FEE 



320 



FEE 



FREE LABOUR REGISTRATION SOCIETY, established for the benefit of employers 
and non-unionist workmen, in opposition to trades' unions, about July, 1867. 

FREE TRADE principles, advocated by Adam Smith in his "Wealth of Nations" (1776),. 
triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 1846, and the commercial treaty 
with France was adopted in i860. Richard Cobden, who was very instrumental in passing 
these measures, termed " The Apostle of Free Trade," died 2 April, 1865. Since 1830 the 
exports have been tripled. 

FREEMASONRY. "Writers on masonry, themselves masons, affirm that it has had a 
being "ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms." It is traced by 
some to the building of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African 
coast, Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the 6th century. Its introduction into 
Britain has been fixed at 674 ; mauy of our Gothic cathedrals are attributed to freemasons. 
The grand lodge at York was founded 926. Freemasonry was interdicted in England, 1424. 
In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that of Ireland in 1730 ; and that of 
Scotland in 1736. Freemasons were excommunicated by the pope in 1738 ; again condemned, 
30 Sept. 1865. The Freemasons' hall, Great Queen-street, London, was built 1775, and 
rebuilt in 1866 ; the charity was instituted 1788. 

FRENCH CHURCH, see Clmrch of France. 

FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on the rude Latin of the nations subjugated by 
the Romans. German was introdiiced by the Franks in the 8th century. In the 9th the 
Gallo-Romanic dialect became divided into theLangice d^oc of the south and the Langue d'oil 
of the north. The French language as written by Froissart assimilates more to the modern 
French, and its development was almost completed when the Academic Fran9aise (esta- 
blished by Richelieu in 1634), published a dictionary of the language in 1674. The French 
language, laws, and customs were introduced into England by William I., 1066. Law 
pleadings were changed from French to English in the reign of Edward III., 1362. Stoio. 

PRINCIPAL FRENCH AUTHORS. 





Born 


Died 




Horn 


Died 




Scrn 


Died 


Joinville, thirteenth century 




Bossuet 


. . 1627 


1704 


Augustin Thierry 


■ 179s 


1856 


Froissart . 


■ 1337— 


1400? 


Bayle 


• 1647 


1706 


Beranger 


. 1780 


i8s7 


Monstrelet . 




1453 


Boileau 


. . 1636 


1711 


Eugene Sue, aged 


53 


1857 


Comines . 




1509 


F^nflon . 


. 1651 


171S 


Eugfene Scribe, aged 80 


1861 


Marot . 


. . 1465 


1 544 


BoUin . 


. . 1661 


1741 


A. G. De Barante 


. 1782 


1866 


Rabelais . 


• 1483 


IS53 


Le Sage 


. 1668 


1747 


F. Guizot . 


• 1787 




Montaigne . 


• • 1553 


1592 


Montesquieu 


. . 1689 


1755 


A. F. ViUemain 


• 1791 


1867 


Malherbe . 


■ 1556 


1628 


Voltaii-e . 


. 1694 


1778 


A De la Martine 


• 1790 




Des Cartes . 


. . 1596 


1650 


J. J. Eousseau 


. . 1712 


1778 


Victor Cousin 


• 1792 


1867 


Pascal 


• 1623 


1662 


D'Alembert 


• 1717 


1783 


Am^dee Thierry 


• 1797 




Molifere. 


. . 1622 


1673 


Buffon . 


• • 1707 


1788 


L. A. Thiers 


• 1797 




Eochefoucault 


• 1613 


1680 


Marmontel 


• 1723 


1799 


Jules Michelet . 


• 1798 




CorneUIe 


. . 1606 


1684 


De Stael 


. . 1766 


1817 


Victor Hugo 


. 1802 




La Fontaine 


. 1621 


169s 


De Genlis . 


• 1746 


1830 


P. M^rim^e 


• 1S03 




La BruySre. . 


. . 1644 


1696 


Sismondi 


• • 1773 


1842 


Louis Blanc . 


. 1813 




Eacine 


• 1639 


1699 


Chateaubriand 


• 1769 


1848 









FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR. In 1792, the French nation adopted a 
new calendar professedly founded on philosophical principles. The first year of the era of 
the republic began at midnight, between 21 and 22 Sept. 1792 ; but its establishment was 
not decreed until the 4th Frimaire of the year II., 24 Nov. 1793. The calendar existed imtil 
the loth Nivose year of the republic XIV., 31 Dec. 1805, when the Gregorian mode of cal- 
culation was restored by Napoleon. 

SPRING. 

Germinal . . Sprouts' month, 21 Mar to 19 April. 
Flor^al . . Flowers' month, 20 April to 19 May.' 
Prairial . . . Pasture month, 20 May to 18 June. 



AUTUMN. 

Vind€miaire . Vintage month, 22 Sept. to 21 Oct. 
Brumaire . . Fog month . . 22 Oct. to 20 Nov. 
Frimaire . . Sleet month . 21 Nov. to 20 Dec. 



Nivose 

Pluviose 

Ventose 



Les Verttis 
Le G^nie 
Le Travail 



WINTER. 

Snow month . 21 Dec. to 19 Jan. 

Eain month . 20 Jan. to 18 Feb. 

Wind month . 19 Feb. to 20 Mar. 



Messidor . 
Feri'idor, or 

Thermidor . 
Fructidor . 



SUMMEB. 

Harvest month, 19 June to 18 July. 



Hot month . 
Fruit month 



. 19 July to 17 Aug. 
. 18 Aug. to 16 Sept. 



SANSCULOTIDES, OR FEASTS ,i>EBICATED TO 



The Virtues 
Genius. 
Labour . 



17 Sept. 

18 Sept. 

19 Sept. 



L'Opinion . 
Les Recompenses 



Opinion . 
Rewards 



20 Sept. 

21 Sept. 



FRENCH TREATY, the terra given to the treaty of commerce between Great Britain 
and France, signed 23 Jan. i860, at Paris, by lord Cowley and Richard Cobden and by the 



FEE 321 FRO 

ministers MM. Baroche aud Rouher. The beneficial results of this treaty compensated for 
the depression of trade occasioned by the civil war in North America (1861-5). 

FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from the British by the American general Win- 
chester, 22 Jan. 1813, during the second war with the United States of America. It was 
retaken by the British forces under general Proctor, 24 Jan., and the American commander 
and troops were made prisoners. 

FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. "Very ancient ones exist in 
Egypt and Italy, and modern ones in the British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other 
places. Tlie fresco paintings by Giotto and others at the Campo Santo, a cemeteiy at Pisa, 
executed in the 13th centui-y, are justly celebrated ; see Stereochromy. 

FRfiTEVAL (central France). Here Richard I. of England defeated Philip II. of France, 
and captured his royal seal, archives, &c., 15 July, 1194. 

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian 
Venus. She was the wife of Thor, and goddess of jieace, fertility, aud riches, and with Thor 
and Odin composed the supreme council of the Gods ; see Good Friday. 

FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied Russians and Prussians were beaten by the 
French, commanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. The allies lost eighty pieces of cannon 
aud about 18,000 men; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of Tilsit followed, by 
which Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her dominions. 

FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, consist of a group of more than 150 
islands, forming an archipelago of very considerable extent. These islands were discovered 
by Tasman, in 1642 ; and visited by "VVallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by 
captain Cook, who gave them their present name on account of the friendly disposition of 
the natives, 1773. Subsequent voyagers describe them as very ferocious. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES originated in the clubs of the industrious classes, about 1793, 
and have been regulated by various enactments. Other acts were passed in 1858 and i860. 
These statutes were consolidated and amended by 18 & 19 Yict. c. 60. 

FRIENDS, see Quakers. 

FRIENDS OF THE People associated to obtain parliamentary reform, 1792. 

FRIESLAND : East (N. Germany), formerly governed by its own counts. On the death 
of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Hanover 
disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 
1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but it was awarded to Hanover in 1815. The 
English language is said to be mainly derived from the old Frisian dialect. — Fkiesland, 
West, in HoUand, was part of Charlemagne's empire in 800. It passed under the counts of 
Holland about 936, and was one of the seven provinces which renounced the Spanish yoke 
in 1580. The term Chevaux de Frisa (sometimes, though rarely, written Chcval de Frise, a 
Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where it was invented. 

FRIULI (Yenetia), made a duchy by Alboin the Lombard, when he established his king- 
dom about 570. It was conqiiered by Charlemagne, and Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, 
■who was assassinated in 799, which was the fate of Berengarius, the duke and king of Italy, 
in 924. The emperor Conrad gave the duchy to his chancellor Pojipo, patriarch of Aquileia, 
in the nth century. It was conquered by Yenice in 1420. 

FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- 
west passage to China, and after exploring the coast of New Greenland, entered this strait, 
II Aug. 1576. He returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, sup- 
posed to contain gold, which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second voyage. This 
led to a third fruitless expedition. He was killed at the taking of Brest, 1594. 

FRONDE, Civil Wars of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIY. (1648-53), 
during the government of the queen Anne of Austria and cardinal Mazarine, between the 
followers of the court and the nobilitj^, and the parliament and the citizens. The latter were 
called Frondeiirs {sliiigcrs), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. In a riot on 
27 Aug. 1648, barricades were erected in Paris. 

FROSTS. The foUowinsc are some pf the most remarkable : — 



The Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days . ''. 401 
A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas 
there were frozen a hundred miles from the 
shore .... Oct. 763-Feb. 764 

A frost in England on Midsummer-day is said 

to have destroyed the fruits of the earth . 1033 
Thames frozen for 14 weeks .... 1063 
Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April, 1076 



The Cattegat entirely frozen 1294 

Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks . 1323 
The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark, 1402 
In England, when all the small birds perished, 1407 
The ice bore riding upon it from Lubeck to 

Prussia 1426 

Severe frost, when the large fowl of the air 

sought shelter in the towns of Germany . 1433 

Y 



FEO 



322 



FUG 



The river frozen below London-bridge to 
Gravesend, from 24 >fov. to Feb. 10 . . . 1434 

The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 
from Denmark to Sweden .... 1460 

The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine 
distributed was cut by hatchets . . . 1468 

Carriages passed over from Lambeth to West- 
minster 1515 



Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps 

Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea 
from Rostock to D.-nmark .... 

Diversions on the Thames . 21 Dec. &c. 

The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded 
waggons ........ 

The Rhine, Scheldt, and sea at Venice frozen . 

Fires and diversions on the Thames . . . 

The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; 
ice covers the Hellespont .... 

Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt 
over the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with 
his whole army, horse and foot, with large 
trains of artillery and baggage . . . . 

The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, 
split by the frost ; most of the hollies were 
killed ; the Thames was covered with ice 
eleven inches thick ; and nearly all the birds 
perished * 



IS44 

1548 
1564 

1565 
1594 
1607 



1658 



The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, 
and attacked the cattle, and even men . . 1691 

Three months' frost, with heavy snow, from 
Dec. to March, 8 Anne 1709 

A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted ; 
this frost continued from 24 Nov. to 9 Feb. . 1716 

One which lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied 
upon the Thames, and festivities and diver- 
sions of all kinds were enjoyed unon the ice. 
This season was cnlled the " hard winter " . 1740 

From 25 Dec. to 16 Jan. and from 18 to 22 Jan. ; 
most terrible in its effect .... 1766 

One general throughout Europe. The Thames 
was passable opposite the Custom House, 
from Nov. to Jan. 1789 

One from 24 Dec. 1794, to 14 Peb. 179s, with 
the intermission of one day's thaw 23 Jan. 1795 

Intense frosts all Dec. 1796 

Severe frost in Russia t 1812 

Booths erected on the Thames ; the winter very 
severe in Ireland .... Jan. 1814 

The frost so intense in parts of Norway, that 
quicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to 
the atmosphere lose their breath . 2 Jan. 1849 

Verj' severe frost in London, 14 Jan. to 24 Feb. ; 
and very cold weather up to 26 June t ■ • 1855 

Very severe frost from 20 Dec. i85o, to 5 Jan. 
1861. i See Cold. 



FROST'S INSUREECTION, see Newport. 

FRUITS. Several varieties of fruit are said to have been introduced into Italy, 70 B.C. 
et seq. Exotic fruits and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were 
brought thither between the years 1500 and 1578; see Gardening, and Flowers. 

Almond-tree, Barbary, about 1548 
Apples, Syria . . . 1522 

Apple, custard, N. America . 1736 
Apple, osage, ditto . . . 1818 
Apricots, Bpirus . . . 1540 
Cherry-trees, Pontus . . 100 
Cherries, Flanders . . 1540 
Cornelian cherry, Austria . 1596 
Currant, thehawthn., Canada 1705 
Pig-tree, S. Europe, before . 1548 
Gooseberries, Flanders, bef. 1540 
Grapes, Portugal . . . 1528 
Lemons, Spain . . . . 1554 



Limes, Portugal, about . 1554 
Lime, American, before . 1752 
Melons, before . . . 1540 
Mulberry, Italy . . . 1520 
Mulben-y, white, China, abt. 1596 
Mulberry, the red, N. Ame- 
rica, before . . . . 1629 
Mulberry, paper, Japan, bef. 1754 
Nectarine, Persia . . . 1562 
Olive, Cape . . . . 1730 
Olive, the sweet scntd. China 1771 

Oranges 1595 

Peaches, Persia . . . 1562 



Pears, uncertain . . . * * 

Pine-apple, Brazils . . . 1568 

Pippins, Netherlands . . 1525 

Plums, Italy . . . . 1522 

Pomegranate, Spain, before . 1548 

Quince, Austria . . . 1573 

Quince, Japan . . . . 1796 

Raspberry, the Virginian, bef. 1696 

Strawberry, Flanders . . 1530 
Strawberry, the Oriental, 

Levant 1724 

Walnut, the black, N. Ame- 
rica, before .... 1629 



FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 
1542. The Fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was introduced from Mexico, about 1830. 

FUENTES DE okoRO (central Spain). On 2 May, 181 1, Massena crossed the Agueda, 
■with 40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of artillery, to relieve Almeida. He 
expected every day to be superseded in his command, and wished to make a last effort for 
his own military character. Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of which 
only 1200 were cavalry. He however determined to fight rather than give up the blockade 
of Almeida. After much fighting, night came on and put an end to the battle. Next day, 
Massena was joined by Bessieres with a body of the Imperial guard ; and on 5 May, the 
enemy made his grand attack. In all the war there was not a more dangerous hour for 
England. The fight lasted until evening, when the lower part of the town was abandoned 
by both parties — the British maintaining the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a 
cannon-shot from the stream. Napier. 

FUGGER, an illustrious German family (the present head being prince Leopold Fugger 
Babenhausen), derives its origin from John Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370 ; 
and its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to monarchs, especially the emperors. 

* "The frost this year was terrible. It began in the beginning of Dec. 1683. The people kept trades 
on the Thames as in a fair, till 4 Feb., 1684. About forty coaches daily pUed on the Thames as on drye 
land. Bought this book at a shop upon the ice in the' middle of the Thames." — Entry in the memoranda of 
a Citizen. 

t The frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that country for many 
preceding years, and was very destructive to the French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of 
that memorable year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th Nov. when the frost covered the 
ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with the 
loss in battle, and the effects of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year 
more than 400,000 men. 

t On 22 Feb. fires were made on the Serpentine, Hyde Park. A trafiSic on the ice of 35 miles long, 
was established in Lincolnshire. During the frost of 1860-1, bonfires were lit on the Serpentine, dancing 
took place, fireworks were let off, ike. 



FUG 323 GAG 

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL passed by the American legislature in 1850. It imposed a 
fine of 1000 dollars and six months' imprisonment on any person harbouring fugitive slaves 
or aiding in their escape. This law was declared to be nnconstitutional by the judges of the 
superior court on 3 Feb. 1855. It was carried into effect with great difficulty, and was not 
received by Massachusetts. It was repealed 13 June, 1864; see Slavery in America. 

FULDA (W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of 
Germany, in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and a principality in 1803. Napoleon 
incorporated it with Frankfort in 1810; but in 1815 it was ceded to Hesse-Cassel. 

FULFORD, Yorkshire. Here Harold Hardrada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold 
of England, defeated the earls Edwin and Morcar, 20 Sept. 1066 ; and the people near York 
submitted to them ; see Stanford-hridgc. 

FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agrigentum, is said to have first caused great 
fires to be lighted and aroinatics to be thrown into them to purify the air, and thus to have 
stopped the plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 473 li.C. 

FUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fund. 

FUNERALS. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 1793. The Romans pronounced 
harangues over their dead, when eminent for rank, great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus 
obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration m praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was 
the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral, which was done by her 
son, Crassns ; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius Ctesar did the like for his aunt Julia 
and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, 
according to Herodotus, 580 e.g. David lamented over Saul and Jonathan, 1056 B.C., and 
over Abner, 1048 B.C. 2 Sami. i. and iii. — Funeral Games, among the Greeks, were chiefly 
horse-races ; and among the Romans, processions and mortal combats of gladiators around 
the funeral pile. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, a.d. 47. 

PoBLic FcNERALS voted by parliament : — 1 Eichard Briiisley Slieridan . . . 13 Julj', 1816 

"Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . . 17 Nov. 1787 ! George Canning . . . . i5 Aug. 1827 
Lord Nelson (see i^Teiso?!.) . . . 9 Jan. 1806 | Duke of Wellington .... 18 Nov. 1852 

Wm. Pitt 22 Feb. ,, , Viscout Palmcrston (at her majesty's request) 

Chas. Jas. Fox . . • . . . 10 Oct. ,, | 27 Oct. 1865 

FURRUCKABAD (N. India), a province acquired by the East India company, in June, 
1802. Near the capital of the same name, 17 Nov. 1804, lord Lake defeated the Mahratta 
chief Holkar, and about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and about 20 wounded. 

FURS were worn by Henry I. about 1125. Edward HI. enacted that all persons who 
could not spend lool. a year should be prohibited this species of finery, 28 March, 1336-7. 

FUSILEERS. Foot soldiers, formerly armed with fusees with slings to sling them. The 
7th regiment (or Royal English Fusileers) were raised 11 June, 1685 ; the 21st (or Royal 
North British), 23 Sept. 1679; the 23rd (or Royal Welsh), 17 March, 1688. Grose. 

G. 

GABELLE (from Gahe, a gift), a term applied to various taxes, but afterwards restricted 
to the old duty upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on the French in 1286. Duruy. 
Our Edward III., termed Philip of Valois, who first levied the tax, the author of the Salic 
law (from sal, salt). The assessments were unequal, being very heavy in some provinces and 
light in others ; owing to privileges and exemptions purchased from the sovereigns in early 
periods. The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign of Louis XVI. It was a 
grievous burden, and tended to hasten the revolution ; during which it was abolished (1790). 

GAELIC, the northern branch of the Celtic languages, Irish, Erse or Highland Scottish, 
andManx. The "Dean of Lismore's book" (written 151 1-5 1) contains Gaelic poetry ; speci- 
mens were published, with translations, in 1862, by rev. T. M'Lachlan. 

GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a strongly fortified Neapolitan seaport, has undergone 
several remarkable sieges. It was taken by the French in 1 799, and 1 806 ; and by the 
Austrians in 18 15, and 1821. Here the pope, Pius IX., took refuge in 1848, and resided more 
than a year. Here also Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, fled, when Garibaldi 
entered Naples, 7 Sept. i860 ; and here he remained till the city was taken by the Sardinian 
general Cialdini, 13 Feb. 1861, after a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet 
remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created duke of Gaeta. 

GAGGING BILL, properly so called, meant to protect the king and government from 
the harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted in 1795, when the popular mind was much 

Y 2 



GAL 324 GAM 

excited. In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester aifray, a bill for restraining public 
meetings and cheap periodical publications was popularly called "a gagging bill." Statutes 
coercing popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have been also so designated. 

GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United States by Ecuador, 3 Nov. 1854, the British, 
French, and other powers protesting against it. 

GALATIA, an ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 3rd century b. c. the Gauls under 
Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the Troas 278 ; were checked 
by Attains in a battle about 239 ; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogi'secia 
and Galatia. The country was ravaged by Cn. Manlius 189 B.C., and was finall}^ annexed 
to the Eoman empire 25 B.C., on the death of the king Amyntas. Paiil's Epistle to the 
Galatians was probably written A.D. 58. 

GALICIA, a province, N.W. Sixdn, was conquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C., and 
by the Vandals A.D. 419 ; and was subdued by successive invaders. In 1065, on the death 
of Ferdinand I. king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were divided, his son Garcia 
became king of Galicia. Kuling tyrannically, he was expelled by his brother Sancho ; re- 
turned at his death in 1072 ; was again expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 ; and died in 
prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of Castile, was made king of Galicia by her 
in 1 109. He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against her husband, Alfonso VII., 
and at her death in 1126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the kingdoms. — 
Galicia, Poland. East Galicia was acquired by the emperor of Germany at the partition in 
1772 ; and West Galicia at that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw 
in 1809 ; but recovered by Austria in 1815. The appointment of Count Goluchowski, a Pole, 
as governor, in Oct. 1866, gave much satisfaction to the Poles, about 2,000,000 in this pro- 
vince ; see Poland, note. 

GALLERIES, see National, Louvre, and Versailles. 

GALL, ST. (in Switzerlajid). The abbey, founded in the 7th, century, was surrounded 
by a town in the loth. St. Gall became a canton of the confederation in 1815. 

GALLEYS with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were invented by the Corinthians, 786 
B.C. Blair. The terms "galley slave," and "condemned to the galleys," arose from these 
sea vessels having from 25 to 30 benches on each side, manned by four or five slaves to each 
bench. In France they had a general of galleys, of whoni the baron de la Garde was the 
first, 1544. The punishment of the galleys (galeres) has been superseded by the " travaux 
fords,''' forced labour ; the men being called "fo7'fafs," regulated by a law of 1854. 

GALLICAN CHURCH, see CJmrch of France. 

GALLIPOLI, a sea-port in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of Constantinople. It was 
taken by the Turks in 1357, and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the French 
and English armies proceeding against the Russians landed here in March and April, 1854. 

GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly of leather ; but since 1843 made of vulcanised 
India rubber. The importation of Galoches was prohibited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). 

GALVANISM and GALVANO-PLASTICS, see under Eledricitij, p. 264-6. 

GAL WAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers here were divided into thirteen tribes, a 
distinction not yet forgotten. It was conquered by Richard de Burgo in 1232. In 1690 
Galway city declared for king James, but was taken by general Ginckel immediately after 
the decisive battle of Aughrim, 12. July, 1691. Here is one of the new colleges, endowed by 
govei'nment, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 (1845), inaugurated 30 Oct. 1849 ; see Colleges.* 

GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought from India by the Dutch, about 1600. 
Hermann in 1677 announced that it was derived from two trees of Ceylon, since ascertained 
to beloug to the order Guttifera. 

GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest laws imposed by William the Conqiieror, who, 
to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes, 
for a stag, buck, or boar. The clergy protested against ameliorations of these laws, under 
Henry III. The first game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a 
duty in 1784. The Game act (i & 2 Will. IV. c. 32), greatly modifying all previous laws, was 
passed in 1831. By it the sale of game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game 
Poaching Preventive act, passed in 1862, greatly increased powers were given to the county 
police. Licences to kill game granted for the year 1856-7, 28,950 ; for 1865-6, 43,231. 

GAMES. Candidates for athletic games in Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried figs, 

* In 1858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to America began ; but the subsidy ceased in 
May, 1 86 1, through the company's breach of contract, which occasioned much discussion in parliament. 
In July, 1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from Galway to America was renewed, and 75,000^. 
voted for the purpose. The scheme was not successful. On 9 Nov. the steamer Anglia struck on the 
Black rock, and the mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed in Feb. 1864. 



GAM 



325 



GAR 



and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. Tlie sports were leaping, foot-races, quoits, 
wrestling, and boxing ; see Capitoline, Isthmian, Olyminc, Pythian, Secular Games, &c. 

The profits of a gamiiig-house in London for 
one season have been estimated at 150,000!. 
In one night a million of money is said to 
have changed hands at this place. Leiph. A 
bankiaipt was refused his certificate because 
he had lost si. at one time in gaming 17 July, 1788 
Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 

50/. each for playing at fiiro . March 11, 1797 
Gaming-houses were licensed in Paris until . 1S36 
Amended laws respecting games and wagers, 
8 & 9 Vict. c. 109 (1845); by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114 
(1822), a gaming-house keeper is to be im- 
prisoned with hard labour ; and by 2 & 3 Vict. , 
gaming-houses may be entered by the police 
and all persons present taken into custody . 1839 

Betting-houses suppressed 1853 

Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wiesbaden 
and other places in Germany . . . 1861-2 



Gaming was introduced into England by the 
Saxons ; the loser was often made a .slave to 
the winner, and sold in traffic like other mer- 
chandise. Camden. 

Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and 
interdicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to 
inferior people, except at Christmas time) . 

Gaming-houses licensed in London . . . 

Any person losing, by betting or playing, more 
than looJ. at any one time, is not compellable 
to pay the same, 16 Chas. II 

Bonds or other securities given for money won 
at play not recoverable ; and any person 
losing more than lol. may sue the winner to 
recover it back, 9 Anne 

Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
when all private lotteries and the games of 
faro, basset, and hazard were suppressed 



1541 
1620 



1663 



GAMUT . The invention of the scale of mnsical intervals (commonly termed do or ut, 
re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which si was added afterwards), for which the first seven letters of the 
alphabet are now employed, is mentioned by Guido Ai'etiuo, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. 

GxYNGES CANAL, for irrigatiiig the country between the Ganges and the Jumna. The 
main line (525 miles long) was opened 8 April, 1854. The immense difficulties in its 
execution were overcome by the skill and perseverance of its engineer, sir Proby Cautley. 
In Oct. 1864, sir Arthur Cotton asserted that the work was badly done, and the investment 
only paid 3 per cent. 

GANGS, see Agricultural Gangs. GAOL DISTEMPEE, see Old Bailey. 

GARDENING. The first garden, Eden, was planted by God. See Gen. ii. The 
Scriptures abound with allusions to gardens, particularly the Song of Solomon and the 
prophets ; and Christ's agony took place in a garden. Xenophon describes the gardens at 
Sardis ; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. Theophrastus's History of Plants was 
Avritten about 322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid derive many images from the garden (50 
B.C. to A.D. 50) ; and Pliny's Tusculan villa is circumstantially described (about a.d. 100). 
The Romans doubtless introduced gardening into Britain (about A.D. 100), and it was kept 
up afterwards by the various religious orders. Its cultivation as an art in England is dated 
from the commencement of the i6th century, when many Flemings came to England in 
consequence of the persecutions of Philip II. Miller's dictionary was published in 1724; 
the Horticultural Society {which sec) was established in 1804; Loudon's valuable Encyclo- 
p)£edia of Gardening was first published in 1822, and his Encyclopaedia of Plants in 1829; 
see Botany, Flowers, Fruits. An act for the protection of gardens and ornamental grounds 
in cities was passed in 1863. 

GARIGLIANO, a river (S.W. Italy). After long waiting and refusing to recede a step, 
the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over this river, 27 Dec. 1503, and sur- 
prised and totally defeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a few days after. 

GARROTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, used in Spain. Many attempts to 
strangle were made by thieves termed "garrotters," in the winter of 1862-63. An act was 
passed in 1863 to punish these acts by flogging. 

GARTER, Okder of the, owes its origin to Edward III., who, with a view of recovering 
France was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon, 
projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed a solemn tiltiiig, to invite 
foreigners and others of quality and courage to the exercise. On New Year's day, 1344, 
the king published letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign 
knights as would venture their reputation at the jousts and tournaments about to be held. 
A table was erected in Windsor castle of 200 feet diameter, and the knights were entertained 
at the king's expense. In 1346 Edward gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had 
been crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, 
and having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in niemory of these exploits, is said to 
have instituted this order, 23 April, 1349. The following were the 



ORIGINAL KNIGHTS, T3S0. 

Edward, prince of Wales 
(called the Black Prince). 
Henry, duke of Lancaster. 
Thomas, earl of Warwick. 
Piers, eaptal de Buch.1 
Balph, earl of Stafford. 



AVUliam, earl of Salisburj-. 
Roger, earl of Mortimer. 
Sir John Lisle. 
Barth, lord Burghersh. 
John, lord Beauchamp. 
John, lord Mohun, of Bunstar. 
Hugh, lord Courtenay. 



Thomas, lord Holland. 
Lord Grey, of Codnore. 
Sir Richard Fitz-Simon. 
Sir MOes Stapleton. 
Sir Thomas Wale. 
Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 
Sir Nele Lorin. 



GAE 326 GAT 

GAE.TER, Order of the, continued. 

John, Lord Chandos. I Sir Orho Holland. I Sir San Daubrichcourt. 

Sir James Audley. | Sir Henry Earn. | Sir Walter Paveley. 

Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet 
bordered with gold, with the inscription in old French — "Honi soit qui mal y pcnse,^' — Evil 
be to him who evil thinks. Tlie knights are installed at Windsor ; and were styled Equites 
aurece Pcriscelidis, knights of the golden garter. Bcatson. The ofhce of Garter King at 
Arms was instituted by Henry V. in 1420, and is one of considerable honour ; he carries 
the rod and sceptre at every feast of St. George.* Spehnan. The order of the garter in 
Ireland was instituted in imitation of that of England, by Edward IV. in 1466 ; but was 
abolished by an act of parliament, 10 Hen. VII. 1494. Ashmolc's Instit. The number of 
knights was increased in 1786. Many knights were admitted in 18 14. The sultan of 
Turkey was made knight in 1856 ; and the sultan Azul-Aziz was invested with the garter 
by the queen herself, on board her yacht at the naval review, 17 July, 1867. 

GAS, in chemistry, a permanently elastic aeriform fluid f ; see Oxygen, Hydrogen, and 
Nitrogen. Prof. Thos. Graliam's paper on the law of the difl'usion of gases appeared in 1834. 
In 1866 he showed that platinum and other metals absorbed gases. Furnaces in which 
gases are used as fuel were devised by Mr. C. W. Siemens, and employed in glass works, &c., 
in 1861. Lenoir's gas-engine, in which the motive power is obtained by the ignition of 
combined gases by electricity, was patented by him in 1861. In Dec. 1864, 143 of these 
engines were working in Paris. They were introduced into England in 1864. 

GASCON Y (S.W. France), a duchy, part of Aquitaine (luliich see). 

GAS-LIGHTS : the inflammable aeriform fluid, carburetted hydrogen, evolved by the 
combustion of coal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. Phil. Trans. 



Application of coal gas to the purposes of illumi- 
nation tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . 1792 

Gaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt's 
foundry in Birmingham in . . . . 1798 

Lyceum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment 
by Mr. Winsor 1803 

Permanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips 
and Lee, Manchester (looo burners lighted) 1805 

Introduced in London, at Golden-lane, 16 Aug. 
1807 ; Pall Mall, 1809 ; generally through 
London 1814-20 

Mr. David Pollock, father of the chief baron, 
was governor of the first "chartered" gas 
company 1812 

Gas first used in Dublin, 1818 ; the streets gene- 
rally lighted Oct. 1825 

Gas-hghting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas 
companies in Paris . . . . July, 1865 

Sydney, in Australia, was lit witlj gas 25 May, 1841 



The saZe 0/ gras ife regulated by acts passed in . i860 

The gas-pipes in and round London extend up- 
wards of 2000 miles, and arc daily increasing. 
It was said in i860, that of the gas supply of 
London a leakage of 9 per ceut. took place 
through the faulty joints of the pipes. 

Processes to obtain illuminating gan from water 
have been patented by Cruiokshanks (1839), 
White (1849), aud others. 

Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir 
W. Congreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Na- 
than Defries (1838), and others. 

Explosion of a large gasometer at the London 
Gas-light Company's works at Nine-elms : 10 
persons killed, and many injured (first acci- 
dent of the kind) . . . .31 Oct. 1865 

Moscow first lit with gas ... 27 Dec. 1866 

An economical gas produced from bitumen at 
Woolwich arsenal .... Jan. 1868 



GASTEIN" (Salzburg, Austria). The long discussion between Austria and Prussia re- 
specting the disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, was closed by a provisional 
convention signed here by their ministers (Blum for Aastria and Bismarck for Prussia), 
14 Aug. 1865. J This convention was severely censured by the other powers, and abrogated 
in 1866. 

GATES, see London Gates. 

GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead- 
fell, "William I. defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068. It was made a parliamentary borough by 
the reform bill in 1832. Between twelve and one o'clock, 5 and 6 Oct. 1854, a fire broke 
out in a worsted manufactory here, which shortly after set fire to a bond warehouse con- 
taining a great quantity of nitre, sulphur, &c., causing a terrific explosion, felt at nearly 

* The patron saint of England. The order until king Edward VI. 's time, was called the order of St. 
George. His figure on horseback, presented as holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first worn by 
the knights of the institution. It is siispended by a blue ribbon across the body from the shoulder. —St. 
George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and being a man of great courage, was a favourite ; but 
complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguin'^ in their defence, he was- 
put in prison, and beheaded, 23 April, 290.— On that day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 

t In 1823 Faraday determined a gas to be the vapour of a volatile liquid existing at a temperature 
considerably above the boiling point of the liquid ; and that the condensing points of different gases ar& 
merely the boiling points of the liquids producing them. He by pressure condensed chlorine gas into a 
liquid. 

t Austria was to have the temporary government of Holstein, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the 
establishment of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federal harbour, held by Prussia ; Lauen- 
burg was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a compensation 2,500,000 Danish 
doUars. 



GAU 327 GEN 

twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying many buildings, and burying many persons 
in the ruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses of blazing materials flew over 
the Tyne and set fire to many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were lost, and 
very many persons were seriously wounded. The damage was estimated at about a million 
pounds. 

GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion (termed "the battle of the gauges") began 
among engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved of the broad gauge, adopted on the 
Great Western railway ; and Mr. E. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, and others, of the narrow, 
that now almost universally adopted, even by the Great Western. 

GAUGING, measuring the contents of any vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and 
other liquids, was established by a law 27 Edw. III. 1352. 

GAUL, Gallia, the ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives, termed by the 
Greeks Galatpe, by the Romans Galli or Celtse, came originally from Asia, and invading 
Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain (in Gallicia), North Italy (Gallia 
Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British isles (the lands of the 
Cymry or Gaels). 

B.C. 

The PhocEeniis found Massilia, now Marseilles . 600 
The Galli Senoncs under Brennus defeat the 

Romans at the i-iver Allia, and sack Rome ; 

are defeated and expelled by Camillas, 13 July 390 

Again defeated 367 

The Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinum 295 
The Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium ; 

nearly exterminated by Dolabella . . . 283 
The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; 

are beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Antigonus, 

king of Macedon 278 

The Gauls defeated with great slaughter near 

Pisas 22s 

The Insubres totally overthrown by Marcellus, 

and their king Viridomarus .slain . . . 222 
They assist Hannibal .... 21S, &c. 

The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220 ; in- 
vade Galha Transalpina, with varied success, 121-58 
They colonise Aix, 123 B.C. ; and Narbonne . 118 
Julius C«sar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . . 58-50 
Lyons (Lugdunum) founded .... 41 

A.D. 

Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius . . 43 
Adrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called 
Restorer of the Gauls 120 

GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. 
It was commonly thrown down as a challenge to an adversary. 

GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the Roman people. "Brocades and damasks 
and tabbies and gauzes, have been lately brought over " (to Ireland). Dean Swift, in 1698. 
The manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric at Paisley, in_Scotland,was commenced 
about 1759. 

GAVEL-KIND (derived from the Saxon gif eal cyn, "give all suitably " ; or from gafol- 
cynd, land yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing paternal estates in land, the 
wives to have half, the rest equally among male children, without any distinction, 550. By 
the Irish law of gavel-kind, even bastards inherited. JDavies. Not only the lands of the 
father were equally divided among all his sons, but the lands of the brother also among all 
his brethren, if he had no issue of his own. Lavj Diet. 

GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates about 1120 B.C. 
{Jxtdgcs xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332 ; and near to it Ptolemy 
defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken bySaladin A.D. 1170; by Bonaparte, 
March, 1799 ; and by the Egyptians in 183 1. 

GAZETTES, see Newspapers. 

GEMS. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious stones, and many ancient specimens 
remain. The art was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In Ftb. i860, Herz's collection 
of gems was sold for lO.oooZ. The rev. C. King published his "Antique Gems " in i860, 
and the "Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems" in 1865. Artificial gems have 
been recently produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, Wohler, and others), 1858-65. 

GENEALOGY, from the Greek gcnca, birth, descent. The earliest pedigrees are con- 
tained in the 5th, loth, and nth chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles contains 
many genealogies. The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and Lxcke iii. Many books 



Introduction of Christianity 160 

Christians persecuted . . 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 
The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian . 241 

And by Probus 275, 277 

Who introduces the culture of the vine . . 280 
Maximian defeats the Franks .... 281 

Constautine proclaimed emperor of Gaul . . 306 
Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar- 
barians : defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg . 357 
Julian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360; dies . 363 
Gaul harassed by the Alemanni . . . 365-377 
Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 
Franks, Visigoths, Aic. ..... 378-450 

Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades 
Gaul ; is defeated by Aetius .... 447 

The Huns under Attila defeated by Aetius near 

Chalons 451 

.Slgidius, the Roman commander, murdered . 464 
Chiideric the Frank takes Paris . . . . ,, 
All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the 

Visigoths 475 

End of the Roman empire of the West, and 
establishment of the kingdom of the Franks 476 
(See France.) 



GEN 



328 



GEN 



ou the subject have been published in all European countries ; one at Magdeburg, Tlieatruni 
Geuealogicum, by Henninges, in 1598. Anderson, Eoyal Genealogies, London, 1732. — Sims' 
Manual for the Genealogist, &c., 1856, will be found a useful guide. The works of Collins 
(1756 et scq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Mcolas (1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, 
are highly esteemed. The Genealogical society, London, was established in 1853. 

GENERAL ASSEMBLY, see ChurcJi of Scotland. 

GENERAL COUNCILS, WARRANTS, see Councils, Warrants. 

GENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency was the first general of the French armies, 
1203. HenaioU. Balzac states that cardinal Richelieu coined the word Generalissimo, upon 
his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 1620. Ulysses Grant was 
the first general of the army of the United States of America ; so styled in 1866 ; see Com- 
manders-in- Chief. 

GENERATION (in Chronology), the interval of time between the birth of a father and 
the birth of his child : 33 years are allowed for the average length of a generation. 

GENEVA, a town of the AUobroges, a Gallic tribe, 58 B.C. ; became part of the empire 
of Charlemagne, about A.D. 800 ; and capital of the kingdom of Burgundy 426. 



The republic founded in 1512 

Emancipated from Savoy 1526 

Calvin settling here, and obtaining much in- 
fluence, Geneva was termed the "Borne of 

Calvinism" about 1536 

Through him Sei-vetus burnt for heresy . . 1553 
Allied to the Swiss Cantons in .... 1584 
Insurrection, Feb. 17S1 : about 1000 Genevese, 
in consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl 
Temple, lord-heutenant of Ireland, for per- 
mission to settle in that country : the Irish 
parliament voted 50,000?. to defray the ex- 
pense of their journey, and to purchase them 
lands near Waterford. Many of the fugitives 
came to Ireland in July, 1783 ; but they soon 
after abandoned it ; many Genevese settled 
in England 1784 



Another revolution ; executions and imprison- 
ments July, 1794 

Geneva incorporated with France . 26 April, 1798 

Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, 30 Dec. 1813 

Eevolution, through an endeavour of the Catho- 
lic cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ; 
a provisional government set up . 7 Oct. 1848 
[The scheme was withdrawn.] 

About 50 persons from Geneva land at Thonon 
and Evian, io set up the Swiss flag ; but are 
brought back by Swiss troops . . 30 Mar. i860 

Election riots, with loss of life, through the 
indiscretion of M. Fazy . . 22 Aug. 1864 

49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of 
Natural Sciences held . . 21-23 -^ug. 1865 

Violent peace congress — Garibaldi present, 

12 Sept. 1867 



GENOA (N. Italy). Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the 
Eomans 115 B.C. It underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till a.d. 950. 



Genoa becomes a free commercial state, about . 1000 

Wars with Pisa 1119-1284 

Frederic II. captm-es 22 galleys, and vainly 

besieges Genoa 1241 

The families of Doria and Spinola obtain as- 
cendancy . . . . . . about 1270 

The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at 
Melora {tohich see) .... 6 Aug. 1284 

War with Venice 1293-99 

Eafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed 

captains 1335 

Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339 ; 

set aside by the nobles, 1344 : re-appointed . 1356 
Great discord ; many doges appointed . . . 1394 
Genoa successively under protection of France, 
1396; of Naples, 1410; of Milan, 1419; losing 
and regaining freedom .... 1421-1512 
Sacked by the Spaniards and Italians under 

Prosper Colonna 1522 

Andrew Doria deserts the French service, and 
restores the independence of his country . 1528 



Genoa bombarded by the French . . . . 

By the British 

Taken by the imperialists, who are soon after 
expelled 9 Nov. 

Another siege raised . . . .10 June, 

The Celebrated bank failed 

Genoa made the Ligurian republic . May, 

The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Aus- 
trian army, until literally starved, was evacu- 
ated by capitulation, 5 June; but it was 
surrendered to the French soon after their 
victory at Marengo . . . 14 June, 

Genoa annexed to the French empire, June, 

1805 ; surrenders to theEngUsh and Sicilians 

iS April, 

United to the kingdom of Sardinia . . Dec. 

The city seized by insurgents, who, after a 
murderous struggle, drove out the garrison 
and proclaimed the Ligurian republic, 3 April, 
but surrendered to general La Marmora, 

II April, 



174s 

1746 
1747 
1750 
1797 



iSoo 



GENS-D'ARMES were anciently the king's horse-guards only, but afterwards the king's 
gardes-du-corps ; the musqueteers and light horse were reckoned among them. There was 
also a company of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing this name. Scots 
guards were about the person of the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, who 
reigned in 1226. They were organised as a royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441. The 
younger sons of Scottish nobles were usually the captains of this guard. The name gens- 
d'armes was afterwards given to the police ; but becoming obnoxious, was changed to 
"municipal guard" in 1830. 

GENTLEMAN (from gentilis, of a gens, a race or clan). The Gauls observing that during 
the empire of the Romans, the scutarii and gentiles had the best appointments of all the 
soldiers, applied to them the terms ecuyers and gentilsliommes. This distinction of gentlemen 
was much in use in England, and was given to the well-descended about 1430. Sidney. 



GEN" 



329 



GEO 



Gentlemen by blood were those who could show four descents from a gentleman who had been 
■created by the king by letters patent. 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS (formerly styled the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the 
oldest coriis in England, with the exception of the Yeomen of the Guard. The band was 
instituted by Henry VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely of gentlemen of noble 
blood, whom he named his pensioners or spears. AVilliam IV. commanded that it should be 
called his majesty's honourable corps of gentlemen-at-arms, 7 March, 1834. Curling. 

GEOGRAPHY. The first geographical records are in the Pentateuch, and in the book 
of Joshua. Homer describes the slueld of Achilles as representing the earth surrounded by 
the sea, and also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Tro}'-. Iliad. 
The priests tauglit that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the world. Anaxi- 
mander of Miletus was the iuveutor of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. Hipparchus 
attempted to reduce geography to a mathematical basis, about 135 B.C. It was first brought 
to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, about a.d. 1201. Lencjlet. The invention 
of the uiariner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern 
geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England by Bartholomew 
Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 1489. Geography 
is now divided into mathematical, physical, and political. The study has been greatly 
promoted during the present centuiy by exjieditions at the expense of various governments 
and societies. The Eoyal Geographical Society of London was established in 1830 ; that of 
Paris in 1821. 

GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, has been the subject of philosophical speculations 
from the time of Homer ; and it is said to have been cultivated in China many years before 
the Chiistian era. It occupied the attention of Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian writers. 



In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the 
pope's museum : Cesalpino, Majoli, and others 
(1597), Steno (1669), ScilJa (1670), Quirini (1676J, 
Plot and Lister (1678), Leibnitz (1680) recorded 
observations, and put forth theoiies on the various 
changes in the crust of the earth. 

Hooke (i65S), in his work on Earthquakes, said that 
fossils, "as monuments of nature, were more 
certain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, 
and, though difficult, it would not be impossible 
to raise a chronobigy out of them." 

Burnet's " Theory of the Earth " appeared in 1690, 
Whiston's in 1696. 

Buffon's geological views (1749) were censured by 
the Sorbonne in 1751, and recanted in consequence. 
Tbe principle he renounced was that the present 
condition of the earth is due to secondary causes, 
and that these same causes will produce further 
changes. His more eminent fellow-labourers and 
successors were Gesner (1758), Michell (1760), 
Raspe (1762-73), Pallas and Saussure (1793-1800). 

Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, 
and even denied the existence of volcanoes in 
primitive geological times, and had many followers, 
Kirwan, De Luc, <tc. — Hutton (1788) supported 
by Playfair (1801) warmly opposed Werner's views, 
and asserted that the principal changes in the 
earth's crust are due to the energy oi fire. The 
rival parties were hence termed Neptunists and 
Vulcanists. 

William Smith, the father of British geology (who 
had walked over a large part of England) drew up 
a Tabular View of British Strata, in 1799, and pub- 
lished it and his Geological Map of England and 
Wales, 1812-15. 

In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best 
geological collection in J^ondon, collected by H. 
Davy, C. Hatchett, and others ; the proposal of 
sir John St. Aubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the 
right hon. C. P. Greville, to aid the government in 
estabhshing a school of mines there in 1804-7, '^^^ 
declined. 

In 1807 the Geological Society of London was estab- 
lished, which by collecting a great mass of new 
data greatly tended to check the disposition to 
theorise, and led to the introduction of views 
midway between those of Werner and Hutton. 

In 1835 Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) De la Beche 
suggested the estabhshment of the present Museum 
of Geology, which began at Craig's Court, and 



which was removed to its present position in 
Jermyu-street. To him is also due the valuable 
geological maps formed on the ordnance survey. 
The building was erected by Mr. Pennethorne, and 
formally opened by the prince consort, 14 May, 
1851. Attached to the museum are the Mining 
Records office, a lecture theatre, laboratories, &c. 
Sir H. De la Beche, the first director, died 
13 April 1S55, and was succeeded by sir Roderick 
Murchison. 

A similar institution was estabUshed at Calcutta by 
the E. I. Company in 1840. 

The English standard works on Geology at the 
present time are those of Lyell, Murchison, 
Phillips, De la Beche, Mantell, and Ansted. 



The] strata composing the earth's crust may be 
divided into two great classes : ist, those 
generally attributed to the agency of water ; 
2nd, to the action of fii-e, which may be sub- 
divided as follows : — 
Aqueous formations, stratified, rarely crystal- 
line : — 
Sedimentary or fossUiferous rocks. 
Metamorphic or unfossiliferous. 
Igneous formations, unstratified, crystalline : — 
Volcanic, as basalt, &c. 
Plutonic, as granite, &c. 
Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into 
three gi-eat series : — 
The PaUeozoic (most ancient forms of life), or 

Primary. 
The Me.sozoic (middle Ufe period), or Secondary. 
The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of 
life), or Tertiary. 

Table op Str-WA {chiefly from Lyell). 

NEOZOIC : 

I. Post-Tertiart : 
A. Post- Pliocene : 

1. Recent: Marine strata; with human 

remains; Danish peat; kitchen mid- 
dens ; bronzB and stone implements ; 
Swiss lake-dwellings ; temple of Serapis 
at PuzzuoU. 

2. Post-Pliocene: Brixham cave, with flint 

knives, and bones of living and extinct 
quadi'uijeds ; ancient valley gravels ; 



GEO 



330 



GEO 



GEOLOGY, continued. 

glacial drift ; ancient Nile mud ; post 
glacial N. American deposits ; remains 
of mastodon; Austral tan breccias. 

II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series : 

B. Pliocene : 

3. Ntwer Pliocene for Pleistocene) Mammalian 

beds, Norwich Crag. [Marine shells.] 

4. Older Plioceiie : Red and Coralline Crag 

(Suffolk, Antwerp). 

C. s, 6, Miocene: Upper and Lower ; Bordeaux; 

Virginia sands and Touraine beds ; 
Pikerm^ deposits near Athens ; ■vol- 
canic tuff and limestone of the Azores, 
&c. ; brown coal of Germany, &c. 
[Mastodon, Gigantic Elk, Salaman- 
der, <EC.] 

D. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Middle, and Lower; 

Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton 
Clays ; Brackltsham Sands ; Paris 
Gypsum; London Plastic, and Thanet 
Clays. \^Palms, Birds, &c.] 

III. Secondary or Mesozoic Series : 

E. 10. Cretaceous : Upper ; British Chalk ; 

Maestricht beds. — Chalk with and with- 
out Flints, Chalk Marl, Upper Green 
Sand, Gault, Lower Green Sand. [Meso- 
saurus ; Fish, Moltushs, &c.\. 
II. Lower (or if eocomiam or Wealden); Kentish 
rag ; Weald Clay ; Hastings Sand. 
[Iguanodon, Hylceosaurus. &c.] 

F. 12. Oolite : Upper ; Purbeck beds, Portland 

Stone and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay; 
Lithographic Stone of Solenhofen with 
* Archcvopteryx. [Fisk.l 

13. Middle: Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, 

Oxford Clay, Kello way Rock. [Bel em- 
nit es and Ammonite s. ] 

14. Lower : Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Brad- 

ford Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, 
Fuller's Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthi/ 0- 
saurua, Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl] 

G. 1$. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo- 

nites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- 
rinihodon.] 



H. 16. Trias : Upper ; White Lias, Red Clay, 

with Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in 
Virginia, N. A. [Fish, Dromatherium.] 

17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in 

England). [^Encrinus: Placodus 
gigas.] 

18. Lower: New Bed Sandstone of Lanca- 

shire and Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon; 
Footprints of Birds and Jieptiles.] 

IV. Primary or Palaeozoic Semes : 

I. ig. Permian : Magnesian Limestone, Marl 

Slates, Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolo- 
mite : kupferschiefer. [Firs, Fishee, 
A mphibia.] 

K. 20, 21. Carbonifei-ous, Upper and Lower : 
Coal Measures, MUlstone Grit, Mountain 
Limestone. [Ferns, Catamites, Coal.^ 

L. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and 

Lower : Tilestones, Cornstones, and 
Marls, Quartzose Conglomerates. 
[Shells, Fish, I'rilobites.] 

M. 23, 26, 27, Silurian, Upper, Middle, and 
Lower : Ludlow Shales, Aymestry 
Limestone, Wenlock Limestone, Wen- 
lock Shale, Caradoc Sand.stone, Llan- 
deilo Flags ; Niiigara Limestone. 
[Sponges, Corals, Trilobites, 
Shells.] 

N. 28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower : Bala 

Limestone, Pestiniog Slates, Bangor 
Slates and Grits, Wicklow Rock, 
Hasleets Grits, Huronian Series of 
Canada. [Zoophytes, Lingula, Ferns, 
Sifiillaria, Stigmaria, Catamites, 
and Cryptogamia.] 

O. 30. Laurentium, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- 

rides (?) : Labradorite Series, N. of the 
St. Lawrence ; Adirondack Mountains, 
New York. 
31. Lower : Gneiss and Quartzites, with 
Interstratified Limestones, in one of 
which, 1000 feet thick, occurs a fora- 
minifer, Eozoon Canadense, the 
oldest known fossil. 



Geometry taught in Europe in the 13th centuiy. 
Books on geometry and astronomy were destroyed 

in England as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI., 

1552. Stoic. 
Descartes published his A^ialytical Geometry, 1627. 
Sir Isaac Newton {Arithmetica Universalis, (fcc.), 

1642-1727. 
Simson's edition of EucUd, first appeared, 1756. 



GEOMETRY, so termed from its original application to measiu'ing the earth. Its origin 
is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations of the Nile having given rise to it by 
carrying away the landmarks and the boundaries of farms. 

Thales introduced geometry into Greece, about 

600 B.C. 
The doctrine of curves originally attracted the 

attention of geometricians froto the conic sections, 

which were intr(iduce<1 by Plato, about 390 B.C. 
Euclid's Elements compiled about 300 B.C. 
Archimedes, a discoverer in geometry, 287-212 B.C. 
The conchoid curve invented by Nicomedes, 220 B.C. 
Ptolem}', the astronomer, (a.d:) 2nd centiiry. 

GEOEGE, A gold coin current at 6s. Sd. in the reign of Henry VIII. Leake. 

GEORGE, ST. The tutelary saint of England, and adopted as patron of the order of the 
garter by Edward III. His day is 23 April ; see Garter, note, and Knighthood. 

GEORGES' CONSPIRACY, in France. General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges 
Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others, were arrested at 
Paris, charged with a conspiracy against tlie life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of 
Louis XVI II., Feb. 1804. Pichegiu was found strangled in prison, 6 April. Twelve of the 
conspirators, including Georges, were executed, and others imprisoned, 22 Jane. Moreau 
was exiled, and went to America. In 1813 he was killed before Dresden {which see). 

GEORGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted 
to Alexander about 331 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to 
Rome by Pompey, 65 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was introduced 
into it in the 3rd century. In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia was subdued 
by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068 ; and by the Tartar hordes, 
1235. From the 14th to the iSth centuries, Georgia was successively held by the Persian 



GEO 



331 



GER 



and Turkish monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of 
which the la^t ruler, Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 1799 ; and in 1802 
Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. — Georgia, in North America, was settled 
by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating from the congress of America, it surrendered to the 
British, Dec. 1778 ; and its possession was of vast importance to the royalists in the then 
war. Count d'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and made a desperate attack on 
Georgia, which failed, and the French fleet returned home ; the colony was given up to the 
Union by the British in 1783. It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, 18 Jan. 1861, and 
was conquered by Sherman in 1864-5 > see United Stales. — Georgia, in the Pacific, was 
visited by captain Cook in 1775. 

GEORGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the planet Uranus {vMchsee). 

GERBEROI (Normandy, N. France). Here William the Conqueror was wounded in 
battle by his son Robert, who had joined the French king Philip I., 1078. 

GERMAINS, ST., near Paris, where James II. of England resided in state after his 
abdication, in 1689, and where he died, 16 Sept. 1701 ; see Treaties. 

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, superseding the confederation of the Rhine {vMch 
see), was constituted 8 June, 1815, and held its first diet at Frankfort, 16 Nov. i8i6. It 
comprised — 



I. Austria ; 2. Pru.ssia ; 3. Bavaria ; 4. Saxony ; 
5. Hanover ; 6. Wurtemberg ; 

7. Baden ; 8, 9. Hesse (electorate and grand 

duchy) ; 
10. Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg) ; 

II. Netherlands (for Luxemburg) ; 

12. Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Cobui-g, Saxe-Meinin- 
gen, and Saxe-Altenburg ; 

13. Brunswick and Nassau ; 

14. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Meoklenburg- 
StreUtz ; 

15. Oldenburg, three Anhalts, and two Schwarz- 
burgs ; 

16. Two Hohenzollerns, Liechtenstein, two 
Reuss, Schaumbxn-g-Lippe, Lippe, and Wal- 
deck; 

17. Free cities : — Lubeck, Frankfort, Bremen, 
and Hamburg. 

The diet declares for a constituent assembly, 
30 March, which met ... 18 May, 18 



The diet remits its functions to the archduke 
John, vicar of the empire (see Gerniani/), 

12 July, 1848 

The diet re-established, meets . 30 May, 1851 

The emperor of Austria proposes a reform of 
the confederation, 17 Aug. ; accepted by the 
diet I Sept. ; rejected by Prussia . 22 Sept. 1863 

The diet celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of 
its establishment .... 8 June, 1865 

Vote of the majority of the diet supports 
Austria in the dispute respecting Schleswig 
and Holstein, Prussia announces her with- 
drawal from the confederation, and its dis-o- 
lution ; the diet declares itself indissoluble, 
and continues its functions, and protests, 

14 June, 1866 

The diet removes to Augsburg during the war, 

14 July, ,, 

The confederation renounced by Austria at Ni- 
kolsburg . ... 26 July, ,, 

The diet holds its last sitting . 24 Aug. ,, 



GERMAN CONFEDERATION, North, established in room of the Germanic Confede- 
ration {ivhichsee) : population, 1866, estimated 29,318,722. 

The king of Prussia invited the states of North 

Germanytoform anew confederation 16 July, iS56 
Treaty of alUance offensive and defensive be- 
tween Prussia and the following states : — 

Saxe-Weimar, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe- 

AltenbureT, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, two 

Schwarzburgs, Waldeok, the younger Reuss, 

two Lippes, Lubeck, Bremen, and Hamburg, 

signed 18 Aug. ,, 



And two Mecklenburgs . . 21 Aug. 1866 

And Hesse (for country north of the Maine) 

3 '"^ept. „ 
And the elder Reuss ... 26 Sept. „ 
And Saxe-Meiningen ... 8 Oct. ,, 

And Saxony 21 Oct. „ 

Meeting of North German Parliament (295 de- 
puties from the 22 states) at Berlin 24 Feb. 1867 
See Germany. 



GERMANITES, a name given to a sect, of which members appeared in the British 
Mediterranean fleet in 1867. They called themselves "non-fighting men," and hold no 
communion with other religious bodies. 

GERMANS, ST., was made the seat of the bishopric of Cornwall for a shorftime, 
about 905. 

GERMANY [Gcrmania, Alemania), anciently, as now, divided into several independent 
states. The Germans long withstood the attempts of tlie Romans to subdue them ; and 
although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the 
close of the 3rd century. In the 5th century the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the 
greater portion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th century, Charlemagne subdued 
the Saxons and other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, 25 Dec. 800. At the ex- 
tinction of his family, the empire became elective, 911, and was generally obtained by a 
member of the house of Hapsburg from 1437 till 1804. Germany was divided into circles, 
1501-12. The confederation of the Rhine was formed 12 July, 1806 ; the Germanic confede- 
ration, 8 June, 1815 ; and the North German confederation, 18 Aug. i866; the treaty ratified, 
8 Sept. 1866. 



GER 



332 



GER 



GERMANY, continued. 

The Teutones united with the Cymry, defeat 

the Eomans in Illyria . . . . B.C. 113 
After varying success are defeated by Marius . 102 
Battle of Teutoburg ; Hermann or Arminius de- 
stroys the Eomans under Varus . A.D. 9 
Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul, 450, &c. 
Charlemagne after a long contest subdues the 

Saxons, who become Christians . . 772-785 
Tie is crowned emperor of the West at Rome 

by the pope 25 Dec. 800 

He adds a second head to the eagle, to denote 
that the empires of Bome and Germany are 

united in him 802 

Louis (ie UeOonnaire) separates Germany from 

Prance 839-840 

The German princes assert their independence, 

and Conrad I. of Franconia reigns . . 911 

£The electoral character assumed about this 

time. See Electors.'] 
Beign of Henrj'l. [king!, surnamed the Fowler ; 
he vanquishes the Hims, Danes, Vandals, and 

Bohemians 918-934 

Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned 

emperor by the pope 962 

Henry III. conquers Bohemia .... 1042 
Contest between Henr3rIV. and Gregory VII. . 1075 
Henry's humiliation at Canossa (jBliich see) . 1077 
He takes Bome 1084 ; and Gregory dies in exile 

at Salerno 1085 

Disputes with the pope relating to ecclesiasti- 
cal investitures .... 1073-1123 
The Guelph and the Ghibeline feuds begin . 1140 
Conrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; it 

was destroyed by Greek treachery . . 1147 

Frederick Barbarossa's wars in Italy . 1154-77 

He destroys Milan 1162 

He ruins Henry the Lion (see Bavaria) . .1180 
He is drowned during the crusade in Syria . iigo 
Teutonic order of knighthood . . . . ,, 
Hanseatic league estabUshed . . about 1245 
Beign of Bodolph, count of Hapsbm-g, chosen 

by the electors 1273 

The edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. 1356 
Sigismvmd, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. 
He betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, 
who are burned alive (see Bohemia) . 1414-16 
Sigismund being driven from the throne, Albert 

II., duke of Austria, succeeds . . . 1437 

Peasants' wars .... 1502, 1514, 1524 
Era of the Beformation (see Lutheranisni) . 1517 

German bible and liturgy published by Luther 1 522-46 
Luther excomnixinicated by the diet at Worms 

17 April, 1521 
War with the pope — the Germans storm Bome 1527 
Diet at Spires ; Protestants condemned . . 1529 
Confession of Augsburg published . 25 Jan. 1530 
Protestant League of Smalcalde . . . 1531 

The anabaptists seize Munster 24 June, 1535 ; 

suppressed, and John of Ley den slain . . 1536 
Death of Luther .... 18 Feb. 1546 
War with protestants begin . . . 1546-52 
Who are helped by Henry II. of France — Peace 

of Beligion at Passau ... 31 July, 1552 
Abdication of Charles V. . . . 25 Oct. 1556 
The Thirty years' war begins between the 
Evangelic union under elector palatine, and 
the Catholic league imder the duke of iSavaria 1618 
Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector 

palatine 8 Nov. 1620 

Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany 

June, 1630 
Death of Gustavus-Adolphus, victor at Lutzen 

16 Nov. 1632 
Wallenstein assassinated for treason 25 Feb. 1634 
End of the thirty years' war : treaty of Westpha- 
lia, establishing religious toleration 24 Oct. 1648 
John Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating 
the Turks, obliges them to raise the siege of 

Vienna 12 Sept 1683 

Peace of Byswick (with France) . 20 Sept. 1697 
The peace of Carlowitz( with the Turks) 26 Jan. 1699 



War with France, &c. ; Marlborough's victory 

at Blenheim 13 Aug. 1704 

Peace of Utrecht .... 11 April, 1713 
The Pragmatic Sanction (lo^ic/i we) . . . 1722 

Francis I. , duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress 
of Austria, Maria-Theresa, queen of Hungary 
(1736). She succeeds her father, and becomes 
queen of Hungary .... 20 Oct. 1740 
The elector of Bavaria elected emperor as 

Charles VII. .... 22 Jan. 1742 

He dies Jan. 20 ; Francis I. duke of Lorraine, 

elected emperor .... 15 Sept. 1745 
The Seven years' war between Austria and 
Prussia and their respective alUes begins 
Aug. 1756 ; ends with the peace of Huberts- 
burg 15 Feb. 1763 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dis- 
memberment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil 
reforms and liberal changes .... 1782 

War with Turkey 1788 

Victory of the Austrians and Bussians at Bim- 

nik 22 Sept. 1789 

Francis I. joins in the second partition of Poland 1795 
In the ruinous wars between Germany and 
France, the emperor loses the Netherlands, 
all his territories west of the Rhine, and his 

states in Italy 1793-1803 

Cessions of territory to France by the treaty of 

Lunevilie g Feb. 1801 

Francis II. assumes the title of emperor of 

Austria i . . . . 11 Aug. 1804 

Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria 
and Wurtemberg, 1805; and of Westphalia, 
1807 ; dissolution of the German empire ; 
formation of the confederation of the Bhine 

12 July, i8o5 
North Germany annexed to France . 1810-11 

Commencement of the war of independence 

March, 1813 
Congress of Vienna . i Nov. 1814-25 May, 1815 
The Germanic confederation (which see) formed 

8 June, „ 
The Zollverem (which see) formed . . . 1818 
General depression in trade .... 1824 
Death of J. H. Voss, poet, <&c. . 29 March, 1826 
Bevolution at Brunswick (flight of the duke) 

7 Sept. 1830 
In Saxony (abdication of the king) 13 Sept. „ 
Death of Goethe, poet and philosopher 

22 March, 1832 
Excitement about Ronge, the Catholic reformer, 

and the holy coat of Treves .... 1844 
Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Ger- 
many (see .(lM6<)-ia, .ffuji^ary, &c.) . . . 1B48 
The king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, 
to promote the reconsolidation of the German 
empire, by a proclamation . 27 March, ,, 
German national assembly meet at Frankfort 

(see Germanic confederation) . 18 May, „ 

Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) 

March. ,, 
The national assembly elects the king of Prussia 

emperor 28 March, 1849 

He declines 3 April, „ 

He recalls the Prussian members of the assem- 
bly 14 May, „ 

The Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings 

to Stutgardt 30 May, „ 

Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia 
for the formation of a new central power for 
a limited time ; appeal to be made to the 
governments of Germany . . 30 Sept. „ 
Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prus- 
sia with the smaller German states 12 Nov. ,, 
Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, 
and Wurtemberg, lor a revision of the Ger- 
man confederation ... 27 Feb. 1850 
Parliament meets at Erfurt . . March, ,, 
The king of Wurtemberg denounces the insi- 
dious ambition of Prussia . . 15 March ., 
German diet meets at Frankfort . 10 May, ,, 



GER 



333 



GER 



GERMANY, contimccd. 

Hesse-Cassel sends no representative to Erfurt 

7 June, 

Hesse-Darmstadt witlidraws from the Prussian 
league 20 June, 

Austria calls an assembly of the German con- 
federation 19 July, 

Which meets at Frankfort . . 2 Sept. 

Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter 
Hesse-Cassel (see Hesse-Cassel) . 12 Nov. 

Conferences on German affairs at Dresden, 

23 Dec. 1850, to IS May, 

Re-establishment of the diet of the Germanic 
confederation at Frankfort . 30 May, 

Conference at Nuremberg relative to a general 
code of commerce . . . .15 Jan. 

Great excitement in Germany at the French 
successes in Lombardy : warlike preiMrations 
in Bavaria, &c. . . . May and June, 

Meetings of new liberal party in Eisenach, Saxe 
Weimar, 17 July; seven Resolutions put forth 
recommending that the imperfect fedei-al 
constitution be changed ; that the German 
diet be replaced by a strong central govern- 
ment ; that a national assembly be sum- 
moned ; and that Prussia be invited to take 
the initiative 14 Aug. 

This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and 
warmly opposed by Hanover . . Sept. 

The Austrian minister, Rechberg, severely cen- 
suring the duke of Saxe Gotha, fur a liberal 
speech, 4 Sept. ; and accusing the Prussian 
government of favouring the liberals, meets 
with cutting retorts . . . Sept. 

The federal diet maintains the Hesse-Cassel con- 
stitution of 1852 against Prussia 24 March, 

Meeting of the French eniperorand the German 
sovereigns at Baden, 16, 17 June; and of the 
czar and the emperor of Austria and the 
regent of Prussia at Toplitz 26 July, &c. 

Meeting at Coburg in favour of Gei-man unity 
against French aggression . . 5 Sept. 

Dispute with Denmaik respecting the righ ts of 
Holstein and Schleswig . . . Nov. 

First meeting of a Gei-man national shooting 
match at Gotha .... 8-11 July, 

Meeting of German national association at 
Heidelberg ; decides to form a fleet 23 Aug. 

Subscriptions received for fleet Sept. and Oct. 

The national association meet at Berlin ; they 
recommend the formation of a united federal 
government with a central executive, under 
the leadership of Prus.sia . 13 March, 

Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German 
states on federal reform 8 July-io Aug. 

Deputies from German states meet at Weimar, 
and declare that Germany wants formation 
into one federal state . . .28, 29 Sept. 

Congress of deputies from German states de- 
clare in favour of unity . . .21 Aug. 

The emperor of Austria invites the German 
sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, 31 
July ; king of Prussia declines, 4 Aug. ; nearly 
all the sovereigns meet, 16, 17 Aug. ; they 



1851 

1857 
1859 



approve the Austrian plan of federal reform, 

I Sept.; which isrejected by Prussia, 22 Sept. 1863 

The diet determines to have recourse to federal 
execution in Holstein if Denmark does not 
fulfil her obligations . . . . i Oct. „ 

Soth anniversary of the battle of Leipsig cele- 
brated 18 Oct. „ 

Death of Pi'ederick VII. of Denmark 15 Nov. ,, 

German troops enter Holstein for " federal exe- 
cution " (see Deii/^arl' for events) 23 Dec. ,, 

Death of Maximilian II. of Bavaria 10 March 1S64 

Prussia retains the duchies ; discussion be- 
tween Austria and Prussia ; the diet adopt 
the resolution of Bavaria and Sa.x.ony request- 
ing Austria and Prussia to give up Holstein 
to the dukeof Augustenburg; rejected, 6 April, 1865 

50th anniversary of the establishment of the 
Germanic confederation . . 8 June, ,, 

The Qastein convention (which see) . 14 Aug. „ 

Condemn' d by the diet at Frankfort i Oct. „ 

The diet calls on Austria and Prussia to disarm, 

19 May, 186S 

Meeting of deputies from smaller German states 
condemn the impendiny; war . 20 May, „ 

Austria declares that Prussia has broken the 
treaty by invading Holstein, 11 .Tune ; the 
diet adopts this, by 9 votes : the Prussian 
representative declares the Germanic confe- 
deration at an end, and invites the members 
to form a new one, excluding Austria, 14 June, ,, 

The Prussians enter Saxony, and the war be- 
gins 15 June, ,, 

The diet determines for war, 16 June ; proclaims 
prince Charles of Bavaria general of the con- 
federation troops ... 27 June, „ 
[For the war and its consequences, see 
f'russia, and German Confederation, North.] 

Treaty of alliance between Prussia and the 
northern states .... 8 Sept. ,, 

Continued disputes between the diet and 
Austria and Prussia respecting Schleswig- 
Holstetn .... Oct. and Nov. „ 

Draft of new constitution for North Germany 
settled 9 Feb. 1867 

Elections commence .... 12 Feb. ,, 

North German parliament opened at Berlin by 
the king of Prussia, 24 Feb. ; Dr. Simson 
elected president ... 2 March, ,, 

The federal constitution adopted ; the parlia- 
ment closed 17 April, ,, 

Meeting of 50 deputies from parliaments of 
Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse 
Darmstadt, declare necessity of union with 
North Germany ..... Aug. ,, 

Federal coustitution determined (printed in 
Almanack de Gotha, 1868), 17 April; put in 
force I Oct. ,, 

New North German parUament meets, 10 Sept. ; 
closed, 26 Oct. ; opened by king of Prussia, 

23 March, 186S 

Delegates from the Zollvei-ein meet 27 April, ,, 
See Austria, Denmark, Prussia. 



KINGS AND EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



800. 
814. 



843. 
855- 
875- 
877. 



CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 

Charlemagne. 

Ijouis 1. te Dcbonnaire, king of Prance. 

Lothaire, or Lother, son of Loiiis ; died in a 

monastery at Treves. 
Louis II., son of Louis I., Hntr. 
Louis II., son of Lothaire. 
Charles II., called the Bald, king of France. 
[Interregnum.] 
Charles HI. les Gros. crowned king of Italy ; 

deposed ; succeeded by 
Amulf, or Amoul ; crowned emperor at Rome 

nSge. 
Louis III. called IV. ; the last of the Carlo- 

vingian race in Germany. 



SAJCON DYNASTY. 

911. Otho, duke of Saxony; refuses the dignity on 

account of his age. 
,, Conrad I., duke of Franconia, k-ing. 
918. Henry T., surnamcd the Fowler, son of Otho, 

duke of Saxony, king. 
936. Otho I., styled the Great, son of Henry. Many 

writers withhold the imperial title from him 

until crowned by pope John XII. in 962. 
973. Otho II. the Bloody, so stigmatised for his 

criielties ; massacred his chief nobiUty at an 

entertainment to which he had invited them ; 

wounded by a poisoned arrow. 
983. Otho III., sumamed the Red, his son, yet in 

his minority ; poisoned. 



GER 



334 



GER 



1152- 



1190. 



GERMANY, continued. 

1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the 

Holy and the Lame. 
1024. Conrad II., surnamed the Salique. 
1039. Henry III., the Black, son of Conrad II. 
1056. Henry IV., son of the preceding ; a minor 

unier the regency of his mother Agnes ; 

deposed by his son and successor. Kodolph 

(1077) and Herman (1082) nominated by the 

pope. 
1106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter 

of Henry I. of England. 
1125. Lothaire 11. surnamed the Saxon. 
1138. [Interregnum.] 

HOUSE OP HOHENSTAIIFEN, OU OF SUABIA. 

Conrad III., duke of Franconia. 
Frederick I. Barbarossa ; one of the most 
splendid reigns in the German annals; 
drowned by his horse throwing him into 
the river Saleph. 
Henry VI., his son, surnamed Asper, or the 
Sharp; it was this emperor that detained 
Richard I. of England a prisoner in his 
dominions ; died 1197. 
[Interregnum and contest for the throne 
between Philip of Suabia and Otho of 
Brunswick.] 
1198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at 

Bamberg by Otto of Wittelsbach. 
1208. Otho IV., surnamed the Superb, recognised as 
king of Gei-many, and crowned as emperor 
the next year ; excommunicated and de- 
posed. 
Frederick II., king of Sicily, the son of Henry 
VI. ; deposed by his s\ibjects, who elected 
Henry, landgrave of Thuringia. Frederick 
died in 1250, naming his son Conrad his 
successor, but the pope gave the imperial 
title to 
"Wilham, earl of Holland. 
Conrad IV. son of Frederick. 
1 His son Conradiu was proclaimed king of Sicily, 
which was, however, surrendered to his uncle 
Manfred, 1254 ; on whose death it was given by 
the pope to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, 
on theinvitation of the Ghibeline party, entered 
Italy with a large army, and was defeated at Tag- 
liacozzo, 23 Aug. 1268, and beheaded at Naples 
29 Oct., thus ending the Hohenstaufen family.] 

1256. [Interregnum.] 

1257. Bichard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of 

Castile, merely nominated. 



1215. 



1250. 



1347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. In this reign was 
given at Nuremberg, in 1356, the famous 
Golden Bull, which became the fundamental 
law of the German empire. 

1378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son of Charles ; 
twice imprisoned, and at length forced to 
resign ; but continued to reign in Bohemia. 

1400. Frederick III. duke of Brunswick ; assassi- 
nated immediately after his election, and 
seldom placed in the list of emperors. 
„ Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine ; crowned 
at Cologne ; died 1410. 

1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia; chosen by a 
party of the electors ; died the next year. 
,, Sigismund, king of Hungary ; elected by 
another party. On the death of Jossus he is 
recognised by all parties ; king of Bohemia 
in 1419. 



1438. 



HOUSES OP HAPSBUKG, LVXEMBUEG, AND BAVAEIA. 

1273. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg. 

1291. [Interregnum.] 

1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion 

of Albert, son of Rodolph : deposed ; slain 

at the battle of Spires. 
1298. Albert I. , duke of Austria, Rodolph's son ; killed 

by his nephew at Rheinfels, i May, 1308. 
1308. Henry VH. of Luxemburg. 

1313. [Interregnum.] 

1314. Louis IV. (III.) of Bavaria, and Frederick III. 

of Austria, son of Albert, rival emperors ; 
Frederick died in 1330. 
1330. Louis reigns alone. 

GERMAN LANGUAGE has two branches : hocli and platt DeutscTi, high and low German. 
The former became the literary language, principally through its use by Luther in his transla- 
tion of the Bible and other works, 1522-34. The latter is that spoken by the lower classes. 
There are many dialects : the satirical epic in low German, " Reineke Fuchs," appeared in 
1498 ; see Reynard. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 

Albert II., surnamed the Great, duke of 
Austria, and king of Hungary and Bohemia ; 
died 27 Oct. 1439. 

1439. [Interregnum.] 

1440. Frederick IV. (or HI.) surnamed the Pacific; 

elected emperor 2 Feb., but not crowned 

until June, 1442. 
1493. Maximilian I. son of Frederick ; died in 1519, 

In 1477 he married Mary of Burgundy.— 

Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain 

became comi)f titers for the empire. 
1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile 

and Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both 

crowns, 1556 ; and retired to a monastery, 

where he died soon after. 
1556. Ferdinand I. brother to Charles ; succeeded 

by his son, 
1564. Maximilian II. king of Hungary and Bohemia ; 

succeeded by his son, 
1576. Rodolph II. 

1612. Matthias, brother of Rodolph. 
1619. Ferdinand 11. his cousin, sou of the archduke 

Charles ; king of Hungary. 
1637. Ferdinand III. son of the preceding emperor : 

succeeded by his son, 
1658. Leopold I. 

1705. Joseph I. son of the emperor Leopold. 
1711. .Charles VI. brother to Joseph; succeeded by 

his daughter, 
1740. Maria-Theresa, queen of Hungary and Bohe- 
mia, whose right to the empire was sustained 

by England. 
Charles VII. elector of Bavaria, whose claim 

was supported by France; rival emperor, 

and contested succession. 

[This competition for the throne of Germany 
gave rise to an almost general war. Charles 
died in Jan. 1745.] 
1745, Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 

consort of Maria-Theresa. 
1765. Joseph II. son of the emperor Francis and of 

Mai-ia-Theresa. 
1790. Leopold II. brother to Joseph; succeeded by 

his son, 
1792. Francis II. In 1804 this prince became empe- 
ror of Austria only, as Francis I. 
See Austria. 



1742. 



PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS. 




Born 


Died 


Born 


Died 


Hans Sachs 


• 1494 


1578 


Ulfilas (Gothic bible) 




Godf. Leibnitz 


. 1646 


1716 


about A.D. 360. 




G. F. Gellert . 


• 1715 


1769 


Martm Luther( Germ . 




G. E. Lessing 


• 1729 


1781 


bible, &c. 1522-34). 1483 


1546 


G. A. Btirger . 


■ 1748 


1794 



Born 
J. G. von Herder . 1744 
Fred. T. Klopstock . 1724 
Im. Kant . . . 1724 
J. C.Fred. von Schiller 1759 
Ch. M. Wieland . 1733 



Died 
1803 
1803 



180S 
181 3 



GER 



335 



GIA 



GERMAN LANGUAGE, continued. 







Born 


0. 


T. Korner 


■ 1791 


,Te 


an Paul Richter 


• 1763 


J. 


H. Voss 


• 1751 


F. 


ScWe^'el . 


■ 1772 


B 


G. Niebuhr . 


• 1776 



Died I Born Died 

1813 ! J. W. von Goiithe . 1749 1832 

1825 j Wm. von Humboldt . 1767 1S35 

1826 I A. Wm. Schlegel . . 1767 1845 
1829 L. Tieck . . . 1773 1853 



Born Died 

H. Heine . . . 1797 1856 

Alex, von Humboldt. 1769 1S59 

Chr. CarlJ. Bunsen . 1791 i85o 

F. C. Schlosser . . 1776 1861 



GERMINAL INSURRECTION, tliat of tlie faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th 
Germinal, j'ear III. (ist April, 1795). 

GERONA (N.E. Spain), an ancient city, frequently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, 
it successfully resisted the French, but after suffering much by famine, surrendered 12 Dec. 
1 809. 

GESTA ROMANORUM ; a collection of popular moral tales derived from Oriental and 
classical sources, written in Latin by an unknown author, about the middle of the 14th 
century, and one of the first books printed in the 15th century. These tales have been 
largely used by our early poets and dramatists, including Shakspeare. The English trans- 
lation, by the rev. C. Swan (from an edition printed at Hagenau, 1508), appeared 1824. 

GETTYSBURG (Philadelphia). Here three days' severe fighting took place on 1-3 July, 
1S63, between the invading confederate army under generals Lee, Longstreet, and Ewell, and 
the federals under general C. Meade. The confederates were long successful, but eventually 
were compelled to retire from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and wounded on each 
side were estimated at about 15,000. 

GHENT, an ancient city in Belgium, built about the 7th century. During the middle- 
ages it became very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of England, was born here in 1340 
(henc:e named John of Gaunt), during the revolt under Van Artevelde, a brewer, against the 
earl Louis, 1379-83. 



Taken by Louis XIV. of France, 9 March, 1678 ; and 
By the duke of Marlborough, 1706. 
Peace of Ghent, between Great Britain and America, 
signed 24 Dec. 1814. 



Ghent rebelled against the emperor, Charles V., | 

1539: severely punished, iS4o- 
" Pacification of Ghent " (vfhcn the north and south 
provinces of the Netherlands united against 1 
Spain; proclaimed 8 Nov. 1576, and broken up in 1 
1579- 

GHIBELINES, see Guelphs. 

GHIZNEE, or GHrzNEE(East Persia), the seat of the Gaznevides, who founded the city, 
969. They were expelled by the Seljuk Tartars in 1038. The British under sir John 
Keane attacked the citadel of Ghiznee at two o'clock in the morning, 23 July, 1839 : it was 
one of the strongest fortresses in Asia, and was commanded by a son of the ex-king of Cabul. 
At three o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, and under cover of a heavy lire, 
the infantry forced their way into the place and succeeded at five o'clock in fixing the British 
colours on its towers. — It capitulated to the Afghans, i March, 1842, who were defeated 6 
Sept. 1 842, and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee next day. 

GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method at the 
British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor produced ghosts scientifically in 
March ; and Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic Institution, 
July, 1863 ; see Cock-lane Ghost. 

GIANTS are mentioned in Gen. vi. 4. Giants' bones, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high were 
once reported to have been found ; but geologists proved them to be the remains of great 
animals. — The battle of Marignano (1515) has been termed the "battle of the Giants." 



Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : 
his bedstead was 9 cubits long (about i6j feet). 
1451 B c (Dent. iii. n.) 

Goliath of Gath's ''height was 6 cubi^s and a span." 
Killed by David about 1063 B.C. (i Sam. xvii. 4.) 

Four giants, sons of Gohath, killed (2 Sam. xxi. 
15-22) about 1018. 

The emperor Maximin (a.d. 235) was 8J- feet in 
height, and of great bulk. Some say between 7 
and 8 feet ; others above 8. 

" The t dlest man that hath been seen in our age was 
one named Gal^ara, who in the days of Claudius, 
the late emperor, was bro\ight out of Arabia. He 
was 9 foet 9 inches high." Pliny. 

John Miridleton (born 1578), commonly called the 
child of Hale (Lancashiie), whose hand, from the 
carpus to the end of his middle finger, was 
17 inches long ; his palm SV inches bro.ad ; and his 
whole height 9 feet 3 inchies. Plot, Nat. Hist, of 
Slaffordsldre, p. 295. 



Patrick Cotter, the celebrated Irish giant, bom in 
1761, was 8 feet 7 inches in height ; his hand, from 
tlie commencement of the palm to the extremity 
of the middle finger, measured 12 inches, and his 
shoe was 17 inches long ; he died in Sept. 1S06, in 
his 46th year. 

Big Sam, the porter of the prince of Wales, at Carl- 
ton -palace, was near 8 feet hi^h, and performed as 
a giant in the romance of " Cymon," at the Opera- 
house, while the Drury-lane comfiany had tlie use 
of that theatre until their own was rebuilt in 1809. 

M. Brice, a native of the Vosgea, in London in Sept. 
1862, 7 feet 6 inches high. He exhibited himself 
as "Anak" in London, Nov. 1863. 

Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Tar- 
mouth 22 Nov. 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 
inches high, and weiifhed 452 tt). 

Chang-Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged ig, 7 feet 8 inches 
hitrh, exhibited himself in London in Sept. &c. 
1865. 



GIA 



336 



GIS 



GIAOTJE, Turkislifor infidel, a term applied to all who do not believe in Mahomedanism. 
— Byron's poem, "The Giaour," was published in 1813. 

GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which, with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, 
obtained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town on a rock in South Spain, on which is 
placed a British fortress, considered impregnable. The height of the rock, according to 
Cuvier, is 1437 English feet. It was taken by the Saracens under Tarik, whence its present 
name (derived from Gibel-el-Tarik, Mountain of Tarik), in 711. 



fortress) were wholly overthrown, 

16 July, 1779, to s Feb. 1783 
Royal battery destroyed by fire . . Nov. 1800 
Engagement between the French and English 
fleets in the bay; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, 

lost 6 July, 1801 

The Royal Carlos and St. Hermenigildo Spanish 
ships, each of 112 guns, blew up, with their 
crews, at night-time, in the straits here, 
and all on board perished . . 12 July, ,, 
A malignant disease caused great mortality . 1804 

A dreadful plague raged 1805 

A malignant fever raged . . . Aug. 1814 
Again ; courts of justice and places of worship 

closed by proclamation ... 5 Sept. 1828 
The fatal epidemic ceased . . 12 Jan. 1829. 

Bishopric of Gibraltar established . . . 1842 
Sir Richard Airey appointed governor . Sept. 1865 



It was taken from the Moors in 1309 ; retaken 

by them, 1333 ; and finally taken from them 

by Henry IV. , of Castile, in .... 1462 
Gibraltar attacked by the British luider sir 

George Rooke, the prince of Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, 

21 July, and taken on 24 July . . . 1704 

Besieged by the Spanish and French ; they lose 

10,000 men, and the victorious Enghsh but 400 

II Oct. „ 
Sir John Leake captured several ships, and 

raised the siege .... 10 March, 1705 
Ceded to England by treaty of Utrecht 11 April, 1713 
The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, and are 

repulsed with great loss 1720 

They again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, 

and lose 5000 ; English loss, 300 . 22 Feb. 1727 
Siege by the Spaniards and French, whose 

armaments * (the greatest brought against a 

GILBERTINES, an order of canons and nuns established at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, 
by Gilbert of that place, 1 13 i-i 14S. At the dissolution th6re were 25 houses of the order in 
England and "Wales. 

GILDING on wood formed part of the decorations of the Jewish tabernacle, 1490 b. c. 
{Exod. XXV. 11) ; was practised at Rome, about 145 B.C. The capitol was the first building 
on which this enrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for gUding the Romans made 
but 750 leaves, four fingers sqiiare, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. Gilding with leaf gold 
on hole ammoniac was first introduced by Margaritone in 1273 ; see Electrotyjye. 

GIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential oil of the juniper berry. The "gin act," 
173s, laying an excise of 5s. per gallon upon it, passed 14 July, 1736. In London alone 
7044 houses sold gin by retail ; the poor could intoxicate themselves for one penny. Salmon. 
About 1 700 gin-shops were suppressed in London in 1 750. Clarice. 

GINGER, the root of the Amomum Zinziber, a native of the East Indies and China, now 
cultivated in the "West Indies. In 1842 the duty was reduced from 53s. to los. per cwt. of 
foreign ginger, and from us. to 5s. per cwt. of that from British colonies. 

GIPSIES, see Gypsies. 

GIRAFFE or Camelopaed, a native of the interior of Africa, was weU known to the 
ancients. In 1827 one was brought to England for the first time as a present to George IV". 
It died in 1829. On 25 May, 1835, four giraffes, obtained by M. Thibaut, were introduced 
into the Zoological gardens. Regent's park, where a young one was born in 1839. 

GIRONDISTS, an important party during the French revolution, principally composed of 
deputies from the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of 
Aug. and Sept. 1 792, they laboured to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to which 
they succumb. Their leaders, Brissot, "Vergniaud, and many others, were guillotined 31 
Oct. 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre. Lamartine's " Histoire des Girondins," pub- 
lished in 1847, tended to hasten the revolution in 1848. 

GISORS, Battle of (France), on 20, 28 Sept. or 10 Oct. 1198, between the armies of 
France and England. The former was signally defeated by Richard I., who commanded the 
English, and his parole for the day, " Uieu et man droit" — "God and my right" — after- 
wards became the motto to the arms of England. 



* In one night their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, and their whole hne of works 
annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general Elliot, 27 Nov. 1781. The enemy's loss 
in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,000,000^. sterling. The army 
amounted to 40,000 men. But their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British occurred 13 Sept. 
1782. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were 
brought to bear against the fortress, besides which there were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great 
floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, 
cutters, and gun and mortar boats ; while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For 
weeks together 6000 shells were daily thrown into the town ; and on a single occasion 8000 barrels of 
gunpowder were expended by the enemy. 



GIT 



337 



GLA 



GITSOHIN (Bohemia), was captured by the Prussians after a severe conflict with tlie 
Austriaiis, 29 June, 1866.' Near Gitschin, the same evening, the crown prince of Prussia 
was victor in another engagement. 

GLAPIATOES were originally malefactors, who fought for their lives, or captives who 
fought for freedom. They were first exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Eoniaus, 263 
B.C., and afterwards at festivals, about 215 B.C. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 
gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his triumph, for 123 days, A.i). 103. These com- 
bats Avere suppi-essed in the East by Constantine the Great, A.D. 325, and in the West by 
Theodoric in 500. Lcngld. 

GLANDELAGH, Bishopric of (Ireland), united to the arch-prelacy of Dublin since 
1214. St. Keiven, the probable founder, resigned 612. Glendelagh is known by the name 
of the Seven Churches, from the remains of many buildings near the cathedral. 

GLASGOA^^ (Lanarkshire), the largest city in Scotland. Its prosperity was immensely 
increased after the union in 1707, in consequence of its obtaining some of the American 
trade. Population in 1707 about 12,000 ; in 1861, 394,857. 



1451 

1611 
1652 
1690 
1715 



1783 
1791 
1795 



1859 



The cathedral or high church, dedicated to St. 
Kentigern or Mungo, built 12th century. 

Erected into a burgh 11 80 

Charter was obtained from James II. . . . 
University founded by bishop Tumbull about . 
Made a royal burgh by James VI. 

Town wasted by a great fire 

Charter of William and JIary .... 

Glasgow Cov.rant. published 

First vessel sailed to America for its still great 

import, tobacco i7iy 

Great Shawfield riot 1725 

Calico printing begun 1742 

Plundered by rebels 1745 

Theatre opened 1764 

Power-loom introduced 1773 

Theatre burnt 1782 

Chamber of commerce formed . . . . 

Trades' hall built 

Spinning machinery by steam introduced . . 
Anderson's university founded .... 
New college buildings erected . . . . 
Great popular commotion . . . April, 
Trials for treason followed . . . July, 

Theatre again burnt Jan. 

The royal exchange opened . . .3 Sept. 
Great fire, loss 150,000^ . . .14 Jan. 
The Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Britain, 

were granted by licence of parliament to the 

commissioners for the improvement of Glas- 
gow. The third and final Glasgow lottery 

was drawn in London, at Coopers' Hall, 28 

Aug. 1834. Their repetition was forbidden 

by 4 Will. IV. c. 37 

GLASGOW, Bishopric of. Kennet, in his Antiquities, says it was founded by St. 
Kentigern, alias Mungo, in 560 ; Dr. Heylin, speaking of the see of St. Asaph, in Wales, 
says that that see was founded by St. Kentigern, a Scot, then bishop of Glasgow in 583. 
This jirelacy became archiepiscopal in 1491, and ceased at the Revolution. Glasgow is now 
a post-revolution bishopric. The cathedral, commenced in 1121, and has been beautified 
and improved at various periods since. It has a noble crypt ; see Bishops. 

GLASITES (in Scotland) and Saxdemanians (in England). In 1727, John Glas, a 
minister of the church of Scotland, published "The Testimony of the King of Martyrs, 
concerning His Kingdom (John xviii. 36)," in which he opposed national churches, and 
described the original constitution of the Christian church, its doctrines, ordinances, officers, 
and discipline, as given in the New Testament. Having been deiiosed in 1728, he and 
others established several churches fonned upon the primitive models. The publication of 
a series of letters on Hervey's "Theron and Aspasio," by Robert Saudeman, in 1755, led to 
the establishment of churches in London and other 2ilaces in England, and also in North 
America. The meeting-house at Barnsbury, London, N., was erected in 1862. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass bj'' Hermes. 
The discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. Glass-houses were erected in Tyre. It 
was in use among the Romans in the time of Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of 
Pompeii, that windows were formed of glass before 79. 

Glass is said to have been brought to England I The glass manufacture established in England 

by Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in 676 | at Crutched-friars, and in Savoy in {Stoic) . 1557 

Z 



British Association meet here . , Sept. 1840. 

Wellington's statvie ei'ected . . .8 Oct. 1844 
False alarm of fire at the theatre, when 70 

persons are crushed to death . .17 Feb. 1849 
British Association meet (2nd time) . Sept. 1855 
Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City 

of Glasgow banks, and other firms Nov. 1857 

In which great frauds were discovered Oct. 1858 
New water-works at Loch Katrine opened by 

the queen 14 Oct. 

[Supplies 25,000,000 gallons daily, can supply 
50,000,000, engineer, J. F. Bateman ; cost 
about 918,000?. indei^endent of the price paid 
for old works.] 
Self-supporting cooking establishments for 
working classes begun by Mr. Thos. Corbett 

21 Sept. i860 
Glasgow visited by the empress of the French 

27 Nov. ,, 
Theatre burnt again .... 31 Jan. 1863 
1796 Visited by lord Palmerston . . .March, ,, 
Industrial exhibition opened . . 12 Dec. 1865 
Fine stained glass windows, by German artists, 
put up in the cathedral by private munifi- 
cence ' . . 1859-66 

Site of the old university sold to railway com- 
pany ; new buildings erecting near Western- 
park 1866 

Great reform demonstration ; visit of John 

Bright 16 Oct. ,, 

The duke of Edinburgh inaugurates the statue 
of the prince consort, in George's-square, 

18 Oct. ,, 



GIA 



338 



GLO 



Glass-Pi-ate, for coach-wiudows, mirrors, <fec. , 
made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under 
tlie patronage o/Villiers duke of Buckingham 1673 

The manufacture was improved by the French, 
who made very large plates ; and further 
improvements in it were made in Lancashire 
in 1773, when the British Plate Glass com- 
pany was established. 

Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced 
by Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . 

Painting on Glass, a very early art, was prac- 
tised at Marseilles in a beautiful style, about 
1500. It attained great perfection about 



1832 



1530 



GLASS, continued. 

Great improvements have been made in the 
manufacture, through the immense increase 
of chemical knowledge in the present cen- 
tury. Professor Faraday ijublished his re- 
searches on the manufacture of glass for 
optical purposes in 1830 

The duties on glass, first imposed 1695, were 
finally remitted 1845 

Glass-painting was known to the ancient Egyp- 
tians. It was revived about the loth century, 
and is described in the treatise by the monk 
Theophilus. Specimens of the 13th century 
exist in England ; C. Winston's work is the 
best on the subject, 1846, new edition . . 1868 

GLASTONBUEY (Somerset), said to have been the residence of Joseph of Arimathea, 
and the site of the first Christian church in Britain, about 60. A church was built here by 
Ina about 708. The town and abbey were burnt, 1 184. An earthquake did great damage 
in 1276. Richard Whiting, the last abbot, who had 100 monks and 400 domestics, was 
hanged on Tor-hill in his pontificals, with the abbots of Eeading and Colchester, for refusing 
to take the oath of supremacy to Henry VIII., 14 Nov. 1539. 

GLENCOE MASSACRE of the Macdonalds, for not surrendering before the time stated 
in king William's proclamation, l Jan. 1692. Sir John Dalrymple, master (afterwards earl) 
of Stair, their enemy, obtained a decree " to extirpate that set of thieves," which the king 
is said to have sigired without perusing. Every man under 70 was to be slain. This 
mandate was treacherously executed by 120 soldiers of the earl of Argyle's regiment, hos- 
pitably received by the Highlanders, on 13 Feb. 1692. About 60 men were brutally slain ; 
and many women and children, turned out naked in a freezing night, perished. This excited 
great indignation ; and an inquiry was set on foot in 1695, but no capital punishment 
followed. 

GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal circles of 
the spJiere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses, were taught, and 
an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pythagoras demonstrated, from 
the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that 
there might be antipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning 
and evening star ; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, the 
sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the 
sun ; Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the stars ; about 506 B.C. — 
Aristarchus, of Samos, maintained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about 
the sun ; which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the philosopher 
nearly lost his life by his theory, 280 B.C. ; see Circumnavigators. 



To determine the figure of the earth, a degree of 
latitude has been measured in different parts of 
the world : by Bouguer and La Condamiiie in 
Peru, and Maupertuis and others in Lapland, 1735. 

France and Spain measured by Mechain, Delambre, 
Biot, and Arago, between T792 and 1821. 

Measurements made in India by col. (afterwards sir 
George) Everest, published in 1830. 

Experiments made by pendulums to demonstrate 
the rotation of the earth by Foucault in 185 1 ; and 
to determine its density by Maskelyne, Bailly, 
and others ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. G. 
B. Airy, the astronomer royal. 

Artificial Globes. It is said that a celestial 
globe was brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C. 
and that Archimedes constructed a planetarium 
about 212 B.C. 

The globe of Gottorp is a concave sphere, eleven 
feet in dianaeter, containing a table and seats for 
twelve persons, and the inside representing the 
visible surface of the heavens, the stars and con- 



stellations all distinguished according to their 
respective magnitudes, and being turned by means 
of curious mechanism, their true position, rising, 
and setting, are shown. The outside is a terrestrial 
globe. This machine is called the globe of Gottorp, 
from the original one of that name, which, at the 
expense of Frederick II. duke of Holstein, was 
erected at Gottorp, under the direction of Adam 
Olearius, and was planned after a design found 
among the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. 
Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter 
the Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by 
fire in 1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed! 
Coxe. 

The globe at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by 
Br. Long (master, 1733), is eighteen feet in diameter. 

In 1851 Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square, 
for Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, 
lit from the centre by day, and by gas at night. It 
was closed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, 
and the building eventually taken down. 



GLOBE THEATRE, Bankside (London), see Shakespeare's Theatre. 

GLOIRE, French steam frigate, see Navy, French. 

GLORY, the nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, 
and the circle of rays on images, adopted from the Caesars and their flatterers, were used 
in the ist century. The doxology, " (r/ona Pairi, " is very ancient, and originally without 
the clause " as it was in the beginning," &c. In Greek it began with "c?oa;a," glory. 

GLOUCESTER, a Roman colony {Glevum), built by Arviragus, 47, in honour of Claudius 
Csesar, whose daughter he had married. In 1278-9 the statutes of Gloucester were passed at 



GLO 339 GOD 

a parliament lield by Edward I. This city was incorporated by Henry III. ; it was fortified 
by a strong wall, which was demolished after the Restoration, in 1660, by order of 
Charles II., as a punishment for the obstinate resistance of the city to Charles I., in 1643, 
under col. Massey. The Gloucester and Berkeley canal was completed in April, 1827. 
Gross bribery took place here at the election for the parliament in 1859. — The BiSHOPliic 
was one of the six erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and was formerly part of Worcester. It 
was united to that of Bristol in 1836. The church, wliich belonged to the abbey, and its 
revenues, were appropriated to the maintenance of the see. The abbey, which was founded 
by king Wulphere about 700, was burnt in 1102, and again in 1122. In it are the tombs 
of Robert, duke of Normandj'-, and Edward II. In the king's books, this bishopric is valued 
at3i5Z. 17s. 2d. per annum. Present income, 5000Z. 

1830. James Henry Monk, died. 

1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sept. 



RECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTOL. 

1802. George Isaac Huntingford, translated to Here- 
ford, June, 1815. 
1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. 
1824. Christopher Bethell, translated to Exeter, 1830. 



1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862 
1863. Charles John Ellicott (present bishop). 



GLOVES. "Woodstock and Worcester leather gloves are of ancient celebrity. In the 
middle ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and 
dignities ; and two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, 
1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a ceremony of 
degradation. The Glovers' company of London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered 
gloves were introduced into England in 1580, and are still presented to judges at maiden 
assizes. The importation of foreiga gloves was not permitted till 1825. 

GLUCINUM (from glvJcus, sweet). In 1798 Vauquelin discovered the earth glucina (so 
termed from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in the beryl and other crystals. From 
glucina AVohler and Bussj'- obtained the rare metal glucinum in 1828. Gmeliii. 

GLUCOSE, see Stigar. 

GLUTEN, an ingredient of grain, particularly wheat (containing nitrogen), termed the 
vegeto-animal principle. Its discovery is attributed to Beccaria in the i8th centmy. 

GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 1779, and termed by him the "sweet principle 
of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the "father of the fatty acids." It is 
obtained pure by saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of lead, or litharge. Glycerine 
is now much employed in medicine and the arts. 

GNOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, knowledge), a sect who soon after the preaching of 
Christianity, endeavoured to combine its principles with the Greek philosophy. Among 
their teachers were Saturnius, iii ; Basilides. 134; and Valentine, 140. Priscillian, a 
Spaniard, was burnt at Thebes as a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive Gnosticism. 

GOA (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Portuguese under Albu(][uerque in 15 10, and 
made their Indian capital. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY, so called from a house at Paris, formerly possessed by wool- 
dyers, whereof the chief (Giles Gobelin) in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the 
secret of dyeing scarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of 
.works for adorning palaces, under tlie direction of Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for 
which were drawn by Le Brun, about 1666. 

" GOD BLESS YOU ! " see Sneezing. 

"GOD SAVE THE KING." This melody is said to have been composed by John 
Bull, Mus. D., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at Merchant Tajdors' Hall; others 
ascribe it to Henry Carey, author of " Sally in our alley," who died, 4 Oct. 1743- It has 
been claimed by the French. The controversy on the subject is summed up in Chappell's 
" Popular Music of the Olden Times " (1859). 

GOD ERICH ADMINISTRATION. Viscount Goderich* (aftei-wards earl of Ripou) 
became first minister on the death of Mr. Canning, 8 Aug. 1827 ; resigned 8 Jan. 1828. 



Viscoimt Goderich, first lord of the treasury. 

Duke of Portland, president of the council. 

Lord Ljmdburst, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Carlisle, lord 'privy seal. 

"Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and marquess of 



Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-iaar. 

Mr. C. W. Wynn, president of the India board. 

Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord. Glenelg), board 

of trade. 
Mr. Herries, chancellor of the exchequer. 



Lansdowne, foreign, colonial, d- home secretaries. I Mr. Tieruey, ma-iter of the mint, &c. 

GODFATHERS and Godmothers, first called sponsors. The Jews are said to have had 
them at circumcision ; but there is no mention of them in scripture. Tradition says that 

* Bom 1782 ; held various inferior appointments from 1809 to 1818, when he became president of the 
hoard of trade ; was chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to April, 1827, when he became colonial 
secretary which office he held in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl of Eipon, 1833 ; died 28 Jan. 1859. 

Z 2 



GOD 



340 



GOL 



sponsors were first appointed by Hyginus, a Eoman bishop, about 154, during a time of 
persecution. In Eoman Catholic countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at their 
baptism. 

GODOLPHm ADMINISTRATIONS, 1684 and 1690. The earl of Godolphin became 
prime minister to queen Anne, 8 May, 1702 ; received the treasurer's staff two days after- 
wards. The cabinet was modified in 1704. The earl resigned 8 Aug. 1710, and died 1712 ; 
see Administrations. 



Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury. 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord 

preiident. 
John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby (afterwards 

duke of Normanby and Buckingham), privy seal. 



Hon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Sir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the 

latter succeeded by Robert Harley, created earl of 

Oxford in 1704), secretaries of state. 



GODWIN'S OATH. " Take care you are not swearing Godwin's oath." This caution, 
to a person taking a voluntary and intemperate oath, or making violent protestations, had 
its rise in the following circumstance related by the monks : Godwin, earl of Kent, was tried 
for the murder of prince Alfred, brother of Edward the Confessor, and pardoned, but died at 
the king's table while protesting with oaths his innocence of the murder ; supposed by the 
historians of those times to have been choked with a piece of bread, as a judgment from 
Heaven, having praj'^ed it might stick in his throat if he were guilty of the murder ; 1053. 

GODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east coast of Kent, occupy land which belonged 
to Godwin, earl of Kent, tlie father of king Harold 1 1. This ground was afterwards given to 
the monastery of St. Augustin at Canterbury ; but the abbot neglecting to keep in repair 
tlie wall that defended it from the sea, the tract was submerged "about iioo, leaving these 
sands, upon which many ships have been wrecked. Salmon. 

GOLD, * the purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, from 
the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too soft, 
to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver ; our coin consists of 
twenty-two carats of pure gold, and two of copper. In the early ages no metals were used 
but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold 
wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower standard than formerly ; wedding rings 
excepted, by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (1855). The present stated price is 3Z. 17s. lo^d. per oz. ; 
see Coin of England, and Guineas. 



GOLD COIN. 

First certain record of gold coined in England, 1257 
First regular gold x^ieces struck by Edwd. III. 1344 
The florin struck, and the method of assayiiag 

gold estabUshed, 1354 ; the standard altered, 1527 
All the gold money called in, and re-coined, and 
the first window-tax imposed to defray the 
expense and deficiency in the re-coinage, 

7 Will. Ill 1695 

Twenty-shilling pieces termed Guineas {which 
see) ; guiaeas first coined in 1663 ; reduced in 
ciurency value to 21s. ... 22 Dec. 1717 

Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into 

guineas 1732 

The gold-coin brought into the Mint by pro- 
clamation in 1773-6, amounted to about 
15,563,593?. ; the expense of collecting, melt- 
ing, and recoining it, was 754,019?. 
Act for weighing gold coin passed . 13 Jmie, 1774 
Proclamation for issuing gold 7s. pieces 20 Nov. 1797 

"The quantity of gold that passed through the 
Mint, since the accession of queen EUzabeth to the 
throne, in 1558, to the beginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 
pounds weight, troy. Of this, nearly one-half was 
coined in the reign of George III., namely, 1,593,078 
pounds weight, troy. The value of the gold coined 
in the reign of that sovereign was 74,501,586?." 
Professor Faraday. 

The weight of gold coined in Victoria's reign, from 
June, 1837, to Jan. 1848, was 746,452 lb. ; the value 
of this amount coined was 29,886,457?. Gold 
coined in 1853 (when Austi-alian gold came in), 
12,664,125?.; in 1854, 4,354,201?. ; in 1855, 9,245,264?. ; 
in 1856, 6,476,060?. 



Gold Mines. Gold was found most abundantly in 
Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last 
gold was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from. 
which time to 1731 they imported into Europe 
6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold 
and silver, exclusively of what were unregistered. 

A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to 
sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), 
was found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 1730. 

Gold was discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New 
Andalusia in 1785 ; in Ceylon, iSoo ; 2887 oz. of 
gold, value 9991?., obtained from mines in Britain 
and Ireland in 1864; has been found in Cornwall, 
and in the county of Wicklow in Ireland. 

The Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- 
duced gold in large quantity. 

Gold discovered in CaUfornia, 1847 ; and in Aus- 
tralia, 1851. On 28 April, 1858, a nugget, said to 
weigh 146 pounds, was shown to the queen. It is 
estimated that between 1S51 and 1859 gold to the 
value of 88,889,435?. was e.xported from Victoria 
alone (see California and Australia severally). 

Gold discovered in what is now termed New 
Columbia in 1856 : much emigration there in 1858. 

Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in Nova 
Scotia in 1861. 

Gold obtained in United Kingdom ; value in 
1861, 10,816?. ; in 1862, 20,390?. ; in 1863, 1747?. ; in 
1864, 9991?. ; in 1865, 5S94?. 
Gold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
ounce of gold is sufficient to gild, a silver wire 
above 1300 miles in length ; and such is its tenacity 
that a wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch, 
will bear the weight of 500 lb. without breaking. 
Fourcroy. 



* The amalgamation of gold is described by Phny (about 77) and Vitruvius (about 27 e.g.). The 
alchemist Basil Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with the solution of the chloride of gold 
and fulminating gold. Andreas Cassius in 1685, described the preparation of gold purple, which was then 
adapted by Kunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes. G-melin. Gold has been subjected to the 
researches of eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faraday, up to the present day. 



GOL 341 GOR 

GOLD, continusd. 

A single grain of gold may be extended into a ! been abstracted, and shot substituted, although 

leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can j the boxes bore no marks of violence. Many per- 



be reduced to the 300,000 part of an inch, and 
gilding to the ten-millionth part. Kelly's Cambist. 
Gold Robbert. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, 
containing gold in bars and coin to the value of 
between i8,oooJ. and 2o,oooZ. were sent from Lon- 
don, 15 May, 1855. On their arrival in Paris, it 
■was found that ingots to the value of 12,000!. had 



sons were apprehended on suspicion ; but the 
police obtained no trace till Nov. 1856. Three men 
named Pierce, Burgess, and Tester, were tried and 
convicted 13-15 Jan. 1857, on the evidence of 
Edward Agar, an accomplice. They had been 
preparing for the robbery for eighteen months 
previous to its perpetration. 



GOLD FISH. Brought to England from China in 1691 ; but not common till 1723. 

GOLDEN BULLS, EOSE, see Bulls, Eosc, note. 

GOLDEN FLEECE (see Argo7iauts). Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, at 
his marriage, instituted the military order of " Toiso7i cVor" or "golden fleece;" it was 
said on accoimt of the profit he made by wool. The number of knights was thirty-one. 
The king of Spain afterwards became grand master of the order, as duke of Burgundy. The 
knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with ermine, with a collar opened, and the duke's cipher, 
in the form of a B, to signify Burgimdy, together with flints striking fire, with the motto 
'^Anteferit, quamflamma ■micat." At the end of the collar hung a golden-fleece, with this 
device, " Prctium non vile lahorum." The order afterwards became common to all the 
princes of the house of Austria, as descendants of Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, last 
duke of Burgundy, who married Maximilian of Austria in 1477. The order now belongs to 
both Austria and Spain, in conformity with a treaty made in 1725. 

GOLDEN HORDE, a name given to the Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire 
in Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S.E. Russia, about 1224, their ruler being Baton, grandson 
of Gengis Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander Newski grand-duke, 1252. At 
the battle of Bielawisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and the Nogai Tartars. 

GOLDEN NUMBER, the cycle of nineteen years, or the number that shows the years 
of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, about 432 B.C. Pliny. 
To find the golden nirmber or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the date, and divide by 
19 ; the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder the golden number. 
The golden number for i868, is 7 ; 1869, 8 ; 1870, 9 ; 1871, 10. 

GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London) began about 1327, and incorporated 16 Rich. II., 
1392. The mark or date of the Goldsmiths' company wherewith to stamp standard silver 
and gold wares is made by letters from A to U, changed every year, commenced in 1796. 
The old hall was taken down in 1829, and the present magnificent edifice was opened in 
1835 ; see Assay, and Standard, The first bankers were goldsmiths. 

GOMARISTS, see Arminians. 

GOOD FRIDAY (probably God's Friday), on which a solemn fast has been long held, in 
remembrance of the crucifixion of Christ on Fridaj^ 3 April, 33, or 15 April, 29. Its 
appellation of good appears to be jjeculiar to the church of England ; our Saxon forefathers 
denominated it Long Friday, on account of the length of the offices and fastings enjoined on 
this day. Good Friday, 1868, 10 April ; 1869, 26 March ; 1870, 15 April. 

GOODWIN, see Godtoin. GOODWOOD RACES, see Races. 

GOOJERAT (N. India), see Guzerat. GOOSE, see Michaelmas. 

GORDIAN KNOT, is said to have been made of the thongs that served as harness to 
the waggon of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this 
knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler of Persia. 
Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and 
thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C. 

GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, 
June 2-9, 1780.* 

* On 4 Jan. 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant Association to lord North, and on Friday, 
2 June, headed the mob of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. George's Fields, imder the name of the 
Protestant Association, to carry up a petition to parliament for the repeal of the act which gi-anted certain 
indulgences to the Eoman Catholics. The mob could not be dispersed, and proceeded to pillage, bum, 
and pull down the chapels and houses of the Roman Catholics first, but afterwards of other ijersons ; and 
overcoming the civil piower for nearly six days. The Roman Cathohc chapels and numerous mansions were 
destroyed, the Bank attempted, the gaols opened (the King's Bench, Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell 
prisons). On the 7th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. At length by the aid of armed 
associations of the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the mihtia of several counties, then embodied 
and marched to London, the riot was quelled on the 8th. 210 rioters were killed, and 24S wounded, of 
whom 75 died afterwards in the hos]iitals, and many were tried, convicted and executed. The loss of 
property was estimated at i8o,oooZ. Lord George was tried for high ti-eason, 5 Feb. 1781, and acquitted. 
He died a prisoner for libel, i Nov. 1793. Alderman Kemiett was found guilty of a dereliction of duty, 10 
March, 1781. 



GOR 



342 



GOT 



GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, W. coast of Africa, planted by the Dutch, 3617. It 
was taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; and was ceded to France by the treaty 
of Mmegnen in 1678. Goree was again taken by the British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804. 
Governor Wall, formerly governor of this island, was hanged in London, 28 Jan. 1802, for 
the murder of sergeant Armstrong, committed while at Goree in 1782. 

GOREY (S.E. Ireland). Near here the king's troops under colonel "Walpole were 
defeated, and their leader slain, by the Irish rebels, 4 June, 1798. 

GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very large, varying in size and weight. The 
present' diminutive breast- plate came into use about 1660 ; see Aiinour. 

GORHAM CASE, see Trmfe, 1849. 

GORILLA, a powerful ape of W, Africa, about five feet seven inches high. It is a match 
for the lion, and attacks the elephant with a club. It is considered to be identical with the 
hairy people called Gorullai by the navigator Hanno, in his Periplus, about 400 B.C. In 
1847 a sketch of a gorilla's cranium was sent to Professor Owen by Dr. Savage, then at the 
Gaboon river. Preserved specimens have been recently brought to Europe, and a living one 
died on its voyage to France. In 1859 Professor Owen gave a summary of our knowledge of 
this creature at the Royal Institution, London ; and in 1861 several skins and skulls were 
there exhibited by M. Du Chaillu, who stated that he killed 21 of them in his travels in 
Central Africa. The Gorilla was not known to Cuvier. 

GOSPELLERS, the name given to the followers of "WicklifFe, who first attacked the 
errors of popery, about 1377. WicklifFe opposed the authority of the pope, the temporal 
jurisdiction of bishops, &c., and is called the father of the Reformation. 

GOSPELS (Saxon god-speU, good story). Matthew's and Mark's are conjectured to have 
been written between a..d. 38 and 65 ; Luke's 55 and 65 ;, John's, about 97. Dr. Robert 
Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
Countries, incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's Associates" still exists; its 
object being to assist in forming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. Irenteus in the 
2nd century refers to each of the gospels by name. 

GOSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Royal Clarence victualling yard. The great Haslar 
hospital, near Gosport, was built in 1762. 

GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg-Gotha. Here is published the celebrated 
Almanack de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about the 9th century after Christ, and spread over 
Europe. Its great feature is the pointed arch ; hence it has been suggested to call it the 
pointed style. "Gothic" was originally a term of reproach given to this style by the 
renaissance architects of the i6th centur};-. Its invention has been claimed for several 
nations, particularly for the Saracens. The following list is from Godwin's Chronological 
Table of English Architecture : — 

Anglo-Roman — B.C. 55 to about a.d. 250— St. Mar- 
tin's church, Canterbury. 

Anglo-Saxon — a.d. 800 to 1066 — Earl's Barton 
church ; St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. 

Gothic Anglo-Roman— a.d. 1066 to 1135— Rochester 
cathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfleld ; 
St. Cross, Hants, (fee. 

Early English, or Pointed — a.d. 1135 to 1272 — 
Temple church, London : parts of Winchester, 
Wells, SaUsbury, and Durham cathedrals, and 
Westminster Abbey. 

PoiNTBD, called Pure Gothic — a.d. 1272 to 1377 — 
Exeter cathedral, Waltham Cross, &c., St. Ste- 
phen's, Westminster. 

GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic sea, was conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 ; 
given up to the Danes, 1524 ; to Sweden, 1645 ; conquered by the Danes, 1677, and restored 
to Sweden, 1679. 

GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the country between the Caspian, Pontus, 
Euxine, and Baltic seas. They entered Mcesia, took Philippopolis, massacring thousands of 
its inhabitants; defeated and killed the emperor Decius, 251; but were defeated by 
Claudius, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long 
troubled the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the 
Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained 
their dominion till 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's general. 
The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country 
was subdued by the Saracens. 



Florid Pointed — a.d. 1377 to 1509 — Westminster 
Hall ; King's College, Cambridge ; St. George's 
chapel, Windsor; Henry VII. 's chapel, Westmin- 
ster. 

Elizabethan — a.d. 1509 to 1625— Northumberland 
House, Strand ; Windsor Castle, Hatfield House, 
schools at Oxford. 

Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625, Ban- 
queting House, Whitehall, <fec. 

The revival of Gothic architecture commenced about 
1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. 
Pugin. The controversy as to its expediency was 
rife in 1860-1. 



GOT 



343 



GEA 



GOTTHARD, ST., near the river Raab, Hungary. Here the Turks, under the grand 
vizier Kupriuli, Avere totally defeated by the Imperialists and their allies, commanded by 
Montecuculi, i Aug. 1664. Peace followed this great victory. 

GOTTIISTGEN (Hanover), a member of the Hanseatic league about 1360. The university 
" Georgia Augusta," founded by George II. of England in 1734, was opened 1737. In 1837 
several of the most able professors were dismissed for their political opinions. 

GOVERNESSES' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION, Avas established in 1843, and incor- 
porated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses annuities and an asylum ; and to governesses 
in distress a temporary home and assistance. 

GOVERNMENT Annuities Act, see Annuities. The building of the new Govern- 
ment Offices began in 1861. 

GOWRIE CONSPIRACY. John, earl of Gowrie, in 1600, reckoning on the support of 
the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James VI. of Scotland, and seize the 
government. For this purpose the king was decoyed into Gowrie's house in Perth, on 5 
Aug. 1600. The plot was frustrated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander Ruthven, were 
slain on the spot. At the time, many persons believed that the young men were rather the 
victims than the authors of a plot. Their father, William, was treacherously executed in 
1584 for his share in the raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he and his father, Patrick, were 
among the assassins of Rizzio in 1556. 

GRACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of England, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent 
Gi'ace was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the time of James I. 1603, the king was 
addressed by that title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty only. "Your Grace " is the 
manner of addressing an ai'chbishop and a duke in this reahn. — The term " Grace of God" is 
said to have been taken by bishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from i Cor. xv. 10), by the 
Carlovingian princes in the 9th century, by popes in the 13th century ; and about 1440 it 
was assumed by kings as signifying their divine right. It was taken by the king of Prussia 
in Oct. 1 86 1, and created much adverse comment. 

GRACE at Meat. The ancient Greeks would not partake of any meat until they had 
first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods. . The short prayer said before, and by 
some persons after meat, in all Christian countries, from the earliest times, is in conformity 
with Christ's example, /o/m vi. 11, &c. 

GRjECIA, magna, colonies planted by the Greeks, 974-748 B.C. ; see Ilalij. 

GRAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings found on the walls of Pompeii and other 
Roman ruins : selections were published by Wordsworth in 1837, and by Garrucci in 1856. 

GRAFTON ADMINISTRATION, succeeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. The 
duke resigned, and lord North became prime minister, Jan. 1770 ; see North's Administration. 

Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the 

treasury fljorn, 1735 ; died 1811] 
Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Gower, lord president. 
Earl of Chatham, lord privy seal. 
Earl of Shelbvirne and viscount Weymouth, secretaries 

of state. 
Sir Edward Hawke, first lord of the admiralty. 



Marquess of Gi'anby, master-general of the ordnance. 

Lords Sandwich and Le Despencer,Joini postmasters- 
general. 

Lords Hertford, duke of Ancaster, Thomas Town- 
shend, (fee. 

Lord Camden, lord chancellor, succeeded by Charles 
Yorke (created lord Morden), died (it is said by his 
own hand) 20 Jan. 1770. 

GRAHAM'S DIKE (Scotland), a wall built in 209 by Severus Septimus, the Roman 
emperor, or, as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from the Frith of Forth to the 
Clyde. The eminent historian Buchanan relates tliat there were considerable remains of 
this wall in his time ; and some vestiges of it are to be seen even to this day. 

GRAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a grain of wheat gathered from the middle 
of the ear to be the original standard of weight : 12 grains to be a pennyweight ; 12 penny- 
weights one ounce, and 12 ounces a pound Troy. Laivson. 

GRAMMARIANS. Anciently, the most eminent men in literature were denominated 
grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early as 276 B.C. Blair. 
ApoUodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Cresar, Nieias, ^Elius Donatus, Rem- 
mius, Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenreus, and other distinguished men, were of this 
class. A Greek grammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's Latin grammar (Brevis 
Institutio), 15 13 ; Lindley Murray's English grammar, 1795 ; Cobbett's English grammar, 
1818. — Harris's Hermes was published in 1750, Home Tooke's "Epea Pteroenta," or the 
"Diversions of Purley," in 1786, both excellent treatises on the philosophy of language and 
grammar. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to have been the only purely gi-ammatical orator 
of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, "We threw our whole 
grammatical mind npon it, and could not discover one error. " 



GKA 344 GRA 

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, see Education. GRAMME, see Metrical System. 

GRAMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At Ardocli, near Mons Grampius of Tacitus, 
the Scots and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the Romans under Agricola, 84. 

GRAMPOUND (Cornwall). Per bribery and corrupt practices in this borough, in 1819, 
Several persons were convicted, among them sir Manasseli Lopez, who was sentenced by the 
court of king's bench to a fine of io,oooZ. and two years' imprisonment. Grampound was 
disfranchised in 1 82 1 . 

GRANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by the Moors in the 8th century, and formed 
at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mohammed-al-Hamar made it the capital 
of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous till its subjugation by the 
"great captain," Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. In 1609 and 1610 the industrious Moors 
were expelled from Spain, by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his country, 
Granada was taken by marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812 ; see New Granada. 

GRANARIES were formed by Joseph in Egypt, 1715 B.C. {Genesis xli. 48.) There were 
three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Rome. Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries 
were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two storehouses for seacoal to hold 
4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by great increase of 
inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. Stow. 

GRAND ALLIANCE between Bugland, the emperor, and the States-General (principally 
to .prevent the union of the French and Spanish monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, 
12 May, 1689, to which England, Spain, and the duke of Savoy afterwards acceded. 

GRANDEES, see Spanish Grandees. GRAND-t)UKE, see Buke. 

GRAND JUNCTION CANAL (central England), joins several others, and forms a 
water communication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull. The canal commences 
at Braunston, on the west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters the Thames near London. 
Executed 1793- 1805, 

GRAND JURIES, see Juries. 

GRANDMONTINES, a monastic order, established in Limousin, in France, by Stephen, 
a gentleman of Auvergne, about 1076. It came to England in the reign of Henry I. (iioo- 
35). Tanner. 

GRAND PENSIONARY, a chief state functionary in Holland, in the i6th century. 
In the constitution given by France to the Batavian republic, previously to the erection of 
the kingdom of Holland, the title was revived and given to the head of the government, 29 
April, 1805, Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck being made the grand pensionary ; see Holland, 

GRAND REMONSTRANCE, see Remonstrance. 

GRANICUS (a river, N.W. Asia Minor), near which on 22 May, 334 B.C., Alexander the 
Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse), 
crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Justin. 
The victors lost fifty-five foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and 
Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and otlier great towns submitted to the conqueror. 

GRANSON, near the lake of Neufchatel, Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, 3 March, 1476. 

GRAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward VI. grapes were brought to England in 
large quantities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated about 1276. The vine was 
introduced into England in 1552 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suff'olk. In the gardens 
of Hampton-court palace is a vine, stated to surpass any in Enroj)e ; it is 72 feet by 20, and 
has in one season produced 2272 bunches of grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; tie stem is 13 inches 
in girth ; it was planted in 1 769. Leigh. 

GRAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with 
a trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy 
investigated mto the relations of three forms of carbon, the diamond, graphite, and charcoal. 
A rude kind of black lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. Interesting results of sir 
B. C. Brodie's researches on graphite appeared in the International Exhibition of 1862. 

GRAPHOTYPE, a new process for obtaining blocks for surface-printing, the invention 
of Mr. De "Witt Clinton Hitchcock in i860. It was described by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the 
Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 1.865. Drawings are made on blocks of chalk with a silicious ink ; 
when dried, the soft parts are brushed away, and the drawing remains in relief ; stereotypes 
are then taken from the block. 

GRATES. The Anglo-Saxons had arched hearths, and chafing-dishes were in use until 
the introduction of chimneys about 1200 ; see Chimneys, and Stoves. 



GRA 



345 



GRE 



GRAVELINES (N. France). Here the Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the 
French on 13 Jnly, 1558. 

GRAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and also by 
Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. Kepler investigated the 
subject about 1615 ; and Hooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. The principles 
of gravity were demonstrated by Galileo at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law on this 
subject, laid down by Newton in his "Principia, " in 1687, is said to have been proved by 
him in 1670." 

GREAT BETHEL, see Big Bethel. 

GREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1604 to England, Wales, and Scotland {which see). 

GREAT BRITAIN, EASTERN, &c., see under Steam.— 1]xq Eastern Counties Railway 
assumed the name of Great Eastern in 1862.— The Great Northern Railway Company 
was incorporated in 1846. Their station at King's-cross, London, was opened in Oct. 1852. 
— The Great Western Railway, between Loudon and Bristol, was opened 30 June, 1841. 

GREAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first seal used by Edward the Confessor was called 
the broad seal, and affixed to grants of the crown, 1048. Baker''s Chron. The most ancient 
seal with arms on it is that of Richard I. James II., when fleeing from London in 1688, 
droj)ped the great seal in the Thames. The great seal of England was stolen fi-ora the 
house of lord cbaucellor Thurlow, in Great Ormond-street, into which some thieves broke, 
and carried it away, with other property, 24 March, 1784, a day before the dissolution of 
pai'liament ; it was never recovered. It was replaced on the next day. A new seal was 
brought into use on the union with Ireland, i Jan. 1801. A new seal for Ireland was 
brought into use and the old one defaced, 21 Jan. 1832. 

GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The Greeks are said to have been the progeny of 
Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from a very ancient king named Grsecus, 
and from another king, Hellen, the son of Deucalion, the people were called Hellenes. From 
Hellen's sons, Dorus and /Eolus, came the Dorians and ^olians ; another son Xuthus was 
father of Achfeus and Ion, the progenitors of the Achaeans and loniaus. Homer calls the 
inhabitants indifl"erently Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were termed Danai, 
from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the 
Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, Thessaly, and the islands.- The principal 
states of Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Arcadia, and afterwards Macedon 
{all which see). The limits of modern Greece are much more confined. Greece became 
subject to the Turkish empire in the 15th century. The population of the kingdom, 
established in 1829, 96,810 : in 1861, with the Ionian isles (added in 1864), about 1,326,000. 



Sicyon founded (ffitse^iiis) .... B.C. 2089 
Uranus arrives in Greece (lenff^ei). . . . 2042 
Revolt of the Titans ; War of tlie Giants . . * * 

Inaohus king of the Argives 1910 

Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusehins) . . . 1856 
Reign of Ogyges in Boaotia (Easebiun) . . . 1796 
Sacrifices tc the gods introduced by Phoroneus 1773 
The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550; 
succeeded by the Hellenes . . . 1550-1300 

Sicyon now begun (Xe))(7/cJ) 1773 

Deluge of Ogyges (?c/iic/i sfc) .... 1764 
A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 
CEnotrus : the country flcst called (Enotria, 
afterwards Magna Gracia (Eusehiui) . . . 
Chronology of the Arundelian marbles com- 
mences {Ev.ubius) 

Cecrops arrives from Egypt . . . about 
Deluge of Deucalion (Eunebius) .... 
Panathen;«in games instituted . . . . 
Cadmus with the Phojnician letters settles in 

Bceotia, and founds Thebes . . about 1493 
Lele.K, fu-st king of Laconia, afterwards called 

Sparta ... 1490 

Danaus said to have brought the first ship into 
Greece, and to have introduced pumps (see 

Argos) 1485 

Eeign of Hellen (Eusebius) 1459 

First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, by the 
Idmi Dacii/li, 1453 : who are said to have dis- 
covered iron 1406 

Coi'inth re-built and so named . . . . 13S4 



1710 



1550 
1503 
1495 



Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus 

(1356) and Isthmian games . . . B.C. 1326 
Kingdom of Mycenfe created out of Argos . . 1313 
Pelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece, 

(Peloponnesus) about 1283 

Argonautic exijedition {which see) . . . . 1263 
The Pythian games begun by Adrastus . . ,, 
War of the seven Greek captains against Thebes 1225 

The Amazonian war 1213 

Rape of Helen by Theseus ,, 

Rape of Helen by Paris 1198 

Commencement of the Trojan war . . . 1193 
Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 
7th of the mouth Thargelion (27th of May, oi 

nth June) 1184 

iEneas said to arrive in Italy . . .about 11 82 
Migration of iEolians who build Smyrna, <fec. . 1123 
Return of the Heraclidaj . . . about 1 103 
Settlement of the lonians in Asia Minor . . 1044 
The Rhodians begin navigation laws . . . gi6 

Lycurgus flourishes 846 

Olympic games revived at Elis, 8S4 ; the first 

Olympiad 776 

The Messenian wars 743-669 

Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corm- 
thians and the inhabitants of Oorcyra . . 664 

Byzantium built 657 

Seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pit- 
tacus, Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) 

flourish about 590 

Persian conquests in Ionia 544 



* On IS July, 1867, M. Chasleslaid before the Paris academy of sciences some letters alleged to be from 
Newton to Pascal and others tending to ^how that to Pascal was due the theory of gravitation. The 
authenticity of these letters was authoritatively denied. 



GEE 



346 



GEE 



GREECE, continued. 

Sybaris in Magna Grsecia destroyed: 100,000 Cro- 

tonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites B.C. 508 
Sardis burnt by the Greeks, wliicb occasions 
the Persian invasion, 504 ; Thrace and Mace- 
donia conquered 496 

Athens and Sparta resist the demands of the 

king of Persia 491 

The Persians defeated at Marathon . 28 Sept. 490 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at 

Thermopylaj by Leonidas . . Aug. 480 
Battle of Salaniis {which see) . . .20 Oct. ,, 
Mardonius defeated and slain at Platiea ; Per- 
sian fleet destroyed at Mycale . 22 Sept. 479 
Battle of Eurymedon (end of Persian war) . . 466 
Atheiis begins to tyrannise over Greece . . 459 

TTie sacred war begun 448 

War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra . 435 
Leads to the Peloponnesian war . . 431-404 
Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413 
Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon . . . 400 

Death of Socrates 399 

The sea-fight at Cnidus 394 

The peace of Antalcidas 387 

Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece 370-360 
Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas. . 362 
Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . 353 
Sacred wars ended by Philip, who takes all the 

cities of the Phooeans 348 

Battle of Chseronea {which see) .... 338 
Philip assassinated by Pausanias . . . . 335 
Alexander, his son, subdues the Athenians, and 

destroys Thebes ,, 

Alexander conquers the Persian empire . 334-331 
Greece harassed by his successors ; the iEtolian 

and Achaian leagues revived . . . 284-280 
Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are 

defeated at Delphi, 279 ; and expelled . . 277 
Dissensions lead to Roman intervention . . 200 
Greece conquered by Mummius and made a 
Roman province . . .... 147-146 

* * * » * 

Greece visited and favoured by Augustus, 
21 B.C. ; and by Hadrian. . . a.d. 122-133 

Invaded by Alaric 396 

Plundered by the Normans of Sicily . . .1146 
Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into 

small governments 1204 

The Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens 

and part of Greece 1456 

The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . . 1466 
All Greece subject to the Turks. . . . 1340 
Great struggle for independence with Russian 
help; 1770 et seq., fruitless insurrection of 

the Suliotes 1803 

Secret Society, the Hetairia, established . . 1815 
Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in 

which the Greeks join, suppressed . . . 1821 
Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off 
the Turkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the 
standard of the cross against the crescent 
and the war of independence began, 6 April, ,, 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Constanti- 
nople 23 April, ,, 

Missolonghi taken by Greeks . . . Nov. ,, 
Independence of Greece proclaimed . 27 Jan. 1822 
Siege of Corinth by the Turks . . . Jan. ,, 
Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most 
horrible massacre recorded in modem history 

(see Chios) April, „ 

The Greeks victors at Thermopylae, &c. July, ,, 

Massacre at Cyprus July, ,, 

National congress at Argos . . .10 April, .1823 
Victories of Marco Botzaris, June ; killed Aug. „ 
Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself 
to its cause . . ... . Aug. , , 

First Greek loan . ... . . Feb. 1824 

Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi . 19 April, ,, 
Defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at Samos, 16 Aug. „ 
Provisional governmentof Greecesetup, 12 Oct. ,, 
Ibrahim Pacha lands, 25 Feb. ; takes Navarino 
and ravages Greece . . . .23 May, 1825 



The Greek fleet defeats the Capitan Pacha, Jime, 1825 
The provisional government invite the protec- 
tion of England July, ,, 

Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, 

after a long heroic defence . . 23 April, 1826 
7o,oooJ. raised in Europe for the Greeks . . ,, 
Reschid Pacha takes Athens . . 2 June, 1827 
Egypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino, 

20 Oct. ,, 
Treaty of London,between Great Britain, Russia, 

and France, on behalf of Greece, signed 6 July, , , 
Count Capo d'Istria president of Greece, 18 Jan. 1828 
The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State 

established .2 Feb. ,, 

National bank founded ... 14 Feb. „ 
Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir 
Edward Codrington, for the evacuation of 
the Morea, and delivery of captives . 6 Aug. ,, 
Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the 

French 6 Oct. ,, 

The Turks evacuate the Morea . . . Oct. ,, 
Missolonghi surrenders ... 16 May, 1829 
Greek National Assembly commences its sit- 
tings at Argos 23 July, ,, 

The Porte acknowledges the independence of 

Greece in the treaty of Adrianople 14 Sept. ,, 
Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty 21 May, 1830 
Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, assas- 
sinated by the brother and son of Mavromi- 
chaelis, a Mainote chief whom he had im- 
prisoned, 9 I Oct. ; the assassins were im- 
mured within close brick walls, built around 
them up to their chins, and supplied with 
food until they died ... 29 Oct. 1831 
Otho of Bavaria made king of Greece 7 May, 1S32 
Colocotroni's consxDiracy . . . Sept. ,, 
Otho I. assumes the government . i June, 1835 
University at Athens established, 1837 ; build- 
ing commenced 1839 

A bloodless revolution at Athens is consum- 
mated, establishing a new constitution, en- 
forcing ministerial responsibility and na- 
tional representation ... 14 Sept. 1843 
The king accepts the new constitution March, 1844 
Admiral Parker, in command of the British 
Mediterranean fleet, blockades the harbour 
of the Pirajus, the Greek government having 
refused the payment of moneys due to British 
subjects, and to surrender the islands of 
Sapienza and Caprera . . . 18 Jan. 1850 
France interposes her good offices, and the 

blockade is discontinued . . i March, ,, 
Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of 

Athens is renewed . . . . 25 April, ,, 
Dispute with France accommodated 21 June, ,, 
Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and 
Epirus, favoured by the Greek court Jan. 
and Feb. ; lead to a rupture between Greece 

and Turkey 28 March, 1854 

After many remonstrances, the English and 
French governments send troops which 
arrive at the Pii-a?us ; change of ministry 
ensues, and the king promises to observe a 
strict neutrality . . . 25, 26 May, „ 

A newspaper in the modern Greek language 

printed in London, beginning . . 9 July, i860 
Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
with the Greek government respecting its 

debts 18 Oct. „ 

Agitation in the Ionian isles for annexation to 

Greece; the parliaraent prorogued . March, 1861 
The king retires to Bavaria . . . July, ,, 
Attempted assassination of the queen byDarios, 

an insane student . . . .18 Sept. ,, 
Great earthquake in the Peloponnesus, 26 Dec. ,, 
Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the 

throne Jan. 1862 

Military revolt begins at Nauplia . 13 Feb. ,, 
Blockade of the coast decreed . 9 March, ,, 

The insui-gents demand reforms and. a new 
succession to the throne . . . April, ,, 



GRE 



347 



GRE 



GREECE, continued. 

The royal troops enter the citadel of Nauplia ; 
insurgents removed . . . .25 April, 

Change of ministi-y : Colocotroni becomes 
premier 7 June, 

Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 
i70ct. ; a provisional government, established 
at Athens, deposes the kmg, 22 Oct. ; he and 
the queen fly ; arrive at Corfu, 27 Oct. ; the 
European powers neutral; general submis- 
sion to provisional government . . 31 Oct. 

Great demonstrations in favour of jjrince 
Alfred, who is proclaimed king at Lamia in 
Phthiotis, 22 Mov. ; great excitement in his 
favoiir at Athens .... 23 Nov. 

The provisional government estabUsh universal 
suffrage 4 Dec. 

The national assembly meets at Athens 22 Deo. 

The national assembly elects M. Balbis presi- 
dent, 29 Jan. ; and declares prince Alfred of 
England elected king of Greece by 230,016 
out of 241,202 votes . . . . 3 Feb. 

Military revolt of Ueut. Canaris against Bul- 
garis and others, who resign, 20 Feb. ; a new 
ministry appointed under Balbis 23 Feb. 

The assembly decides to oiler the crown to 

prince WiUiam of Schleswig-Holstein, 18 

March, proclaim him as king George I. 

30 March, 

Protocol between the three protecting powers, 
France, England, and Russia, signed at 
London, consenting to the offer of the crown 
on condition of the annexation of the Ionian 
isles to Greece .... 5 June, 

The king of Denmark accepts from the aged 
admiral Canai'is the Greek crown for prince 
William, and advises him to adhere to the 
constitution and endeavour to gain and pre- 
serve the love of his people . . 6 June, 

MUitary revolt at Athens, suppressed 30 June- 

The king arrives at Athens, 30 Oct. ; takes the 

oath to the constitution . . 31 Oct. 

The Balbis muiistry formed . . , April, 



1864 



Protocol annexing the Ionian isles to Greece, 
signed by AL Zaimis and sir H. Storks, May 
28 ; the Greek troops occupy Corfu, 2 June ; 
the king arrives there . . .6 June, 

New ministry under Cauaris formed . 7 Aug. 

The assembly recognises the debt of 1S24, 5 Sept. 

After much delay, and a remonstrance from the 
king, ig Oct. a new constitution (with no 
upper-house) is passed by the assembly, i 
Nov. ; and accepted by the king . 28 Nov. 

New ministry imder Coumoundouros, 29 March, 

The anniversary of the beginning of the war of 
independence (6 April, 1821) kept with enthu- 
siasm 6 April, 

The king visits the eastern provinces ; general 
tranquillity 20 April, 

The king opens chamber of deputies 9 June, 

Death of Ale.x:ander Mavrocordato, one of the 
early patriots .... 18 Aug. 

The king gives up one-third of his civil list to 
relieve the treasury . . . .23 Sept. 

An economical financial policy proposed; a 
new ministry formed .... Nov. 

Brigandage prevails ; frequent ministerial 
changes under Deligeorges, Comoundouros, 
Bulgaris, and Boufos . Oct. i86s-June, 

New ministry under Bulgaris and Koufos, 

23 Jan. 

Chambers vote payments to themselves ; 
suddenly dissolved by the king 3 Feb. 

Great agitation in favour of the Cretan insur- 
rection (see Candia) . . . Aug. -Dec. 

New ministry headed by Comoundouros Jan. 

Manifesto of the so named " Greek nation," 
issued at Paris 19 April, 

Great sympathy with the insun-ection in 
Candia ; the blockade run by Greek vessels 
with volunteers, arms, and provisions, April, 

et seq. 

Cordial reception of the king and queen at 
Athens 24 Nov. 

New ministry mider Moraitini, i Jan. ; under 
Bulgaris Feb. 



1864 



1865 



KINGS OF GREECE. 



1863. George I., king of the Hellenes; born, 24 Dec. 
1845 ; accepted the crown, 6 June, 1863 ; de- 
clared of age, 27 June ; married grand-duch- 
ess Olga of Russia, 27 Oct. 1867. 



1832. Otho I., prince of Bavaria ; born, i June, 1S13 ; 
elected king, 7 May, 1832 ; under a regency 
till I June, 1S35 ; married, Nov. 22, 1836, to 
Maria Frcderica, daughter of the grand-duke 
of Oldenburg; deposed, 23 Oct. 1862; died 
in Bavaria, 26 July, 1867. 

GREEK ARCHITECTURE, see ArcUteclure. 

GREEK CHURCH, or Eastern church. Some of its forms and ceremonies are similar 
to those of the Roman church ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope, and is strongly 
opposed to many of the doctrines and practices of its rival. It is the established religion of 
Russia and Greece. The Greek orthodox confession of faith appeared in 1643 ; see Fathers 
of the Church. 



Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, 

Clemens, &c.) 180-254 

Rise of monachism .... about 300 
Foimdation of the chiu-ches of Armenia, about 

300; of Georgia or Iberia .... 318 
First council of Nice (see Council) . . . 325 
Ulphilas preaches to the Goths . . about 376 
Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus 431 
Monophysite controversy ; churches of Figypt, 
Syria, and Armenia, sepai-ate from the church 

of Constantinople 461 

Close of the school of Athens ; extinction of 

the Platonic theology 529 

The Jacobite sect estabUshed in Syria by 

Jacobus Baradiieus 54r 

The struggle with the Mahometans begins . 634 
The Maronite sect begins to prevaU . about 676 



The Paulicians severely persecuted . . . 6go 
Iconoclastic controversy begins . ' . about 726 
Pope Gregory II. cxcommuuicatcs the emperor 
Leo, which leads to the separation of the 
Eastern (Greek) and Western (Roman) 

churches 729 

Foundation of the church in Russia : conver- 
sion of princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir . . 988 
The Maronitcs join the Roman church . . 1182 
Re-union of the churches at the council of 

Lyons, 1274 ; again sejMi-atei . . . . 1277 
The patriarchate of Moscow est.ablished, 1582 ; 

suppresed in 1762 

The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constan- 
tinople and 4 p itriarchates, visits London on 
behalf of the Greek clergy in the Danubian 
principalities, in 1863 



GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition (now unknown, but thought to have been 
principally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have been invented by Calliuicus, an 



GEE 



348 



GEE 



ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syi'ia, in the 7th century, in order to destroy the 
Saracens' ships, ^^hich was etlected hy the general of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, and 
30,000 men were killed. A so-called "Greek hre," probably a solution of phosphorus in 
Li-sulpliide of carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, U.S., in Sept. 1863. 

GEEEK LANGUAGE. The study was revived in western Europe about 1450 ; in 
France, 1473 ; "William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, an English professor of this language, intro- 
duced it at Oxford, about 149 1, where he taught Erasmus, who himself taught it at Cambridge 
in 15 10. Wood's Atlmi. Oxon. England has produced many eminent Greek scholars, of 
whom maybe mentioned Eichard Bentley, died 1742 ; professor Eichard Porson, died 1808 ; 
Dr. Samuel Parr, died 1825 ; and Dr. Charles Burney, died 1817. 



Homer flourished abt. B.C. 
Hesiod . . about 



Anacreon . 

.35schylus . 

Herodotus 

Pindar 

Aristophanes 

Euripides . 

Sophocles 

Thucydides 

Senophon 



about 



962-027 

850 

572 

SS9 

525-456 

443 

522-439 

427 

4S0-406 

495-405 

470-404 

443-359 



Plato . 


• B.C. 429-347 


Isocrates 


■ • 436-338 


Aristotle . 


• 384-322 


Demosthenes 


. . 382-322 


Menander . 


about 321 


.aischines 


• ■ 389-314 


Theocritus 


about 272 


Epicurus 


. . 342-270 


Theophrastus 


287 


Archimedes . 


. . 287-212 


Polybius . 


. 207-122 


Diodorus 


B.C. 50-A.D. 13 



Strabo . . . . a.d. 10 
Dionysius Halicarnassus, abt. 30 
Plutarch . . . about 96 
Epictetus . . about 118 
Appian . . . about 147 
Arrian . . . about 148 
Athenseus . . . about 194 
Lucian . . . about 120-200 
Herodian . ■ . . about 204 
Longinus . . . dies 273 
Julian, emperor . . 331-363 
(See Fathers, and Philosophy.) 



GEEENBACKS, a name given, from the colour of some notes, to the paper currency 
first issued by the United States government, in 1862 — sums as low as l\d., 2^d., and 5^^., 
&c. were represented^ — the precious metals being exceedingly scarce. 

GEEEK-BAG INQUIEY took its name from a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged 
seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, Eeb. 18^7. Secret committees presented 
their reports, 19 Feb: ; and bills were brought in on the 21st to suspend the Habeas Corpus 
act, and prohibit seditious meetings then frequent. 

GEEEN-CLOTH, Boarp of, in the department of the lord-steward of the household, 
included an ancient court (abolished in 1849), which had jurisdiction of all offences com- 
mitted in the verge of the court. 

GEEEITLAND, an extensive Danish colony in north America, discovered by Icelanders, 
under Eric Eaude, about 980, and named from its verdure. It was visited by Frobisher in 
1576. The first ship from England to Greenland was sent for the whale-fishery by the 
Muscovy company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left 
behind by accident, who suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when the 
company's ships brought them home. Tindal. The Greenland Fishing company was 
incorporated in 1693. — Hans Egede, a Danish missionary, founded a new colony, called 
Godhaah, or Good Hope, in 1720-3 ; and other missionary stations have been since 
established. Scoresby surveyed Greenland in 1821 ; and capt. Graah, by order of the king 
of Denmark, in 1829-30. 

GEEENOCK ("W". Scotland). Charters were granted in 1635 and 1670 to John Shaw, 
of the barony of Greenock. It was a fishing station till 1697, when the Scottish Indian and 
African company resolved to erect salt-works in the Frith, and thus drew the attention of 
sir John Shaw, its superior, to its maritime advantages. It was made a burgh of barony in 
1757, and a parliamentary burgh in 1832. The erection of the new quay was entrusted, 
about 1773, to James Watt, who was born here in 1736. The East India harbour was built 
1805-19, and Yictoria harbour 1846-50. 

GEEEN PAEK (near Buckingham palace, London), forms a part of the ground enclosed 
by Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's and Hyde-parks by the road named 
Constitution-hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington statue was placed in 1846. 
On the north side was a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, filled up in 1856. 

GEEENWICH HOSPITAL stands on the site of a royal residence erected in the reign 
of Edward I. and much enlarged by his successors. Here were born Henry VIII., his 
daughters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son Edward VI. died. Charles II. intended to 
build a new palace here, and accordingly erected one wing of the edifice, but died before any 
other part was finished. AVilliam III. and Marj' converted the palace into a hospital for 
seamen, 1694, and added new buildings, 1696. 100 disabled seamen were admitted in 1705. 
The estates of the attainted earl of Derwentwater (beheaded in 1716) were bestowed iipon it. 
Sixpence per mouth was to be contributed by every seaman, and the payment was advanced 
to one shilling, from June, 1797. The payment was abolished in 1829, and that of "the 
Merchant seamen's" sixpence also in 1834. This hospital had lodging for 2710 in 1853, 
and a revenue of aboiit i5o,oooZ. per annum. A charter was granted to the commissioners, 



GRE 349 GRE 

6 Dec. 1775. The cliapel, the great dining-hall, aud a large portion of the buildings appro- 
priated to the pensioners, were destroyed by lire, 2 Jan. 1779. The chapel M^as rebuilt in 
1789. — Grcenwidh fair was discontinued, April, 1S57. By the provisions of an act of 
parliament, about 900 indoor pensioners received additions to their pensions, and about 
I Oct. 1865, quitted the hospital, which is to be henceforth used as an intirinary ; a portion 
was granted for the use of the seamen's hospitals in 1867. The oliice of the commissioners 
was abolished in 1865. Reported annual income, 1867, 155,532?. 

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir 
Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamsteed-hill, so called from the first 
astronomer-ro3'-al. The building was founded, 10 Aug. 1675, and Flamsteed commenced his 
residence, 10 July, 1676. In 1S52, an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand was 
completed, and put in connection with Greenwich observatory. 

AS'iRONOMERS-ROYAL. I Nevil Mixskelyne 1765 

John Flamsteed 1675 John Fond .....*... i8ii 

Edmund Halley *. 1719 George Biddell Airy 1835 

James Bradley 1742 (Under whose superintendence the apparatus 

Nathaniel Bliss 1762 I have beea greatly increased and improved.) 

GREGORIAN CALENDAR, see Calendar, and Now %Ze.— Gregorian Chant 
received its name from pope Gregory I., who improved the Ambrosian chant, about 590. 

GRENADA, see Granada, and Neiv Granada. 

GRENADE, an explosive missile, so named from granada, Spanish, invented in 1594. 
It is a small hollow globe, or ball, of ii'ou, about two inches in diameter, which is tilled with 
fine powder and set on fire by a fusee at a touchhole. 

GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a company armed with a pouch of hand- 
grenades, established in France in 1667 ; and in England in 1685. Brown. 

GRENOBLE (the Roman Gratianopolis), S.E. France. Here Napoleon was received on 
his return from Elba, 8 March, 1815, and here he issued three decrees. 

GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. The first succeeded the Bute administration, in 
April, 1763; and resigned in July, 1765, 



sively by its opi^onents. The death of Mr. Fox, 
13 Sept. iSo5, led to changes, and eventually 
the cabinet resigned, 25 March, 1807 : — 

Lord GrenviUe, Jicst lord of the treasury. 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquess of Lans- 
downe), chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl FitzwilUam, lord president. 

Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privi/ seal. 

Charles James Fox, foreign secretary. 

Earl Spencer, home secretary. 

Wniiani Windham, colonial secretary. 

Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. 

Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and 
earl Grey), admiralty. 

Lord Slinto, board of control. 

Lord Auckland, board of trade. 

Lord Moira, master-general of the ordnance. 

R. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. 

Richard Fitzpatrick, &c. 

Lord Ellenborough (lord chief justice), had a S3atin 
the cabinet. 



George Grenville (born 1712, died 1770), first lord 

of the treasury and chaiicellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), 

lord president. 
Duke of Marlborough, privy seal. 
Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. 
Earl Gower, lord chamberlain. 
Earl of Egmont, admiralty. 
Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
Lord Holland (late Mr. Fox), paymaster: 
Welbore Ellis, secretary-at-war. 
Viscount Barrhigton, treasurer oftJie navy. 
Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 
Lord Henley (;if terwards earl of Northington), lord 

chancellor. 
Duke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, &c. 

Second Grenville administration, formed after 
the death of Mr. Pitt, on 23 Jan. 1806. From 
the ability of many of its members, their friends 
said it contained "all the talents, wisdom, and 
ability of the country," a term applied to it deri- 

GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), established by sir Thomas Gresham in 1575, founder 
of the Royal Exchange. He left a portion of his property in trust to the City and the 
Mercers' Company to endow this college for lectures in divinity, astronomy, music, geometry, 
civil law, j)hysic, and rhetoric ; he died 21 Nov. 1579. The lectures, commenced in 
Gresham's house, near Broad-street, Juue, 1597 (where the founders of the Roj\al Society 
first met in 1645). The buildings were pulled down in 1768, and the Excise-office erected 
on its site. The lectures were then read in a room over the Royal Exchange 'for 
many years : on the rebuilding of the present exchange, the Gresham committee erected the 
present building in Basmghall-street, which was designed by G. Smith, and opened for 
lectures, 2 Nov. 1S43. It cost above joool. 

GRETNA GREEN (Dumfries, S. Scotland, near the border). Here runaway marriages 
were contracted for many years, as Scotch law ruled that an acknowledgment before 
witnesses made a legal marriage. John Paisley, a tobacconist, and termed a blacksmith, 
who officiated from 1760, died in 18 14. His first residence was at Megg's HiU, on the common 
or green betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to the last of which villages he removed in 1782. 
A man named Elliot was lately the principal officiating person. The General Assembly, in 



GRE 



350 



GUA 



Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 
1830, lord Glenelg), boards of trade and control. 

Lord Holland, chancellor of ducliy of Lancaster. 

Lord John Eussell, ■paymaster of tlie forces. 

Duke of Eichmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, &c 

E. G. Stanley (afterwards earl of Derby), colonial 
secretary, March, 1833. 



1826, in vain attempted to suppress this system ; but an act of parliament, passed in 1856, 
made these marriages illegal after that year, unless one of the persons married had lived in 
Scotland 21 days. 

GREY ADMIMSTRATION succeeded the Wellington administration, in Nov. 1830. 
It carried the Reform bill {which see), and terminated July, 1834. 

Earl Grey,* first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 

Viscount Althorjae, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, president of the council. 

Earl of Durham, privy seal. 

Viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, 

home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Sir James Graham, admiralty. 

GREY ERJARS, see Christ' s' Hospital GREYTOWIST, see Mosquito Coast. 

GRISONS, a Swiss Canton ; see Caddee. It was overrun by the French in 1798 and 
1799. The ancient league was abolished, and the Grisous became a member of the Helvetic 
confederation. 

GRIST-TAX (imposta sul macinato). Principle of the tax adopted by the Italian Parlia- 
ment I April, 1868. 

GROAT, from the Dutch groat, value of fourpence, was the largest silver coin in England 
until after 135 1. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 to the value of 70,884?. ; in 1837, 
16,038?. ISTone have been coined since 1861. 

GROCERS anciently meant "ingrossers or monopolisers," as appears by a statute 
37 Edw. III. 1363 : " Les marchauntz nomez engrossent totes maners de merchandises 
vendables." The Grocers' company, one of the twelve dhief companies of London, was 
established in 1345, and incorporated in 1429. 

GROCHOW, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw. Here took place a desperate conflict 
between the Poles and Russians, 19, 20 Feb. 1831, the Poles remaining masters of the field 
of battle. The Russians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take 
Warsaw. They are said to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000 ; see also Poland, 1861. 

GROG, sea-term for rum and water, derived its name from admiral Edward Vernon, who 
wore grogram breeches, and was hence called "Old Grog." About 1745, he ordered his 
sailors to dilute their rum with water. + 

GUADALOUPE, a West India Island, discovered by Columbus in 1493. The French 
took possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. Taken by the English in 1759, and 
restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. The allies, in order 
to allure the Swedes into the late coalition against France, gave them this island. It was, 
however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France at the peace in 1814. 

GUAD-EL-RAS (E".W. Africa). Here the Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 23 
March, i860, after a severe conflict : general Prim manifested great bravery, for which he 
was ennobled. The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th. 

GUANO or HuANO (the Peruvian term for manure), the excrement of sea-birds that 
swarm on the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and of Africa and Australia. It is mentioned by 
Herrera in 1601, and Garcilasso stated that the birds were protected by the incas. Humboldt 
was one of the first by whom it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its value in 
agriculture. The importation of guano into the United Kingdom appears to hav^e com- 
menced in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of which 207,679 tons came from the 
western coast of Africa) ; 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons came from Western 
Australia) ; 131,358 tons in 1864 ; 237,393 tons in 1865 ; 135,697 tons in 1866. 

GUARANTEES. The " Guarantee by Companies act," relating to the security by 
means of sureties required for persons employed in the public service, was passed 20 Aug. 
1867 (30&31 Vict. c. 108). 

GUARDS. The custom of having guards is said to have been introduced by Saul, 
1093 B.C. 

Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of I Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 
England, 2 Henry VII. 1485. | The three regiments, ist, 2nd, and 3rd Foot Guards 



* Born 13 March, 1764; M.P., as Charles Grey, in 1786; first lord of the admiralty and afterwards 
foreign secretary in 1806; resigned in 1806 on account of his favouring Eoman Catholic emancipation; 
died 17 July, 1845. 

t He did great service in the "West Indies, by taking Portobello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement 
with the commander of the land forces, the expedition against Carthagena in 1741, is said to have failed. 
He was dismissed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking the admiralty; he died 30 Oct. 1757. 



GUA 351 GUI 



GUARDS, continued. 

■were raised in 1660, and the command of them 
given to colonel Russell, general Monk, and lord 
Linlithgow. Tlie 2nd regiment, or Coldstream, 
was the first raised ; see Coldstream. These 
gaiards were the beginning- of our standing army. 
The 'Horse Grenadier guards first ti'oop, raised in 
1693, was commanded by general Cholmondely ; 
the second troop was raised in 1702, and was com- 



manded by lord Forbes ; this corps was reduced in 

1783, the officers retiring on full pay. 
Guards' Institute, Francis-street, Vanxhall-bridge 

road ; reading and lecture rooms, <fec., for all officers 

and soldiers in the metropolis ; inaugurated by the 

duke of Cambridge, 11 July, 1867. 
See Horse Guards, Yeoman, National, and Imperial 

Guards. 



GUASTALLA, a city, N". Italy, near wliich the imperial army, commanded by the king 
of Sardinia, was defeated by the French, 19 Sept. 1734. The ancient duchy, long held by 
the dukes of Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 1746, and ceded to Parma, 
1748. After having been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and subjected to other 
changes, it was annexed to Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. 

GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America, declared independent 21 March, 1847. 
President (1862), general Eaphael Carrera, elected 1851 ; appointed for life, 1854; died 14 
April, 1865 ; succeeded by Vincent Cerna, 3 May, 1865. A war between Guatemala and 
San Salvador broke out in Jan. 1863 ; and on 16 June the troops of the latter were totally 
defeated. Population (1865), about 1,180,000. 

GUEBRES, see Parsces. 

GUELPHIG ORDER of knighthood was instituted for Hanover by the prince regent, 
afterwards George IV., 12 Aug. 181 5. 

GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES, names given to the papal and imperial factions who 
destroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of the 15th centurj^ (the invasion of 
Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The origin of the names is ascribed to the contest for the 
imperial crowoi between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, lord of Wiblingen (hence 
Ghibelin), and Henry nephew of Welf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. The former 
"was successful ; but the popes and several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie 
G^ielf and Hie Gibelin are said to have been used as war-cries in 1 140, at a battle before 
Weinsberg, in Wurtemberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated by the emperor Conrad IV. 
who came to help the rival duke Leopold.* The Ghibelines were almost totally expelled 
from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles 
of Anjou. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England ; see Brunswick, and 
Hanover. 

GUERNSEY, see Jersey. 

GUEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte de Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant 
deputies from the Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode and Louis of Nassau, who 
petitioned Margaret, governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the inquisition, 5 April, 1566. 
The deputies at once assumed the name as honourable, and immediately organised an armed 
resistance to the government ; see Holland. 

GUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), visited by the Spaniards in the i6th century ; 
explored by sir Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French settlements here were formed 
in 1626-43 ; ^i'^^ the Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara and Essequibo were ceded to Great Britain 
in 1814 ; see Demerara. 

GUIDES, a corps in the French arm}"-, especiall}'' charged with the protection of the 
person of the general, was formed by Bessieres, under the direction of Bonaparte, wlio had 
been nearly carried off bj'' the enemy, 30 May, 1796. Several squadrons of "guides" were 
formed in 1848, to guard the ministers. They now form a portion of the imperial guurd. 

GUIENNE, a French province, was part of the dominions of Henry II. in right of his wife 
Eleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately 
held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vain 
attempted to retake it from the latter. 

GUILDHALL (London), was built in 141 1. When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the 
great fire of 1666, no part of the ancient building remained, except the interior of the porch 
and the Avails of the hall. The front was erected in 1789 ; and a new roof built, 1864-5. 
Beneath the west window are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to represent a 
Saxon and an ancient Briton. The hall can contain 7000 persons, and is used for city 
feasts. Here were entertained the allied sovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III., 19 April, 
1855 ; and here the city industrial exhibition was opened, 6 March, 1866, and the Inter- 
national Botanical banquet, 22 May, 1866. 

* It is stated, traditionally, that the emperor condemned all the men to death, but permitted the 
women to bring out whatever they most valued ; on which they carried out their husbands on their 
shoulders. 



GUI 



352 



GUN 



GUILDS (of Saxon origin), associations of inhabitants of towns for mutual benefit, 
resembling our friendly societies, chartered by the sovereign since the time of Henry II. 
The "Guild of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. Lytton, C. Dickens, and others), 
founded an institution (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage) consisting of 
thirteen dwellings, retreats for an artist, scholar, and man of letters, which were completed 
in Juljr, 1865. 

GUILLOTINE, an instrument for causing immediate and painless death, named after its 
supposed inventor, a physician named Joseph Ignatius Guillotin. In 1866 M. Dubois, of 
Amiens, stated that the idea only was due to Guillotin, who at a meeting of the legislative 
assembly in 17S9 expressed an opinion that capital punishment should be the same for all 
classes. Accordingly, at the request of the assembly, M. Louis, secretary of the " Academic 
de Chirurgie," submitted to it on 20 March, 1792, a mode of capital punishment, "sure, 
quick, and uniform," which he had invented. The first person executed by it was a highway- 
robber named PeUetier, on 25 April ; and Dangremont was its first political victim, 21 Aug. 
following. Guillotin died in 1814. A similar instrument (called the Manncda) is said to 
have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England (see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called 
the Maiden and the "Widow. 

GUINEA (W. coast of Africa), was discovered by the Portuguese about 1460. Erom their 
trade with the Moors originated the slave trade, sir John Hawkins being the first Englishman 
who engaged in this traffic. Assisted by English gentlemen with money for the purpose, he 
sailed from England in Oct. 1562, with three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, pur- 
chased or forcibly seized 300 negroes, sold them profitably at Hispaniola, and returned home 
richly laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other merchandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage 
led to similar enterprises. HaMuyt ; see Slave Trade. 

GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from having been first coined of gold brought 
by the African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, valued then at 20s. ; but worth 
30s. in 1695. Eeduced at various times ; in 1717 to 21s. In 1810 guineas were sold for 
22s. 6d. ; in 1816, for 275. In 181 1 an act was passed forbidding their exportation, and 
their sale at a price above the current value." 21s. The first guineas bore the impression of 
an elephant, having been coined of this African gold. Since the issue of sovereigns, 
I July, 1 81 7, guineas have not been coined. 

GUINEGATE, Battle of, see S'pim. . 
GUISE, a French ducal family : — 

Claude of LoiTaine, first diike, a brave warrior, 
favoured by Francis I. ; died . . April, 1550 

Francis, the great general, bom, 1519 ; assas- 
sinated 24'Feb. 1563 

Henry, bead of the Catholic league; born 1550; 

GUN, see Artillery, Fire-arms. 

GUN-CLUB, for pigeon-shooting, founded by sir Gilbert East, in 1862, had 200 members, 
noblemen and gentlemen, in July, 1867. 

GUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance, invented by professor Schonbein, of Basel, 
and made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped in a mixture of equal parts of nitric 
acid and sulphuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining the appearance of cotton wool, see 
Collodion. 

government, and Mr. Abel, our war-office chemist, 
was directed to experiment on the constitution 
and desirability of gun-cotton. The British As- 
sociation also appointed a scientific committee to 
consider its merits. A complete decision has not 
been arrived at. 

The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made 
in the spring of 1864, at the manufactory at Stow- 
market, Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 

It is used as an explosive agent in mining, &c. 

Gun-Cloth, made on a similar principle, was pa^ 
tented by Mr. W. A. Dixon, about 1866. 



revenged his father's death; assassinated by 
Henry III 23 Dec. 15S8 

Charles, first opposed, and then submitted to, . 
Henry IV. ; died 1640 

Henry, died without issue 1664 



The diet of Frankfort voted, 3 Oct. 1846, a recom- 
pense of 100,000 florins to professor Schonbein and 
Dr. Boettger, as the inventors of the cotton 
powder, provided the authorities of Mayence, 
after seeing it tried, pronounced it superior to 
gunpowder as an explosive. 

Improvements were made in the manufacture of 
gun-cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron von 
Lenk, about 1852, and it was tried by a part of 
the Austrian arm y in 1 8 5 5 , but did not obtain favour. 

In 1862 details of the manufacture were commu- 
nicated by the Austrian government to our own 

GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or 
Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about 
1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the 
world. Some say that the Chinese and Hindoos possessed it centiiries before. Its com- 
position, moreover, is expressly mentioned by Pioger Bacon, in his treatise Be Niillitate 
Magice. He died in 1292 or 1294. Various substitutes for gunpowder have been recently 



GUN 353 GYP 

invented, such as the white gunpowder of Mr. Hor.sley and Dr. Ehrhardt, and gnn-paper 
l)y Mr. Hochstodten. A new gunjwwder by M. Newmayer, of Toya, near Leipsic, was 
discussed in Nov. 1866. "Pellet gunpowder " was ordered to be used iu gun-charges in 
the army, March, 1868. 



W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the 
question, in 1847, thus states ttie result:— "July 
and August, 1346, may be safely assumed to be 
the time wlien tlie explosive force of guni^owder 
was first brought to bear on the military opera- 
tions of the Eng-Hsh nation." 

Above 1 1 tons of gunpo wd eron board the Lottie Sleigh, 
in the Jlersej', exploded; much damage done in Liv- 
ei-pool and Birkenhead, but no lives lost, 16 Jan. 1S64. 

About 104,000 lbs. of gunpowper exploded at the 
Belvedere powder magaxinos of Messrs. Hall & Co., 
at Plumstead, near Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, 
and the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance, i Oct. 
1864. Searching inquiries were made into the 
circumstances, and new regulations for the keep- 
ing and transmission of povfder issued in Novem- 
ber ; see Dart/ord. 



Ml-. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on 22 
June, 1865, patented his method of rendering 
fiunpoii'der uninflammable by combining with it 
finely powdered glass which can be readily sepa- 
rated by a sieve when the powder is required for 
\ise. Successful public experiments were made. 

Jlr. Gale exhibited his process before the queen at 
Windsor, 10 Nov. 1S65, and it was severely yet 
successfully tested at a martello tower, near 
Hastings, 20 June, 1 866. The attainment of perfect 
security is still doubted. Gale's Protected Gun- 
powder Company was formed, Oct. 1865, and 
woundup. March, 1867. 

Great explosion at Messrs. Hall's powder-mills, near 
Faversham ; 11 men killed, much damage done; 
shock felt at Canterbury, 10 miles oS, 28 Dec. 
1867. 



GUNPOWDER PLOT, for springing a mine trnder the houses of parliament, and 
destroying the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there assembled, was 
discovered on 4 Nov. 1605. It was projected by Eobert Catesby, and several Eoman 
Catholic persons of rank were in the plot. Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the 
house of lords preparing the train for being lired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of 
the family of Northumberland) Avere killed ; Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, 
"Winter, and others, were executed, 30, 31 Jan. 1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, suffered as 
an accomplice, 3 May, following. An anonymous letter sent to lord Monteagle led to the 
discovery. It contained the following words, "Though there be no appearance of any stir, 
yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who 
hurts them." The vaiUt called Guy Faux cellar, in which the consi)irators lodged the 
barrels of gunpowder, remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was 
converted into offices. 

GUNTEPi'S CHAIN, used in measuring laud, invented by Edmtmd Gunter, in 1606. 

GUTTA PERCHA is procured from the sap of the Isonaudra Gutta, a large forest tree, 
gi'owing in the Malayan peninsula and on the islands near it. It was made known in 
England by Drs. D. Almeida and Montgomery, at the Society of Arts, in 1843. As a non- 
conductor of electricity it is invaluable in constructing submarine telegraphs. 

GUZERAT, a state in India, founded by Malimoud the Gaznevide, about 1020, was con- 
quered by Akbar in 1572; and became subject to the Mahrattas 1732 or 1752. At the 
battle of Gouzerat, 21 Feb. 1849, lord Gough totally defeated the Sikhs and captured the 
city of Guzerat. 

GUY'S HOSPITAL (London). Thomas Guy, a wealthy bookseller, after bestoM^ing 
large sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be tlie sole founder of another hospital. At the 
age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the present building, and lived to 
see it nearly completed, it costing him 18,793^. I''^ addition, he endowed it with 219,499^. 
In 1829, 196,115/. were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide accommodation 
for 100 additional i>atients. 

GWALIOR, a state in Central India ; since 1803, under British protection. Scindiah, 
the maharajah, remained faithful during the revolt of 1857. 

GYMNASIUM, a place Avhere the Greeks pei-formed public exercises, and where also 
philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrestling and boxing 
the athletes were often naked {qymnos), whence the name. A London gymnastic society, 
fonned 1826, did not flourish. In 1862, JM. Ravenstein set up another gymnastic association. 
The German Gymnastic Institution, in St. Pancras-road, Loudon, was opened on 29 Jan. 
1865, and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liverpool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 
6 Nov. 1865. A London athletic club existed in Nov. 1866. 

GYMNOSOPHIST/E, a sect of naked philosophers in India. Alexander (about 324 B.C.) 
was astonished at the sight of men Avho seemed to despise bodily pain, and endured tortures 
without a groan. Pliny. 

GYPSIES or Egyptians (French, Bohemes; Italian, Zingari; Spanish, Gitanos; German, 
Zigeuner) ; vagrants, supposed to be descendants of Hindoos expelled by Timour, about 
^399- They appeared in Germany and Italy early in the 15th century, and at Paris in 1427. 
In England an act was made ngainst their itinerancy, in 1530 ; and in the reign of Charles I. 

A A 



GYE, 354 HAD 

thirteen persons were executed at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a 
month. The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, 
May, 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, more than 120,000 gypsies, and 
many communities of them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding their intercourse with 
other nations, their manners, customs, visage, and appearance are almost wholly unchanged, 
and their pi'etended knowledge of futurity gives them power over the superstitious. Esther 
Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at Blyth, on 18 Nov. i860. The Bible has been 
translated into gypsy dialects. 

GYEOSCOPE (from gyrerc, to revolve), the name of a rotatory apparatus popular in 
1859, invented by Fessel of Cologne (1852), and improved by professor Wheatstone and 
M. Foircault of Paris. It is similar in principle to the rotatory apparatus of Bolineuberger 
of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). — The gyroscope exhibits the combined effects of the 
centrifugal and centripetal forces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either, and 
thus illustrates the great law of gravitation. 



H. 

HAARLEM, an ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland, was taken by 
the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He A'iolated the capitulation 
by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was drained in 1849-51. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of Right, passed "for the better securing the 
liberty of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, 27 May, 1679.* This act (founded on the old 
common law) is next in importance to Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in 
force no subject of England can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention 
is shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus act can be suspended by parliament 
for a specified time when tlie emergency is extreme. In such a case the nation j)arts with 
a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected persons may then 
be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. Blackstone. 



Act suspended for a short time in i6Sg, 1696, 1708 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion . . . 1715-6 
Suspended for twelve months .... 1722 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion in . . . 1744-5 
Suspended for American war . . . 1777-9 
Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to French, revolution 1794 
Suspended in Ireland, on account of the great 

rebellion . . . 179S 

Suspended in England, 28 Aug. 1799 ; and 

14 April, 1801 



Again, on account of Irish insurrection . . 1803 
Agahi, owing to alleged secret meetings (see 

Green Bag) 21 Feb. 1817 

Bill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into 

parUanient 28 Jan. 181S 

Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) 24 July, 1848 
Kestored there . . . . i March, 1849 
Suspended again (see Fenians), xy Feb. 1866; 

26 Feb. and 31 May, 1867; and 28 Feb. 186S 

till, . . I March, 1S60 



HABSBURG, see Hapshurg. 

HACKNEY, a parish N.E. of London ; by the division of the Tower Hamlets, Avas made 
a metropolitan borough by the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. 

HACKNEY COACHES (probably from the French coclie-a-liaquenec, a vehicle with a 
hired hor.se, haqucnee. Their supposed origin in Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error ; 
see Cahriolets, and Omnibuses. 

Four were set up in London by a capt. Bailey I Two hundred Hachiey Chairs were licensed . 1711 

in 1625 : their number soon increased. [ Office removed to Somerset-house . . . 1782 

They were limited by the star-chamber in 1635; ■ Coach-makers made subject to a licence . . 1785 

restricted to 200 in 1637 and in . . . 1652 ; Lost and Found Office for the recovery of pro- 

The immber was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, i perty left in hackney coaches, established by 
in 1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 ; to | act 55 Geo. III. 1815 



iioo, in 1814 ; and finally, to 1300, in . . 1815 
One-horse hackney carriages (afterwards cab- 
riolets) permitted to be licensed . . . ,, 
All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. 
IV. (the original fare was is. a mile) . . . 1831 

HADRIANOPLE, see Adrianojole. 



All public vehicles to be regulated by the act 
16 & 17 Viot. cc. 33, 127, by which they are 
placed under the control of the commissioners 
of police .... June and Aug. 1853 



* By this act, if any person be imprisoned by the order of any court, or of the queen herself, he mav 
have a writ of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of queen's bench or common pleas, which shall 
determine whether bis committal be just. The constitution of the United States provides that "the 
privilege of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the pubhc 
safety raay require it ; " but does not specify the department of the government having the power of 
suspension. A series of contests on this subject between the legal and military authorities began in Mary- 
land, May, 1861. In consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see Slavery in England, note), an act was 
passed in 1862, enacting that no writ of Habeas Corpus should issue out of England into any colony, &c., 
having a court with authority to grant such writ. 



HAG 355 HAL 

HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, once called the finest village in Europe ; 
the place of meeting of the states-general, and residence of the former earls of HoUand since 
1250, when William II. built tlie palace here. 

Here the states abjured the authority of The de Witts torn in pieces here . . 20 Aug. 1762 

Philip II. of Spain 1580 The French, favoured by a hard frost, took 

A conference upon the five articles of the re- possession of the Hague ; the inhabitants 

nionstrants, which occasioned the synod of and troops declared in their favour, general 

Doit 1610 revolution ensued, and the stadtholder and 

Treaty ofthe Hague (to preserve the equilibrium his family fled to England . . .Jan. 1795 

of the North), signed by England, France, and The Hasrue evacuated in . . . Nov. 1813 

Holland 21 May, 1659 The stadtholder returned .... Dec. ,, 

HAILEYBURY COLLEGE (Herts), wlierein students were prepared for service in 
India ; it was founded hj the East India Company in 1806, and Avas closed in 1858. 

HAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently governed by counts hereditary, after 
Eegnier I., who died in 916. The count John d'Arsenes became count of Holland in 1299 
Hainault henceforth partook of the fortunes of Flanders. 

HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), disafforested in 1851. Here stood the Fairlop oak 
(^lahich see). 

HAIR. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, hence the appellation Gallia comata; cutting 
off the hair was a punishment. The royal family of France held it as a privilege to wear 
long hair artfully dressed and curled. "The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution !" 
Inidorus Bispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. Long hair 
was out of fashion during tlie protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads ; 
in 1795 ; and also iSoi. — Hair-ioowdcr came into use in 1590 ; and in 1795 a tax was laid 
upon persons using it, wliich yielded at one time 20,000?. per annum. The tax is now 
il. 3.S. 6d. for each person annually ; see Beard. 

HAITI, see Hayli. 

HALIARTUS, a town in Boeotia, near which Lysander and the Spartan general was 
killed in battle with the Thebans, 395 B. c. 

HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor) ; the reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 484 B.C. ; 
the site of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352 ; was taken by Alexander, 334; see Mausoleum. 

HALIDOIST HILL, near Berwick, where, on 19 July, 1333, the English defeated the 
Scots, the latter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom were the regent Douglas and 
a large number of the nobility, while a comparatively small number of the English suffered. 
Edward III. placed Edward Balliol on the throne of Scotland. 

HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manufactory was established here in the I5tli 
century, jjrodigious quantities of cloth, &c., being on the tenters. The town, at its incor- 
poration, was empowered to ijunish capitally (by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the 
offender in a moment) any criminal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen 
pence halfpenny. King James I. in 1620 took this power away ; see Gicillotine. In 1857, 
Mr. J. Crossley announced his intention of foundmg a college here, and Mr. F. Crossley pre- 
sented the town with a beautiful park. 

HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. Charles, earl of Halifax, was appointed first lord of 
the treasury, 5 Oct. 1714. He died 19 May, 1715, and was succeeded by Charles, earl of 
Carlisle, on 10 Oct. following. Robert Walpole became premier. 

James Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and 

Charles, viscount Townshend, secretaries of state. 
Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor ofthe exchequer. 



Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, 
Robt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &c. 



Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury. 
WiUiam, lord Cowper, afterwards earl Cowper, lord 

chancellor. 
Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. 
Thomas, marquess of Wharton, privy seal. 
Edward, earl of Oxford, adriiiralty. 

HALL, principal apartment in mediasval mansions. AVestminster and Eltham liaU? are 
fine examples ; see Westminster Hall. 

HALL MARK, see Goldsmiths, and Standard. 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN (Praise the Lord, and So he it), expressions used in the 
Hebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their 
introduction into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome, about a.d. 390. 

HALYS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a battle was fought between the Lydians and 
Medes. It was interrux)ted by an almost total eclipse of the sun, which led to peace, 28 
May, 585 B.C. (the fourth year of the 4Sth Olympiad). Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. Others give 
the date 584, 603, and 610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted many years 
before by Thales of Miletus. Herodotus i, 75. 



HAM 356 HAN 

HAMBIJEG, a free city, N.W. Germany, founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It joined 
the Hanseatic league in the 1 3th century, and became a flourishing commercial city. Popu- 
lation in i860, 229,941 ; in 1868, 298,324. 



Eestored to independence by the allies May, 1814 
Awful fire here, ■which destroyed numerous 
churches and public buildings, and 2000 
houses ; it continued for three days 4 May, 1842 
Half the city inundated by the Elbe . i Jan. 1855 
New constitution granted by the senate 

July, i860 
The new assembly (of 191 members) first met, 

6 Dec. ,, 
The constitution began . . . i Jan. 1861 
Joined the N. German confederation 21 Aug. i856 



A free imperial city by permission of the dukes 

of Holstein, 1296 ; subject to them till 1618 ; 

purchased its total exemption from their 

claims 1768 

France declared war upon Hamburg for its 

treachery in giving up Napper Tandy ; see 

Tandi/ Oct. 1799 

British property sequestrated . . March, 1801 
Hamburg taken by the French after the battle 

of Jena, in 1806 

Incorporated with France 1810 

Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 

Russians into Germany 1813 

HAMPDElSr CLUBS, see Radicals, and Chalgrove. 

HAMPTON-COURT PALACE (Middlesex), built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers, and in 1525 presented to Henry VIIL ; perhaps the 
most splendid offering ever made by a subject to a sovereign. Here Edward VL was born, 
12 Oct. 1537; here his mother, Jane Sej'-mour, died, 24 Oct. following; and here Mary, 
Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Much was pulled down, and the 
gi-and inner court built by William III. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, were 
laid out. Here was held, 14-16 Jan. 1604, the Conference between the Puritans and the 
Established church clergy, which led to a new translation of the Bible ; see Conference. 

HANAPER OFFICE (of the court of Chancery), where writs relating to the business of 
the subject, and their returns, were anciently kept in hanaperio (in a wicker hamper) ; and 
those relating to the crown, in ]iarva haga (a little bag). Hence the names Hanaper and 
' Petty Bag Office. The office was abolished in 1842. 

HANAU (Hesse-Cassel). Here a division of the combined armies of Austria and Bavaria, 
of 30,000 men, under general "Wrede, encountered the French, 70,000 strong, under Napo- 
leon I., on their retreat from Leipsic, 30 Oct. 1813. The French suffered very severely, 
though the allies were compelled to retire. The county of Hanau was made a principality in 
1803 ; seized by the French in 1806 ; incorporated with the duchy of Frankfort in 1809 ; re- 
stored to Hesse in 1813 ; which was annexed to Prussia in i860. 

HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. The^'s^; was held in Westminster abbe}'-, 26 May, 
1784; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and above 3000 persons being present. The 
band contained 268 vocal, and 245 instrumental performers, and the receipts of three succes- 
sive days were 12,746^. These concerts were repeated in 1785, 1786, 1790, and 1791. 



Second great commemoration, in the presence of 
king William IV. and queen Adelaide, when 
there were 644 performers, 24, 26, and 28 June, 
1834. 

Sacred Harmonic Society, in conjunction with Crystal 
Palace Company, projected Festival of 1859. 

Grand Rehearsal at the Crystal Palace, 15, 17, 19 
June, 1857, and on 2 July, 1858. 

Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) 
on the centenary of his death. Performances : 
Messiah, 20 June ; Selections, 22 ; Israel in Egypt, 
24, 1859, when the prince consort, the king of the 
Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. There 



were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performers, 
and the performance was highly successful. The 
receipts amounted to about 33,000? , from which 
there were deducted i8,oooi. for expenses; of the 
residue (15,000^.), two parts accrued to the Crystal 
Palace Company, and one part to the Sacred Har- 
monic Society. Handel's harpsichord, original 
scores of his oratorios, and other interesting relics, 
were exhibited. 
Handel festivals (at the Crystal Palace): 4000 per- 
formers ; highly successful ; 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 ; 
agaui, 26, 28, 30 June, 1865 ; to be on 15, 17, 19 
June, 1868. 



HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged with gold, used to be worn in England by 
gentlemen in their hats, as favours from young ladies, the value of them being from five to 
twelve pence for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stoiu's Chron. Paisley handkerchiefs 
were first made in 1743. 

HANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses in setting apart his successor Joshua 
{Num. xxvii. 23), and in Christian ordination by the apostles (i Tim. iv. 14). 

HANGING, Drawing, and Quartering, said to have been first inflicted upon William 
Marise, a pirate, a nobleman's son, 25 Hen. III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the 
duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution 
were hanged, cut down alive instantly, stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quar- 
tering, and then pardoned, 25 Hen. VI. 1447. Stoiv. The Cato-street conspirators {v;Mch 
see), were beheaded after death by hanging, i May, 1820. Hanging in chains was abolished 
in 1834 ; see Death. 

HANGO BAY (Finland). On 5 June, 1855, a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left 
the British steamer Cossack, with a flag of truce to land some Russian prisoners. They were 



HAN 



357 



HAR 



fired on by a body of riflemen, and five were killed, several wounded, and the rest made 
prisoners. The Russian account, asserting the irregularity to have been on the side of the 
English, has not been substantiated. 

HANOVER (KW. Germany), formerly an electorate, and latterly a kingdom, was com- 
posed of territories which once belonged to the dukes of Brunswick {which see). Population 
in 1859, 1,850,000; in 1861, 1,888,070. It was annexed to Prussia, Sept. 1866. 

that son of William, duke of Brunswick- 
Luneburg, who obtained by lot the right to 
inaiTy (.see Brunswick). He became bishop of 
Osnaburg in 1662, and in 1679 inherited the 
possessions of his unole John, duke of Calen- 
berg : created Elector of Hanover in 1692. 
[He married, in 1659, the princess Sophia, 
daughter of Frederick, elector palatine, and 
of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of 
England. In 1701, Sophia was declared next 
lieir to the Brilish crown, after William III., 
Anne and their descendants.] 

1698. George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; married 
his cousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke 
of Brunswick-Zell ; became king of Great 
Britain, i Aug. 1714, as Geokge I. 

1727. George-Augustus, his son (George II. of 
England), 11 June. 

1760. George - William - Frederick, his grandson 
(George III. of England), 25 Oct. 



Hanover became the ninth electorate . a.d. 1692 
Suffered much during the seven years' war, 1756 63 
Seized by Prussia .... 3 April, i8oi 
Occupied by the French . . .5 June, 1803 

Delivered to Prussia in 1805 

Retaken by the French 1807 

Part of it annexed to Westphalia . . . 1810 ! 
Begained for England by Bernadotte 6 Nov. 1813 
Erected into a kingdom . . . .12 Oct. 1814 
The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant- 
governor, and a representative government 

established Nov. 1816 

Visited by George IV Oct. 1821 

Ernest, duke of Cumberland, king . 20 June, 1837 
He granted a constitution with electoral rights, 
184S ; which was annulled in obedience to 
the decree of the federal diet . 12 AprU, 1855 
The king claims from England crown jewels, 
which belonged to George III. (value about 
i2o,oooi.), 1857 '' by arbitration the Jewels 

given up Jan. 1858 

Stade dues given up for compensation, 12 June, 1861 
In the war the king takes the side of Austria ; 
and the Prussians enter and occupy Hanover 

13 June, el serj. 1866 
The Hanoverians defeat the Prussians at 
Langensalva, 27 June ; but are compelled to 

surrender 29 June, ,, 

Hanover annexed to Prussia by law, 20 Sept. ; 

promulgated 6 Oct. ,, 

Protest of the king of Hanover addressed to 

Europe 23 Sept. ,, 

Arrangement with Prussia by a treaty ratified 

18 Oct. 1867 
The king celebrates his " silver wedding " at 
Hietzing, near Vienna, expressing hopes of 
recovering his kingdom, (fee. . 18 Feb. 1868 

His property sequestrated by Prussia March, ,, 



ELECTORS. 

Ernest- Augustus, youngest son of George, 



1814. George-William-Frederick (the preceding so- 
vereign), first king of Hanover, 12 Oct. 

1820. George-Augustus-Frederick, his son (George 
IV. of England), 29 Jan, 

1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of 
England), 26 June. 
[Hanover separated from the crown of Great 
Britain.] 

1837. Ernest-Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother 
to William IV. of England, on whose demise 
he succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to 
the throne of Hanover, 20 June. 

1851. George V. (bom 27 Jlay, 1819), son of Ernest : 

ascended the throne on the death of his 

father, 18 Nov. His states annexed to 

Prussia, 20 Sept. 1866. 

Heir : Prince Ernest- Augustus, bom 21 Sept 

1692. Ernest-Augustus, youngest son of George, 1845. 

HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic league (fvom. hanna, association), formed by port towns 
in Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : began about 1140 ; the league 
signed 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts of the Baltic sea, but 
in 1370 it was composed of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates. They proclaimed war 
against Waldemar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in 1428, with 
forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, besides seamen. On this several princes ordered the 
merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their effects. The Thirty years' wax in 
Germany (1618-48) broke wj) the strength of the association. In 1630 the only towns re- 
taining the name were Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. The league suffered also by the rise 
of the commerce of the Low Countries in the 15th century. Their privileges by treaty in 
England were abolished by Elizabeth in 1578. 

HAPSBURG (or Habsburg), House of, the family from which the imperial house of 
Austria sprang in the 7th centuiy. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a 
lofty eminence near Schintznach. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, became archduke of Austria, 
and emperor of Germany, 1273 ; see Austria, and Germany. 

HARBOURS. England has many fine natural harbours ; the Thames (harbour, dock, 
and depot), Port.smouth, Plymouth, &c. Acts for the improvement of harbours, &c., were 
passed in 1847, 1861, and 1862. 

HARFLEUR, seaport, N.W. France, taken by Henry V., 22 Sept. 1415. 

HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a desperate indecisive battle between the earl of 
Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of the Isles, 24 July, 141 1. This conflict 
was very disastrous to the nobility, some houses losing all their males. 

HARLEIAN LIBRARY, containing 7000 manuscripts, besides rare printed books, bought 
by secretary Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford and Mortimer, 1705, ct seq., is now in the 



HAR 358 . HAR 

British Museum. A large portion of his life and wealth was spent on the collection. He 
died 21 May, 1724. The Harleian Miscellany, a selection from the MSS. and Tracts of his 
library, was published in 1744 and 1808. 

HARLEY ADMINISTRATION", see Oxford. 

HARMONIC STRINGS, said to have been invented by Pythagoras through hearing four 
blacksmiths working with hammers, in harmony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, 
nine, and twelve ; or rather by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred 
and forty-four. — The Harmonica, or musical glasses, were first "arranged" by an Irish 
gentleman named Puckeridge, and improved by Dr. Pranklin in 1760. 

HARMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wiirtemburg by Rapp, about 1780. Not much is 
known of their tenets, but they held their property in common, and considered marriage a 
civil contract. Not finding toleration, they emigrated to America, and built New Harmony 
in Indiana in 1815. Robert Owen purchased this town about 1823 ; but failed in his scheme 
at establishing a " social " community, and returned to England ; see Socialists. The Har- 
monists removed to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania in 1822. 

HARMONIUM, a keyed wind instrument, resembling the accordion, the tones being 
generated by the action of wind upon metallic reeds. The Chinese were well acquainted 
with the effects produced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot stated, in 1810, that they 
were used musically by M. Grenie ; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were employed in organs 
at Beauvais and Paris. The harmoniums best known in England are those of Alexandre and 
Debain, the latter claiming to be the original maker of the French instrument. In 1841, 
however, Mr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his English harmonium, then termed 
the Organ- Harmonica. By a succession of improvements he produced a fine instrument, 
with diapason qiiality, and gi'eat rapidity of speech, without loss of power. English 
Cyclopcedia. " 

HARNESS, chariots and the leathern dressings used for horses to draw them, are said to 
have been the invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who was made a constellation after his 
death, under the name of Bootes (Greek for ploughman), about 1487 B.C. 

HARO, Cry of (Claineur de Haro), derived from Raoul, or Rollo, ancestor of our Norman 
princes of England. Rollo administered justice so well, that injured persons cried, "d 
Raoul! " 

HARP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.C. {Gen. iv. 21). David played the harp before Saul, 
1063 B.C. I Sam. xvi. 23. The Cimbri, or English Saxons, had this instrument. The 
celebrated "Welsh harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, 
with wire.* Erard's improved harps were first patented in 1795. 

HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia), see United States, 1859-62. 

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract, was 
the inventor. In 17 14, the government offered rewards for methods of determining the 
longitude at sea ; Harrison came to London, and produced his first time-piece in 1735 ; his 
second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured him the reward of 20,000?. 
offered by the board of longitude, a few years after. He obtained io,oooZ. of his reward iu 
1764, and other sums, more than 24,000?. in all, for further improvements in following years. 

HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered 
by capt. Slingsby in 1571 : a dome was erected over the well by lord Rosslyn in 1786. Two 
other chalybeate springs are the Alum well and the Towit spa. The sulphureous well was 
discovered in 1783. The theatre was erected in 1788. The Bath hospital was erected by 
subscription in 1825. 

HARRO W-ON-THE-HILL SCHOOL (Middlesex +), founded and endowed by John Lyon 
in 1 57 1. To encourage archer}', the founder instituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot 
for annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has been abolished. Lord Palmerston, 
sir R. Peel, the statesman, 'and lord Byron, the poet, were educated here. 

HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumberland). On 16 Jan. 1862, one of the iron beams, 
about 12 tons weight, at the mouth of the ventilating shaft, broke and fell, destroyed the 

* One of the most ancient harps existmg is that of Brian Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was 
given by his son Donagh to Pope John XVIII., together with the crown and other regaha of liis father, in 
order to obtain absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian IV. alleged this as being one of his 
principal titles to the Icingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to Henry II. This harp was given 
by Leo. X. to Henry VIII., who presented it to the first earl of Clanricarde : it then came into possession 
of the family of De Burgh ; next Into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, county of Clare ; afterward.? into that 
of MacNamara of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the right hon. William Conyngham in the 
CoUege Museum, Dublin, in 1782. 

t Charles II. cut short some theological discussion relative to the claims for the title of the visible 
chtirch, by declaring that it " was the parish church of Harrow, which could be seen everywhere." 



HAR 359 HAW 

brattice, divided the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to kill two men who were 
ascending the shaft, and buried alive 202 persons, men and boys. Several days elapsed before 
the bodies could be removed. Much sympathy was shown by the queen and the public, and 
about 50,000/. were collected for the bereaved families. The coroner's verdict asserted the 
necessity of two shafts to coal mines, and recommended that the beams of colliery engines 
should be of malleable instead of cast-iron. 

HARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat of Louis XVIII., king of France, 1807-14. 
He landed in England at Yarmouth, 6 Oct. 1807, took up his residence at Gosfield hall, in 
Essex, and afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. His consort died here in 
1810. On his restoration, he embarked at Dover for France, 24 April, 1814 ; see France. 

HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of Etruscan origin, who foretold events from ob- 
serving entrails of animals. They were introduced to Rome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), 
and abolished by Constantino, A.D. 337, at which time they were seventy in number. 

HARVARD COLLEGE (Massachusetts, North America) was founded by the general 
court at Boston, on 28 Oct. 1636. It derived its name from John Harvard, who bequeathed 
to it a librar}' and a sum of money in 1638. 

HASTINGS, a cinque-port, Sussex ; said to owe its name to the Danish pirate Hastinge, 
who built forts here, about 893 ; but Mr. Kemble thinks it was the seat of a Saxon tribe 
named Hastingas. The new town, St. Leonard's, was begun in 1828. At Senlac, now Battle, 
near Hastings, more than 30,000 were slain in tlie conflict between Harold II. of England 
and William duke of Normandy, the former losing his life and kingdom, 14 Oct. 1066. The 
day of this battle was also the anniversary of Harold's birth. He and his two brothers were 
interred at Waltham abbey, Essex. 

HASTINGS' TRIAL. Warren Hastings,* governor-general of India, was tried by the 
peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors. Among other charges was his 
acceptance of a present of 100,000/. from the nabob of Oude ; see Chunar, Trcaij/ of. The 
trial lasted seven years and three months; commencing 13 Feb. 1788, terminating in his 
acquittal, 23 April, 1795. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment excited great ad- 
miration. 

HATELY FIELD, see ShraivsUmj. ' 

HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT. On 11 May, 1800, during a review in Hyde-park, a shot 
from an undiscovered hand vvas fired, which wounded a young gentleman who stood near 
king Geo. III. In the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane theatre, Hatfield fired 
a pistol at him. He was confined as a lunatic till his death, 23 Jan. 1841, aged 69 years. 

HATS, first made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. When Charles VII. made his triumphal 
entry into Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted with a rich 
plume of feathers. Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, began to take place of 
chaperons and hoods. Henault. Hats were first manufactured in England by Spaniards in 
15 10. Stow. Very high-crowned hats were AYorn by qtieen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high 
crowns were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty laid upon hats in 1784, and in 1796, 
was repealed in 181 1. Silk hats began to supersede beaver about 1820. 

HATTERAS EXPEDITION, see United States, 1861. 

HAU-HAU FANATICS, see Nciv Zealand, 1865. 

HAVANNAH, capital of Cuba, West Indies. Founded by Velasquez, 1511 ; taken by 
lord Albemarle, 14 Aug. 1762 ; restored, 1763 ; the remains of Columbus were brought from 
St. Domingo and deposited in the cathedral here, 1795. 

HAVRE. The International Maritime Exhibition here was opened by the emperor, 
I June, 1868. 

HAVRE-DE-GRACE (N.W. France) was defended for the Huguenots by the English in 
1562 ; who, however, were expelled in 1563. It was boviibarded by Rodney, 6 to 9 July, 
1759 ; ^y sir Richard Strachan, 25 May, 1798 ; and blockaded, 6 Sept. 1803. The attempts 
of the British to burn the shipping here failed, 7 Aug. 1804. 

HAWAII, see OvMyhce. 

HAWKERS AND Pedlars were first licensed in 169S. Licensing commissioners were 
appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was reduced in 1861, 

HAWKING, see Falconry. 

* He was born in 1732; went to India .as a writer in 1750; became governor-general of Bengal in 
1772 ; of India, 1773 ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupulously and tyrannically, till he resigned in 
1785. The expenses 01 his trial (70,000?.) were paid by the East India Company. He died a privy-coun- 
cillor in 1818. 



HAY 



3G0 



HEA 



HAYMAK.KET (Westminster), opened in 1664, was removed to Cumberland-market, 
I Jan. 1831. The Haj'market theatre was oj)ened in 1702 ; see Theatres. 

HAYTI or Haiti, Indian name of a West Indian island, discovered by Columbus in 
Dec. 1492, and named Hispaniola, and afterwards St. Domingo. Before the Spaniards fully 
conquered it, they are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its in- 
habitants, including women and children. It now comprises the republics of St. Domingo 
in the east, and Hayti in the west. General Fabre Geffrard became president of the republic 
of Hayti, 15 Jan. 1859. Population of Hayti, about 572,000 ; of St. Domingo, about 
136,500. 

Jos^ Valverde elected president of the republic 
of St. Domingo, or iJominican republic Mar. 185S 

Spanish emigrants land ; a declaration for re- 
union with Spain signed 18 March, decreed 
by the queen .... 20 May, 1861 

Insurrection against Spain in St. Domingo 

18 Aug. 1863 

A Spanish force sent ; the insurgents generally 
defeated 1864 

Great fire at Port-au-Prince ; 600 houses de- 
stroyed 23 Feb. 1865 

St. Domingo renounced by Spain . 5 May, „ 

Military iosurrection imder Salnave against 
Geffrard, 7 May : Cape Hayti seized g May, ,, 

Cabral provisional president of St. Domingo 

Sept. „ 

B. Baez proclaimed president . 14 Nov. ,, 

Valorogue, a i-ebel vessel, fires into British Ja- 
maica packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, 22 Oct. ; 
Capt. Wake, H. M. S. BvMdorj, threatens Valo- 
rogue; Salnave orders the removal of refu- 
gees from. British consulate at Cape Hayti, 
shoots them, and destroys the building. The 
BuLUlng failing to obtain satisfaction, shells 
the fort, sinks the Valorogue, but gets on a 
reef ; the crew is taken out, and she is 
blown up. H. M.S. Galatea and Lily take the 
other forts and give them up to Geffrard ; the 
rebels flee inland . . • . 9 Nov. ,, 

Capt. Wake censured by court-martial for losing 
his ship Jan. 1S66 

Another revolt against Geffrard suppressed 

5-1 1 July, „ , 

Revolution ; Geffrard flies ; banished for ever 

March, ,, 

Salnave president ... 27 March, ,, 

New constitution .... June, ,, 

Revolution caused by Pimentel : Baez forced to 
fly ;• Cabral becomes president . June, ,, 

Revolt against Salnave . . . Sept. 1867 

The ex-emperor Faustin (born a slave, 1791), 
died I Sept. ,, 

City of San Domingo nearly destroyed bj' the 

hurricane 30 Oct. ,, 

See Domingo. 



Hayti seized by the filibusters and French 

buccaneers 1630 

The French government took possession of the 

whole colony ....... 1677 

The negroes revolt against France . 23 Aug. 1791 
And massacre nearly all the whites 21-23 June, 1793 
The French directory recognise Toussaint I'Ou- 

verture as general-in-chief .... 1794 
The eastern part of the island ceded to France 

by Spain, 1795 

Toussaint estabUshes an independent republic 

in St. Domingo 9 May, 1801 

He surrenders to the French . . 7 May, 1802 

Is conducted to France, where he dies . . 1803 
A new insurrection, under the command of 

Dessalines ; the French quit the island, Nov. ,, 
Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the 

whites, 29 March ; crowned emperor of Hayti, 

as Jacques I. 8 Oct. 1804 

He is assassinated, and the isle divided 17 Oct. 1806 
Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president 

in Feb. 1807 ; crowned emperor by the title 

of Henry I. , while Pethion rules as president 

at Port-au-Prince .... March, 1811 
Numerous black nobility and prelates created . ,, 
Pethion dies ; Boyer elected president May, 1818 
Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820; the two 

states united under Boyer as regent for life, 

Nov. 1820 ; who is recognised by France . i 

Bevohition : Boyer deposed i 

St. Domingo and the eastern part of Hayti 

proclaim the " Dominican republic," Feb. 

1844 ; recognised by France .... 1848 
Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late 

president Solouque, who takes the title of 

Faustin I., 26 Aug. 1849 ; crowned 18 April, 1852 
Faustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo, 

repulsed i Feb. 1856 

Revolution in Hayti : general Fabre Geffrard 

proclaims the republic of Hayti . 22 Dec. 1858 
Faustin abdicates .... 15 Jan. 1859 
Geffrard takes oath as president of Hayti 

23 Jan. „ 
Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracyagainst 

Geffrard Oct. ,, 



25 



HEAD ACT, see note to Ireland, 1465. 

HEALTH, General Board of, was appointed by the act for the promotion of the 
public health, passed in 1848 ; see Sanitary Legislation. This board was reconstructed in 
Aug. 1854, and sir B. Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 2000Z. ; succeeded by 
W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855, and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. The expenses for the year 
1856-7 were 12,325?. In 1858 this board was incorporated into the privy council establish- 
ment ; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. 

HEARTH, or Chimney, Tax, on every fire-place or hearth in England, Avas imposed by 
Charles II. in 1662, when it produced about 200,oooZ. a year. It was aboli.shed by Williani 
and Mary at the E evolution in 1689 ; but was imposed again, and again abolished. 

HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). Little progress had been made in the study 
of the phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph Black put forth his theory of latent 
heat (which heat he said was absorbed by melting ice), and of specific heat. Cavendish, 
Lavoisier, and others, continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put forth his viewson 
radiant heat in 1804. Count Rumford espoused the theory that heat consists in motion 
among the particles of matter, which view he supported by experiments on friction (recorded 
in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical or mechanical theory of heat, and used to 
explain all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has been further substantiated by the 
independent researches of Dr. J. Mayer of Heilbronn and of Mr. Joule of Manchester (about 



HEB 361 HEL 

1840), who assert that heat is the equivalent of work done. In 1854, professor William 
Thomson, of Glasgow, published his researches on the dynamical power of the sun's rays. 
The researches of philosophers are still devoted to this sulyect ;* see Caloresccnce. Thermo- 
electricity, produced by heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered together, was dis- 
covered by Seebeok in 1823. A powerful thermo-electric battery was constructed by Marcus 
of Vienna, in 1865. Professor Tyndall's "Heat, a Mode of Motion," first published Feb, 
1863, third edition, 1868. 

HEBREWS, see Jcios. 

HEBRIDES (the Ebudcc of Ptolemy and the Hehiulcs of Pliny),"\Vestern isles of Scotland, 
long subject to Norway ; ceded to Scotland in 1264 ; and annexed to the Scottish crown in 
1540 by James V. 

HEBRON (in Palestine). Here Abraham resided, i860 B.C. ; and here David was made 
king of Judah, 1048 B.C. On 7 April, 1862, the prince of Wales visited the reputed cave of 
Machpelah, near Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham and his descendants. 

HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a himdred oxen, particularly observed by the Lace- 
demonians when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacrifice was subsequently reduced to 
twent3'-three oxen, and goats and lambs were substitnted. 

HEOLA, MOUNT (Iceland). Its" first recorded eruption is 1004. About twenty-two 
eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paiilson. Great convulsions of this 
mountain occurred in 1766, since when a visit to the top in summer is not attended with 
great difficulty. For particulars of an eruption in 1784-5, see Iceland. The moimt was in 
a state of violent eruption from 2 Sept. 1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters were formed, 
from which pillars of fire rose to the height of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several 
hills, and pieces of pumice stone and scoriae of 2 cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league 
and a half ; the ice and snow which had covered tlie mountain for centuries melted into pro- 
digious floods. 

HEGIRA, Eea of the, dates from the flight (Arabic hejra) of Mahomet from Mecca to 
Medina, on the night of Thursday, the 15th Julj', 622. The era commences on the i6th. 
Some compute this era from the 15th, but Cantemir j^roves that the i6th was the first day. 
33 of its lunar years were equal to 32 of those of the vulgar era. 

HEIDELBERG (Germany) w\as the capital of the Palatinate, 1362-1719. The protestant 
electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war ensued, in which the castle was ruined, and 
the elector removed his residence of Manheim. It was annexed to Baden in 1802. Here 
was the celebrated tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twenty-one yiipes of wine. 
Another was made in 1664 which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the French in 
1688; but a larger one, fabricated in 175 1, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept 
full of the best Rhenish wine, is said to be now mouldering in a damp vault, quite empty. 

HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered 
to the British imder the Duke of York and sir Ralph Abercrombie, for the prince of Orange ; 
540 British w6re killed, 30 Aug. 1799. The place was left in Oct. ; see Bergen. 

HELEN, a Grecian princess, according to mythology, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and 
sister of Castor and Pollux. She was demanded in marriage by several Greek princes, and 
chose Menelaus, king of Sparta. Her elopement with Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, led 
to the Trojan war, 1193 to 11 83 B.C. 

HELENA, ST., an island in the South Atlantic Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese 
under Juan de Nova Castilla, on St. Helena's day, 21 May, 1502. The Dutch afterwards 
held it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India Com- 
]iany settled here in 165 1 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and 
Dutch imtil 1673, when Charles II., on 12 Dec, assigned it to the company once more. 
St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivit.y, 16 Oct. 1815 ; and of liis death, 5 
Slay, 1 82 1. His remains were removed in 1840, and interred at the Hotel des Invalides, 
Paris ; see France, 1840. The house and tomb have been purchased by the French govern- 
ment. The bishopric was founded in 1859. Governor, adni. sir Chas. Elliot, 1863. 

HELIGOLAND, an island in the North Sea, taken from the Danes by the British, 5 Sept. 
1807 ; made a depot for British merchandise ; confirmed to England by the treaty of Kiel, 
14 Jan. 1814. In a naval engagement off Heligoland, between the Danes and the Austrians 
and Prussians, the allies were compelled to retire, 9 Ma}', 1S64. Governor, col. Henry F. B. 
Maxse, 1863. 

* Captain Ericson constructed .a sbip, in which caloric, or heat, was the motive-power. On Jan. 4, 
1833, it sailed down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an hour, it is said at a cost of So per cent, 
less than steam. Although caloric engines were not successful, capt. Ericson continued his experiments, 
and patented an improved engine in 1856. 



HEL 362 HER 

HELIOGRAPHY (from helios, the sun), see Photogrcq^hy. 

HELIOMETEE, &c., an instrument for measuring the diameters of the sun, moon, 
planets, and stars, invented by Savary, in 1743 ; applied by M. Bouguer, in 1474. A line 
heliometer, by Eepsold of Hamburg, was set up at the Eadcliffe observatory, Oct. 1849. 

HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, prepared for observing the sun so as not to 
affect the eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 1625. 

HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make a sunbeam stationary, or apparently 
stationary, invented by Gravesande about 1719, and greatly improved by Mains and others. 
One constructed by MM. Foucault and Duboscq, was exhibited at Paris in Oct. 1862. 

HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hellenes and the Greek race, which supplanted 
the Pelasgians from the 15th to the nth century B.C., derived their name from Helen, king 
of Phthiotis, about 1600 B.C. They separated into the Dorians, Jiolians, lonians, and 
Achaians. The present king of Greece is called " king of the Hellenes ;" see Greece. 

HELLESPOjSTT (now the Strait of the Dardanelles) was named after Helle, daughter of 
Athamas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. It is celebrated for the story of the loves 
of Hero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos : Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night as- 
he attempted to swim across the Hellespont, and Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea, 
about 627 B. c. ; see Xerxes. 

HELL-FIRE CLUBS. Three of these associations were suppressed, 1721. They met at 
Somerset-house, and at houses in "Westminster, and in Conduit-street. 

HELMETS, among the Romans, were provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above- 
the eyes, and beaver to lower for eating ; the Greek helmet was round, the Roman square. 
Richard I. of England wore a plain round helment ; but most of the English kings had 
crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a Hat helmet, with 
a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was 'surmounted by a crown, 1306. 
Gwillim. 

HELOTS, captives, derived by some from the Greek hclein, to take ; by others from- 
Helos, a city which the Spartans hated for refusmg to pay tribute, 883 B.C. The Spartans, 
it is said, ruined the city, and reduced the Helots to slavery ; and called all their slaves and 
the prisoners of war Helotm. The number of the Helots was much enlarged by the conquest 
of Messenia, 668 b.c. ; and is considered to have been four-fifths of the inhabitants of Sparta. 
In the Peloponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded 
with liberty, 431 B.C. ; but the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attri- 
buted to Lacedemonian treachery. Herodotus. 

HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerland having been conquered by the French in 1797, 
a republic was established in 1798 with this title ; see Switzerland. 

HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Switzerland. 
Invading Gaul, 61 B.C., they were opposed and beaten by Julius Cresar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. 

HEMP AND Flax. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be sown 
for fishing-nets, 1532-3. " Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783 ; and 
every exertion should be made by the government and legislature to accomjjlish snch a 
national good. In 1785 there were imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons of 
hemp and flax." Sir John Sinclair. The annual importation of these articles now amounts- 
to about 100,000 tons. The cultivation of flax was revived at the dearth of cotton during 
the American civil war, 186 1-4. 

HEiSTGESTDOWN (Cornwall). Here Egbert is said to have defeated the Danes and 
"West Britons, 835. 

HENOTICON" (from the Greek henotes, unity), an edict of union for reconciling the 
Eutychians with the church, issued by the emperor Zeno at the instance of Acacius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, 482. It was zealously opposed by the popes of Rome, and was annulled 
by Justin I. in 518. The orthodox partj' triumphed, and many heretic bishops were expelled 
from their sees. 

HEPTARCHY (or government of seven kings) in England was gradually formed from 
455) when Hengist became the king of Kent. It terminated in 828, when Egbert became 
sole monarch of England. There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but Middlesex 
soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia and Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as- 
E"orthumbria ; see Britain, and Octarchy. 

HERACLID/E, descendants of Hercules, who were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 
1200 B.C., but reconquered it in 1 103-4 or 1109 B.C., a noted epoch in chronology, all the 
history preceding being accounted fabulous. 

HERALDRY. Marks of honour were used in the first ages. Nisbet. The Phrygians 



HER 363 HER 

had a sow; the Thracians, Mars; the Romans, an eagle ; the Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a 
bull ; the Saxons, a horse ; and the ancient Frencli, a lion, and afterwards the lieur-de-lis 
{which see). Heraldry, as an art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and next to 
Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152 ; it began and grew with the feudal law. Mackenzie. The 
great English works on heraldry are those of Barchani or Barkham, published by Gwillint 
(1610), and Edmondsou (17S0). 
Edward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at- , The college has an earl m.ar.sbal, 3 kings of arms 

arms for the south and north (Surrey, Non-oy) 1340 (Garter, Cbirencieux, and Norro,y), 6 heralds 
Richard III. incorporated and endowed the (Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, So- 

Heralds College 14S4 merset, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 extra 

Philip and Mai-y enlarged its privileges, and . heralds ; see Earl Marshal, and Kings-at- 

confirmed them by letters patent . 15 July, 1554 ! Arms. 
Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald re- The building in Doctors' Commons, London, 

presented the Icing's person, and therefore was erected by sir Christopher Wren (after 

wore a crown, and was always a knight. ; the great fire in 1666) i68j 

HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong city called the key of Afghanistan, 
capital of a state formed by Shah Mahmoud, in 1818. Population in 1830, 100,000. The 
Persians, bafiied in an attempt in 1838 ; took it 25 Oct. 1856, in violation of the treaty of 
1853 > ^^^^ ^^''11' ensued between Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made in Api'il, 1857 ;. 
see Persia. Herat was restored 27 July following ; see Afghanistan. 

HERCULANEUJM, an ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, 
by an eruption of lava from Vesuvius, 23 or 24 Aug. 79. Successive eruptions laid them 
still deeper under the surface, and all traces of them were lost until excavations began in 
171 1 ; and in 1713 many antiquities were found. In 1738 excavations were resumed, and 
works of art and monuments and memorials of civilised life, were discovered. 150 volumes 
of MSS. papyri were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir 
William Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where they are deposited ; but the- 
principal relics are preserved in the museum of Portici. The "Antichita di Ercolano," 
8 vols, folio, were published by the Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 

HEREFORD was made the seat of a bishopric about 676, Putta being first bishop. 
The cathedral was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in honour of Ethelbert, king of 
the East Saxons, who was treacherously slain by his intended mother-in-law, the queen of 
Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, and was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was 
re-opened after very extensive repairs, on 30 June, 1862. The see is valued in the king's 
books at 768Z. -per annum. Present income, 4200Z. 



BISHOPS. 

1803. Folhott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Wor- 
cester, 1808. 
1808. John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 



1815. George Isaac Hnntingford, died 29 April, 1S32 
1832. Hon. Kdward Grey, died 24 June, 1837. 
1837. Thomas Musgrave, trau. to York, Dec. 1847. 
1847. Renn 1). Hampden, died 23 April, 1868. 



HERERA (Arragon). Here don Carlos, of Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right 
to the throne, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered and defeated general Buerens, who 
had not much above half that number of the queen of Spain's troops. Buerens lost about 
1000 in killed and wounded, 24 Aug. 1837. 

HERETICS (from the Greek hairesis, choice). Paul says, "After the way they call 
heresy, so worship I the God of my fathers," 60 {Ads xxiv. 14). Heresy was unknown to 
the Greek and Roman religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached the Gnostic heresy 
about 41. This was followed by the Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &c. ; see Inquisition. 

Thirty heretics came from Germany to England | Certain laws against heretics were repealed, 

topropagate their opinions, and were branded 25 Henry VIII. ^534-5 

in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked The last person execiited for heresy in Britain 

into the streets in the depth of winter, where, was Thomas Aikenhead,' at Edinburgh . . 1696 

none daring to relieve them, they died of 1 [The orthodox iMahommedans are Sonnites ; the 

hunger and cold {Speed) 1160 | heretics are Shiites, Druses, <fcc.] 

HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS {i. c., feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232?., 
were abolished by the act 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), and restored to the crown for money 
compensation after 25 March, 1748. — Heritable and Movable Mights, in the Scottish law, 
denote what in England is meant by real and personal property : real property in England 
answering nearly to the heritable, rights in Scotland, and personal property to the movable 
rights. 

HERMANDAD, SANTA, (Spanish for holy brotherhood,) associations of cities of Castile 
and Arragon to defend their liberties, began about the middle of the 13th century. The 
brotherhood was disorganised in 1498, order having been firmly established. 

HERMAS, author of "the Shepherd,'' a Christian apocryphal book, supposed to have 
been written about 131. Some believe Hernias to be mentioned in Romans xvi. 14. 

HERMITS, see Monachism. HERO, British Man-of-Wae, see Wrecks, 181 1. 



HER 



364 



HEX 



HERRING-FISHERY M'as largely encouraged by the English, and Scotch so early as the 
8th century. The statute of herrings, passed in 1357, placed the trade under government 
control. The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1397. Anderson. 
The British Herring-Fishery company was instituted 2 Sept. 1750. A scientific commission 
in relation to the fishery was appointed in 1S62. 

HERRINGS, Battle of the, fought 12 Feb. 1429, when the English were besieging 
Orleans, obtained its name from the due de Bourbon attempting to intercept a convoy of 
salt fish, on the road to the English camp before Orleans ; he was beaten. 

HERRNHUTERS, see Moravians. 

HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, see Telescopes. 

HERULI, a German tribe, which ravaged Greece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century 
after Christ. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the western empire and became king of 
Italy, 476. He was defeated and put to death by Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 491-3. 

HERZEGOVINA or Hersek (European Turkey), originally a part of Croatia, was united 
with Bosnia in 1326, and made the duchy of St. Saba by the emperor Frederic III. in the 
following century. It was ceded to Turkey in 1699 at the peace of Carlowitz. In Dec. 1861 
an insurrection against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince of Montenegro. It was 
subdued ; and on 23 Sept. 1862, Vucalovitch, chief of the insurgents, surrendered on behalf 
of his countrymen to Kurschid Pasha, and an amnesty was granted. 

HESSE (W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, formed part of the empire of Charlemagne ; 
from the rulers of it in his time, the jiresent are descended. It was joined to Thuringia till 
about 1263, when Henry I. (son of a duke of Brabant and Sophia, daughter of the landgrave 
of Thuringia) became landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable of his successors was Philip 
the Magnanimous (1509), an eminent warrior and energetic supporter of the Reformation, 
who signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530 and the League of Smalcald in I53i. At 
Ms death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under 
his sons William and George. Their descendants played an eminent part in the convulsions 
of Germany during the 17th and i8th century.* In 1803, Hesse-Cassel became an electorate, 
and in 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy ; which titles were retained in 1814. In 1807 
Hesse-Cassel was incorporated with the kingdom of "Westphalia, but in 1813 the electorate 
was re-established. 



Hesse-Cassel (made an electorate, 1803 ; in- 
corporated with Westphalia, 1807 ; restored. 
1813). 
1S47. The elector Frederic- William T.,t Nov. 20. 

Rj law of 20 Sept. 1866, Hesse-Cassel was 
annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 

Hesse-Darmstadt. (Population, Dec. 1861, 
856,907.) 
1848. The grand duke Louis III. , 16 June (born 9 June 
1806). By treaty with Prussia, Sept. 15, 
1 865, he ceded the northern part of Hesse- 
Darmstadt, aiid paid a war contribution. 

Heir : his brother Charles (born 23 April, 1809), 
whose son Louis mai-ried the princess Alice 
of England, i July, 1862. 



Issue : Victoria-Alberta, born 5 April, 1863 ; 
and other princesses since. 

Hesse-Homburg, a landgraviate, established 
by Frederic, son of George of Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, in 1596. His descendant, Augustus- 
Frederic, married, 7 May, 1818, Elizabeth, 
daughter of George III. of England, who 
had no issue. 

The landgraviate was absorbed into the grand 
duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established 
in 1815 with additional territories. The 
landgrave Ferdinand succeeded his brother, 
8 Sept. 1848, and died 24 March, 1866. 

Hesse-Homburg was annexed to Prussia, 8 
Oct. 1866. 



HETEROGENY, see Spontaneous Generation. 

HEWLEY'S CHARITY, see Unitarians. 

HEXAMETER, the most ancient form of Greek verse, six measures or feet, eacli coutain- 

* Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion being expected in 
1756. The sum of 471,000^. three per cent, stock was transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian 
auxiliaries lost in the American war, at 30?. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again brought 
to this realm at the close of the last century, and served in Ireland during the rebellion in 1798. 

t The elector of Hesse had, in 1850, remodelled the constitution given to his people in 1831 (by which 
the chamber had the exchisive right of voting the taxes), and did not convene the chamber until the 
usual time for closing the session had arrived, when his demand for money for the ensuing year, 1851. 
was laid before it. The chamber called, unanimously, for a regular budget, tbatit might examine into, and 
discuss, its items. The elector dissolved the chamber, and declared the whole of his dominions in a state 
of siege and subject to martial law, 7 Sept. 1850. In the end he was obliged to flee to Hanover, and subse- 
quently to Frankfort ; and on 14 Oct. he formally applied to the Frankfort diet for assistance to re-estabUsh 
his authority in Hesse. On 6 Nov. following, an Austro-Bavarian force of 10,000 men, with 20 pieces of 
artillery, entered Hesse-Cassel, under the command of Prince Thurn-und-Taxis, who Bxed his head- 
quarters in Hanau ; and on the next day a Prussian force entered Cassel. The elector ret\u-ned to his 
capital, 27 Dec. 1850, the taxes having been previously collected luider threats of imprisonment.^ The 
Austro-Bavarian and Prussian troops afterwards evacuated the electorate. In 1852, the Constitution of 
1831 was .aboli.=hed, and a new one established. The conflict was soon resumed, and continued till the 
annexation to Prussia in 1866. 



HEX 865 HIN 

ing two long syllables (a spondee), oi- a long one and two short (a dactyl), the form of verse 
in which Homer wrote his Iliad and Odyssey. 

HEXHAM or Hagulstad, Xorthnmberland. Tlie see of Hexham was founded about 
678 ; it had ten bishops successively, but by reason of the rapine of the Danes it was dis- 
continued ; the last prelate appointed 810.— The Battle of Hexham, in which the 
Yorkist array of Edward IV. obtained a complete victory over the Lancasti'ian army of 
Henry VI., was fought 15 May, 1464. 

HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and lerne, a name given to Ireland by ancient writers 
(Aristotle, Ptolemy, &c.) ; see Ireland, and Wrecks, 1833. 

HIEROGLYPHICS (sacred engravings), picture-writing, the expression of ideas by 
representation of visible objects, rised chieHy by tlie Egyptians ; said to have been invented 
by Athotes, 2112 B.C. Usher. Young, Champoliion, Roselliui, and others (in the present 
century) have done much to elucidate Egyptian hieroglyphics ; see Rosetta Stone. 

HIGH CONSTABLE, see Constable. 

HIGH AXD LOW CHURCH sections in the Church of England began in the reign of 
Anne. Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark, was prosecuted for two sedi- 
tious sermons pi-eached (14 A\\g. and 9 Nov. 1709), to cause apprehension for the safety of 
the churcli, and to excite hostility against dissenters. His friends were called High Church 
and his opponents Low Church, or moderate men, 1720. The queen favoured Sacheverel, 
and presented him with the rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. 

HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an ecclesiastical court, erected by i Eliz. c. i., 1559, 
by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in the crown. It originally had no power to 
fine or imprison ; but under Cliarles I. and archbishop Laud it assumed illegal powers, was 
complained of by the parliament, and was abolished in 1641. 

HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by semi-barbarous clans, were gi'eatly improved 
by the construction of military roads bj'' general Wade, about 1725-6 ; by the abolition of 
heritable jurisdiction of feudal rights in 1747, and by the estaljlisliment of the Highland 
and Agricultural Society in 1784 ; see Regiments. 

HIGHNESS. The title oi Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes 
Your Gracr, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the close of the reign of 
the latter, the titles of " Highness" and "Your Grace" were absorbed in that of "Majesty'-." 
Louis XIII. of France gave the title of Highness to the prince of Orange, in 1644; this 
prince had previously only the distinction of Excellency. Louis XIV. gave the princes of 
Orange the title of High and Mighty Lords, 1644. Henault. 

HIGH PRIEST, see Priest. 

HIGH TREASON. To regulate the trials for this crime the statute, so favourable to 
liberty, the 25th of Edward III., 1352, was enacted, by which two living witnesses are 
required ; parliament having refused to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of 
Somerset. By the 40 Geo. III., 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial for high 
treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial 
should be conducted in the same manner as in the case of an indictment for murder ; see 
Treason. 

The last two cases of execution for liigli trea- j Brougham, defended the prisoners. The defence 
son : — was, that they had assumed the French uniform to 

I. William Cundell a^'fts Connell, and John Smith ; aid their escape to England. They were hanged and 
tried on a special commission, 6 Feb. 1812, being two beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lanc gaol on 
of fourteen British subjects taken in the enemy's | 16 March, 1812. 

service in the Isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. | All the other convicts were pardoned, upon condi- 
Abbot, afterwards lord Tenterden and chief justice, I tion of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 
and sir Vicary Gibbs, attorney-general, condvicted II. Th^ Caio-street Conspirators {which see), Q\.oc\xic± 
the prosecution, and Mr. Brougham, now lord ' i May, 1820. 

HIGHWAYS, see Roads. 

HILLSBOROUGH (Down, N. E. Ireland), founded by sir A. Hill, in the reign of 
Charles T. Here were held two great protestant meetings in favour of the Irish church : 
I., on 30 Oct. 1834, to protest against the "appropriation clause;" II., 30 Oct. 1867, in 
consequence of a commission of inquiry into the Irish church establishment, and the agita- 
tion consequent thereon. 

HIMERA (Sicily). Here (in 480 B.C.) Theron and Gelon of Agrigentum defeated the 
Carthaginians ; and here the latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 310 B.C. 

HINDOO ERA (see Cali-yuga) began 3101 B.C., or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348. 



HIN 366 HOL 

The Hindoos count their montlis l>y the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat 
era begins 56 b.c. ; tlie Saca era A.D. 79. 

HINDOSTAN, see India. 

HIPPODROME, a circus for horse-riding. One opened by Mr. John "Whyte, near 
Notting-hill, London, on 29 May, 1837, was closed in 1841 by tlie Kensington vestry. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly 
described b^' ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at Rome by Antoninus Corn- 
modus and others, about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to England arrived 25 May, 
1850, and was placed in the Zoological Gardens, Eegent's-park, London ; another, a female, 
four months old, was placed there in 1854. Two young ones born at Paris in May, 1858, 
and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. One born at Amsterdam, 29 July, 1865, was 
living in September, same year. 

HISPANIA, Latin name of Spain. HISPANIOLA, see Hayti. 

HISTOLOGY (from Mstos, a web), the science which treats of the tissues which enter 
into the formation of animals and vegetables ; mainly prosecuted by the aid of the micro- 
scope. Schwann, Valentin, Kolliker, and Eobin are celebrated for their researches. Professor 
Quekett's "Lectures on Histology" were published in 1852 and 1854. 

HISTOPiY. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, 
and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history 
is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, 476. Modern 
history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. There was not a professorship of 
modem history in either of our universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius 
professorships were established by George I. and George 11. 

HOBART TOWN or Hobauton, a sea-jjort and capital of Yan Diemen's Land, was 
founded in 1804 by col. Collins, the iirst lieutenant-governor, who died here in 1810. 

HOCHKIRCHEN (Saxony). Here, on 14 Oct. 1758, the Prussian army, commanded by 
Frederick 11. , was surprised and defeated by the Austrians commanded Toy count Daun. 
Marshal Keith, a Scotsman, in the Prussian service, was killed. The Austrian generals shed 
tears, and ordered his interment with military honours. A conflict between the Russians 
and Prussians and the French, in which the last were victorious, took place 22 May, 1813. 

HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in Bavaria, near which several important battles 
have been fought : (i.) 20 Sept. 1703, when the Imperialists were defeated by the French 
and Bavarians, under marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. (2.) 13 Aug. 1704, called 
the battle of Blenheim {which see). (3.) 19 June, 1800, when Moreau totally defeated the 
Austrians, and avenged the defeat of the French at Blenheim. 

HOGUE, see La Hogue. 

HOHENLINDEN (Bavaria). Here the Austrians, commanded by archduke John, 
were beaten by the French and Bavarians, commanded by Moreau, 3 Dec. 1800. The peace 
of Luneville followed. 

HOHENSTAUFEJSr, see Germany, and Guelfs. 

HOHENZOLLERISr, the reigning family in Prussia. Its origin is referred to Thassilo, 
about 800, who built the castle of Hohen-zollern. In 141 7, Frederick of Nuremburg, his 
descendant, was made elector of Brandenburg (■which see, and Prussia), of the same house. 
The princes of HohenzoUern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen abdicated in favour 
of the king of Prussia, 7 Dec. 1849. Charles, son of the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 
was elected prince of Roumania, 20 April, 1866 ; see Prussia. 

HOLBORN or Old Bourne, the old road from ISTewgate to Tyburn : Holborn-hill, in 
the time of Stow, 1600, was termed "heavy-hill." Gerard, the herbalist, speaks of his "house 
in Holborne," 1597. The Holborn theatre was opened by Mr. Sefton Parry, 6 Oct. 1866, 
with " Flying Scud," a new piece, by Mr. Dion Boucicault. The Holborn amphitheatre was 
opened 25 May, 1867. The foundation of the Holborn-valley viaduct was laid by 
Mr. F. H. Fry, 3 June, 1867, " Middle-row" was pulled down in 1867. 

HOLLAND {Hollow land, or, some say, Wooded land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the 
chief part of the northern Netherlands, composed of land rescued from the sea, and 
defended by immense dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time of Caesar, who 
made a league with them. It became part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom 
of Austrasia. From the loth to the 15th century it was governed by counts under the 
German emperors. In 1861, the population of the kingdom in Europe was 3,521,416; of 
the colonies, 18,175,910; of both in 1863, 21,805,607. 



HOL 



367 



HOL 



HOLLAND, continued. 

The parties termed Hooks, (followers of Jlargaret 
countessof tlolland,)aiid Cod-fish, (suppurtors 
of her son William, who endeavoured to 
supplant her,; create a civil war, which lasts 

many yeai's 1347 

Holland united to Hainault, 1299 ; and Brabant 1416 
Annexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, who 
wrests it from his niece Jaqueline, of Holland, 
daughter of the last count .... 1436 
Annexed to Austria through marriage of Mary 

of Burgund3' with archduke Maximilian . 1477 
Government of Philip of Austria . . . . 1495 
Of Margaret of Austria and Charles. V. . . 1506 

Of Philip II 1555 

Philip II. establishes the Inquisition ; the Hol- 
landers having zealously embraced the re- 
formed doctrines : the Confederacy of Gueux 
(Beggars) formed bj' the nobles against it . 1566 
Compromise of Breda presented . . Jan. ,, 
Commencement of the revolt under William, 

prince of Orange 1572 

Elizabeth of England declines the offered 

sovereignty, but promises help . . ' . . 1575 
The pacification of Ghent — union of the north 

and south provinces 1576 

The seven northern provinces contract the 

league of Utrecht 1579 

And declare their independence . 29 Sept. 15S0 
Assassination of William of Orange . 10 July 

(30 June), 1584 
The ten southern provinces conquered by the 

prince of Parma 1585 

The provinces solicit help from England and 
France ; expedition of the earl of Leicester ; 
English and Dutch disagree . . . 1585-7 
Battle of Zutpheu — sir Philip Sidney killed 

22 Sept. 1586 
Prince Maurice appointed stadtholder . . 1587 
Death of Philip II. His son Philip III. cedes 
the Netherlands to Albert of Austria, and 

the infanta Isabella 1598 

CamiJaigns of Maurice and Spinola . . 1599-1604 
Slauriuedefeatsthe archdukeat Nieuport 2 July, 1600 
The independence of the United Provinces 
recognised; truce of Antwerp for twelve 
years .... 9 April (30 March), 1609 

Batavia in Java built 1610 

Fierce religious dissensions between the Armi- 

nians and Gomarists 1610-19 

Maui'ice favonrs the latter and intrigues for 

royal power 1616 

Synod of Dort ; persecution of the Arminians 1618-19 
Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt 13 May, 1619 
Renewal of the war ; Mam-ice saves Bergen-op- 
Zuom ....... 1 . 1622 

His tyrannical government : plot against him, 
and sixteen persons executed .... 1623 

His death; his brothei; Frederick succeeds him, 
and .annuls the persecution . . . . 1625 

Manhattan, now New York, North America, 
founded ; massacre of English at Amboyna, 

East Indies 1624 

Victories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish 

fleets off the Downs . 16 Sept. and 21 Oct. 1639 
Peace of Westphalia, the republic reoogrused 

by Europe 1648 

War with England — naval actions — Blake de- 
feats Do Ruyter, 22 Oct. ; but is surprised by 
Van Tromp, who takes some English ships 
and sails through the channel with a broom 
at his mast-head . . . .29 Nov. 1652 
Indecisive sea-fights, 12-14 June ; death of Van 

Tromp, 21 July ; peace follows . . . . 1653 
Victorious war with Swed^-n .... 1659 

Another war with England 1665 

Indecisive sea-fights, 1-4 June; victory of Monk 

over De Ruyter . . . .25 July, 1666 

Triple alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden 

against France 1668 

Charles II. deserts Holland ; joins France . 1670 
The French overrun Holland 1671 



Desperate condition of the States — the popu- 
lace massacre the De Witts — William III. 

made stadtholder 1672 

The French repelled by the sluices being opened , , 

Indecisive campaigns 1673-7 

William marries princess Mary of England . 1677 
Peace with France (NiaiCKUcn) .... 1678 
William becomes king of England . . . i68g 

Sanguinary war with France . . . 1689-96 
Peace of Ryswick signed . . 20 Sept. 1697 

Death of William S March, 1702 

No Stadtholder appointed — administration of 

Heinsius 1702 

War against France and Spain ; campaigns of 

JIarlborough 1702-13 

Peace of Utrecht .... 30 March, 17 14 
Holland suppoi-ts the empress Maria-Theresa 1743-8 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapclle . . . 18 Oct. 1748 
War with England for naval su^jremacy — Hol- 
land loses Colonies 1781-4 

Civil wars in the Low Countries . . 1787-9 
The French republicans march into Holland ; 

the people declare in their favour . . . 1793 
Unsuccessful campaign of the duke of York . 1794 
The Batavian repaOUc established in alliance 

with France 1795 

Battle of Camperdown, Duncan signally defeats 

the Dutch 11 Oct. 1797 

The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, 
with thirteen Indiamen, surrenders to the 
British admii-al, Duncan, without firing a gun, 

28 Aug. 1799 
A new constitution is given to the Batavian 
republic ; the chief officer (R. J. Schimmel- 
penninck) takes the title of Grand Pen- 
sionary 26 April, 1805 

Holland erected into a Icingdom, and Louis 

Bonaparte declared king . . 5 June, 1806 
The ill-fated Walcheren expedition . . . 1809 

Louis abdicates i July, 1810 

Holland united to France ... 9 July, ,, 
Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium 

annexed to its dominions . . 17 Nov. 1S13 

The prince of Orange proclaimed sovereign 

prince of the united Netherlands . 6 Dec. ,, 
Religious discord between Holland and the 

southern provinces .... 1817, &c. 
The revolution in Belgium . . -25 Aug. 1830 
Belgium separated from Holland . 12 July, 1831 
HoUacid makes war against Belgium 3 Aug. ,, 
Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed 

in London 19 April, 1839 

Abdication of William I. . . 7-10 Oct. 1840 

Death of the ex-king William I. . 12 Dec. 1844 

Louis Bonaparte, count de St. Leu, ex-king of 

Holland, dies of ajjoplexy at Leghorn, 25 July, 1846 
The king agrees to political reform, March ; a 

new constitution granted . . 17 Aiiril, 1848 
Death of William II. . . . 17 March, 1849 

Re-establishment of a Roman Catholic hier- 
archy announced . . . 12 March, 1853 
Inundations : 40,000 acres submerged ; nearly 

30,000 villagers made destitute, Jan. and Feb. 1861 
Great fire at Endsched^, the iVlanchester of 

Holland, loss about a milli(jn pounds 7 May, 1862 
The states-general pass a law for the abolition 
of slavery in the Dutch West Indies 6 Aug. „ 
[To commence i July, 1863.] 
Treaty for capitalising Scheldt dues signed 

12 May, 1863 
Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies i July, ,, 
50th anniversary of the deliverance from the 

French kept 17 Nov. ,, 

Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam 

with the North sea ... 8 March, 1865 
The government undertake a canal to connect 

Rotterdanr with the sea . . . March, ,, 
Commercial treaty with France . . 7 July, „ 
New ministry (protectioni.st) . . i Juno, 1866 
Correspondence with Prussia respecting the 
Prussian garrison in Luxumburg July -Aug. ,, 



IIOL 



368 



HOL 



HOLLAND, continued. 

The lower chamber hardly passed a vote of 
censure on the ministry respecting govem- 
ment of Cuba, &c. ; the king dissolves the 
chamber lo Oct. 



Alleged treaty -with France respecting cession 
of Luxemburg (which see) . . 22 March, 1867 



PRINCES OF ORANGE (see Orange) .stadtholders, and kings. 



1618. 



1502. Philibert de Chalons. 

1530. Rune de Nassau, his nephew. 

1544. William of Nassau, styled the Great, cousin to 
Rene, recovers the prinoipahty of Orange in 
1559. Nominated stadtholdeb in 1579 ; 
killed by an assassin hired by PhiUp II. of 
Spain, 10 July, 1584. 

1584. Philip-William, his son ; stolen away from the 
university of Louvain ; the Dutch would 
never suffer him to reside in their provinces : 
died 1618. 
Maurice, the renowned general ; became 
STADTHOLDEB in 1584 ; he was a younger son 
of William by a second marriage. 

1625. Frederick-Henry (brother) stadtholdeb. 

1647. William II., stadtholdeb: married Mary, 
daughter of Charles I. of England, by whom 
he had a son, who succeeded in 1672. 

1650-72. John De Witt, grand pensionary; no 
stadtholder. 

1660. William-Henry : stadtholdeb in 1672 ; mar- 
ried Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of 
England, 1677. 

1702. -47. No stadtholder. 

1702. John- William, nephew of William III., loses 
the principality of Orange, which is annexed 
to France. 



1747. William-Henry becomes hebeditaet stadt- 
holdeb. He married princess Anne of 
England : succeeded by his son, 

1751. William IV. ; retired on the invasion of the 
French in 1795 ; died in 1806. 

1795. [Holland and Belgium united to the French 
republic] 

KINGS. 

1806. Louis Bonaparte, made king of Holland by his 
brother Napoleon, 5 June, i8o5; abdicated, 
I July, 1810. 

1810. [Holland again united to France.] 

1813. House of Orange restored. WiUiam-Frederick, 
prince of Orange (born 1772), proclaimed 
6 Dec. 1813 ; took the oath of fidelity as 
sovereign prince, 30 March, 1814 ; assumed 
the style of king of the Netheelands, 16 
March, 1815; formally abdicated in favour of 
his son, 7 Oct. 1840 ; died 12 Dec. 1843. 

1840. William II. ; born 6 Dec. 1792 ; succeeded on 
his father's abdication ; died 17 March, 
1849. 

1849. Willian^ III., son of the preceding ; bom 19 
Feb. 1817. The pbesent king. 
Heir: Prince William, born 4 Sept. 1840. 



HOLLAND, New, see Australia, and Australasia. 

HOLMFIRTH FLOOD. On 5 Feb. 1852, the Bilbury reservoir above Holmfirtli, near 
Huddersfiekl, Yorkshire, bur.st its bank,s, and levelled four mills and many ranges of other 
buildings, killing more than 90 persons, and devastating pro^^erty estimated at above half 
a million. 

HOLSTEIN AND SCHLESWIG (N.W. Germany), duchies once belonging to Denmark. 
The country, inhabited by Saxons, was subdued by Charlemagne in the beginning of the 9th 
century, and afterwards formed part of the duchy of Saxony. In 1106 or mo, Adolphus 
of Schauenberg became count of Holstein : his descendants ruled till 1459, when Adol- 
phus VIL died without issue, and the states of Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian 
king of Denmark, his nephew, as their duke, through fear of his arms. In 1544, his 
grandson, Christian II., divided his states amongst his brothers, with the condition that the 
duchies should, remain subject to Denmark. The eldest branch of the family reigned in 
Denmark till the decease of Frederick VIL, Nov. 15, 1863. From a younger branch (the 
dukes of Holstein-Gottorp) descended, through marriage, the kings of Sweden from i75i-_ 
1818, and the reigning family in Eussia since 1762, when the duke, as the husband of 
Anne, became czar. In 1773, Catherine II. of Eussia ceded Holstein-Gottorp to Denmark 
in exchange for Oldenburg, &e. The duchies were occupied by the Swedes in 1813, but 
restored to Denmark in 18 14, and on 28 May, 1831, constituent assemblies were granted 
to them. Since 1844 disputes have been rife between the duchies and Denmark, and in 
1848 the states-general of the duchies voted their annexation to the German confederacy, in 
which they were supported by Prussia ; war ensued, which lasted till 1850, when they sub- 
mitted to Denmark. The agitation in the duchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. 
The Germans in Schleswig desired it to be made a member of the German confederation ,_ 
like Holstein ; and both duchies demanded a local government more independent of 
Denmark, which changes were resisted by that power. For the events of the war of 1864, 
see Denmark. By the convention signed at Gastein, 14 Aug. 1865, the government of 
Holstein was left with Austria, and that of Schleswig with Prussia. Holstein wholly and 
part of Schleswig were ceded to Prussia by the treaty of Prague, signed 23 Aug. 1866 ; 
see Gastein. Population in i860, 1,004,473. 

HOLY ALLIANCE, was ratified at Paris, 26 Sept. 1815, between the emperors of 
Eussia (its originator) and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound 
themselves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all their political 
transactions, with a view to perpetuating the peace they had achieved. The compact was 
severely censured in this country as opposed to rational liberty. 



HOL 369 HOM 

HOLY BROTHERHOOD, see Ilermandad. HOLY GHOST, see Esjtrit. 

HOLY ISLAND, see LincUsfarnc. HOLY LEAGUE, see Leagues. 

HOLY MAID OF Kent, — Elizabeth Barton was incited by the Roman Catholic party 
to hinder the Reformation by pretending to inspirations from heaven. She foretold tliat 
Henry VIH. would die a speedy and violent death if lie divorced Catherine of Spain, and 
married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to the nation. She and her confederates were 
liauged at Tyburn, 20 April, 1534. Rapiii. 

HOLY PLACES ix Palkstike. The possession of these places has been a source of 
contention between the Greek and Latin churches for several centuries. In the reign of 
Francis I. they were placed in the hands of the Latin monks under the protection of the 
French government, by a treaty witli the then sultan ; but the Greeks from time to time 
obtained firmans from the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins, who were at last (in 
1757) expelled from some of the sacred buildings, which were committed to the care of the 
Greeks by a hatti-scherifl', or imperial ordinance. 
The holy sepulchre partially destroyed \>y fire, i The French government acquiesced, with miioh 



dissatisfaction ; but the Russian envoy still 
desired the key to be withheld from the Latin 
monks. M. D'Ozeroff made a formal declara- 
tion of the right of Kussia to protect the 
orthodox in virtue of the treaty of Kainardji 
in 1774, and demanded that the firman of 
9 March, 1852, should be read at Jerusalem, 
although it militated against his pretensions, 
which was accordingly done. The dispute 
still continued, the Porte being exposed to 
the attacks of both the Russian and French 

governments March, 1853 

Prince MenschikofF arrives at Constantinople as 
envoy extraordinary, and in addition to the 
claims respecting the holy filaces, nutkes 
those demands respecting the protection of 
the Gi-eek Christians in Turkey which led to 
the war of 1854-6. (See Rusao-T-in-kisk War) 

28 Feb. ,, 



and rebuilt by the Greeks, who claim addi- 
tional privileges, and cause fresh dissensions 1808 

The Russian and French governments sent 
envoys (M. Uashkoff and M. Marcellus) to ad- 
just the dispute; an arrangement prevented 
by the Greek revolution 1821 

The subject again agiuited, and the Porte pro- 
posed that a mixed commission should ad- 
judicate on the rival claims. M. Titoff, the 
Russian envoy, acting on behalf of the Greeks, 
and M. Lavalette, the French envoy, on that 
of the Latins, took up the question very 

, warmly 1850 

A firraan issued by the Porte, confirming and 
consolidating the rights previously granted 
to the Greek Christians, and declaring that 
the Latins had no right to claim e.xchisive 
possession of uertain ho'y places sijecified, but 
permitting them to possess a key of the 
church at Bethlehem, <Sic., as in former 
times 9 March, 1852 

HOLY EOMAlsT EMPIRE, see Rome, and Germany. 

HOLY R.OOD or Cross. A festival was instituted on account of the recovery of a 
large piece of the cross by the emperor Heraclius, after it had been taken away, on the 
plundering of Jerusalem, about 615. The feast of the invention (or finding) of the Cross is 
on 3 May ; that of the .exaltation of the Cross, 14 Sept. At Boxley abbey, in Essex, was a 
crucifix, called the Rood of Grace ; at the dissolution it was broken iu pieces as an imposture 
by Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Raid's cross, London. 

HOLYROOD PALACE (Edinburgh), formerly an abbey, was for several centuries the 
residence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of which some vestiges remain, was 
founded by David I. in 1128, and in the burial-place within its walls are interred several of 
his successors. The palace is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with a court within 
surrounded by piazzas. In the north-west tower is the bed-chamber which was occupied by 
queen Mary ; and from an adjoining cabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was dragged 
forth and murdered, 9 March, 1566. The north-west towers were built by James V., and 
the remaining part of the palace was added during the reign of Charles II. Mr. Pinkerton 
states that the palace was burnt in 1650, and rebuilt in 1659. Great improvements were 
made in 1857. The queen held her court here, 30 Aug. 1850. 

HOLY SEPULCHRE, a Byzantine church in modern Jerusalem. Fergusson, Robinson, 
and others, consider the true site of the lioly sepulchre to be the mosque of Omar, termed 
the "dome of the Rock." The question is still undecided, and investigations are going on 
at the expense of the Russian government ; see Knights. 

HOLY WARS, see Crusades. 

HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a.d. 120. Ashe. 

HOLY "VVlilEK, or the "Week of Indulgences," is the week before Easter. 

HOMELDEN (Northumberland), where the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were 
defeated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), 14 Sept. 1402. Douglas and the earls of 
Angus, Murray, Orkney, and tlie earl of Fife, sou of the duke of Albany, and nephew of 
the Scottish king, with many of the nobility and gentry, were taken prisoners. 

B B 



HOM 370 HOP 

HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY, the two first and most perfect epic poems in the 
world. The first begins with tlie wrath of Achilles, and ends witli the funeral of Hector ; 
the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulj'sses, after the destruction of Troy. 
Various dates are assigned to these works, from 962 to 915 B.C.* Among the thousands of 
volumes burnt at Constantinople, a.d. 477, are said to have been the works of Homer 
written in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. 

HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens bj' the Areopagites, 1507 B.C. He that 
killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay hid to do a 
person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken 
with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he that killed a man who, without 
just grounds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, 
wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley the ofi'ender was to fly to one of the cities 
of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high-priest, 145 1 B.C. (Num. xxxv.) 
9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (1828), distinguishes between justifiable homicide and homicide in its 
various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness ; see Murder. 

HOMILIES in early Christian times were discourses delivered by the bi.shop or presbyter, 
in a homely manner, for the common people. — The Book of Homilies drawn up by abp. 
Cranmer, and published 1547, and another prepared by an order of convocation, 1563, were 
ordered to be read in those churches that had not a minister able to compose proper dis- 
courses. Stow. 

HOMCEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated early in the present century by Dr. Samuel 
Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 1843), according to which every medicine has a specific power 
of inducing a certain diseased state of the system {similia similihus curantur, likes are 
cured b}'' likes) ; and if such medicine be given to a person suffei'ing under the disease which 
it has a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, because two similar diseased actions 
cannot simultaneously subsist in the same organ. Brande. Infinitesimal doses of medicine, 
such as the millionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is said, with efficacy. 
The real merits of the system consist in its inducing the patient to regulate his diet and 
habits according to the dictates of common sense. — The Hahnemann hospital was opened 
in Bloomsbui-y-square, 16 Sejrt. 1850. 

HOMOUSION AND HOMOIOUSION" {Greek, same essence, and similar essence or 
being), terms employed with respect to the nature of the Father and the Son in the Trinity. 
The orthodox party adopted the former term as a party cry at the council of Nice, 325 ; the 
Arians adopted the latter at Seleucia, 359. 

HONDURAS, one of the republics of Central America [wliicli see). Great Britain ceded 
the Bay Islands to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859. Its present president, general J. M. Medina, 
was elected i Eeb. 1864. Population, about 350,000 (i860). British Honduras, Central 
America, was settled by English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with Spain in 1667. 
They were often disturbed by the Spaniards and sometimes expelled, till 1783. Balize or 
Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861, the population was 
25,635, and the revenue, 35,757?. Governor, James R. Longden, 1867. 

HONEY-MOON. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days, or a moon's 
age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term lioney-moon, of Teutonic origin. Attila 
the Jlun di-ank, it is said, so freely of hydromcl on his marriage-day, that he died of sufl'oca- 
tion, 453. 

HONG-KONG, an island ofF.the coast of China, was taken by capt. Elliott, 23 Aug. 1839, 
and ceded to Great Britain, 20 Jan. 1841. Its chief town is Victoria, built in 1842, and 
erected into a bishoja-ic in 1849. Sir John Bowring, governor from 1854 to 1859, was suc- 
ceeded by sir Hercules Robinson. Present govei'uor, sir Rich. G. MacDonnell, 1865. 

HON I SO IT QUI MAL Y PENSE, " Evil be to him who evil thinks." It is said that 
the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward 
III. , took it up, and presented it to her with these words, which afterwards became the motto 
of the order of the garter ; but this statement is unsupported by sufficient authority. — The 
order is said to have been instituted, 23 April, 1349. 

HONOUR. Temples were erected to Honour by Scipio Africanus, about 197 B.C. ; and 
by C. Marius, about 102 B.C. — The Legion of Honour was created by Bonaparte in 1802. 

HOOKS AND CODFISH, see Holland, 1347. HOOPS, see Crinoline. 

HOPS, in use in England in 1425. Harleian MS. Introduced from the Netherlands, into Eng- 
land about 1524, and used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were 

* The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, appeared in 1581. The most celebrated versions 
of Homer's works are Chapman's, 1616 ; Hobbes', 1675 ; Pope's, 1715-25 ; Cowper's, 1791. The translation 
of the Iliad by the earl of IJerby (1864) is much commended. 



HOR 371 HOR 

unwholesome, their use was prohibited in 1528. Anderson. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1853, 
there were 46,157! acres iiudcr hops in England and Wales, chiefly in Herefordshire, Kent, 
and Worcestershire, which paid 447, 144Z. duty; the (juautity yielded was 51,102,494 lbs., 
whereof 955,855 lbs. were exported. The duty on hops was repealed in 1862, after many 
applications. An act for preventing fraud in the trade was passed in June, 1866. — The hop 
and malt exchange, Sonthwark, was opened in Oct. 1867. 

HORATII AND CURIATII, see lioine, 669 B.C. 

HORN ; HORNPIPE. The horn is thought to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind 
instrument, and has been found among most savage nations. It was first made of horn, 
hence the name ; afterwards of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the last century. — 
The dance called the Hornpipe is supposed to be so named fj'om its having been performed 
to the Welsh 2nb-corn, that is, hornpipe, about 1300. Spencer. 

HORNE TOOKE, &c. The trial of Messrs. Hardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, 
on a charge of high treason, caused a great sensation. They were taken into custody on 20 
May, 1 794. Mr. Hardy was tried 29 Oct. , and, after a trial of eight days, was honourably 
acquitted. John Home Tooke was tried and acquitted, 20 Nov. ; and Mr. Thelwall was ac- 
quitted, 5 Dec. ; the others were discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. Tlielwall's 
political lectures in 1795 ; see Gagging Bills, and Thelwall. 

HOROLOGY, see Clocks. The British Horological institute, Clerkenwell, London, 
established in 1858, for the benefit of watchmakers, publishes a monthly journal. 

HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably first among 
the Greeks who broke them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was 
originally inhabited by centaurs. "Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, 
and 12,000 horsemen," 1014 n.c. i Kings iv. 26. The Greeks and Romans had some 
covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the 9th century horses were only shod 
in time of frost. Shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. In England 
there are 2,000,000 draught and pleasure horses, and 100,000 agricultural horses, which con- 
sume the produce of 7,000,000 acres ; &&e Races. 

He was engag-ed to instruct cavalry officers and 
riding-masters of the army . . July, 1859 

He gave a lecture to the London cabmen, which 
was well received, 12 Jan. 1S60 ; and in the 
same year he received a present of 20 guineas 



The horse-tax was imposed in 1784. Its opera- 
tion was extended, and its amount increased, 
in 1796; and again in 1808. The existing 
duty upon " horses for riding " only, in Eng- 
land, amoiints to about 350,0002. per year 

Mr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a great 
sensation in London by taming vicious and 
wild hor.'es, and even a zebra from the 
Zoological Gardens. His system is founded 
on a profound study of the disposition of the 
animal, and on kindness. He initiated many 
illustrious persons in his method (on 20 
March, lord Palmerston and twenty others), 
binding them to secresy ; from which they 
were released in June, when his book was re- 
printed in England without his cons-ent 



from the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty 

to Animals May, i860 

Great horse-shows were held at the Agricul- 
tural Hall, Ishngton, in July, 1864; July, 
1865; May, 1866; and . . . 25 May, 1867 

Burxe-flesh. An establishment for the sale of it 
as human food was opened at Paris on 9 July, 
1866, with success, and its use as food strongly 
advocated 

150 persons (including sir Henry Thompson, sir 
.John Lubbock, &.c.) dined ou horse-flesh at 
the Langham hotel, London . . 6 Feb. i863 



HORSE GUARDS. They w^ere instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 1550, and revived 
by Charles 11. 1661. The first troop of the Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, and 
was commanded by general Cholmondeley; and the second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, 
was raised in 1702. There was a reduction of tlie Horse and Grenadier Guards, and Life 
Guards, as now established, were raised in their room, 26 May, 178S. Phillijis. The present 
edifice called the Horse Guards was erected by Ware, about 1730. In the front are two small 
arches, where horse-soldiers, in full uniform, daily mount guard. In a part of the building 
is the office of the commander-in-chief. 

HORSE-EACING, see Racing. 

HORTENSIAN LAW, passed by Q. Hortensius, dictator, 286 B.C., afterthe secession of 
the plebeians to the Janiculum, affirmed the legislative power granted them by previous 
laws in 446 and 336 B.C. 

HORTICULTURE, the art of cultivating gardens, is a late word in our dictionaries (from 
Jwrtus and cidtura), and was first used by Evelyn ; see Gardening. 

The (now royal) Horticultural society of Lon- j Proposal for laying out a garden for the society 

don founded by sir Joseph Banks and others j on the Bromptou estate, belonging to the 

in 1804 ; incorporated 17 April, 1809 ; transac- Crystal Palace Commissioners, July, 1859 ; 

tions first published 1812 received the support of the queen, nobility. 

Planting the garden at Chiswick begun . . 1822 &c., and Mr. Nesfield's design was adopted in 

-Vnnual exhibitions 1831 M>iy, i860 

The library sold 1859 The new gardens wore opened by the prince 

I! I) 2 



HOE, 



372 



HUD 



HORTICULTURE, continued. 

consort, who planted a Wellingtonia gigantea 

{which see) S June, 1861 

The queen also planted one on . . 24 July, ,, 
Dr. John Luidley (wlio "raised horticulture 
from an empirical art to a developed science") 
seci'etary, 1822-62 ; died . . .1 Nov. 1865 

HOSIERY, sec Stockings, and Cotton. 



The Albert memorial uncovei-ed in the presence 
of the prince and princess of W.des 10 June, 1863 

^\n International Horticultural exhibition was 
opened -in the gardens . . 23-31 May, 1866 

Horticultural societies established at Edin- 
burgh, 1S09 ; at Dublin 1817 

HOSPITALLERS, see 3IaUa. 



HOSPITALS, oi-i^imxWy Bospitia for the reception of travellers. That at. Jerusalem, 
built by the knights of St. John 11 12, was capable of receiving 2000 guests, and included 
a,n infirmary for the sick. The richly endowed "five royal hospitals" under " the pious 
care of the lord-mayor of London," &c., are St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bridewell, 
Bethlehem, and Christ's ; see Infirmaries, and Disjyensaries. 
Bethlehem Coldest lunatic 



asylum in Europe except 
one at Granada) founded . 1547 

Cancer, Brompton . . 1851 

Charing-cross, founded 1818 ; 
new hospital built . . 1831 

City of London Lying-in 

Consumption, Brompton 

Dreadnought ship 

Fever .... 

Free, Gray's Inn-lane . 

German, Dalston 

Great Nortliern 

Guy's (see Guy's) 

Hahnemann . 



1750 



1845 
1856 
1 72 1 



Hospital of Surgery 

Idiots' . 

Incurables 

Jews' 

King's College . 

Lock 



. . 1850 

• 1747 

. . 1839 

• • '746 

London . . . . . 1740 

Lying-in, British . 

,, City-road . . . 
,, General, Lambeth 
,, Queen Charlotte's 
,, Queen Adelaide's 

Middlesex .... 

London Ophthalmic, Fins- 
bury 



J 749 
1750 
1765 
1752 
1824 
1745 

1804 



London Ophthalmic, Gray's 

inn-road .... 1843 
Orthopfedic . . ... 1838 
Sam iritan Free, for women 

and children . . . 1847 

Small Pox . . . . 1746 
St. Bartholomew's (see JJar- 

thoioincio, St.) . , . 1546 

St. George's . . . . 1733 

St. liuke's (lunatics) . . 1751 

St. Mary's, Paddington . . 1843 

St. Thomas's (removed 1862) 1553 

Univerisity College . . 1833 

Westminster . . . . 1719 

Women's, Soho-square . 1843 



HOST, Eleyation of the, introduced into Roman Caiholic worship, and prostration, 
said to have been enjoined about 1201. Pope Gregoiy IX. Avas the first pontiff who decreed 
a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the 
host, 1228. Rccs. 

HOT BLAST, see Bloioing Mcccliine. 

HOURS. The day is said to have been first divided into hours from 293 B.C., when 
L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously to the 
invention of water-clocks {which see), 158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public criers. 
In England, the measurement of time was, in early days, uncertain : one expedient was by 
wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax candles burning twenty-four hours : 
said to have been invented by Alfred, a.d. 885 ; see Day. For Hours of Prayer, see 
Breviary. 

HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its rate was frequently changed till its repeal in 
1840(3 &4WilL 4, c. 39). It was re-imposed as a substitute for the window-tax, in 1851. 

HOUSEHOLD SUFFRAGE, after one year's residence, was introduced into parlia- 
mentary elections for boroughs, by the refornr act passed 15 Aug. 1867. 

HOUSELESS POOR ACT (Metropolitan) passed, 1864 ; made perpetual, 1S65. ^^qPoot. 

HOUSE OF Commons, Lords, &c., see Parliament, Lords, and Commons. 

HOWARD FAMILY. John Howard, son of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, 
was created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in 1483. He was slain with his master, 
Richard III., at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. His son was restored to the earldom of Surrey in 
1489, in reward for having gained the victory of Flodden, 9 Sept. 15 13 ; he was created the 
8th duke of Norfolk in 1514. Thomas, the lotli duke, was beheaded for conspiracy against 
([ueen Elizabeth on behalf t>f Mary, queen of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now 
the 2ist duke of Norfolk, and the i8th of the Howard family, premier duke and earl of 
England and hereditary earl marshal, was born in 1847. 

HOWITZER, a German piece of ordnance, ranking between a cannon and a mortar, 
came into use early in the i8th century. 

HUBERTSBURG (Saxony). The treaty between the empress, the king of Prussia, and 
the elector of Bavaria, signed here, 15 i'eb. 1763, ended the Seven years' war, whereb}"- 
Prussia gained Silesia. 

HUDIBRAS. The first three cantos of this political satire, by Samuel Butler, ap- 
peared in 1663 ; and the other parts in 1664 and 1678. 

HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a north- 
west passage to tlie Pacific Ocean, 1610, had been discovered by Frobisher ia the reign of 
Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured farther north. The latter, passing the winter in this 



HUE 373 HUN 

bay on his fourtli voj'agc, was, with foiir others, throwji by his sailors into a boat, and left 
to iDerish. The Hudson's-Bay Company obtained a charter in. 1670. Their licence expired 
in 1859. The forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. In July, 1863, the 
formation of a new company was proposed. The territories are termed "liupert's Land." 

HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing "with horn and with 
voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and felons. Formerly, 
the hundred was bound to make good all loss occasioned by the robberies therein committed, 
unless the felon were taken ; but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage 
committed by riotous assemblies. The pursuit of a felon was aided by a description of him 
in the Hue and Cry, a gazette established for advertising felons in 1710. Ashe. 

HUGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from the German Eidgcnosscn, confederates ; by 
others from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the Reformed party in France, followei's 
of Calvin. They took up arms against tlieir persecutors in 1561. After a delusive edict of 
toleration, a great number were massacred at Vassy, i March, 1562, when the civil wars began, 
which lasted with some intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 (revoked in 1685). The 
massacre of St. Bartliolomew's day, 24 Aug. 1572, occurred during a truce ; see Cahinists, 
Bartholomew, and 'Edict. S. Smiles's "History of the Huguenots " appeared in 1S67. 

HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial place in 1200, was named Kingston-upon- 
HuU in 1296 by Edward L, who purchased the town, formed the port, and granted a 
charter. Great tire ; damage about lOO.oooZ., 15 Aug. 1864. 

HULSE'S FOUNDATIONS. The rev. John Hulse, who died in 1790, bequeathed his 
estates in Cheshire to the irniversity of Cambridge for the advancement of religious learning : 
— by the maintenance of two scholars ; the payment of a prize of 40Z. annually for a 
theological dissertation ; the establishment of the office of Christian advocate (made a pro- 
fessorship of divinity i Aug. i860) ; and the payment of a lecturer, to be chosen annually. 
The first Hulsean lectures were given by the rev. Christopher Benson, in 1820. 

HUMAITA, a strong post on the river Paraguay, defended by a battery of 300 cannon ; 
and believed to be impregnable by Lopez, the president of Paraguay ; was forced by the 
Brazilian ironclads 17 Feb. 1868. On the 19th, Caxias, the Brazilian general, stonned a 
work to the north of Humaiti£, and captured many stores. 

HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, 
was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, Towers, Lettsoni, Hawes, and Cogan, 
but principally by the last three. The society has 221 receiving-houses, supplied with appa- 
ratus. The principal one was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by George III. on 
the north side of the Serpentine river, Hyde-park. The motto of this society is appropriate 
— -" Latcat scintUhda forsarv " — " a small spark ma}' perhaps lie hid ; " see Drowning. 

HUMILIATI, a congregation of monks, formed by some Milanese who had been im- 
prisoned by Fredei-ick I. 1162. The order had more than ninety monasteries ; but was 
abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the 
Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities, in 1570. 

HUMMING-BIRDS. Mr. Gould's beautiful collection of the skins of these birds was 
exhibited at the Zoological Gardens, London, in 1851. His elaborate work on them in five 
folio volumes, with richly coloured plates, was completed in 1862. 

HUNDRED, a Danish institution ; was a part of a shire, so called, as is supposed, from 
its having been composed of a hundred families, at the time the counties were originally 
divided, about 897. The hundred-court is a court-baron held for all the inhabitants of a 
hundred instead of a manor. Law Dictionary. 

IIuNDRED DAVS ; a term given to Napoleon's I Hcndred years' war, in French history, 

restoration, dating Irom his arrival in Paris, commenced with the invasion of Edwardlll. 

March 20, to his departure on 29 Jvmc, 1815 | of England in 1328 ^but did not end till 1444. 

HUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and Dacia, was subjected to the Romans 
about 106, and retained by them till the 3rd century, M'hen it was seized by the Goths, who 
were expelled about 376 by the Huns, under Attila. See Huns, and A itila. After his death, 
in 453, the Gepida?, and in 500 the Lombards held the country. It was acquired by the 
Avars about 568, and retained by them till their destruction by Charlemagne in 799. About 
890 the country was settled b}'^ a Scythian tribe, named Vingonrs or Ungri (whence the 
German name Ungarn) and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The chief of the latter, Arpad 
(889), was the ancestor of a line of kings {sec below). The progress of the Magyars westward 
was checked by their defeat by the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. Population (without 
the army) in 1857, 9,900,785 ; see Austria. 



HUN 



374 



HUN 



HUNGAKY, continued. 

Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, 
embraces and establishes Christianity and 
subdues the slaves, &c. , receives the title of 
Apnstoiic hint/ from the i^ope .... 997 
The Poles overrun Hungary . . . . 1061 

Bela HI. introduces the Greek civilisatioir 1174, &o. 
Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under the sons 
of Genghis Khan, throughout Hungary, 
Bohemia, and Russia . . . 1241 et seq. 
Golden Bull of Andrew II. granting personal 

rights 1222 

Death of Andrew III. end of the Arpad d-inasty 1301 
Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Servia, 

and Dalmatia 1344-S2 

He marches into Italy and avenges the murder 

of his brother, Andirew king of Naples . . 1348 
Sanguinary anarchy : Elizabeth, queen of Louis, 
is drowned: and isTf/ifif* Mary, the daughter, 
marries Sigismond, of Brandenburg . . 1382 
They govern with great severity . . . 1382-92 
Sigismond's atrocious cruelties compel his sub- 
jects to invite the assistance of the Turks . 1393 
Battle of Niodpolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigis- 
mond and a large army . . 28 Sept. 1396 
Sigismond obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 

is elected emperor of Germany . . . . 1410 
Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of 

Hungary _ • 1437 

Victories of the great John Hunniades (illegiti- 
mate son of Sigismond) over the Turks . 1442-4 
"Who obtained a truce for ten years '. . . 1444 
Broken by Ladislas king of Hungary (at the 
pope's instigation). He is defeated and slain, 
with tbe papal legate, at Vama . 10 Nov. 1444 
John Hunniades escapes ; becomes regent 1444-53 
Raises siege of Belgrade 14 July ; dies 10 Sept. 1456 
Hungarians insult Turkish ambassadors ; war 

ensues: Solyman II. takes Buda . . . 1526 
Disastrous battle of Mohatz (if A.ic7i see) 29 Aug. ,, 
Hungary subject to Austria . . . . „ 
Peace of Vienna, granting toleration to Protes- 
tants 1606 

John Sobieski defeats the Turks in several 

battles, and raises the siege of Vienna Nov. 1683 
Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at 

Salenckemen 19 Aug. 1691 

Prince Eugene defeats them at Zenta 11 Sept. 1697 
The Duke of Lorraine retakes Buda (ichich fee) 1686 

Peace of Carlowitz 26 Jan. 1699 

Pragmatic sanction, authorising female succes- 
sion to the throne 1722-3 

Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the 

peace of BelgTade 1739 

The Hungarians enthusiastically support Maria- 
Theresa against France and Bavaria . . 1740 
The protestants permitted to have churches . 1784 
Independence of Hungary guaranteed . . 1790 
Hungarian academy established . . ._ . 1825 
The people, long discontented with the Austrian 

rule, break out into a formidable I'ebelhon . 1848 
Murder of the military governor, count Lam- 
berg, by a mob at Pesth ; the Hungarian diet 
appoint a provisional government under Ko.s- 
suth and Battbyany, 28 Sept. ; Hungarians 
defeat the ban of Croatia . . 29 Sept. ,, 
The diet denounces as traitors all who acknow- 
ledge the emperor of Austria as king of 
Hungary . . . . •. . 8 Dec. ,, 
The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at 

Szaikszo 21 Dec. ,, 

At Mohr, by the ban Jellachich . . 29 Dec. , , 
Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgratz 5 Jan. 1849 
Bern defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt, 

21 Jan. ,, 
Hungary declares itself a free state ; Kossuth 
supreme governor . . . 14 April, ,, 



The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before 

Gran rS April, 1849 

March of the Russian army through Galhcia to 

assist the Austrians . . . i May, ,, 
The Axistro-Russian troops defeat the Hunga- 
rians at Pered .... 20 June, ,, 
Battles of Acs between the Hungarians and 

Austrians ; former retire . .2, 10 July, ,, 
Hungarians defeat Jellachich . 14 July, ,, 

The Htmgarians defeated by the Russians : Gor- 

gey retreats after three days' battle 15 July, „ 
Battle before Komorn, between the insurgents 

and the Austro- Russian army . 16 July, ,, 
Insurgents under Bem enter Moldavia 23 July, ,, 
Again defeated by the Russians . 31 July, ,, 
Utter defeat of the Himgarian army before 

Temeswar, by gen. Haynau . 10 Aug. ,, 

Gorgey and his army surrender to the Russians, 

13 Aug. ,, 
Kossuth, Bem, <fec., escape to the Turkish fron- 
tiers, and are placed under the protection of 
Turkey at New Orsova (see Turkey) 21 Aug. ,, 
Komorn sun-enders to the Austrians ; close of 

the war 27 Sept. ,, 

Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot : many other 

insurgent chiefs put to death . 6 Oct. ,, 

Amnesty granted to the Hungarian insurgents, 

who return home . . . .16 Oct. ,, 
Bem dies at Aleppo .... 10 Dec. 1850 
The country remains in an unsettled state ; 

many executions 1853-5 

Crown of St. Stephen and royal insignia dis- 
covered and sent to Vienna . • . 8 Sept. 1853 
Amnestyforpoliticaloffendersof 1848-9 i2July, 1856 
The emperor and empress visit Buda 4 May, 1857 
During the Italian war in 1859, ^^ insiUTection 
in Hungary was in contemjilation, and com- 
municittions took place between Lovtis Napo- 
leon and Kossuth ; which circumstances it 
is said led the emperor of Austria to accede 
to the peace of Villafranca so suddenly, and 
shortly afterwards to promise many reforms 
and to grant more liberty to the protestants in 

Hungary Aug.-Oot. 1859 

Recall of archduke Albert ; general Benedek 

appointed governor .... April, i860 
Demand for restoration of the old constitution ; 
re-union of the Banat and Voivodina with 

Hungary, &c Oct ,, 

Restoration of old constitution promised 20 Oct. ,, 
Schmerling appointed minister . 13 Dec. ,, 
National conference at Gran . . Dec. ,, 

Demand for the constitution of 1848 . Jan. 1861 
The emperor promulgates a new liberal consti- 
tution for the empire . . . 26 Feb. ,, 
Which does not satisfy the Hungarians, March, ,, 
Hungarian diet opened ... 6 April, ,, 
Meeting of the Reichsrath at Vienna : no depu- 
ties present from Hungary or Croatia 29 April, , , 
Count Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in 

his bed at Pesth: intense excitement 8 May, ,, 
The diet votes an address to the emperor, desir- 
ing restoration of the old constitution sJuly, ,, 
The military begin to levy the taxes . July, ,, 
Imperial rescript refusing the entire independ- 
ence of Hungary, 21 July : the diet protests, 
20 Aug. ; and is dissolved . . 21 Aug. ,, 
The archbishop of Gran, the primate, indig- 
nantly protests against the act of the imperial 
government .... Sept.-Oct. „ 
Summoned to Vienna ; he stands firm 25 Oct. ,, 
The magistrates in the comitat at Pesth resign ; 
military government established ; passive 
resistance of the nobility . . . Dec. „ 
Amnesty declared for pohtical offences, and ces- 
sation of prosecutions . . .18 Nov. 1862 



■* The Hungarian people have or had an irreconcileable aversion to the name of queen ; and, conse- 
quently, whenever a female succeeded to the throne of Hungary, she reigned with the title of king. Thus 
in 1382, when Mary came to the crown, she was styled king Mary. Pray, Hist. Rfgum Hungaria'. 



HUN 



375 



HUN 



nUNGArvY, continued. 

Newspapers eonfiscated for publishing seditious 
speeclies 29 March, 1S63 

The emperor visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ; 
inauguration of a new policy- ; the rights of 
Hungary to be restored . . 6-9 June, 1S65 

Imperial rescript, abolishing the representa- 
tive constitution of the empire, with the 
view of restoring independence of Hungary, 
&c. 21 t^ept. ,, 

The Deak or moderate party demand restoration 
of the monarchy, with a responsible go^'em- 
ment 11 Xov. „ 

The emperor visits Pesth ; the diet opened 14 
Dec. ; Carl Szentivanyi elected president 

20 Dec. ,, 

Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth 29 Jan. 1S60 

Hungarian legions join the Prussian array, 
June ; (after the peace, they were allowed to 
return to their allegiance) . . Oct. ,, 

Prolonged political negotiations for autonomy ; 
Deak and national party wearied, threaten 
to break off Oct. , , 

Hungarian diet opened by a conciliatoiy rescript 

ig Nov. ,, 

Deak's address in reply, demanding the restora- 
tion of the constitution, adopted by tiie diet 
with a large majority . . . 15 Dec. ,, 

Much opposition to the convocation of the 
Beichsrath Jan. 1867 



Restoration of the constitution of 1S4S ; an inde- 
petident ministry appointed, headed by count 
Andrassy 17 Feb. : 

The Croats protest against incorporation with 
Hungary 25 May, 

The euiiioror and empress crowned at Buda 
with all the ancient ceremonies . 8 June, 

Amnest}' granted for all political offences 9 June, 

The coronation gift to the emperor of 50,000 
ducats bestowed on orphans and invalids 

10 June, 

Discussion between the Austrians and Hun- 
garians respecting the division of the liabi- 
lity for the national debt . Aug. -Sept. 

A financial couveulion signed by deputations 

23 Sept. 

Kossuth's letter to his constituents at AVaitzen, 
censuring Ueak and the moderate party Oct. 

Deak joined by IClapka and other liberals Nov. 

The '• Nazarencs," a sect re.-embling Quakers, 
become prominent .... Nov. 

Bills for financial arrangements with Austria, 
and for Jewish emancipation, received royal 
assent 29 Dec. 

First trial by jniy of press offences ; (fine and 
imprisonment inflicted for publishing a letter 
of Kossuth) 27 Feb. 

Kossuth (elt cted a member of the legislature) 
resigns by letter .... 14 April, 



SOVEREIGNS OF HUNGARY. 



1038. 
1041. 
1044. 
1047, 
1061. 
1064. 

1075- 
1077. 
1095. 
1 1 14. 
1131. 
1141. 
1161. 

"73- 
1 196. 
1204. 
1205. 

I235. 
1270. 
1272. 
1290. 



1309. 
1342, 
1382. 
1387. 



1392. 
1437- 



1439' 
1440. 



St. Stephen, duke of Hungary (son of Geisa) ; 
he establishes the Roman Catholic religion 
(1000), and receives from the pope the title 
of Apostolic King, still borne by the emperor 
of Austria, as king of Hungary. 

Peter, the German; deposed. 

Aba or Owen. 

Peter, again : deposed ; and his eyes put out. 

Andrew I. : deposed. 

Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 

Salamon, son of Andrew. 

Geisa I. son of Bela. 

Ladislas I. surnamed the Pious. 

Coloman, son of Geisa. 

Stephen H. sumamed Thunder. 

Bela II. : had his eyes put out. 

Geisa II. : succeeded by his son, 

Stephen III. : and Stephen IV. (anarchy). 

Bela III. : succeeded by his son, 

Emeric : succeeded by his son, 

Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 

Andrew II. son of Bela III. 

Bela IV. 

Stephen IV. (or V.) his son. 

Ladislas III. : killed. 

Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, son-in- 
law of Rodolph of Hapsburg, emperor of 

• Germany (last of the house of Arpad), died 
1 301. 

Wenceslas of Bohemia, and (1305) Otho of Ba- 
varia, who gave way to 

Charles Robert of Anjou. 

Louis I. the Great ; eltd. kmgof Poland, 1370. 

Mary, called King Mary, daughter of Louis. 

Mary and her consort Sigismond : the latter 
became king of Bohemia, and was elected 
emperor in 1410. 

Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). 

Albert, duke of Austria ; married Elizabeth, 
daughter of Sigismond, and obtains the 
thrones of Hungary, Bohemia, and Germany ; 
dies suddenly. 

Elizabeth alone : she marries 

Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which kingdom 
he was Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. 



1444. [Interregnum.] 

1445. John Uunniades, regent. 

1458. Ladislas V. posthumous son of Albert : 
poisoned. 
,, Matthias-Corvinus,son of Hunniades ; able. 

1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia: the emperor 
Maximilian laid claim to both kingdoms. 

1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses 
his life at the battle of Mohatz. 
^John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, 
elected by the Hungarians, and supported 
by the snltan Solyman ; by ti'eaty with 

1526. -^ Ferdinand, he founds the principality of 
Transylvania, 1536. 
Ferdinand I king of Bohemia, brother to the 
Emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 

1540. Ferdinand alone : elected emperor, 1558. 

1 563. Maximilian, son of Ferdinand : emperor in 1564. 

1572. Rodolph, son of Maximilian ; emperor in 1576. 

i6o3. Matthias II. his brother ; emperor in 1612. 

i6i8. Ferdinand II. his cousin, emperor. 

1625. Ferdinand III. son of preceding; emperor 1637. 

1647. Ferdin.and IV. ; died in 1654, three years before 
his father. 

1655. Leopold I. son of Ferd. III. ; emperor, 1658. 

16S7. Joseph I. his son : emperor in 1703. 

1712. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother of Joseph, 
and nominal king of Spain, succeeded by his 
daughter, 

1741. Maria-Theresa, empress ; survived her consort, 
Francis I., emperor, from 1765 until 1780 ; 
see Ij'ermany. 

17S0. Joseph 11. her son, cmperorin 1765 : succeeded 
to Hungaiy on the death of his mother. 

1790. Leopold II. brother of Joseph II., emperor: 
succeeded by his son, 

1792. Francis I. (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- 
many): in 1804 he became emperor of 
Austria only. 

1835. Ferdinand V. son of Francis : Ferdinand I. as 
emperor of .Austria. 

1S48. Francis-Joseph, emperor of Austria, nephew 
of the preceding ; succeeded on the abdi- 
cation of his uncle, 2 Dec. 1848 ; crowned 
king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867 ; see Austria. 



HUNGERFORD BRIDGE,* over the Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- 

* It was 14 feet wide, and 1342 feet long : the length of the central span, between the two piers, 676 
fest ; the height of the two towers 55 feet above the footway, and 84 above high water ; the piers were in 



RVN 376 HYD 

road, Lambeth, opened i May, 1845, was taken down in July, 1862, to make way for the 
Charing Cross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton {which sec). The market (opened 
in July, 1833), was removed at the same time. 

HUNS, a race of warlike Asiatics, said to have conquered China, about 210 B.C., and to 
have been expelled therefrom about a.d. 90. They invaded Hungary, about 376, and drove 
out the Goths. Marching westward, under Attila, they were thoroughly beaten at Chalons 
by the consul Aetius, 451 ; see Attila. 

HUNTING : an ancient pastime. The "Bokys of Hawking and Huntyng," by Dame 
Julyana Barnes, was printed at St. Albans, 14S6. 

HUNTINGDON, see Whitfmlditcs. 

HURRICANES, see Cyclones. 

HUSSARS, light cavalry in Poland and Hungary, about 1600. The British Hussars 
were enrolled in 1759. 

HUSSITES. After the death of Huss,* many of his followers took up arms, in 1419, 
and formed a political party under John Ziska, and built the city of Tabor. He defeated the 
emperor Sigismond, 11 July, 1420, and a short truce followed. Ziska, blinded at the siege of 
Rabi, beat all the armies sent against him. He died of the plague, 18 Oct. 1424, and is said 
to have ordered a drum to be made of his skin to terrify his enemies even after death. Two 
Hussite generals, named Procopius, defeated the imperialists in 143 1 ; and a temporary peace 
ensued. Divisions took place among the Hussites, and on 30 May, 1434, they were defeated, 
and Procopius the elder slain at Bomischbrod or Lippau. Toleration was granted, and Sigis- 
mond entered Prague 23 Aug. 1436. The Hussites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, 
and called Casimir of Poland to the throne ; but were defeated in 1438. A portion of the 
Hussites existed in the time of Luther, and were called "Bohemian brethren." 

HUSTINGS (said to be derived from house court, an asse'mbly among the Anglo-Saxons), 
an ancient court of London, being its supreme court of judicature, as the court of common 
council is of legislature. The court of hustyiigs was granted to the city of London, to be 
holden and kept weekly, by Edward the Confessor, 1052. "Winchester, Lincoln, York, &c., 
were also granted hustings courts. 

HUTCHINSONIANS included many eminent clergy, who did not form any sect, but 
held the opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire ; they rejected the Newtonian .system, 
and contended that the scriptures contain a complete system of natural philosophy. His 
work, "Moses' Principia," was published in 1724. He derived all things from the air, 
whence he said proceeded fire, light, and spirit, types of the Trinity. In 1712 he invented 
a time-piece for finding the longitude, and died in 1737. 

HYDASPES, a river in India, where Alexander the Great defeated Porus, after a 
severely contested engagement ; 327 b. c. 

HYDE- PARK (London W. ), the ancient manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey of 
Westminster, became crown property at the dissolution, 1539. It was sold by parliament 
in 1652; but was resumed by the king at the restoration in 1661. The Serpentine was 
formed 1730-33. 



Colossal statue of Achilles, oast from cannon 
taken in the battles of Salamanca, Vitioria, 
Tuulouse, and Waterloo, and insci'ibed to 
"Arthur, Duke of Wellington, and his brave 
companions in arnis,by their countrywomen," 

erected on iS June, 1822 

Hyde Park corner entrance erected . . . 1828 
Marble arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 

Cumberland Gate ... 29 March, 1851 
Crystal palnce erected for the exhibition of . 1851 
Disturbances in consequence of a Sunday bill 
having been brought before parliament by 
lord Robert Grosvenor, which was eventually 
withdrawn Sundays, 25 June, and i & 8 July, 1855 
Riotous meetings held liere, on account of the 
high price of bread Sundays 14, 21, 28 Oct. ,, 



Democratic meetings on the reform question, 

March, 1859 

The queen reviewed 18,450 volunteers 23 June, i860 

Greatmeetingof admirers of Garibaldi, 28 Sept. ; 
who are violently attacked by the Irish ; 
many persons wounded ... 5 Oct. 1862 

Public meetings in the x^ark henceforth pro- 
hibited 9 Oct. ,, 

Proposed reform meeting in the park opposed ; 
great rioting ; the palings broken dowia, and 
much daniage done ; fierce conflicts with the 
police, and many hurt . . 23, 24 July, 1866 

Peaceful reform demonstrations in the park, 

6 *Iay (fc s Aug. 1867 



the Italian style, with the chains passing through the attic of each. The cost of the masonry was 60,000?. 
of the ironwork, exceeding 700 tons in weight, 17,0002. ; of the approaches, i3,oooJ. : total, 102,245'. Archi- 
tect, I. K. Brunei. 

* The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull against heretics, John Huss (bom in Bohemia 
in 1373), a zealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance, 
the emperor Sigismond sending him a safe-conduct. He presented himself accordingly, but Wiis thrown 
into pi-iaon, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be burned alive, which he endured with 
resignation, 7 Jul3% 1415. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, who curae to this council to support and 
second him, also suffered death by fire, 30 May, 1416, althoxigh he also had a safe-conduct. 



HYD 377 lAM 

HYDRAULIC PRESS, see under Ili/drostaiics. 

HYDROCHLORIC ACID or Chloriiyduic Actd, the only known compound of chlorine 
and hydrogen, was discovered by Dr. Priestley, 1772 ; its constitution determined by Davy, 
1810. It is also called muriatic acid and spirit of salts ; see under Alkali's. 

HYDROGEN (from hydur, water) under the name of combustible air was obtained by 
Paracelsus in the i6th century. In 1766 Cavendish described its properties ; and, in 1781, 
he and AVatt first showed that in the combination of this gas with o-xygen, wliich takes 
place when it is burnt, water is produced ; subse([uently Lavoisier deconiposed water into its 
elements. One volunae of o.xygen combines with two volumes of hydrogen, and forms water. 
Hydrogen is never found in the free state. Gmalin. 

HYDROGRAPHY is the description of the surface waters of the earth. The first sea- 
chart is attributed to Henry the Navigator, in the i6th century. Tliere is a hydrographic 
department in the Bdtisli admiralty, b}' which a series of charts has been issued. 

HYDROMETER, the instrument by which is measured the gravity, density, and other 
properties of liquids. The oldest mention of the hydrometer occurs in the 5th century', and 
may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is not improbable that Archimedes 
was the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. Bcdcmaiiii. Archimedes 
was killed in 212 B.C., and Hypatia was tprn to pieces, A.D. 415. Robert Bojde described 
a hydrometer in 1675 : Baumc's (1762) and Sykes', about 1818, have been -much employed. 

HYDPiOPATHY, a term applied to the treatment of diseases by cold water, practised 
by Hippocrates in the 4th century B.C., by the Arabs in the 10 cenUuy a.d., and revived 
by Dr. Currie in 1797. The present system was suggested in 1825 ])y Vincenz Priessnitz, of 
Griilenberg, in Austrian Silesia ; and though he is considered as its founder, the rational 
])art of the doctrine was undei'stood and maintained by the eminent Dr. Sj'denham, before 
16S9. Priessnitz died 26 Nov. 1851. Brando. 

HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. 

Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, 1 The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of 

about B.C. 250 I waves explained by Newton . . . . 1714 
•The forcing pump and air fountain invented by I A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, 

Hero about 120 ' by Bernouilli 1738 

Water-mills were known . . about a.d. i | Joseph Bramah's hydrostatic or hydraulic press 
The scieaco revived by Galileo, Castellio, Torri- j patented first in 1785 

ceUi and Pascal, 17th century. . about 1600 1 Sir \Vm. Armstrong's hydrauhc crane patented 1846 
The theory of rivers scientifically understood in 1697 | John Crowther's 1852 

HYGROMETER, an instrument for measuring the moisture in the atmosphere. That 
by Saussure ^who died in 1799) is most employed. It consists of a human hair boiled in 
caustic lye, and acts on tlie principle of absorption. Brandc. Daniell's hygrometer (1820) 
is nuKih esteemeil. 

HYMNS. The song of Moses is the most ancient, 1491 B.C. {Exod. xv.) The Psalms 
date from about 1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David to Ezra.) The hymns of the Jews 
were frequeutlj'' accompanied by instrumental jnusic. Paul (a.d. 64) speaks of Christians 
admonishing one another "in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs" (Col. iii. 16.) Hilary, 
the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to Iiave been the first who composed hymns to be sung 
in Christian churches, about 431. The hymns of Dr. Watts (died 1748), of John Wesley 
(died 1791), and of his brother Charles (died 1788), are much used by English dissenters, 

HYPNOTISM (Greek Jujpnos, sleep) or nervous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) 
to a sleep-like condition, produced in a person by stcadil}'- fixing his mind on one particular 
object. J\linor surgical operations have, it is said, been performed without pain on persons 
in this state. 

HYPSOMETER, a thermometrical barometer for measuring altitudes, invented by 
F. J. WoUaston in 1817, much improved by Regnault, about 1847. 

HYTHE, a cinque port. A school of musketry was established here in 1854 under the 
charge of sir John Hay. He resigned about Dec. 1867. 

I. 

IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, 
when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her 
daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical effusions ; and from 
her, free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. A2)ollodorus. Iambic verses were 
first written about 700 B.C., by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of 
Lycambes ; but after a promise of marriage the father preferred another suitor, richer than 



IBE 378 IDI 

the poet ; whereupon Arcliiloclius wrote so bitter a satire on the old man's avarice, tliat he 
hanged himself. Herodotus. 

IBEEIA, see Georgia, and Sjmin. 

ICE. Galileo observed ice to be lighter than the water which composed it, about I597-* 
See Congelation, where is noticed the ice-making machines of Harrison and of Siebe. In 
1841 there were sixteen companies in Boston, U.S., engaged in exporting ice, brought from 
"Wenham, Presh, and Spy Ponds, about 18 miles from that city. The trade was begun by 
Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons were sent from Boston alone in 1854. In New York, in 
1855, 305,000 tons were stored up, of which 20,000 were for exportation. 

ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwegian chiefs, about 861 ; according to some 
accounts, it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the 
Norwegians in 874, and has belonged to Denmark since 1397. Christianity was introduced 
about 996 ; and protestantism established about I55i.i* 

ICENI, a British tribe which inhabited chiefly Suffolk and Norfolk. In 61, headed by 
Boadicea, their queen, while Suetonius Paulinus was reducing Mona (Anglesey) they 
marched soirthwards and destroyed Verulam, London, and other places, -with great slaughter 
of the Eomans ; but were defeated by Suetonius near London, and their queen slaili. 

"ICH DIEN," I serve, the motto under the plume of ostrich feathers found in the 
helmet of the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle of Cressy, at which he served 
as a volunteer in the French army, 26 Aug. 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in veneration 
of his father, Edward III., who commanded that day, though the prince won tlie battle, 
adopted this motto, which has since been borne with the feathers, by the heirs to the crown 
of England ; but not as prince of Wales, which man}'- have erroneously maintained. 

ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats of the impression made in mud or sand 
by the animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan first discovered the footprints of a tortoise in 
the sandstone of Annandale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries have been made by 
Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and others, 

ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. Eminent writers are "Willoughb)', Eay, Valen- 
ciennes, Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, &c. Yarrell's "British Eishes " (1836-59) is a classical 
work ; see Fish. 

ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas preached, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded 
a kingdom here in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it was conquered by the Turks, It 
had been subdued by the Crusaders in 1097 and 1190 ; see Konieh. 

ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The controversy respecting images (which had been 
introduced into churches for popular instruction about 300) was begun aboirt 726, and occa- 
sioned many insurrections in the Eastern Empire. Leo Isauricus published two edicts for 
demolishing images in churches in that year, and enforced them with great rigour in 736. 
The defenders of images were again jDersecuted in 752 and 761, when Constantiue forbade 
his subjects becoming monks. The worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. This 
schism was the occasion of the second council of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the 
painters and statuai'ies fi'om the Eastern Emjure, 832. The Iconoclasts were finally excom- 
mrmicated at the 8th general council at Constantinople, 869-870. This controversy led to 
the separation of the Greek and Latin churches. In the contests between the Iconoclasts 
and their opponents thousands perished. — Many images in churches were destroyed in 
England and Scotland during the Eeformation and the civil war, 1641-8. 

IDAHO, a northern "territory" of the United States of North America, was organised 
as such on 3 March, 1863. 

IDES (Latin Iclus), were eight days in the Eoman and church calendar, following the 
Nones. They were reckoned backward. In March, Ma}'-, July, and October, the Sth Idus 
was on the Sth of the month, the 7th on the 9th, &c., the first, or Ide, being the 15th. In 
the other months the 8th Ide fell on the 6th, and the first on the 13th. On the Idus of 
March (the 15th) 44 b. c. Julius Ctesar was assassinated. 

IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, exclusive of lunatics, pauper idiots, or 

* Regelotion and other properties, exhibited by professor Faraday, in 1850, became the subject of in- 
vestigation by eminent physicists of the day, especially Tyndall, J. I). Forbes, and by William Thomson. 
" Icy night "' or " silver thaw " in London, 22 Jan. 1867. After a severe frost came rain freezing as it fell. 
Many accidents occurred in consequence of the glassy pavements and roads. 

•j- In 1784-5, there occurred here the most tremendous volcanic eruption on record; it was accompanied 
by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to 
pieces. Three fire-spouts broke out on Mount Skapta, which, after rising to a considerable height in the 
air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in 
a brol<;en breadth of nearly 12 miles ; 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by fire or 
water ; and 34 others were materially injured. See Hecla. 



IDO 379 IMP 

idiots protected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3S93 ; total, 7265 ; see 
Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum at Earlswood, near Reigate, Surre}'^, began in 1847 ; and was 
chartered, 1862. 

IDOLS. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ninus, king of Assyria, 2059 E. c. 
Vossius. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, 1739 B.C. The Jews frequently deserted 
the worship of God for idols till tlieir captivity, 588 B.C. Constautine, emperor of Rome, 
ordered all the heathen temples to be destroj'ed, and all sacrifices to cease, a.d. 330. 
Dufresnoy. Idolatrjr was revived in Britain by the Saxons about 473, but it gave way in 
Britain, after the coming of Augustin, 599 ; see Iconoclasts, Weelc. 

IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent army of Holstein and Sclileswig, com- 
manded by AVillisen, was defeated by the Danes, 25 July, 1850. 

IDUMjEA, the country of the Edomites, the descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : 
see Gen. xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4. 

The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing They join the Chaldreans against Judah, and 

through their country .... B.C. 1453; areanathematizedinPsai/ftoxxxvii.aboutB.c. 570 



They are subjugated by David . . . . 1040 
They revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are se- 
verely defeated by Amaziab. .... 827 



John Hyrcauus, the Macoabee, subjugates and 
endeavours to incorporate them with the Jews 125 

Herod the Great, son of Autipater an Idumiean, 
king of Judsea 40 



lERNE, see Ireland. IGLAU, see Hussites. 

ILIUM (Asia Minor). A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c. 
Troy (u'hich sec), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 B. c. ; and Ilus, his successor, 
called the country Ilium ; see Homer. 

ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, was settled by the French in 1749 ; ac- 
quired by the British, 1763; made a territory, 1809; and admitted into the Union as a 
state, 3 Dec. 1818. Capital, Springfield. 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice of adopting ornaments, dravrings, and emble- 
matical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great antiquity'. Varro wrote the 
lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with their portraits, about 70 B.C. 
Flin. Nat. Hist. Some beautiful missals and other works were printed in the 15th and i6th 
centuries, et seq. ; and fine imitations have lately appeared. 

ILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were called Alumbrados, 
about 1575. After their suppression in Spain, they appeared in France. One of their 
leaders was friar Anthony Buchet. They professed to obtain grace and perfection by their 
sublime manner of prayer. A secret society bearing this name, opposed to tyranuy and 
priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776, 
and was suppressed in 1784-5. 

ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, the earliest publication of the kind, established 
by Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on 14 May, 1842. Mr. Ingram was drowned 
in lake Michigan, 8 Sept. i860. 

ILLYRIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), after several wars (from 230 b.c.) was 
made a Roman province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleon I. gave the name of lllyrian provinces 
to Carniola, Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the French empire, now Carinthia, 
Camiola, &c. 

IMAGE WORSHIP, see Iconoclasts. IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, see Conception. 

IMMORTALS (Greek, athanatoi), the flower of the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in 
number, and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 b.c. The name was also given to 
the body-guard of the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th centuries. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parliament, and 
the first of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of Sulfalk, was in 1386. By statute 
12 & 13 Will. & Mary it was enacted that no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded 
to an impeachment by the commons in parliament, 1 700. 

Impeachment of Warren Hastings, 13 Fob. 1788, to Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of 

25 April, 1795 ; acquittal. I pains and penalties, before the house of lords, 

Impeachment of lord Melville, 29 April ; acquittal, i commenced 16 Aug. ; Mr. Broughan entered on 

12 June, 1S06. i her majesty's defence, 3 Oct. ; and the last debate 

Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle j on the bill took place 10 Nov. 1820 ; see Queen 

against the duke of York, 27 Jan. to 20 March, Caroline. 

1809; acquittal. | Impeachment of thepresident; see i77ii<eci/Stato,iS68. 

IMPERIAL CHAMBER, see Aulic Council. 

IMPERIAL GUARD of France, was created by Napoleon from the guard of the con- 
vention, the directory, and the consulate, when he became emperor in 1804. It consisted 



IMP 



380 



mc 



at first of 9775 men, but was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided iu i8oq into the old 
and young guard. In Jan. 1814, it numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by Louis XVIII. 
in 1815, but revived by Napoleon III. in 1854. It took part in the Crimean war in 1855. 

IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT, see Commons, Lords, Parliament, and Reform. 
IMPORTS OF Merchandise. The vast progressive increase of our commercial inter- 
course with other countries : — 

VALUE OF IJIPOETS INTO GREAT REITAIN, FEOM ALL PAIITS OF THE WORLD. 

1111710. . . . £4,753,777 ' In 1830 . . .£46,245,241 1111859 ■ • •£1791182,355 

1750 . . . . 7,289,582 I 1840 . . . . 62,004,000 1861 . . . . 217,485,024 

177s .... 14,815,855 j 184s . . . 85,281,958 1864 . . . 274,952,172 

1800 . . . . 30,570,605 ! 1850 . . . . 95,252,084 1865 . . . . 271,072,285 

1810 .... 41,136,135 I 1851 . . . 103,579,582 1866 . . . 295,283,627 

1820 . . . . 36,514,564 1 1856 .... 172,544,154 1867 . . . . 275 249,853 

I 1857 . . . 187,844,441 

IMPOSTORS. The following are among the most extraordinary : — 



Aldebert, a Gaul, in 743, pretended he had a letter 
from the Redeemer, which fell from heaven at 
Jerusalem ; he seduced multitudes to follow him 
into woods and forests, and to live in imitation of 
John the Baptist. He was condemned by a council 
at Rome in 745. 

Mahomet promulgated his creed, 604 : see Maliome- 
tanism. 

Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the 
angel Michael in 1359 : he was burnt by the in- 
quisition in Spain in 1360. 

George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled 
himself tiie son of God, sent into the world to 
adopt children woithy of heaven: he denied the 
resurrection, preached in favour of a community 
of women, and taught that the body only could 
be defiled by sin ; be had many followers ; died at 
Basle, 1556, promising to rise again in three years. 

Otrefief, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius tlie son 
of Ivan, czar of .Muscovy, wliom the usurper Boris 
had put to death ; he maintained that another 
child had been substituted in his place : he was 
supported by Poland ; his success led the Russians 
to )uvite him to the throne, and deliver into his 
hands, Fc'.dor, the reigning czar, and all his 
family : his imposition discovered, he was assas- 
sinated in his palace, 1606. 

Sabbata I^evi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks 
and Jews a long time at Constantinople and other 
places, by personating our Saviour, 1666. 

IN BRITISH HISTORV. 

A man pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman 
assuming to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 

In 1487, Lambeit Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, 
a priest, supported by the duke of Burgund3', 
personated the earl of Warwick. Simnel's army 
was defeated by Henry VII., and he was made a 
scullion in the king's kitchen. 

For Warbeck's imposture in 1492, see Wai-becl: 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, 



spirited up to hinder the Reformation by pretend- 
ing to inspirations from heaven, foretelling that 
the king would have an early and violent death if 
he divorced Catherine of Spain, and married Anne 
Boleyn. She and her confederates were hanged at 
Tyburn, 1534. 

In 1553 (first year of Mary's reign, after her man-iage 
with Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 
years of age, was secreted in a wall, and with a 
whistle, msde for the purpose, uitered many 
seditious speeches against the queen and the 
prince, and also against the mass and confession, 
fur which she did penance. 

William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, 
and was executed for blasphemy, 1591. 

Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended 
to cure all disenses by stroking the piatient : his 
imposture deceived the credulous, and occasioned 
very warm disputes in Ireland and England about 
1666. Boyle and Flamsteed believed in him. 

Dr. Titus Gates, see Oates. 

Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the 
hands of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and 
other nobility, to a pretended association lor re- 
storing king James : the lords were imprisoned, 
but the imposture being detected, Young was fined 
looof. , and put in the pillory 1692. He was after- 
wards hanged for coining. 

Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and 
raise tumults; convicted as impostois, Nov. 1707. 

JIary Tofts of Godalming, by pretending she bred 
rabbits within her, so imposed upon many persons 
(among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the 
king), that they espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost imposture by Wibiam Parsons, 
his wife, and daughter, 1762 ; see Code-lane Ghost. 

Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed hor conception 
of the Messiah, and had a multitude of followers ; 
she died, 27 Dec. 1814. 

W. Thom, see Thomites. 

Joseph Smith, see Monnonites. 



IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, affirmed by sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. The 
stat. 2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The first commission 
for it was issued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared 
to be illegal by the British parliament, Dec. 1641. Impressment was not resorted to in 
the Russian war, 1854-5. 

IMPRISONMENT for DEBT, see Arrests, Debtors, and Ferrars' Arrest. 

IMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical property to lay purposes). Ou the suppression 
of abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes were distributed among his courtiers 
by Henry VIIl. ; and their successors constitute 7597 lay impropriators. 

INCAS, see Peru. 

INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic 
constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was 
made higli treason by stiit. 8 Hen. VI. 1429 ; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Hen. 
VIIL 1528. Great incendiary fires commenced in and about Kent, iu Aug. 1830 ; and in 



INC 



381 



IND 



Suffolk and other counties since. The punishment of death was remitto<l, except in special 
cases, in 1827. Tiie acts relating to arson were amended in 1837 and 1844. 

INCH. It was defined in 1824 by act of parliament, that 39'i3929 inches is the length 
of a seconds pendulum in the latitude of London, vibrating in vacuo at the sea level, at the 
temperature of 62° Falirenheit ; see Candle, and Standard, ' 

INCHCAPE BELL, see Bdl Rock. 

INCOME TAX. In 15 12, parliament granted a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the 
commons, and two-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war witli France. 
In 1798, Mr. Pitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, increased taxes "as an aid 
for the prosecution of the war " with France, 1798. 

zd. more .added to the tax on incomes above 150^, 
.and i\d. on those between looi. and 150 J. ; the 
former being i«. \d., the latter iil^d. in the pound. 
1855. 

The former assessment reduced tr> ■jd., the latter to 
Sd., 1S57. Both become 5'^, 1S58. 

The former raised to qd., the latter to 6\d. ; and the 
tax on incomes, derived from lands, tenements. 
&c., raised from 35'^. to ^\d. for En^jland, and from 
2ici. to 4(i. for Scotland and Ireland, July, 1859. 

The assessment on incomes raised — to those above 
100?. to -jd. ; to those above 150.'. to xod. 

[The object of the increase w.is to provide for a 
deiioiency occasioned by extra expenditui-e for 
defending the country, April, i860.] 

A committee to inquire into the working of the 
income tax appointed, 14 Feb. 1861. 

Reduction of the last assessment from yd. to 6d., 
.and from zo'l. to gci. for three-quarters of the 
financial ye.ar 1861-2. 

The rates of 6rf. and gd. to continue, April, 1862. 

The rate of -jd. on all chargeable incomes ; 3\ri. on 
farms, (fee, in England ; and ■ihd. in Scotland and 
Ireland. Incomes under ioo(. a-year exempted ; 
those .above ioo(. and under 200J. allowed an 
abatement on 6oi., 8 June, 1863. 

The rate of 6d. on chargeable incomes, with some 
exemptions and abatement, 13 May, 1864. 

The rate of ^d. on chargeable incomes, with same 
exemptions and abatement. May, 1865 ; continued, 
1855, and 1867. 

Raised to 5^/. (for year ending i April, 1868), to pro- 
vide for Abys.'iinian w,ar, Nov. 1867. 

Raised to ed. (for 1868-9), May, 1868. 



This act repealed, and graduated duties on income 
imposed, beginning with 60I. per annum, 9 Jan. 
1799. 

The " property tax " passed, which levied a rate of 
5 per cent, on all incomes above 150?. and lower 
rates on .smaller incomes, 11 Aug. 1803. 

Increased to 6.V per cent. 1805; 10 per cent., em- 
bracing the dividenis at the bank, 1806. 

In 1800, produced, 5,716,572?; in 1804, 4,650,000?.; 
in 1806, ii,5oo,oooi. ; in 1808, 16,548,985?. ; in 1S15, 

14.978,557'- 

The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, (fee, 
8,657,937'. ; from funded and stock properties, 
2,885,505?. ; the profits and gains of trade, 
3,831.088?. : and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456?. 
Repealed JIarch, 1816. 

Sir Robert Peel's hill imposing the present tax at a 
rate of 7(?. in the pound (2?. 18.9. ^d. per cent.) per 
ann. (for three years) passed 22 June, 1842. 

It produced about 5, 350,000?. a-year ; and led to re- 
peal of about 12,000,000?. indirect taxes. 

Renewed for three years, 1845 ; and 1848. 

Large meetings assembled in Trafalg.ar-square, Lon- 
don (for the ostensible purpose of opposing the 
income tax) ; rioting ensued, which was soon 
quelled, 6, 7 JIarch, 1S48. 

Tax continuBd for one year in 1851 and 1852. 

The tax of 71?. limited to seven years (till i860) ; to 
be gradually reduced in amount ; but all incomes 
from 100?. to 150?. made liable to 5^. in the pound 
for all that period : the tax also extended to 
Ireland, June, 1853. 

In consequence of the Crimean war, the rate was 
doubled, 1854, i4(?. 



1855 (31 March) 



£571.055 
5,191,597 

5.395.391 
5,509,637 
10,642,621 
I5.07°.958 



Pr^ODUCE OF THE INCOME TAX. 
1857 (31 March) 



1S62 



16,089,933 


1863 (31 


March) . 


. £10,567,000 


11,586,115 


1864 


„ . 


9,084,000 


6,683,587 


1863 


,, 


7,958,000 


9,596,106 


1 866 


>> • 


6,39o,oco 


10,923,186 


1867 


.. 


5,700,000 


10,365,000 


1868 


.. • 


6,177,000 



INCUMBERED ESTATES, see Encitmhcred Estates. 

INCURABLES. The royal hospital for incurables, founded by Dr. Andrew Reed, at 
Carshalton in Surrey, in 1850, has since been removed to Putney. 

INDEJINITY BILL, by which the minister of the crown or the government generally, 
is relieved from the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme and urgent cases, without 
the previous sanction of parliament. One was passed 19 April, 1801 ; another to indemnify 
ministers against their acts during the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, was carried in 
the commons (principal divisions, 190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27) ; 10 March, 1818. 
In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were passed for the suspension of the Bank (Jharter 
act by the ministry ; see Oblivion. An indemnity bill is passed at the end of every session 
of Parliament for persons who transgress through ignorance of the law. The practice began 
in 1715. 

INDEPENDENTS or Coxgkegatioxalists, hold that each church or congregation is 
independent of all others, and may govern itself in religious matters ; that there is no 
absolute occasion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken for advice, but not 
as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; and that one church may advise or reprove another, 
but has no authority to excommunicate. Robert Brown preached these views in 1585, but, 
after 32 imprisonments, he eventually conformed to the established cliurcli. A church was 
formed in London in 1593, when there were 20,000 independents. They were driven by 



IND 



382 



INU 



persecution to Holland, where tliey formed several churches ; that at Leyden was under Mr. 
Eobmson, often regarded as the author of Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned 
to England and founded a meeting-hoiise. Cromwell, himself an independent, obtained 
them toleration, in opposition to the Presbyterians. The independents published an epitome 
of their* faith, drawn up at a conference at the Savoy, in 1658 ; and the congregational union 
of England and "Wales, formed in 1831, published their "declaration of faith, order, and 
discipline," in 1833. In 185 1, they had 3244 chapels for 1,067,760 persons in England and 
"Wales; see Worship. The first independents in Scotland were the Glasites (i^Aic/i see). The 
first independent church in America was founded by John Robinson, at Plymouth, New 
England, in 1620. 

INDEX EXPUEGATOEIUS, a catalogue of the books prohil)ited by the church of 
Eome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent, 1559. The Index 
of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was forbidden (with certain 
exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement "71 II. in 1595. Many of 
the works of the great authors of France, Spain, Germany, and England, are prohibited. 
On 25 June, 1864, Hugo's "Les Miserables" and other books were added to the number; 
and others in Jan. 1866. 

INDIA or HiNDOSTAN. The Hindoo histories ascribe their origin to a period ages 
before the ordinary chronologies. A race of kings is mentioned as reigning 2300 B.C., and 
Buddhism is said to have been introduced 956 B.C. Several ancient nations, particularly the 
Tyrians and Egyptians, carried on commerce with India. It was partially conquered by 
Darius Hystaspes, who formed an Indian satrapy, in 512 B.C., and by Alexander, 327 B.C., 
and subsequently the intercourse between India and the Eoman empire was much increased. 
The authentic history of Hindostan commences with the conquests of Mahmud Ghuzni, 
1004. Rcnnell. See Bengal, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras^ and Oudc, for farther details.* 
For the new route to India, see Waghorn. 

irruptions of the Mahometans, under Mahmud 

Ghuzni, 1001-24. Hs captured Somnath . 1024 
Extinction of the house of Ghuzni, 11 86; rule 

of the slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the 

Khilgis and house of Toghlak, 1288-141 2 ; of 

the Syuds, 1412-50 ; of the house of Lodi, 1450-1526 
Patna, or Afghan empire, founded . . . 1205 
Invasion of the Moguls under Genghis Khan, 

1219 : he died 1237 

The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of the 

celebrated Timour, or Tamerlane, invade 

Hindostan, and take Delhi ; defeat the Indian 

army, 1397; conquer Hindostan, and butcher 

100,000 of its people 1398-9 

Passage to India discovered by Vasco de Gama 1497 
The first European settlement (Portuguese) 

established by him at Cochin (S. Coast) . . 1502 
Albuquerque made governor-general, 150S; dies 

at Goa 1514 

Conquest of India completed by the sultan 

Baber, founder of the Mogul empire . 1519-25 
Reign of his son Humayun .... 1530-56 
Reign of Akbar, the greatest sovereign of Hin- 
dostan 1556-1605 

The Portuguese introduce tobacco . . . 1600 
The Dutch first visit India, 1601 ; establish a 

United East India Company .... 160^ 
Tranquebar granted to the Danes . . . . 1619 

Reign of Jelianghir 1605-27 

Reign of Shah Jehan ; golden age of the 

Moguls 1627-5S 

Aurungzebe dethrones his father and murders 

his brothers, 1658 ; reigns . . . 1658-1707 
French East India Company established . . 1664 
Rise of the Mahr.ttta power under Sevajee, 1659 ; 

he assumes royalty, 1674 ; dies . . . . 1680 
Aurungzebe conquers Golconda, &c., . . 1687 
His prosperity wanes, 1702 ; dies . 22 Feb. 1707 

Bahadoor Shah succeeds, 1707; dies . . . 1712 
Jehander Shah, 1713 ; dethroned and killed. . 1718 
Accession of Mahomed Shah .... 1719 



Independence of the Nizam of the Deccan . . 1723 
Rise of the Mahz-atta families, Holkar and 

Sindiah 1730 

Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli 
Khan : at Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
and 150,000 persons perish; carries away 
treasure amounting to 125,000,0002. sterUng, 1739 

Mahomed Shah dies 1748 

[The Mogul empire now became nearly nominal, 
independent sovereignties being formed by 
petty princes. In 1761, Shah Alum II. at- 
tacking the English was defeated at Patna, 
15 Jan. In 1764, after the battle of Buxar, 
he was thrown upon the protection of the 
EAglish, who established him at Allahabad. 
After the victory at Delhi in 1803, gen. Lake 
restored the aged monarch to a nominal 
sovereigntj', which descended at his death to 
his son, Akbar Shah. Akbar died in 1837, 
and was succeeded by the last king of Delhi 
(his son), who received a pension of about 
i2s,oooi. per annum. He joined the mutiny 
in 1857 ; was tried in 1858, and transported 
to Rangoon; died there, 11 Nov. 1862.] 

BRITISH POWEB IN INDIA. 

Attempt made to reach India by the north-east 
and north-west passages 1528 



Sir Francis Drake's expedition . 

Levant company's land expedition . . . 

First adventure from England .... 

Fir-st charter to the London company of mer- 
chants (see India Company) . , . . 

Factories established at Surat, <&c. 

Sir Thos. Roe, first English ambassador . . 

Madras founded, 1640 ; made a presidency 

Bombaj'' ceded to England as part of dowry of 
Catherine, queen of Charles II 

French company established .... 

They settle at Pondicherry i 

Calcutta purchased i 



1579 
1589 
1591 

1600 
1612 

1615 
1652 

1662 
1664 



* British India extends from 8° to 34° N. lat. and from 70° to 90° E. long, (exclusive of the Burmese 
additions). The population is about 50 milUons; that of the whole peninsula about 176 millions. Cotton 
was planted in 1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways and the electi-ic telegraph are being rapidly 
constructed, and canals for irrigation ; see Ganges Canal. The Indian revenue in the year 1854-5 was 
20,371, 450^. The expienditure, 22,915,160!. In 1858-9, the revenue was 36,060,7884. ; expenditure, 49,642,350!. 



IND 



3S3 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

War between the English and French in India 1746-9 
English besiege PondlL'berry, the seat of the 
French Government, without success . . 1748 

Clive takes Arcot 175 1 

Peace made 1754 

Severndroog and other strongholds of the pirate 

Angria tiiken 11 Feb. 1756 

Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Bowla; suffo- 
cation of English in the i31ackhole (widch see) 

20 June, ,, 
Calcutta retaken by Clive, 2 Jan. ; he defeats 

the Soubah at Plassey . . . 23 June, 1757 
[Clive's force was 3000 men. and the Soubah's 
50,000. He acquired all Bengal, and numerous 
conquests followed.] 
Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built, ,, 
French successful under Lally . . . . 1758 
But lose nearly all their power .... 1759 
The French under Lally defeated by sir EjTe 

Coote near Wandewash . . .2 July, 1760 
Hyder Ali iisvirps the sovereignty of Mysore . 1761 
Conquest of Patna .... 6 Nov. 1763 
Battle of Bu.xar {ichich see) . . .23 Oct. 1764 
The nabob becomes subiect to the Engli-ih . 1765 
Lord Clyde obtains the Dewanny by an imperial 
grant, which constitutes the company the 
receivers of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, 
and Orissa, and gives the British the virtual 
sovereignty of these countries . 12 Aug. ,, 

Treaty with Nizam Ali : the English obfciin the 

Northern Ciroars .... 12 Nov. 1766 
Hyder Ali ravages the Carnatic . . Jan. 1769 
Frightful famine in Bengal . . . -1770 
Warren Hastings governor of Bengal, 13 April, 1772 
India Bill ; supreme court established (see 

India Bills) 1773 

Treaty with Bhootan 1774 

Death of Clive ; ungratefully treated . . . ,, 
Accusations commence against Warren Has- 
tings ; accused of taking a bribe from a con- 
cubine of Meer Jaffier (see Hast'mrii') 30 May, 1775 
Nuncomar, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Has- 
tings of receiving bribes . . 11 March, 1776 
Is hanged for fox'gery .... 5 Aug. ,, 
Pondichei-ry taken .... 11 Oct. 1778 
Fortress of Gwalior taken by Popham . 4 Aug. ' ,, 
Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats 

the British, 10 Sept. ; takes Arcot . 31 Oct. 1780 
Hyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre Coote, i July, 1781 
Warren Hastings accused of takmg more bribes 

(see Cli.unar) ig Sept. ., 

Bussy lands with a French detachment. March, 1782 
W ir with Hyder Ali aided by the French . . ,, 
Hyder Ali overthrown by Coote . . 2 June, ,, 
Deith of Hyder, and accession of his son, 

Tippoo Saib Dec. ,, 

Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes 

Bednore April, 1783 

Pondicherry, restored to the French, and Trin- 

comalee to the Dutch ,, 

Fox's India bill throwai out ....,, 
Pitt's India bill establishing the board of con- 
trol (which sfe) 1784 

Ignoble peace with Tippoo . . 11 March, ,, 

Charges against Warren Hastings . . . . 1786 

His trial begun 13 Feb. 1788 

War with Tippoo renewed 1790 

Bangalore tak«n (see Bangalore) . 21 March, 1791 
Coruwallis defeats Tippoo at .Arikera 15 May, „ 
Fortress of Saverndroog taken . . 21 Dec. „ 
Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons 

hostages ig March, 1792 

Civil and criminal courts erected . . . . 1793 

Pondicherry again taken ,, 

Tippoo's sons restored ... 29 March, 1794 
Fii-st di.spute with the Burmese; adjusted by 

general Erskine 1795 

Warren Hastings acquitted . . 23 April, ,, 
Government of lord Mornington, afterwards 
marquess WeUesley . , . .17 May, 1798 



Seringapatam stormed by general Baird ; 
Tippoo Saib killed . . . .4 May, 1799 

My.sore divided 22 June, ,, 

Victories of the British ; the Carnatic con- 
quered 1800 

The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his teiritories 

to the English for a pension . . 4 June, 1802 
Malircitta irar. Victories of sir Arthur WeUesley 

and general Lake 1803 

WeUesley 's gi-eat victory at Assaye . 23 Sept. ,, 
Pondicherry (restored 1801; retaken . Deo. ,, 

War with Holkar 1804-5 

Capture of Bhurtpore ... 2 April, 1805 

Lord Welleslej' superseded by the marquess 

Comwallis, who dies ... 5 Oct. ,, 
The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the 

British ; treaty of peace . . 23 Nov. „ 

Ti-eaty of peace with Holkar . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Sepoy mutiny at Vellore ; Soo executed, July, 1S06 
Cumoona surrenders ... 21 Nov. 1S07 

Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled . 23 Aug. 1809 
Act opening the trade to India . . July, 1813 

War with Nepaul 1814-15 

Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislop . . 21 Dec. 1817 
Pindaree icar. English successful . . 1817-18 

Peace with Holkar 6 Jan. i8i8 

Burmese war. The British take Rangoon, 5 May, 1824 
Lord Combermere commands in India . . . ,, 
Malacca ceded, and Singapore purchased . . ,, 
Barrackpore mutiny, many sepoys killed, Nov. „ 
General Campbell defeats the Burmese near 

Proome 25 Dec. 1825 

Bhurtpore stormed by Combermere, . 18 Jan. 1826 
Peace with the Burmese ... 24 Feb. „ 
[They pay 1,000,000?. sterling, and cede a great 

extent of territory.] 
Abolition of suttees, or the bm-ning of widows 

(see Suttees). 7 Dec. 1829 

Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, 
&c., to China, foi-mmg a new era in. British 

commerce 28 Aug. 1833 

Coorg annexed ; Rajah deposed . 10 April, 1834 
The natives admitted to the magistracj', i May, „ 
The Nawab Sliunsoodden put to death for the 

murder of Mr. Frazer, British resident, 8 Oct. 1835 
Afghan war. Proclamation against Dost Ma- 
homed I Oct. 1838 

The British occupy Candahar . 21 April, 1839 
Battle of Ghiznee ; victory of sir John (now 

lord) Keane (see Ghiznee) . . 23 July, ,, 
Wade forces the Khyber pass . . 26 July, ,, 
Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, and 

he and the Britisti army enter Cabul, 7 Aug. ,, 
English defeat Dost Mahomed . 18 Oct. 1840 

Kurrock Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his 
funeral his successor is killed by accident, 
and Dost Mahomed, next heir, surrenders to 

England 5 Nov. ,, 

Rising against the British at Cabul ; sir Alex. 

Burnes and others murdered . . 2 Nov. 1841 
Sir Wm. M acnaghten assassinated . 25 Dec. ,, 
The British mider a convention evacuate Cabul, 
placing lady Sale, <kc. , as hostages with Akbar 
Khan ; a massacre ensiies of about 26,000 
men, women, and children . 6-13 Jan. 1842 

The British evacuate Ghiznee . . 6 JIarch, ,, 
Sortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces 

the Khyber i>ass .... 5 April, ,, 

Ghiznee retaken by general Nott . 6 Sept. ,, 
General Pollock re-enters Cabul . 16 Sept. „ 
Lady Sale rescued by sir R. Shakspeare ; arrive 

at gen. Pollock's camp . . .21 Sept. ,, 
Cabul evacuated after destroying the fortifica- 
tions 12 Oct. „ 

Scinde war. Ameers defeated by sir Charles 

Napier at Meanee .... 17 Feb. 1843 
Scinde annexed to the British empire ; sir 

Charles Napier governor . . . June, ,, 
Gwalior war. Battles of Maharajpoor and 
Punniar : the strong fort of Gwalior, the 
" Gibraltar of the East," taken . 29 Dec. ,, 



IND 



384 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Danish possesfions in India purcliased . . i 

Sikh war.* The Sikbs cross the Sutlej river and 
attack the British at Fei ozepore . 14 Deo. 

Sir H. Hardiijge, after a long rapid march, 
reaches Moodkee ; the Sikhs (20,000) make 
an attack ; after a hard contest they retire, 
abandoning their guns (see Moodkee), 18 Dec. 

Battle of Ferozesbah (vhic/i see) . 21, 22 Dec. 

Battle of Aliwal ; tbe Sikhs defeated (see 
Aliwal and Sutlej). . . . 28 Jan. 1 

Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated 
with immense loss (see Sohraon) . 10 Feb. 

Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 
and the war terminates . . . 20 Feb. 

Sir B. Sale dies of his wounds received at 
Moodkee (18 Dec. 184s) . . . 23 Feb. 

The governor-general and sir Hugh Gough 
raised to the peerage, as viscount Hardinge 
and baron Gouph ; receive the thanks of par- 
liament and of tbe E.I. company 2, 6 March, 

Treaty of Lahore signed . . .9 March, 

Vizier Lall Singh deposed . . 13 Jan. i 

Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed 
by the troops of the dewan Moolraj, 21 April, ] 

Lieut. Edwardes joins general Courlland, and 
most gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, 
which he deCeats after a sanguinary battle of 
nine hours, at Kennyree . . 18 June, 

General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan 
through the desertion of Shere Singh, 22 Sept. 

Shere Singh, entrenched on the right bank of 
the Chenab, with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of 
artillery ; gen. Thackwell crosses the river 
with 13 infantry regiments, with cavalry and 
cannon, and attacks his left flank 20 Nov. 

Lord Gough attacks the enemy's advanced posi- 
tion ; the British suffeied great slaughter, 
but finally defeated Shere Singh . 22 Nov. 

Victory of Chillianwallah (?(,7(k/(. see) 13 Jan. ] 

Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mool- 
tan by Moolraj (see jVoo/itd 9)) . .22 Jan. 

Victory of Guzerut(w7(?c/i «'c) . . 21 Feb. 

Sir Chas. Napier appointed comm. -in-chief, 

7 March, 

The Sikhs surrender unconditionally i4Marcb, 

Formal annexation of the Punjab to tbe British 
dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension 
of 4o,ooot. ..... 29 March, 

Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of 
Mr. Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; com- 
muted to tr.insportation for life . Sept. 

Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal 
native infantry, for mutiny . . 27 Feb. i 

Dr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his at- 
tendants, murdered by the Aftredis, 20 March, 

Embassy from the king of Ncpaul to the queen 
of Great Britain arrives in England (see 
Nepaul) 25 May, 

Resignation of his command in India by sir 
Charles Napier 2 July, 

His farewell address to the Indian army 15 Dec. 

Burmes-e vcr. Death of Bajee Bao, ex-peishwa 
of the Mahrattas. [His nephew, Nana Sahib's 



claim for continuance of the pension (So,ooo^) 

refused.] 28 Jan. 1851 

A British naval force arrives before Rangoon, 
in the Burman empire, and commodore 
Lambert allows the viceroy thirty-five days 
to obtain instructions from Ava . . 29 Oct. „ 
The viceroy of Bangoon interdicts comnnmica- 
tion between the shore and the British ships 
of war ; and erects batteries to prevent their 

departure 4 Jan. 1852 

[Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy; 
the Fox, Hermes, &c. , attacked by the bat- 
teries, destroy the fortifications, and kill 
nearly 300 of the enemy.] 
Martaban (5 April), Hanson (14 April), and 

Bassein, stormed by the British . 19 May, ,, 
Pegu captured, afterwards abandoned, 4 June, ,, . 
Prome captured by capt. Tarleton . 9 July, ,, 

Pegu recaptured by general Gt.dwin 21 Nov. ,, 
Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by pro- 
clamation of the governor-general . 20 Dec. „ 
Eevolution at Ava : the king of Ava deposed 

by his younger brother . . . Jan. 1853 
Rangoon devastated by fire . . 14 Feb. ,, 

Capt. Lock and many men killed in an attack 
on the stronghold of a robber-chief, 3 Feb. 
which is taken by su- J. Cheape, 19 March, ,, 
First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to 

Tannah) 16 April, ,, 

Termination of the war . . . June, ,, 
New India bill passed ... 20 Aug. ,, 
Death of general Godwm . . . 26 Oct. ,, 
Assassination of captain Latter . . 8 Dec. „ 
Eajah of Nag-poor dies, and his territories fall to 
the E. I. Company . . . .11 Dec. ,, 

Opening of Ganges Canal 

Opening of the Calcutta railway . 3 Feb. 
Treaty with Dost Mahomed of Cabul, 31 March, 
Insurrection of the Sonthals (u-hich see), July, 
Which is only finally suppressed . . May, 
Oude annexed (see OuUe) ... 7 Feb. 



1854 
1855 



1856 



MUTINY OF THE NATIVE AEMT. 

Mutinies in the Bengal Army : at Barrackpore, 
Ac, several regiments disbanded March, 1857 

" India is quiet throughout."— ^iiomiay Gazdtee. 

1 May, ,, 

Mutiny at Meerut t (near Delhi) 10 May. The 
mtitineers seize Delhi, commit dreadful out- 
rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi em- 
peror 11-12 May, <5rc. ,, 

Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by 
the energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier 
Corbett, who save the Punjab . 12 May, „ 

Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut.- 
governor, J. R. Colvin . . . May, ,, 

British troops under general Anson advance on 
Delhi; his death .... 27 May, ,, 

Muiineers often defeated 30 May-23 Jiuie, ,, 

Mutiny at Lucknow . . . .30 May, ,, 

Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, 3 June ; 
and recovers Allahabad . . 4 June, ,, 

Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful 
atrocities committed i ,, 



* Bunjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and the Punjab, lived in amity with the British. After 
his death, 27 June, 1859. several of his successors (children and grandchildren) were in turn assassinated. 
During the minority i^f his grandson Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of the Maha Ranee, Lall Singh, ruled ; 
and finding the army ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack on the British, as given above. 

t On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) musket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had 
been bi ought from England. These were olijected to by the native soldiers, and the issue of them was 
immediately discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit however gradually arcse in the 
Bengal native army. In March sevei'al regiments were disbanded, followed by others, till in June the 
army had lost by disbandment and desertion, about 30,000 men. On 5 April, a sepoy, and on 20 April, a 
jemadar, or native lieutenant, were executed. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost. In Ax'ril, 85 of 
the 3rd IBengal native cavalry at Meerut refused to use their cartridges. On 9 May they were committed 
to gaol. On !-unday. the loth, a mutiny in the native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, 
killing col. Finnis and others. They then released their comi-ades, massacred many Europeans, and fired 
the ijublic buildings. The European troojis rallied and drove them from their cantonments. The muti- 
neers then fled to Delhi {which fee). 

t At the end of June the native troops at the following places were in open mutiny : 3Iecrut, Delhi, 



IND 



385 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, whicli is 
saved ii June, 1857 

Ex-king of Oudo arrested . . 14 June, ,, 

Siege of the residency at Lucknow hj the 
rebels, commences . . . . i July, ,, 

Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, 

4 July, ,, 

The liberty of the press restricted . 4 July, ,, 

Sir H. Barnard commanding before Delhi dies of 
cholera, succeeded by general Reed 5 July, ,, 

Genei-al Nicholson destroys a large body of 
rebels at Sealcote . . . 12 July, „ 

Cawupore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills 
the garrison, &c., 28 June ; he is defeated by 
general Havelock, 16 July : who re-captures 
Cawnpore (see Cawnpore) . . .17 July, ,, 

Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, 18 July ; 
and at Lahore .... 20 July, ,, 

General Reed retires, and sir Archdale Wilson 
takes the command before Delhi 22 July, ,, 

Revolt at Dinapore : the British repulsed with 
severe loss at Arrah . . . . 25 July, ,, 

Heroic exertions and numerous victories of 
general Havelock and his ai-my, although 
suffering from disease 29 July, to t6 Aug. ,, 

Lord Canning's so-called "clemency " proclama- 
tion 31 July, ,, 

Victory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . 15 Aug. ,, 

General Nicholson's victory at Nujuflfghur [he . 
dies 23 Sept.] .... 25 Aug. ,, 

Assault of Delhi, 14 Sept. : taken, 20 Sept. ; the 
king captured, 21 Sept. ; his son and grand- 
son slain by colonel Hodson . . 22 Sept. ,, 

Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves 
under him 16 Sept. ,, 

Havelock marches to Lucknow and relieves the 
besieged residency : retires and leaves Outram 
in command ; Neill killed . 25, 26 Sept. ,, 

Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolund- 
shohur, 27 Sept. ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 
29 Sept. ; takes All j'ghur, 5 Oct. ; and defeats 
rebels at Agra .... 10 Oct. ,, 

Su- Cohn Campbell (since lord Clyde) appointed 
commander-in-chief, 11 July; arrives at 
Cawnpore 3 Nov. ,, 

Jlarches to Alumbagh, near Lucknow, 9 Nov. ; 
and takes Secunderabagh . . 16 Nov. ,, 

Joined by Havelock, he attacks the rebels and 
rescues the besieged in the residency . 

18-25 Nov. ,, 

Havelock* dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 

25 Nov. ,, 

General Windham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with 
loss in an attack on the Gwalior contingent, 
who take pai-t of Cawnpore. . 27 Nov. ,, 

Sir C. Camijljell arrives at Cawnpore, which he 
retakes, 28 Nov. ; and defeats the Gwalior 
rebels 6 Dec. ,, 

The rebels defeated by Seaton, 14, 17, and 27 
Dec; at Goruckpore by Rowcroft,27 Dec; and 
at Futtehghur by sir C. Campbell . 2 Jan. 1858 

Lucknow strongly fortified by the i-ebels, Jan. ,, 

Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, vic- 
torious in many encounters Jan and Feb. ,, 

Trial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transpoi'- 
tation. ... 27 Jan. to 9 March, ,, 



Sir C. CamjAell marches to Lucknow, n Fob. ; 
the siege commences, 8 Mai-ch; taken by 
successive assaults ; the enemy retreat : Hod- 
son killed .... 14-19 March, 

Severe proclamation of governor-general in 
Oude t 14 March, 

General Roberts takes Kotah . 30 March, 

Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and 
takes Jhansi 4 Aj)i'il, 

General Whitelock takes Budaon 19 April, 

Death of captain sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at 
Cawnpore 27 April, 

General Penny killed in Rohilcund . 4 May, 

Bareilly recaptured . . . .7 May, 

Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times 
— at Kooneh, May 11, and near Calpee, which 
he retakes 23 May, 

Victory of sir B. Liigard at Jugdespore, 29 May, 

The rebels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scin- 
diah, who escapes to Agra . . 13 June, 

The rebels defeated by sir H. Rose (the heroic 
Ranee of Jhansi killed), 17 June; Gwalior 
retaken and Scindiah reinstated 19 June, 

Tantia Topee heads a division of the rebels 

Rajahs of Jeypore, <fcc. , surrender ; Rohilcund 
and other provinces tranquillised Julj', 

General Roberts destroys the remains of the 
Gwalior rebels 14 Aug. 

Many Oude chiefs sui-render . . . Aug. 

An attempt of disbanded regiments to retake 
their arm.s at Mooltan, suppressed by major 
Hamilton (300 killed on the spot, and 800 
slain or captured afterwards) . .31 Aug. 

The government of the East India Company ceases, 

I Sept. 

General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near 
Rajghur 15 Sept. 

The queen is proclaimed throughout India — 
lord Canning to be the first viceroy i Nov. 

Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs sub- 
mit, others subdued . . . 1-31 Nov. 

At Dhooden Kb era lord Clyde (foi-merly sir C. 
Campbell) defeats Beni Mahdo . 24 Nov. 

Flight of Tantia Topee — he is beaten in Guzerat 
by major Sutherland .... 25 Nov. 

The ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 
Hope, 4-1 1 Dec. ; the colonists refuse to re- 
ceive him ; he is sent to Rangoon . 

Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (greatly 
lamented) .6 Dec. 

Indecisive skirmishes with Ferozeshah Dec. 

Who joins Tantia Topee ; they are defeated in 
several small engagements . . . Jan. i 

Enforcement of the Disarming Act in the 
north-west provinces .... Jan. 

The Punjaub made a distinct presidency, i Jan. 

Rebels completely expelled from Oude; they 
enter Nejiaul Jan. 

Guerilla warfare continues in Rohilcund Feb. 

Tantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his 
troops, about .... 25 Feb. 

Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib 
by general Horsford . . . . lo Feb. 

The new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfac- 
tion March, , 

Maun Singh surrenders ... 2 April 



Perozepore, Allyghur, Roorkee, Murdaun, Lucknow, Caionpore, Nusseerabad, Heemuch, Hansi, Hissar, Jhansi, 
Mehidpore, JuUundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpore, Bareilly, Shahjehanpore, Allahabad. At tbe 
stations printed in italics, European women and children were massacred. — The Relief Fund for the sufFerers 
in India was commenced 25 Aug. 1857. The Queen, Louis Napoleon, and the Sultan, gave each 1000?. In 
Nov. 1857, 280, 749?. had been collected; in Nov. 1858, 433,620?. In Dec. 1S61, 140,000?. had been distributed 
to sufferers in India ; and 100,000?. to those at home ; 246,069?. remained for the benefit of widows and 
orphans. A Fast was observed on 7 Oct. 

* Bom 5 April, 1795 ; educated at the Charterhouse, London, where he was called " oJcZ P/i?os,-" went 
to India, 1823 ; served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the Sikh war, 1845. He was a Bapti.st. 

t Lord Ellenborough, the minister for India, sent, unknown to his colleagues, a despatch severely cen- 
sumig this proclamation. This despatch became public and led to his resignation and very nearly to the 
defeat of the ministry, a vote of censure being moved for in both houses of parUament, but not carried. 

C C 



IND 



386 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Tantia Topee taken, 7 April ; hanged, t8 April ] 

Thanksgiving in England for pacification of 
India i May 

Jlutinous conduct of British troops lately in 
the company's service at Meerut and other 
places, on account of their transfer to the 
queen's service without bounty . 5 May, 

Sir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the 
Jorwah pass .... 23 May, 

A court of inquiry appointed . . June, 

Sir Chas. Wood becomes sec. for India, 22 June, 

Dissatisfaction among the troops at their trans- 
fer from the service of the company to that 
of the crown, without a bounty, settled by 
discharge being offered to them, which about 
10,000 accept July, 

Thanksgiving day observed in India 28 July, 

An income tax bill f called "The Trades' and 
Professions' Licensing Bill") passes the legis- 
lative council ; great meetings at Calcutta 
and Madras protesting against it . Sept. 

Rajah Jey-loU Singh hanged . . i Oct. 

Nana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the frontiers 
ofOude Oct. 

Insurgents in Nepaul dispersed . 24 Dec. 

Important financial changes made by Mr. 
James Wilson, new finance secretary Feb. ] 

Company formed to obtain cotton, flax, &c., 
from India March, 

Paper currency determined on . March, 

Bahadoor IChan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged 
for murders caused by him . . 2 March, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for 
publishing a government minute against Mr. 
Wilson's commercial scheme . . May, 

Sir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian 
army, amalgamated with the British July, 

Lord Clyde arrives in London . .18 July, 

Lord Canning's recommendation that the 
adopted successors of Indian princes should 
be recognised agreed to by the home govern- 
ment ...... 21 July, 

Death of sir H. Ward, new governor at. Madras, 
3 Aug. ; and of Mr. James Wilson 11 Aug. 

Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle 
fever in Aug. 1S58 ; is said to be living in 
Tibet Dec. 

Mutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinapore, 
suppressed ; breaks out again, 5 Oct. ; is again 
suppressed, one man is shot, and the regiment 
disbanded 13 Nov. 

British troops repulsed at Sikkim . Nov. 

Agitation agauist the income tax suppressed 
at Bombaj' and other places . . Dec. 

Excitement against sir Charles Wood's grant of 
520,0001!. to descendants of Tippoo Sahib, Dec. 

Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James 
Wilson, arrives .... 10 Jan. : 

Awful famine in N. W. provinces through 
failure of the crops ; immense exertions of 
the government and others to relieve the 
sufferers .... Jan.-June, 

Expedition marches against Sikkim; natives 
retire . . . . . . Feb. 

Disturbances in the indigo districts March, 

Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Sahib, 
murdered by his servants . . 31 March, 

British subscriptions for relief of the famine 
commence at the Mansion-house, London, 
with 4000L, 28 March; 52,000^. subscribed 
20 April ; closes with 114,807^. . Nov. 

Order of the " Star of India" {which see) con- 
stituted 25 June, 

Excitement through the pi-inting and circula- 
tion of "Nil Darpan," a Hindu drama libelling 
the indigo planters .... June, 

The rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced 
to fine and imprisonment . . . Aug. 

New Indian council and new high court of judi- 
cature established .... Aug. 

Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who 



had authorised the translation of "Nil Dar- 
pan") and Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who 
had, without authority, distributed copies) 
are censured and resign . . . Sept. 

Law of property in India altered ; sale of waste 
lands authorised .... Oct. 

Lords Harris and Clyde, sir .T. Lawrence, 
Dhuleep Singh, and others invested with the 
Star of India by the queen . . i Nov. 

Reported prosperity of Indian finances ; licence 
tax not to be reimposed . . 31 Deo. 

First meeting of new legislative council ; in- 
cludes several Indian princes . 18 Jan. 

Lord Elgin, new governor-general, mstalled at 
Calcutta 12 March, 

Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, 26 April ; 
dies . '17 June, 

Mr. S. Laing returns to England through ill 
health ; censured by sir C. AVood ; he justifies 
himself and resigns .... July, 

High court of judicature at Bengal inaugiirated 

12 July, 

Reported suspension of sale of waste lands, 

Aug. 

Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the 
revolt 8 Sept. 

Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in 
India, reported Oct. 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, 
arrives 8 Jan. 

First agricultpral exhibition at Calcutta, 

ig-30 Jan. 

Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, in N. W. provinces 

Oct. 

War with warlike hill- tribes on the N. W. fron- 
tiers, Oct. ; severe conflict, gen. Chamber- 
lain wounded, 20 Nov. ; war ended 29 Dec. 

The Hindu rehgion deprived of government 
support Dec. 

Death of lord Elgin, 20 Nov. ; sir John Law- 
rence appointed his successor . Dec. 

He assumes office . . . . 12 Jan. 

Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account 
of government suppressing funeral rites on 
sanitary grounds .... March, 

Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles 
Ti-evelyan April, 

Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and 

cohipelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam, 

about April, 

Gold cunrency (sovereign = 10 rupees) ordered 
to be introduced at Christmas . July, 

Terrific cyclone — immense loss of life, property, 
and ships at Calcutta and elsewhere 5 Oct. 

Grand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at 
Lahore ; 604 native princes present 18 Oct. 

War with the Bhootanese — fortress of Dhalim- 
cote taken 12 Dec. 

Much commercial speculation at Bombay, Dec. 

The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
with severe loss, 29 Jan.; evacuated by the 
British Feb. 

Opening of the Indo-European telegraph — a 
telegram from Kurraehee received, i March, 

W. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance 
minister ; he arrives at Calcutta, 31 March, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in 
the revenue i April, 

Dewangiri recaptured by gen. Tombs 2 April, 

Sir Hugh Rose retires froni command of the 
army ; which is assumed by su- Wm. Mans- 
field 23 April, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan's plans reversed by sir C. 
Wood May, 

Death of the able andbeneficent hon. Juggonath 
Sunkersett, the recognised reiDresentative of 
the Hindoo community . . .31 July, 

Negotiation with the Bhootanese . . July, 

Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta ; 
265 coolies perish through neglect . 24 Aug. 

Peace with the Bhootanese signed. 13 Nov. 



1862 



IND 



387 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Much dissatisfiiction at mildewed cotton goods 
being received from England . July-Oct. 1S65 

Settlement of the question respecting marriage 
of Hindoo converts .... April, 1S66 

"Simla scandal." Trial of capt. E. Jervis; ac- 
quitted on charge of peculation of stores be- 
longing to sir W. Mansfield, commander-in- 
chief, but condemned for insubordination ; 
sentence (dismissal from the service) ap- 
proved by sir W. Mansfield . . 17 Sept. ,, 

Awful famine in Orissa, Bengal ; about 1,500,000 
perished Aug.-Nov. ,, 

Relief by government .... Oct. ,, 

Br. Cotton, bishop of Calcvitta, accidentally 
drowned 6 Oct. ,, 

Famine abating ; official inquiry ordered Nov. ,, 

Great diu'bar held at Agra, by sir- J. Lawrence, 

10-20 Nov. ,, 

Simla case ; sentence against capt. Jervis con- 
firmed, and sir W. Mansfield censured by the 
duke of Cambridge, by letter dated 17 Jan. 1867 

Deficiencies in the I'evenue ; Massey's jiroposed 
new licence tax much opposed April & May, ,, 

False rumour of mutmy at Meerut . 20 May, , , 

Report on Orissa famine ; authorities blamed, 

June, ,, 

Deficiency in revenue for 1867, 2,400,000?. re- 
ported . Aug. ,, 

Grand durbar at Lucknow . . 9-17 Nov. ,, 

The fierce Wagheers of Kattj'war, in a night 
attack, are nearly exterminated ; capts. Hib- 
bert and La Touche killed . . 29 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Massey's budget ; surplus of 8oo,oooL ; 
licence tax abolished, tax on trades, &c., .sub- 
stituted; expenditure of 1,700,000^. on public 
works proposed . . . .14 March, 186S 

GOVERNOES-GENEEAL OF INDIA, &C.* 

Warren Hastings assumes the govt. 13 April, 1772 



Sir John Macphcrson . . . . i Feb. 

Lord Cornwallis 12 Sept. 

Sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teigmnouth) 

28 Oct. 
Lord (afterwards marque.ss) Cornwallis again : 

he relinquished the appointment. 
Sir Alured Clarke .... 6 April, 

Lord Mornington (afterwards marquess 

Wellesley) 17 Maj^ 

Marquess Cornwallis again . . 30 Jxily, 

Sir George Hilaro Barlow . . 10 Oct. 

Lord Minto 31 July. 

Earl of Moira, afterwards marquess of Hastmgs, 

4 Oct. 
Hon. John Adam . . . . 13 Jan- 
George Canning, relinquished the appointment. 
AVilliam, lord (afterwards earl) Amherst, i Aug. 
Hon. W. Butterworth Bayley . 13 March, 
Loi-d Wm. Cavendish Bentinck . 4 July, 

[This nobleman became the first governor- 
general of India, under the act 3 <fc 4 Will. 
IV. 0. 85: Aug. 28, 1833.] 
Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe(afterwardslord 

Metcalfe) 20 March, 

William, lord Heytesbury. Did not proceed. 
George, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of 

Auckland) 4 March, 

Edward, lord EUenborough . . 28 Feb. 
William Wilberforce Bird . . 15 June, 
Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 

23 July, 
James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquess) of 

Dalhousie 12 Jan. 

Charles John, viscount Canning, appointed 

July, 1855. (Proclaimed the first viceroy 

throughout India, Nov. i, 1808.) 
James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861 ; died 

20 Nov. 
Sir John Lawrence appointed . . Dec. 



178s 
1786 



1805 



1813 
1823 



1035 
1S36 



1863 



INDIA COJMPAjSTY. The first commercial intercourse of the English with the East 
Indies was a private adventure of three ships fitted out in 1591. Only one of them reached 
India ; and, after a voj^age of three years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought 
home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise 
to a mercantile voyage, and the company's fir.st charter, in Dec. 1600, which was renewed in 
1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, and 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000/., when it fitted 
out four ships ; meeting with success, it continued to trade. India stock sold at $00?. for a 
share of 100?. in 1683. 



A new company (the " English ") was chartered 
in 1698, and the old (the " London ")suspended 
from trading for three years ; the two were 

united in 1702 

New East India company, established . . 1708 
Privileges of the company continued till 1783 . 1744 
Affairs of the company were brought before 
parliament, and a committee exposed a series 
of intrigues and crimes . . . Aug. 1772 
As remedial measures, two acts passed (one 
authorised a loan of i,ooo,oooJ. to the com- 
pany ; the other (celebrated as the India hill) 
effected most important changes in the con- 
stitution of the company and its relations to 
India. A governor-general was appointed to 
reside in Bengal, to which the other presi- 
dencies were now made subordinate ; a su- 
preme court of judicature was instituted at 
Calcutta : the salary of the governor was 
fixed at 25,000?. per year ; that of the council 
at 10,000?. each ; and of the chief judge at 
Sooo?. ; the affairs of the company were con- 



trolled ; all the departments were re-organ- 
ised, and .all the territorial correspondence 
was henceforth to be laid before the British 
ministry) June, 

Mr. Pitt's bill appointing the Board of Control 
(ichich see), passed . . . . iS May, 

The company's charter was renewed for 20 years 
in 1703 : and in (the trade with India throvm 
open) 

The trade to China opened and the Charter re- 
newed till 1854 

The government of India was continued in the 
hands of the company tUl parliament should 
otherwise provide 

In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, and the 
disappearance of the company's army, the 
government of India was transferred to the 
cro-wai, the Board of Control was abolished, 
and a Council of State for India instituted by 
the act 21 & 22 Vict. c. 106, which received 
the royal assent .... 2 Aug.f 

The company's poUtical power ceased on 1 Sept. , 



1773 
1784 



i"33 
iSss 



* Several of these appointments are those of governors-general provisionally, having been first m rank 
in the council, and holding ofiice on the resignation of the governors-general, or pending their an-ival and 
assumption of the government : as, for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro Barlow, hon. William 
Butterworth Bayley, William AVilberforce Bird, &c. The appointments of governors-general were, of course, 
of earlier date than their assumption of otxice. 

t Lord Palmcrston brought in a bill for the purjiose on Feb. 12, which vras accepted bv the house on 

c c 2 



mo 388 IND 

INDIA COMPANY, continued. 



and the queen was proclaimed as Queen 
of Great Britain and the Colonies, &c., in the 
principal places in India, amid much enthu- 
siasm I Nov. 



The Bast India-House built 1726; enlarged 
and a new front erected, 1799 ; sold with the 
furniture, 1S61 ; pulled down in Sept. and 
Oct 1862 



INDIA, CoTTNCiL OF, establislied ia 1S58 in the place of the board of control (which see). 
It consists of 15 naembers (salary 1200?. a-year), eight of whom are appointed by the queen, 
and seven elected by the directors of the East India company. The members may not sit 
in parliament. The council met first on 3 Sept. 1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state 
for India, presided. In June, 1859, he resigned, and was succeeded by sir Charles "Wood. 
The members of tlie first council are here recorded : — 



ELECTED. 

Charles Mills. 
John Shepherd. 
Sir J. Weir Hogg. 
Elliot Macnaghten. 
Boss D. Mangles. 



William J. Eastwick. 
Henry T. Prinsep. 

APPOINTED. 

Sir Frederick Currie. 
Sir Henry Eawhnson. 



Sir R. Hussey Vivian. 
J. Pollard Willoughby. 
Sir John Lawrence. 
Sir Henry Montgome ry. 
Sir Proby Cautley, an d 
Wm. Arbuthnot. 



INDIAN MUSEUM, The, was proposed by sir Charles "Wilkins and approved by the 
East India company in 1 798. The valuable collections were removed from Leadenhall-street 
to Fife house, behind the chapel royal, "Whitehall, and opened 24 July, 1861. 

INDIANA, a western state of North America. It was included in Ohio till 1801. It 
was constituted a territory in 1809, and admitted into the Union ii Dec. 1816 ; capital, 
Indianopolis. 

INDIANS occuj)ying the south-western parts of the United States, in direct connexion 
with the government in 1861, were numbered at 239,506. The larger tribes are the 
Cherokees (22,000), the Chocktaws (18,000), the Creeks (i3,'55o), and the Chickasaws (5000). 
A lai'ge proportion are in comfortable circumstances, and have schools and churches ; other 
tribes are the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, Sioux, and loways. "With regard to the 
North American civil war in 1861, the Choctaws joined the confederates, wlio permitted two 
Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; the first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Loman ; 
but the principal chief of the Cherokees, on 4 May, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
which was maintained with great difficulty. 

INDIA KUBBER, see Oaotttchouc. 

INDICTION, a cycle of tributes orderly disposed for fifteen years, not known before 
the time of Constantine. The first examples in the Theodosian code are of the reign of 
Con.stantius, who died 361. — In memory of the great victory obtained by Constantine over 
Mezentius, 8 Cal. Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that tl^e accounts of years should 
be no longer kept by the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its epocha i Jan. 313, 
It was first itsed by the Latin church in 342. 

INDIGO. Its real nature was so little known in Europe, that it was classed among 
minerals, as apjiears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the 
principality of Halberstadt, dated 23 Dec. 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny called 
indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. BccJcmann. The first mention of indigo 
occurs in English statutes in 1581. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The 
quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was 5,831,269 lbs. ; in 1845, 10,127,488 lbs. ; 
in 1850, 70,482 cwt. ; in 1859, 63,237 cwt. ; in 1861, 83,109 cwt. ; in 1866, 74,256 cwt. 
The use of coal-tar dyes will no doubt lessen the consumption of indigo ; see Aniline. 

INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical pyrites of Freiberg by F. Eeich and 
T. Pvichter in 1863. Its name is due to its giving an indigo blue ray in its spectrum. 

INDUCTION of electric currents, discovered by Faraday, and announced in his 
" Experimental Eesearches," published in 1831-2. Euhmkorff 's magneto-electric induction 
coil was constructed in 1850. 

INDULGENCES for the pardon of sin, commenced by Leo. III. about 800, were granted 
in the nth century by Gregory YIL, and by Urban II., and others, in the 12th century as 
rewards to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope wlio made public sale of indul- 
gences, 1313. In 15 1 7, Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, and the 
resistance to them led to the Reformation. 

INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS, in Great Britain, are now frequent. One for South 
London was opened at Lambeth, i March, 1864 ; for North London, by earl Russell, at the 

Feb. 18. He resigned on the following day, and the bill dropped. A similar bill was introduced by Mr. 
Disraeli on March 12 ; but many of its details being objected to, it was withdrawn. On lord John Russell's 
proposition, the house proceeded to consider the matter by way of resolutions ; on June 17, lord Stanley 
brought in the above mentioned bill, being the third on the subject introduced during the session. 



IND 389 INN 

Agricultural Hall, Islington; 17 Oct. 1864; for a West London exhibition, at the Floral 
Hall, Covent-garden, i May, 1865 ; for the city of London, at Guildhall, 6 March, 1866 ; 
one was opened at York, 24 July, 1866. 

INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT SOCIETIES ACTS, 1852 and 1862, were amended 
by an act passed 20 Aug. 1867. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better 
provision for the care and education of vagrant, destitute, and disorderly children. Another 
act was passed, 1861. These acts were consolidated by an act passed in Aug. 1866. Forty- 
seven of these schools had been certified under these acts up to 29 Sept. 1864. 

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES, see Co-operative Societies. 

INFANTICIDE, Female, was very prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macartney 
stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually; it is now gradually decreasing in India. 
On 12 Nov. 1851, Mr. Eaikes induced the Cholian chiefs to agree to resolutions against it, 
and a great meeting in the Punjab was held for the same purpose, 14 Nov. 1853. Much 
suspicion was caused in London in 1867 through the deaths of children farmed out, or given 
up to persons advertising for children to adopt, with a premium. 

INFANTRY, the modern term for foot soldiers, much improved during the wars of 
Charles V. and Francis I. in the i6th century. The Biitish armjr comprised 99 regiments 
of regular infantry in 1858, when the Canadians raised a regiment which is termed the 
looth. The nxmiber, now 109, includes the Indian army. 

INFANT SCHOOLS began in London in 1818. 

INFERNAL MACHINE, s,cb France, 1800, 1835, and 1858; and Baltic, note. 

INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick ; diseased persons 
were carried to the temple of ^sculapius for cure. Institutions for the accommodation of 
travellers, the indigent, and sick, and the first infirmaries or hospitals Avere built close to 
cathedrals and monasteries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on moun- 
tains to be visited, 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the sick. 
There were hospitals ibr the sick at Constantinople, in the nth century. The oldest men- 
tion of physicians and surgeons established in infirmaries occurs in 1437. Beclcmann ; see 
Hospitals. 

INFORMERS, upon penal statutes, compounding with defendants without leave of the 
court, were punishable with fine and pillorj^, by 18 Eliz. c. 5 (1576). Their share of a 
penalty is regulated by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 71 (1839). 

INFUSORIA, see Animalcules. 

INGOUR, a river rising in the Caucasus and falling into the Black Sea. Omar Pasha, 
marching to the relief of Kars, crossed this river on 6 Nov. 1855, with 10,000 men, and 
attacked the Russians 12,000 strong, who, after a struggle, retreated with the loss of 400 
men. The Turks had 68 killed and 242 wounded. Kars, however, was not saved. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory black, and Vitruvius and 
Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had ink of various coloiirs, as red, gold, silver, and 
purple. Red ink was made of vermilion and gum. Indian ink was brought from China, 
and must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, most of the 
artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe 
in small quadrangular cakes, and is comj)Osed of a fine black and animal glue. Bcchmann. 
Invisible or Sympathetic inks, fluids which, when written with, will remain invisible 
until after a certain operation, were known at early periods. Ovid (A.D. 2) teaches young 
women to deceive their guardians by writing to their lovers with new milk, and afterwards 
making the writing legible with ashes or soot. Receipts for preparing invisible ink were 
given by Peter Borel, in 1653, and by Le Mort, in 1669. Beckmann. 

INKERMANN (Crimea). The Russian army (about 40,000) having received reinforce- 
ments, and being encouraged by the presence of the granddukes Michael and Nicholas, 
attacked the British (8000) near the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, 5 Nov. 1854. 
They were kept at bay for six hours till the arrival of 6000 French. The Russians were 
then repulsed, leaving 9000 killed and wounded. The loss of the allies was 462 killed, 
1952 woimded, and 191 missing. Sir George Cathcart, and generals Strangways, Goldie, 
and Torrens, were among the slain. On 15 Nov. 1855, an explosion of about 100,000 lbs. 
of gunpowder occurred near Inkermann, and caused great loss of life. 

INLAND REVENUE BOARD was constituted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the boards 
of excise, stamps, and taxes. 

INNOCENTS' DAY, 28 Dec, see Childermas. 



INX 



390 



INS 



INNS OF COURT (LondoD) were established at different periods, iu some degi-ee as 
colleges for teaching the law. 

The Temple founded, and the church built by 

KrJghts Templavs 1185 

The Inner and Middle TemiDle made inns of 

law about 1340 ; the Outer about (^siozw) . 1560 

Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery . . . 1445 

Clement's Inn, 18 Edw. IV 1478 

Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. III. .... 1345 
Purnival's Imi, 5 Eliz 1563 



Gray's Inn, 32 Edw. Ill 1357 

Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II. . . . i3ioori3i2 

Lyon's Inn 1420 

New Inn, i Hen. VII 1485 

Serjeants' Inn, Fleet-street .... 1429 
Serjeants' Inn, Chancery-lane . . . . 1666 

Staples Inn, 4 Hen. V. 1415 

Thavies' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII 1519 



INOCULATION, see Sonall Pox. Lady Mary "VYortley Montagn introduced inoculation 
from small pox to England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her son inoculated at Adrianople, 
with success ; and she was allowed to have it first tried in England on seven condemned 
criminals, 7 Geo. I. 1721 ; and in 1722 two of the royal family were inoculated. The 
practice was preached against by many of the bishops and clergy until 1760. Dr. Mead 
practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale of London, inoculated 
Catherine II., empress of Eussia, in 1768. Of 5964 who were inoculated in 1797-99, o^Iy 
three died. An inoculation hospital was established in 1746. Inoculation was forbidden 
by law in 1840. Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr. Jenner, 21 Jan. 1799 ; he had 
discovered its virtue in 1 796, and had been making experiments during the intermediate 
three years ; see Sheep. 

INQUISITION or Holy Office. Previous to Constantine (306), heresy and spiritual 
offences were punished by excommunication only ; but shortly after his death capital 
punishments were added, and inquisitors were appointed by Theodosius, 382. Priscillian 
was put to death about 385. Justinian decreed the doctrine of the four holy synods as to 
the holy scriptures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; hence the penal code 
against heretics. About 800 the power of the western bishops was enlarged, and courts 
were established for trying and punishing spiritual offenders, even with death; the punish- 
ment being termed in Spain auto-da-fe, "an act of faith. " In the 12th century many heresies 
arose, and during the crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX., in 1233, established by 
rules the inquisitorial missions sent out by Innocent III. some years previously, and com- 
mitted them to the Dominicans. Pietro da Verona (styled Peter Martyr), the first inquisitor 
who burnt heretics, assassinated by an accused gonfalonier, 6 April, 1252, was canonized. 



The Holy Office was reinstituted in Spain by 
Ferdinand and Isabella 1480 

Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 
17,000 suffer other penalties . . . . 1481 

' ' Instructions" of the new tribunal promulgated 

29 Nov. 1484 

New ax-ticles were added . . 14S8 & 1498 

The establishment of the Inquisition was re- 
sisted in Naples, and only Introduced into 
other parts of Italy with jealous limitations 
by the temporal power .... 1546-7 

New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the 
inquisitor-general Valdez . ... . 1561 

Carnesecchi executed at Rome, 1567, and Galileo 
compelled to abjure his philosophical opinions 1634 

20 pei-sons perish at an a!t^o-(7a-/t' at Goa . . 1717 

Gabriel Malagrida, a Jesuit, burnt at Lisbon . 1761 



A woman accused of making a contract with the 
devil burnt at Seville ... 7 Nov. 1781 

The tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lom- 
bardy ....... 1787 

Never firmly established in France ; totally abo- 
lished by Henry IV. by the edict of Nantes, 
1598. Louis XIV. revoked the edict, but re- 
fusfed to introduce the Inquisition . . . 1685 

Suppressed in Spain by Napoleon, 4 Dec. 1808, 
and by the Cortes . . - . 12 Feb. 1813 

Restored by Ferdinand VII. . 21 July, 1814 

Finally abolished by the Cortes . . . 1820 

[Llorentc states that in 236 years the total 
amount in Spain of persons put to death by 
the Inquisition was about 32,000 ; 291,000 
were subjected to other punishments.] 



INQUESTS, see Coroner. INSANITY, see Lunatics. 

INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was passed in 1649, but it was of limited 
operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were passed at varioirs periods, and 
particularly in the reign of George III. The benefit of the act known as the Great Insol- 
vent Act, was taken in England by 50,733 insolvents from the time of its passing in 1814, 
to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then the acts relating to insolvency have 
been several times amended. Persons not traders, or being traders whose debts are less than 
300?., might i^etition the court of bankruptcy, and propose compositions, and have pro tern. 
protection from all process against their persons and property, by 6 Vict. c. 116 (1842). In 
1861, by a new bankruptcy act, the business of the insolvent debtors' court was trans- 
ferred to the court of bankruptcy ; and a number of imprisoned debtors were released in 
Nov. 1 86 1. 

INSTITUTE OF Fkance. On 25 Oct. 1795, all the Eoyal Academies, viz., the French 
academy, the academy of inscriptions and belles lettres, that of the mathematical and physical 
sciences, of the fine arts, and of the moral and political sciences, were combined in one body, 
under the title of " Institut National," afterwards Roycd, and now Iinperial. 

INSTITUTES, see Code. INSTITUTION, see Royal, London, and Civil Engineers. 



INS 



391 



I'SU 



IISrSURAiSrCE on' Ships and Merchandise. Suetonius conjectures tliat Claudius was 
the first contriver of the insurance of ships, A.D. 43. 



Insurance iu general use in Italy, 1194, and in 
England 1560 

Insui-ance policies first used in Florence . . 1523 

The first law relating to insurance was enacted 1601 

Insurance of houses and goods against Fire, iu 
London, began the year following the Groat 
Fire of London 1667 

An oflice set up for insuring houses and build- 
ings, chiefly on the plan of Dr. Barton, one of 
the first and most considerable builders of 
London ,, 

The first regular office set up in London was the 
Hand-in-Hand ....... 1696 

First Life Insurance office (the Amicahle), esta- 
blished 1706 

SiUi. fire-office established 1710 

The first Marine Insurance was the Royal 
Exchange Insurance, and the London In- 
surance 1720 

Duty first laid on insurances of is. 6cZ. per lool. 
insm-ed, 17S2; duty increased . . . . 1797 

Iu 1S57, i>4Si. no'- were paid as duty for fire 



insurances, on property amounting to 
72,136,585?. 
There were 33 London fire insurance offices ; 
25 country offices ; 7 Scotch, and 2 Irish . . 1859 

165 such offices in London ,, 

A new Conmiorcial Union fire insurance, 
founded in consequence of the iucreasecl 
charges of the companies . . . Sept. 18C1 
Rate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3s. to 
IS. 6d. per cent, on stock in trade, from 13 
May, 1864 ; on household goods . . . 1865 
Sea insurance duties reduced . 31 May, 1867 
Policies of Assurance act (enabUng assignees of 
assurances to sue in their own names for 
13olicy monies), passed . . 20 Aug. „ 

AMOUNT INSUEED. 

1782. £130,000,000 

1802. , • , , . . 220,000,000 

1822. ..... 399,000,000 

1842. ...... 652,000,000 

1862. ..... 1,007,000,000. 



INSURRECTIONS, see Conspiracies, Massacres, RehelUons, Riots, &c. 

INTENDMENT of Crimes. In cases of treason, wounding, burglary, &c., intention 
proved was made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 Geo. II., 1734. The rigour Avas 
modified by sir Robert Peel's revision of the statutes 4-10 Geo. IV. 1823-29. 

INTERDICT or Ecclesiastical Censure, seldom decreed in Europe till the time of 
Gregory YIL, 1073, but often afterwards. When a prince was excommunicated, all his sub- 
jects retaining their allegiance were excommnnicated also, and the clergy were forbidden to 
perform any part of divine service, or any clerical duties, save the baptism of infants, and 
taking the confessions of dying penitents. In 1170, jiope Alexander put all England under 
an interdict ; and when king John was excommimicated in 1208, the kingdom lay under a 
}>apal interdict for six years. England was put under an interdict, on Henry VIII. shaking 
oil' the pope's supremacy, 1535 ; and pope Sixtus V. published a crusade against queen Eliza- 
beth of England in 1588 ; see Excommunication. 

INTEREST. The word was first used in an act of parliament of the 21st James I. 1623, 
wherein it was made to signify a lawful increase by way of compensation for the use of money 
lent. The rate fixed by the act was 8Z. for the use of lOol. for a year ; in place of usury at 
10^. before taken. The Commonwealth lowered the rate to 61. in 1650 ; and by an act of 
the 13th of queen Anne, 17 13, it was reduced to $1. The restraint being found prejudicial 
to commerce, it was totally removed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854). 

INTERIM OF Augsburg, a decree issued by the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with the 
view of attempting to reconcile the Catholics and Protestants, in which it entirely failed. It 
was revoked in 1552. The term Interim has been applied to other decrees and treaties. 

INTERNATIONAL, see under Cholera, Copyright, Education, Exhibitions, Havre, 
Ilorticitlturc, Lata, Statistics, Working-men, and Wounded. 

INTERREGNUM, see Commonwealth. 

INUNDATIONS. The following are among the mo.st remarkable : — 



An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid under 

water many thousand acres, a.d. 245. Camden. 
xVnother in Cheshire, by which 5000 persons and an 

innumerable quantity of cattle perished, 353. 
An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more 

than 400 families, 758. Fordun. 
The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste the 

country for 30 miles round, 836. 
An inundation on the English coasts, demolished a 

number of sea-port towns, 1014. 
Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, overflowed 

by the sea, and an immense sand-bank formed on 

the coast of Kent, now known by the name of the 

Godwin sands, iioo. Camden. 
Flanders invmdated by the sea, and the town and 

harbour of Ostend totally immersed, 1108. 
More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea 

by an inundation of the sea, 1280. 
At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of 

Amsterdam, 1400. 
The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, 

and 100,000 people (see Durl), 17 April, 1446. 



The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried 
away men, women, and children, m their beds, 
and covered the tops of many mountains ; the 
waters settled upon the lands, and were called the 
Great Waters for 100 years after, i Richard III. 
1483. HoUlnshed. Again 4 James I. 1607, the 
waters rose above the tops of the houses, and 
above 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and 
Gloucestershire. Hums. 

A general inundation by the failure of the dikes' in 
HoUand, 1530 ; the number of drowned said to 
have been 400,000. 

At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished, 1617. 

xi.u inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, 
and poured out water to the height of a church 
steeple, 1686. Vide Phil. Trans. 

Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 
drowned, and incredible damage was done at 
Hamburg, 1717. 

At Jladrid, several of the Spanish nobility and other 
persons of distinction perished, 1723. Dv, Fres- 
Hoy. 



mu 



392 



mv 



INUNDATIONS, continued. 

In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Kipon 
Flood, 1771. 

In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by 
the torrents from the inountains, Sept. 1787. 

Inundation of the Liffey, which did immense 
damage in Dublin, 12 Nov. 1787. Again, 2-3 Dec. 
1802. 

Lorca, a city of Mercia, in Spain, destroyed by the 
bursting of a reservoir, which inundated more 
than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides 
cattle, 14 April, 1802. 

At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabitants 
were swept away, April, 1811. 

In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 
during a storm, many persons and much stock 
perished, May, 1811. 

Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and 
Poland, in the summer of 1813. 

Overflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 
men, on a small island near Widdin, surprised, 
and met instant death, 14 Sept. 1813. 

In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin 
of the French army under Macdonald was accele- 
rated by the floods ; also in Poland 4000 lives were 
supposed to have been lost, 1:813. 

At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow 
on the surrounding mountains, most destructive 
floods were occasioned, 2 Jan. 1816. 

In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
were laid under water, and great loss of life and 
property was sustained, 21 March, 1816. 

In England 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen 
countries, in June, 18 19. 

Inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula 
breaking through some of its dikes, by which 
10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were de- 
stroyed, and numerous lives lost, 9 April, 1829. 

The "Moray Floods," 9 Aug. 1829, when the Spey 
and P'iudhom rose in some places 50 feet above 
their ordinary level, and caused great destruction 
of property. Many lives were lost, and whole 
famiUes who took refuge on elevated places were 
with diflioulty rescued. Sir T. D. Lauder. 

At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants 
laid under water, Feb. 1830. 

10,000 houses swept away, and about 1000 persons 



perished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of 
an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. 
Equal or greater calamity was produced by the 
same cause in other ports of China, Oct. 1S33. 

Awful inundation in France : the Saone poured its 
waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, 
and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated ; 
in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218 
houses were carried away at La Guillotifere ; and 
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; 
the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 
years, 31 Oct. to 4 Nov. 1840. 

Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the s>ir- 
rounding country ; several lives lost, and immense 
property destroyed, 16 Jan. 1841. 

Disastrous inundation in the centre, west, and 
south-west of France ; numerous bridges, with 
the Orleans andVierzon viaduct, swept away ; the 
latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The damage 
done exceeded 4,000,000^. sterling. The Loire rose 
twenty feet in one night, 22 Oct. 1846. 

Lamentable catastrophe at Holmfirth (see Sohnfirth 
Flood), 4 Feb. 1852. 

Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme 
after a violent thunderstorm, 5 Sept. 1852. 

Inundations of the basins of the Rhine and the 
Rhone, overflowing the country to a great extent, 
19 Sept. 1852. 

Hambiirg half-flooded by the Elbe, .Jan. i, iSss- 

Inundations in south of France, with immense 
damage (see France), May and June, 1856. 

In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. 
1861. 

Great inundation through the bursting of the out- 
fall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's Lynn (see 
levels), 4-15, May, 1862. 

Another marshland sluice bursts ; many acres inun- 
dated, 4 Oct. 1S62. 

Bursting of the Bradfield reservoir (see Sheffield) ; 
about 250 persons drowned, 11 March, 1S64. 

Great inundations in France, 26 Sept. et seq. 1866. 

Great floods in north of England, immense damage 
in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire ; farms 
destroyed, mines flooded, mills thrown down, 
railways stopped ; and much suffering at Leeds 
(about 20 drowned), Manchester, Preston, Wake- 
field, &o. 16-17 Nov. 1866. 



INVALIDES, the H6tel des Invalides was founded in 1671 b}' Louis XIV. Its chapel 
contains the body of Napoleon I., deposited there 15 Dec. 1840. 

INVASIONS OF THE British Islands, see Britain, and Banes. From the death of 
Edward the Confessor, only the foUoAving invasions (marked s) have been successful : — 



William of Normandy (s.) 

29 Sept. io65 
The Irish .... 1069 
The Scots, 1091 ; king Mal- 
colm killed . . . . 1093 
Robert of Normandy . .1101 

The Scots 1136 

The empress Maud . . 1139 
Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen (s.) 1169 
Ireland, by Edward Brnce . 1315 
Isabel, queenofEdwardIl.(s.) 1326 



Duke of Lancaster (s.) . . 1399 
The French .... 1416 
Queen of Henry VI. . . . 1462 
Earl of Warwick (s.) . . 1470 
Edward IV. (s.) . . . . 1471 
Queen of Henry VI. . . 1471 
Earl of Richmond (s.) . . 1485 
Lambert Simnel . . . 1487 
Perkin Warbeck . . . 1495 
Spaniards and Italians, Ire- 
land 1580 

Spanish Armada . . . 1588 



1 601 



Ireland, Spaniards 
Duke of Monmouth . . . 
William of Orange (.'.) . 
James II., Ireland . . . 
Old Pretender 

Pretender again . . . 
Young Pretender . 
Ireland (see Thurot) . . . 
Wales, the French . 
Ireland ; the French land at 
KiUala (which see) . . . 1798 



1708 
1715 
1745 
1760 

1797 



INVENTOKS' INSTITUTE, established in 1862. 

INVERNESS (N.W. Scotland), a city of the Picts up to 843. It was taken by Edward 
I. ; retaken by Bruce, 13 13 ; burnt by the lord of the Isles, 141 1 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649 ; 
and by prince Charles Edward in 1746. He was defeated at CJuUoden, about five miles from 
Inverness, 16 April, 1746. 

INVESTITURE of Ecclesiastics, was a cause of discord between the pope and temporal 
sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual war between Gregory VII. and the emperor 
Henry IV. 1075-1085. The pope endeavoured to deprive the sovereign of the right of nomi- 
nating bishops and abbots, and of investing them with the cross and ring, Henry V. gave 
up the right, iiii. 



INV 



393 



IRE 



INVINCIBLE ARMADA or Spanish Aumada, s&q Armada. 

INVOCATION OF THE Virgin and Saints. The practice of the Romish church of 
invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly of the Virgin, has been traced to 
the time of Gregory the Great, 593. The Eastern church began (in the 5th century) by calling 
upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the divine offices. 

IODINE (from the Greek iudes, violet-like), was discovered by M. De Courtois, a manu- 
facturer of saltpetre at Paris in 1S12, and investigated by M. Clement, 1813. On the appli- 
cation of heat it rises in the form of a dense violet- coloured vapour, easily evaporates, and 
melts at 220 degrees : it changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part 
converts ■\\;ater to a deep yelloAv colour, and starch into a ^Durple. 

lONA, ICOLMKILL, or Hii, one of the Hebrides. About 563 St. Columba founded 
a monastery here, which flourished till the 8th century, when it was ravaged by the 
Norsemen. Other religious bodies afterwards were formed, and the isle was long esteemed 
sacred. 

IONIA (in Asia Minor). About 1040 B.C. the lones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from 
Greece, and settled here and on the adjoining islands. Tliey built Ephesus, Smyrna, and other 
noble cities. They were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; revolted in 504, but 
were again subdued. After the victories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and remained 
so till 387, when it Avas once more subjected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions of 
Alexander and his successors ; was annexed to the Roman empire, and conquered by the 
Turks. — Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, and philosophers. 

IONIAN ISLANDS (on "W. coast of Greece). Corfu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante, 
Ithaca, Santa Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by the lones, and partook of 
the fortunes of the Greek people ; were subject to Naples in the 13th century, and in the 
14th to Venice. Population in 1862, 234,123. 



;-9 



The constitution liberalised during the govem- 
nient of lord Seaton .... 1 

In consequence of complaints, Mr. "W". B. Glad- 
stone went out on a commission of inquiry, 
&c. , without result .... Nov. 1858 

Sir H. Storks, lord high commissioner 2 Feb. 1859 

The parliament declare for annexation to Greece, 

March, 1861, and April, 1862 

The islands annexed to Greece, 28 May ; king 
George I. arrives at Corfu (see Greece) June, 1S64 



The islands ceded to France by the treaty of 

Campo Formio. . . . -17 Oct. 1797 

Formed into the republic of the seven islands 

under Russia and Turkey . . 21 March, 1800 
Bestored to France by treaty of Tilsit, 7 July, 1807 
Taken by the English .... 3-12 Oct. 1809 
Formed into an independent state under the 

protection of Great Britain (sir Thos. Mait- 

land, lord high commissioner) . . 5 Nov. 1815 
A constitution ratified . . . 11 July, 181 7 

A university established at Corfu . . . . 1823 

IONIC ORDER OF Auchitectuee, an improvement on the Doric, was invented by 
the lonians about 1350 B.C. Vitruvius. Its distinguishing characters are the slenderness 
and flutings of its columns, and the volutes of rams' horns that adorn the capital. 

IONIC Sect of Philosophers, founded by Thales of Miletus about 600 b.c. dis- 
tinguished for its abstruse speculations under his successors and pupils, Anaximander, 
Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They held that water was 
the origin of all things. 

IOWA, a western state of North America, was organised as a territory 12 June, 1838 ; 
and admitted into the Union, 28 Dec. 1846. Capital, Des Moines. 

IPSUS (Phrygia), Battle of, 301 B.C., by which Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom 
of Syria by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. Tlie latter led into the field 
an army of about 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The former had 64,000 
infantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Plutarch. 

IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippcswic, was ravaged by the Danes, 991. Wolsey was 
born here, 1471 ; founded a school in 1525. The port was greatly improved by the erection 
of wet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was opened 25 June, 1846; and the new 
to\vn-hall, 29 Jan. 1868. 

IRELAND, anciently named lerne and Hibernia, is said to have been first colonised 
by Phoenicians. Some assert that Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 B.C. ; that the 
descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 B.C. ; and that this was followed bj' the 
descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian piinces, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered 
Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 king.s. The population, by the census of 1861, 
was 5,764,543 (4,505,265 Roman catholics; 693,537 anglican church; 523,291 presby- 
terians ; 45,399 methodists ; other sects, 31,262 ; Jews, 393) ; see Church of Ireland. 



Arrival of St. Patrick, about . . . a.d. 432 

Christianity established, about . . . . 448 
The Danes and Normans, known by the name 

of Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland . 795 



They build Dublm and other cities, about. . 800 
Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at 

Clontarf ; and is killed . . .23 April 1014 
[In the twelfth century Ireland is divided into 



IRE 



394 



IRE 



IRELAND, continued. 

five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meatli, 
Connauglit, and Munster, besides a number 
of petty principalities, whose sovereigns con- 
tinually warred with each other.] 

Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to hivade Ire- 
laud, on condition that he compelled every 
Ii-ish family to pay a oarolus to the holy see, 
and held it as a fief of the Church . . . 1156 

Dermot MacMurrough.king of Leinster, driven 
from his throne for his oppression . . . 1166 

Takes refuge in England, where he takes an 
oath of fidehty to Henry II. who promises to 
restore him 1168 

Invasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen . 1169 

Landing of Strongbow at Waterford . . . ,, 

Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives 
the submission of the pi-inces of the country, 
settles the government, and makes his son 
John lord of Ireland . . ... 1177 

Ireland wholly subdued, and English laws and 
customs introduced by king John . . . 1210 

Invasion of Edward Bruce, 1315 ; crowned king 1316 

Defeated and slain at Foughart, near Dundalk 131 8 

Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward 
III., marries Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of 
Ulster, which had not hitherto submitted to 
the English authority 1361 

Eichard II. lands at Waterford with a train of 
nobles, 4000 men-at-arms, and 30,000 archers, 
and gains the affection of the people by his 
munificence, and confers the honour of knight- 
hood on their chiefs 1394 

Eichard again lands in Ireland . . . . 1399 

The sanguinary Head act passed at Trim,* by 
the earl of Desmond, deputy .... 1465 

Apparel and Surname act (the Irish to dress like 
tlie English, and to adopt surnames) . . „ 

" Poynings' law," subjecting the Irish ]parUa- 
inent to the English council . . . . 1494 

Great rebellion of the Eitzgeralds subdued . 1534 

Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead 
of lord of Ireland 1S42 

The reformed religion embraced by the English 
.settlers in the reign of Edward VI. . . 1547 

Ireland finally divided into shires . . . 1569 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. 
Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . . . 1571 

700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in 
Kerry ; they are treacherously butchered by 
the earl of Ormond 15S0 

O'Neill defeats the English at Blackwater 

14 Aug. 159S 

The insurrection of Tyrone, who invites over 
the Spaniards, and settles them in Kinsale ; 
defeated by the lord deputy Mountjoy . 1601-2 

In consequence of repeated rebellions and for- 
feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province 
of Ulster became vested in the crown, and 
James I. after removing the Irish from their 
hills and fastnesses, divides the land among 
such of his English and Scottish protestant 
subjects as choose to settle there . . 1609-12 

More and Maguire's rebellion : the catholics 
enter into a conspiracy to expel the English, 
and cruelly massacre the protestant settlers 
in Ulster, to the number of 40,000 persons, 
commenced on St. Ignatius' day [some doubt 
the massacre] 23 Oct. 1641 



O'Neill defeats the English imder Monroe at 

Benburb 5 June, 1646 

Massacre and capture of Drogheda 11 Sept. 1649 
Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island 

to obedience between . . . 1649 ^ 1656 
Landing of James II. . . . 12 March, 1689 
3or-,o protestants attainted . . . July, „ 
WilUam III. lands at Carrickfergus 14 June, 1690 
Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated i July, ,, 
Treaty of Limerick (see Limerick) . 3 Oct. i6gi 
Linen manufacture encouraged .... 1696 
Excitement against Wood's halfpence (lohich 

see) 1724 

Thurot's invasion (see Thiirot) . . . . 1760 
Indulgences granted to the catholics by the re- 

hefbill 1778 

Ireland admitted to a free trade . . . . 1779 
Eeleased from submission to an English council 17S2 
The (Jenevese refugees are received in Ireland, 
and have an asylum given them in the county 

of Waterford 1783 

Order of St. Patrick established . . . . ,, 
Orange clubs, &o., formed (see Diamond) . . 1795 
Irish rebellion commenced 4 May, 1798, and not 

finally suppressed until 1799 

Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland 

I Jan. 1801 
Emmet's insurrection . . .23 July, 1803 

English and Irish exchequers consolidated, 

5 Jan. 1817 
Visit to Ireland of George IV. . . Aug. 1821 
The currency assimilated . . .1 Jan. 1826 
Eoman cathohc emancipation act passed 

13 April 1829 
Customs consolidated ... 6 Jan. 1830 

Dr. Whately, supporter of Irish National School 
sj'stem, becomes abp. of Dublin . . .1831 

Poor laws introduced 1838 

Great Eepeal movement ; meeting at Trim ; 

(see liepeal) 16 March, 1843 

O'Connell's trial (see Trials) . . 15 Jan. 1844 
Trial of O'Connell and others for political 
conspiracy ; found guilty (see Trials) 

12 Feb. „ 
Appointment of new commissioners of cha- 
ritable bequests (rank iof the E. C. bishops 
recognised) . . * . . .18 Dec. ,, 
Irish .National Education Society incorporated 

23 Sept. 1845 
Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland ; 

the sufferers relieved by parliament . . ,, 
Committal of William Smith O'Brien to the 
custody of the sergeant -at-arms, for contempt 
in not obeying an order of the house of com- 
mons to attend a committee . 30 April, 1846 
William Smith O'Brien and the "Young Ire- 
land," or physical fortie party, secede from 
the Eepeal Association . . 29 July, ,, 
O'Connell's last .speech iu the commons 

8 Feb. 1847 
Grants from. Parliament amounting to 
io,ooo,oooJ. made to relieve the people suf- 
fering from famine and disease . . . ,, 
Death of O'Connell at Genoa, on his way to 
Rome, in his 73rd year ; he had bequeathed 
his heart to Eome . . . 15 May, „ 

Deputation from the Irish people (?) — Smith 
O'Brien, Meagher, O'Gorman, &c. — to Lamar- 



* This act ordained, "That it shall be lawful to all manner of men that find any theeves robbing by 
day or night, or going or coming to rob or steal, or any persons going or coming; having no faithful man of 
good name and fame in their company in English apparell, that it shall be lawful to take and kill those, 
and to cut off their heads, without any impeachment of our sovereign lord the king. And of any head so 
cut off in the county of Meath, that the cutter and his ayders there to him cause the said head so cut off 
to be brought to the portreffe to put it upon a stake or spear, upon the castle of Trim ; and that the said 
portreffe shall testify the bringing of the same to him. And that it shall be lawful for the said bringer of 
the said head to distrain and levy by his own hand (as his reward) of every man having one ploughland in 
the barony, two-pence ; and of every man having half a ploughland, one peny ; andof every man having 
one house and goods, value forty shillings, one pony ; and of every other cottier having house and smoak, 
one half -peny," <&c. Much slaughter is said to have ensued. 



IRE 



ZQL 



lEE 



IRELAND, continued. 

tine and others, members of the provisional 
government at Paris ... 3 April, 1848 
Great meeting of "Young Irelanders" at 

Dublin 4 April, ,, 

AiTest of Mitchell, editor of the " United Irish- 
man" 13 May, ,, 

State trials in the Irish Queen's Bench, 

15-27 May, ,, 
Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to trans- 
portation for 14 years . . 26 M;iy, ,, 
Arrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, Meagher, 
Doheny, &c., for felonious writing.^, speeches, 

&c 8 July, ,, 

Confederate clubs prohibited . 26 Juij', ,, 

The Habeas Corpus act suspended 26 July, ,, 

O'Brien's rebellion suppressed . . 29 July, „ 
Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Thurles ; he is con- 
veyed to Kilmainham gaol, Dublin 5 Aug. ,, 
AiTest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, &c. 12 Aug. ,, 
Martin sentenced to transportation 14 Aug. ,, 
Encumbered estates act passed . Sept. ,, 

Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and the other con- 
federates tried and sentenced to death, 9 Oct. ,, 
The Irish court of queen's bench gives judg- 
ment on writs of error sued out by the pri- 
soners convicted of high treason, and con- 
fii-ms the judgment of the court below, 

16 Jan. 1849 
O'Brien,* Meagher, McManus, and O'Donoghue 

transported 9 July, ,, 

Orange and cathohc affray at Dolly's Brae ; 
several lives lost .... 12 July, ,, 

Her majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court 
at Dublin castle .... 5 Aug. ,, 

First court under the encumbered estates act 

(which see) held in Dublin . . 24 Oct. „ 

Queen's university in Ireland established, 

15 Aug. 1850 
Synod of Thurles condemns queen's colleges, 

22 Aug. ,, 
Roman catholic university originated, and 

large sums subscribed ... 5 May, 1851 
Death of R. Lalor Shell, at Florence 25 May, ,, 
McManus escapes from transportation, and 

arrives at San Francisco, in Cahfomia, 5 June, ,, 
The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the 

site of the battle of the Boyne . 14 Juh-, ,, 
First meeting of the "Catholic Defence Asso- 
ciation "...... 17 Oct. ,, 

Meagher esoaises from Van Diem en's Land and 

arrives at New York ... 24 May, 1852 
Cork National Exhibition . . . 10 June, ,, 
Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot ; Air. 
Dai-gan, a railway contractor, contributes to- 
wards it 25,oooi. .... 24 June, „ 

"Tenant Right " demonstration at Warrington 

dispersed by the magistrates . . 3 July, ,, 
Fierce religious riots at Belfast . 14 July, ,, 
Fatal election riot at Six-mile Bridge, 22 July, ,, 
Irish members of parliament found a " Reli- 
gious Equality Association " . . 10 Sept. ,, 
Cork Industrial Exhibition closed 2 Sept. ,, 

Income tax extended to Ireland . . May, 1853 
Dublin Exhibition opens . . .12 May, ,, 
Queen visits Ireland . . . 29 Aug. ,, 

Tenant Right League conference . 4 Oct. ,, 
Dreadful railway accident near Dublin 5 Oct. ,, 
Dublin Exhibition closed . . . i Nov. „ 
Train wilfully upset after an Orange demon- 
stration at Londonderry, one person killed 
and many hurt .... 15 Sept. 1854 

Religious riots at Belfast . . . Sept. 1857 
Progress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. 1858 
A packet from Galway reaches N. America in 

six days Sept. ,, 

Proclamation against secret societies Nov. ,, 
Arrests of members of Phoenix Society Dec. ,, 
Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed 
by marquess of Downshire) given up, 27 Jan. 1S59 



National Gallery founded . . . Feb. 

Agitation against the Irish National School 
system ... ... Sejjt. 

Religious revival movement in the north, pai-- 
ticularly at Belfast . . . ._ Oct. 

Great emigration to America in the spring 

Many Irishmen enlist in the service of the pope. 
May, June ; many return dissatisfied July, 

The remainder taken prisoners by the Sar- 
dinians are released, and return to DubUn, 
where they receive an ovation . Nov. 

Attempted revival of Repeal agitation Dec. 

Agrarian outrages ; alderman Sheehy murdered 

23 Oct. 

Census taken — population 5,764,543 8 April, 

Suspension of packet service between Galway 
and America through the company's breach 
of contract 23 May, 

Visit of the prince of Wales, 29 June ; and the 
queen and prince consort . . 24-31 Aug. 

Irish Law Court commission appointed, 

13 Dec. 

Numerous agrarian mui-ders : Gustav Thie- 
bault, 28 April ; Francis Fitzgerald, 16 May, 
(and others) ; Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John 
Braddell 30 July, 

The primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of Armagh, 
dies, aged 8g . . . . 19 July, 

An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to 
destructive riots .... 17 Sep. 

Building for the catholic university founded, 

20 July, 

Great agricultural distress ; many murders and 
outi-ages, end of 1862, beginning of 

Galway packet service restored by subsidy of 
7o,ooo<. (see Gahoay) . . . Aug. 

Insignificant " Nationalist " meeting 15 Aug. 

Death of archbi.shop WTiately . . 8 Oct. 

Great emigi-atiou of able-bodied labourers in . 

Appearance of the Fenians (which see) . Jan. 

Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of king 
Brian Boroimhe . . . .18 June, 

Address of the "National Association" to 
liberate tenant capital ; recover the jiroperty 
of the Catholic church, &c. . 12 Jan. 

Opening of the International Exhibition at 
Dublm by the prince of Wales . 9 Jlay, 

General election favourable to the government 
and liberal i^arty .... July, 

Importation of cattle from England prohibited 
on account of the plague . . . 25 Aug. 

Seizrure of the newspaper "Irish People " and 
30 Fenians, (see Fenians) i^-ij Sept. ; 14 Oct. 

International Exhibition closed . . 9 Nov. 

Stephens escapes from gaol . 24-25 Nov. 

Fenian trials began at Dublin, 27 Nov. ; Thos. 
Clarke Luby convicted of treason-felony ; sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude i Dec. 

O'Leary and others convicted, Dec. ; O'Donoyan 
or Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, 

13 Dec. 

More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork 
and Dublin Jan. , Feb. 

Discovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ; 
the city and countj' proclaimed as put under 
the piro visions of the Peace Preservation act, 

II Jan. 

Habeas Corpus act suspended ; many Fenians 
fly 17 Feb. 

Agitation respecting Irish church; debates in 
parliament ... . . April, 

Lord Abei-corn made lord lieutenant July, 

About 320 suspected Fenians remain in prison, 

I Sept. 

Great seizure of fire-arms . . . 15 Dec. 

Clare and other counties proclaimed under 
Peace Preservation act . . . Dec. 

Election riots at Dungai-van ; capt. Earth Kcllj' 
killed 28 Dec. 



1861 



1863 



1864 



1S65 



* An amnesty was gi-anted to O'Brien, 3 May, 1856, and he shortly after returned to Ireland. 



IRE 



3 90 



IRE 



IRELAND, continued. 

Death of Wm. Dargau, promoter of Irish Exhi- 
bition 7 Feb. 

Irish college of science established at Dublin 
early in 

Another Fenian outbreak (see Fenians) 

5-13 March, 

Appointment of commission respecting church 
of Ireland agreed to . . . 24 June, 

Chancery and Common-law Offices act passed, 

20 Aug. 

Irish church commission appointed, earl Stan- 
hope chairman .... 2 Nov. 

More trials of Fenians .... Nov. 

Execution of Fenians (Allen, Gould, and Larkin) 
for murder of Brett, a policeman, at Man- 
chester 23 Nov. 

Funeral demonstrations for them [at Cork, 
24 Nov. ; Dublin and Limerick . i Dec. 

Party funeral processions prohibited 12 Dec. 

Protest of Irish noblemen and gentlemen 
against Irish church establishment signed, 
about 12 Dec. 

Declaration of many Eoman catholic clergy 
professing loyalty, but claiming self-govern- 
ment for Ireland .... 23 Dec. 

Bishop Moriarty, of Kerry, publishes a circular 
censuring the funeral processions for Fenians, 

30 Dec. 

Prosecution of the " Irishman " newspaper for 
sedition 10 Jan. 

Arrest of Geo. Francis Train on his arrival from 
America, on suspicion of Fenianism ; soon 
discharged (claimed io,ooo^) . 18 Jan. 

Publication of facts proving the increased pros- 
perity of the country ... 28 Jan. 

Great protestant defence meeting at Dublin, 
many peers present . . . .6 Feb. 



Habeas Coi-pus act suspended till i March, 
1869 (83 persons detained on suspicion), Feb. 

Messrs. Sullivan and Pigott, convicted of sedi- 
tious libels in their newspapers (the " Weekly 
News" and ''Irishman"), sentenced to im- 
prisonment and fine . . 18, 19 Feb. 

Mr. Johnston, grand master of an Orange lodge, 
imprisoned for infraction of Party Processions 
act March, 

Train arrested for debt . . .3 March, 

Four nights' debate on Ireland in the Commons 
ended (Mr. Gladstone declared for disesta- 
blishment of the Irish protestant church), 
16 March, 

Irish reform bill introduced into the Commons, 

19 March, 

Debate on Mr. Gladstone's proposal for a com- 
mittee on his resolutions for the disestablish- 
ment of the church (carried by 328 to 272), 
30 March to early morning of . 4 April, 

Mr. Featherstonehaugh, J. P., a deputy-lieut., 
shot dead while returning from Dublin (he 
had recently raised the rent of his tenants), 

15 April, 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales ; arrive 

at Dublin ; intense enthusiasm . 15 April, 
The prince and princess at Punchestown races, 

16 April, 
The prince installed as a knight of St. Patrick, 

18 April, 

The prince and princess at review in Phcenix- 

park, 20 April ; leave Dublin . 24 April, 

Increased emigration to United States April, 

Mr. Gladstone's first resolution passed in the 

Commons (by 330 to 265) early on i May; 

second and third resolutions passed 7 May 

See Dublin.* 



KINGS AND GOVERNORS 

KINGS. I 1 184 

979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed, 
looi or 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe ; slain | 

after totally defeating the Danes at Clontarf, | iiSg 

23 April, 1014. 
Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 



1014. 

[Disputed succession.] 

1058. Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son. 

1072. Tirlooh, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. 

1086-1132. The kingdom divided; fierce contests 

for it. 
1132. Tordel Vach ; killed in Battle. 
1 166. Roderic, or Roger, O'Connor. 
1172. Henry II. king of England; conquered the 

country, and became lord of Ireland. 
[The English monarchs were styled " Lords of 

Ireland " until the reign of Henry VIII., 

who first styled himself king.'] 

• 
GOVERNORS OF IRELAND (with various titles.){ 
1172. Hugues de Lasci. 1 173, Richard Pitz-Gislebert, 

earl of Pembroke. 1176, Raymond le Gros. 

1 1 77, prince John (afterwards king), made 

lord of Ireland. 



"99: 

1229- 



OF IRELAND, t 

et seq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent 
tbat the more important officers only are 
given. 
1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 

, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son of Henry II). 
1226. Geoffrey de Marreis. 

■32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 

, Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, 
, Edmund IcBotUler. i3i6,Rogerde Mortimer. 
1320, Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de 
Bermingham. 1327, earl of liildare. 1328 
and 1340, Prior Roger Uttagh. 1332, sir 
John D'Arcy. 1337, sir John de Cherlton. 
1344, sir Rasul d'Uflord. 1346, sir Roger 
d'Arcy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, Walter de 
Bermingham. 1355, Maurice, earl of Des- 
mond. 1356, Thomas de Rokeby. 1357, 
Almeric de St. Amaud. 1359, James, earl of 
Ormond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 
1367, Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 
1374, William de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, 
earl of Kildare, and James, earl of Ormond. 
1380, Edmund Mortimer, eai-1 of March. 
1385, Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford. 1389 
and 98, sir John Stanley. 1391, James, earl 



* Paupers in Irish workhouses in 1849, 620,000 ; in 1857, 65,000. 
Notes in circulation „ £3,850,450 ,, £7,150,000. 

Bullion in Irish banks ,, 1,625,000 ,, 2,492,000. 

t The list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous editions, has been omitted to make room for 
authentic matter. The Irish writers carry their succession of kings very high, as high as even before the 
Flood. The learned antiquary, Thomas Innes, of the Scots' College of Paris, expressed his wonder that 
" the learned men of the Irish nation have not, like those of other nations, yet published the valuable 
remains of their ancient history whole and entire, with just translations, in order to separate what is 
fabulous and only grounded on the traditions of their poets and bards, from what is certain history." 
" O'Flaherty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern Irish historians, have rendered all uncertain, 
by deducing their history from the Deluge with as much assurance as they deliver the transactions of 
Ireland from St. Patrick's time." — Anderson. The "Annals of the Pour Masters," edited by Dr. Donovan, 
were published in Irish and English in 1848. 

X Lords justices and deputies, and latterly Lords Lieotenant. It has been several times proposed 
to aboUsh the viceruyalty of Ireland, but without success. The last time 25 March, 1858. 



IRE 



397 



IRO 



IRELAND, continued. 

of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, duke of Glou- | 

cester. 1S95, Roger de Mortimer, earl of 

March. 1398, Regmald Grey and Thomas de 

HoUand. 
1401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1413, sir 1767. 

John Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, 1772. 

James, earl of Ormond. 1423, Edmund de 1777. 

Mortimer, earl of March. 1425, .sir John 1780. 

Talbot. 1427, sir John de Grey. 1428, sir 1782. 

John Sutton, lord Dudley. 1431 and 1435, ,, 

sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, lord de 1783. 

Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. 1784. 

1449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, 

duke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 1787. 

1478, John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 1481, 

Richard, earl of Kildare. 14S3, Gerald, earl of 1790. 

Kildare. 1484, John de la Pole, earl of 1795. 

Lincohi. 1485, Jasper, duke of Bedford. ,, 

1494, Henry, duke of York, afterwards Henry 1798. 

VHI. (his deputy, sir E. Poynings). 1496, 1 1801. 

Gerald, earl of Kildare, and in 1504. 1521, 1806. 

Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. 1529, 1807. 

Henry, duke of Richmond. 1560, Thomas 1813. 

earl of Sussex. 1599, Robert, earl of Essex. 1817. 
1603. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mount joy, made earl 1821. 

of Devon.shire. 1640, Thos., viscount Went- 1828. 

worth, eaii of Strafiord. 1643 and 1648, 1829. 

James, marquess of Ormond. 1647, Philip i 1830. 

de Lisle. 1649, Oliver Cromwell. 1657, | 1833. 

Heniy Cromwell. 1662, James Butler, duke I 1834. 

of Ormond. 1669, John Roberts, lord 1835. 

Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, 

Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677, James 

Butler, duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry 1841, 

Hyde, earl of Clarendon. 1687, Richard 

Talbot, e.arl of Tyrconnel. 1690, Heniy 

Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, Henry Capel, 

lord Capel. 1847. 

1700. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703; 

James Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707. 

Thomas, earl of Pembroke. 1709, Thomas' 

earl of Wharton. 1710, James, duke of Or- 1855. 

mond; again. 1713, Charles, duke of Shrews- 
bury. 1717, Charles, duke of Bolton. 1721, 

Charles, duke of Grafton. 1724, John, lord 

Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of Dorset. 

1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 1745, 

Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, 

earl of Hari'ington. 1751, Lionel, duke of 

Dorset, again. 1755, WilUam, duke of 

IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1796 W. H. Ireland made public the Shakspeare manu- 
scripts which he had forged, and deceived many critics. The play, ' ' Vortigern, " was performed 
at Drui-y-lane theatre on 2 April, 1 796. He shortly after acknowledged the forgery, and 
published his "Confessions " in 1805. He died in 1835. 

lEIDIUM AND OSMIUM. In 1804 Tennant discovered these two rare metals in the ore 
of platinum, in which, in 1845, Glaus discovered a third, Ruthenium. 

IRON found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forest having been burnt by 
lightning, 1432 b.c. Arunddian Marbles [1407, Hales; 1283, Clinton.] The Greeks 
ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves, and referred glass to the Fhcenicians. Moses 
relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain {Gen. iv. 22). Iron furnaces among the 
Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the 
direction of the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Dannemora is the 
greate.st mine of Sweden. 



Devonshire. 1757, John, duke of Bedford. 

1761, George, earl of Halifax. 1763, Hugh, 

earl of Northumberland. 1765, Fi-ancis, earl 

of Hertford. 
George, viscount Tovmshend. 14 Oct. 
Simon, earl of Harcourt, 30 Nov. 
John, earl of Buckinghamshire, 25 Jan. 
Fred. , eaii of Carhsle, 23 Dec. 
Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, 14 April. 
George, earl Temple, 15 Sept. 
Robert, carl of Northington, 3 June. 
Charles, duke of Rutland, 24 Eeb. ; died 24 

Oct. 1787. 
George, marquess of Buckingham (late earl 

Temple), again, 16 Dec. 
John, earl of Westmorland, 5 Jan. 
William, earl Fitzwilliam, 4 Jan. 
John, earl Camden, 31 March. 
Charles, marquess Oornwallis, 20 June. 
Philip, earl of Hardwicke, 25 May. 
John, duke of Bedford, 18 March. 
Charles, duke of Richmond, 19 April. 
Charles, earl Whitworth, 26 Aug. 
Charles, earl Talbot, 9 Oct. 
Richard, marquess Wellesley, 29 Dec. 
Henry, marquess of Anglesey, i March. 
Hugh, duke of Northumberland, 6 March. 
Henry, marquess of Anglesej"-, again, 23 Dec. 
Marquess Wellesley, again, 26 Sept. 
Thomas, eail of Haddington, 29 Deo. 
Henry, marquess of Normanby, 23 April. 
Hugh, viscount Ebrington, afterwards earl 

Fortescue, 3 April. 
Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 15 Sept. 
William, lord Heytesbury, 12 July. 
John William, earl of Bessborough, 9 July ; 

died 16 May, 1847. 
George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 

26 May. 
Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, 28 Feb. 
Edward Granville, earl of St. Germains, Jan, 
George, earl of Carlisle, JMarch. 
Archibald, earl of Eghnton, again, Feb., 

resigned. 
George, earl of Carlisle, again, June ; died 

5 Dec. 1864. 
John, lord Wodehouse, afterwards earl of 

Kimberley, x Nov. 
James, marquess of Abercom, July. 



Belgium was an early seat of the iron manufac- I 

ture ; coal said to have been employed at Marche- 

les-dames, 1340. 
British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in 

Sussex, 1543. liymer's Fcedera. 
Iron-mills used for slittuig iron into bars for smiths, 

by Godfrey Boohs, 1590. i 

Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. j 

Till about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely 

with wood chai-coal, which did not wholly give 

way to coal and coke till 178S. 
The operation termed imddling, and other very great 



improvements in the manufiicture, invented by 

Mr. Henry Cort, between 1781 and 1826, who did 

not re.ip the due reward of his ingenuity. 
Mr. Henry Bessemer made known his method of 

manufacturing iron and steel, which is considered 

to possess many advantages, 1856. 
Strike of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in 

Staffordshire, Northumberland, &c. , lasted diu-ing- 

March, April, and May, 1865. 
Iron- workers of Great Britain determine to form one 

trades' miion, "with one executive, Oct. 1866. 
Strike of iron workers in the north over, 31 Dec. 1866. 



lEO 



398 



lEV 



IROlsr, continued. 

Mr. "Wm. Robinson announced a method of making 
■wrought iron from cast iron by means of mag- 
netism, July, 1867. 

One of the finest, thickest, and heaviest armour- 
plates ever rolled in the world was pressed into the 
very perfection of a manufactured armour-plate at 
the great Atlas Ironworks of sir John Brown and 
Co., Sheffield. The size of it when in the furnace 
was a little over 20 feet long by about 4 feet broad 
and 21 inches thick. Its rough weight was over 
21 tons. It was built tip in the furnace before 
being rolled by five mould plates, each 3 inches 
thick, and one solid plate of 6 inches. This mass 
when reduced by intense heat to the consistency 
of dough, was withdrawn from the furnace, and 
in the course of less than a quarter of an hour was 
passed between the enormous rollers many times, 
In 185s, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; 

in 1865, 4,819, 



was reduced to a compact slab' of iron of an uni- 
form thickness of 15 inches, and then passed on 
to its bed to cool till fit for having its rough edges 
planed down to the proper dimensions, 6 Sept. 



IRON PRODUCED IN GRE.\T BRITAIN. 



1740 . 


59 furnaces 


17,350 ton 


1788 


77 


. . 61,900 ,, 


1796 . 


121 ,, 


. 124,789 „ 


1802 


168 „- 


. . 227,000 ,, 


1806 . 


227 „ 


250,000 ,, 


1820 


260 ,, 


. . 400,000 ,, 


1825 . 


374 


. 581,367 .. 


1840 


402 ,, 


. . 1,396,400 ,, 


1848 . 


623 ,, 


• 1,998,558 ,, 


1852 


655 „ 


. . 2,701,000 ,, 



in 1857, 3,659,447 tons ; in 1864, 4,767,951 tons ; 
1,254 tons. 



IROISr CROWISr (of Italy), of gold and precious stones, enclosing a thin ring of iron, 
said to have been forged from the nails of Christ's cross, was made by order of Theudelinde 
for her husband, Agilulf, king of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (to be kept) to the 
church at Monza. Charlemagne was crowned with this crown, and after him all the 
emperors who were kings of Lombardy ; Napoleon I. at Milan, on 26 May, 1S05, put it on 
his head, saying, " Dieu me Va clonnee; gare a qui y touchera." (God has given it to me ; 
woe to him who touches it. ) He founded the order of the Iron Crown, which still continues. 
The crown was removed from Monza to Mantua by the Austrians, on 23 April, 1859. After 
the peace of Vienna in 1866, the crown was given up to general Menabrea on 11 Oct., and 
presented to king Victor Emmanuel, at Turin, on 4 Nov. The order of the " Crown of 
Italy" was established in March, 1868. 

IRON-MASK, THE Man Vfim the.* A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask 
and closely confined (1679- 1703) under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Marguerite, and 
afterwards at the Bastille. He was of noble mien, and was treated with profound respect ; 
but his keepers had orders to despatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself 
always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. He died 19 Nov. 1703. 

IRON-PLATED SHIPS, see mxdev Navy of England, and Wited States, 1862. 

IRRIGATION, pi'actised in the east and in Egypt from the most remote ages. It was 
strenuously advocated for India by sir A. Cotton and others at the Social Science Congress at 
Manchester, Oct. 1866. In 1865 acts were passed for utilising London sewage in the irriga- 
tion of grass land, and the results are said to be favourable. 

IRUN (a frontier village of Spain). On 16 May, 1837, the British auxiliary legion 
tinder general Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun (held by the Caiiists), which 
after a desperate resistance, was carried by assault, 17 May. 

IRVINGITES, followers of Edward Irving,f now called the " Holy Catholic Apostolic 
Church." They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 1853), and have church officers 
named apostles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted candles Avere pilaced on the 
magnificent altar, and burning of incense during prayers was prescribed. The Gothic church 
in Gordon-square was solemnly opened 1 Jan. 1854. It is said that all who join the church 
offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 chapels in England in 185 1. 

" The following conjectures have been made as to his identity : — An Armenian patriarch forcibly 
carried from Constantinople (who died ten years before the mask) ; the count de Vermandois, son of Louis 
XIV. , reported to have perished in the camj) before Dixmude ; the duke of Beaiif ort, whose head is re- 
corded to have been taken off before Candia ; James, duke of Monmouth, executed on Tower-hill ; a sou of 
Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII. , either by cardinal Mazarine, or.by the duke of Buckingbam ; the 
twin brother of Louis XIV. (a conjecture received by Voltaire and others) ; Fouquet, an eminent statesman 
in the time of Louis XIV. ; and a count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke of Mantua. M. 
Delort and the right hon. Agar Ellis (afterwards lord Dover) endeavoured to prove Matthioli to have been 
the person. The mask, it seems, was not made of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with whalebone, 
and fasted behind the head with a padlock. 

t Edward Irving was born 15 Aug. 1792, and was engaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, 
in 1819. In 1822 he attracted immense crowds of most distinguished persons to his sermons at the Scotch 
church, Hatton-garden. A new church was built for him in Begent-square in 1827. Soon'after, he pro- 
pounded new doctrines on the human nature of Christ : and the " Utterances of Unknown Tongues " wliich 
began in his congregation with a Miss Hall and Mr. Taplin, 16 Oct. 1831, were countenanced by him, as of 
divine inspiration. Ho was expelled from the Scotch church, 15 March, 1833. His church, "recon- 
stituted with the threefold cord of a sevenfold ministry," was removed to Newman-street. He died 
8 Dec. 1S34. 



ISA 399 ITA 

ISAUEIA (a province in Asia Minor), was retaken from the Saracens by tlie emperor 
Leo III., wlio foimded tlie Isaurian dynasty, which, ended with Constantiue VI. in 797. 

ISERNIA (S. Italy). Here the Sardinian general, Cialdini, defeated the Neapolitans, 
17 Oct. i860. 

ISLAM, or EslIm, submission to God, the name given to Mahometanism {which sec). 

ISLE OF Trance, Man, &c., see Mauritms, Man, &c. 

ISLES, Bishopric of. This see contained not only the Hebrides, or Western Isles, but 
the Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a separate bishopric. The first bishop 
of the Isles was Amphibalus, 360. The Isle of Ily was in former ages a place famous for 
sanctity and learning, and early the seat of a bishop ; it was denominated Icolumkill from 
St. Columba, the companion of St. Patrick, founding a monastery here in the 6th century, 
whieli was the parent of above 100 other monasteries in England and Ireland. Since the 
revolution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the Isles have been joined to JMoray and 
Eoss, or to Eoss alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles Avere made a seventh post- 
revolution and distinct bishopric ; see Bishops. 

ISLY (N.W. Africa). Here Abd-el-Kader, the Arab chief, was totally defeated by the 
French, under Bugeaud, 14 Aug. 1844. 

ISMAIL (Bessarabia). After a long siege by the Russians, who lost 20,000 men before 
the place, the town was taken by storm 22 Dec. 1790 ; when Suwarrow, the most merciless 
warrior of modern times, put the brave Tiu-kish garrison (30,000 men) to the sword, and 
delivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women. By the treaty of 
Paris in 1856 Ismail was restored to Turkey. It was ceded to Moldavia in 1856. 

ISPAHAiST was made the capital of Persia by Abbas the Great, in 1590. It ceased to be 
so in 1796, when Teheran became the capital 

ISRAEL, Kingdom of, see Jeius. 
• ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander's second great battle Avith Darius, whose queen 
and family were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted 
of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse ; 61,000 of the former and 10,000 of the latter were left 
dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. 

ISTAMBOUL, see Constantino]ple. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES received their name from the Isthmus of Corinth, where they were 
observed : instituted by Sisyphus, about 1406 B.C., in honour of Melicertes, a sea-god. 
Lcncjlet. They were re-instituted in honour of Neptune by Theseus about 1239 B.C. ; and 
their celebration was held so sacred, that even a public calamity did not prevent it. The 
games were revived by Julian A.D. 362. 

ISTRIA was finally subdued by the Romans, 177 B.C. After various changes it came 
under the rule of Venice in 1378. 

ITALIAN" LANGUAGE, based on Latin, is said by Dante to be formed of a selection 
of the best portions of the different dialects. Pure elegant poetry was written by Guido 
Cavalcanti, who died 1301 ; and good prose, by Malespini, about 1250. 

PRINCIPAL ITALIAN AUTHORS.* 





Bo)-n 


Died 




Born 


Died 




Born 


Died 


Daute 


• 1265 


1321 


Tasso 


■ 1544 


1595 


Volta 


• 1745 


1826 


Petrarca 


• • 1304 


1374 


Galileo . 


. . 1564 


1642 


Lcopardi 


. . 1798 


1S37 


Boccaccio . 


• 1313 


1375 


Metastasio 


. 169S 


1782 


Monti 


• 1754 


1S28 


Ariosto 


• • 1474 


1533 


Goldoni 


• • 1707 


1795 


Gioberti 


. . 1801 


1852 


JIaohiavelli 


. 1469 


1527 


Pariui 


• 1729 


1799 


Nicolini . 


. 1782 


1861 


Guicciardini 


. . 1482 


1540 


Alfieri . 


• • 1749 


1803 


Manzoiii 


. . 1784 





ITALIAN REPUBLIC was the name given to the remodelled Cisalpine republic. 
Napoleon Bonaparte, president, Jan. 1802. 

ITALY (either from Italus, an early king, or iialus, a bull calf) is called the garden of 
Europe. The invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the Aborigines (Umbrians, Oscans, and 
Etruscans), combined, form the renowned Latin race, still possessing the southern part of 
Em-ope. The history of Italy is soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. Previous 

* The following terms are often used with reference to certain periods in the history of Italian litera- 
ture and art. i. Trecento (three hundred), from the birth of Dante (1265) to the death of Boccaccio (1375), 
which two, mth Petrarca, are styled "the triumvirate of the Trecento." 2. Quattrocento (four hundred), 
from 1375 to the revival of Italian literatm-e by Lorenzo de' Medici in the 15th century. During this period 
Latin was revived, to the prejudice of Italian. 3. Cinquecento (five hundred), from about 1480 to 1590. A 
sensuous stylo of art, founded on the heathen mythology, began to prevail. 4. Seicento (six hmidred), 
from 1590 to 1700. The bad taste which prevailed during this period is ascribed to the influence of the 
Spaniards and the Jesuits throughout Italy. Seicentisti is a term of reproach. The Trecento and Cinquecento 
were the most flourishing periods. 



ITA 



400 



ITA 



to the 15th century it was desolated by intestine wars and the interference of the German 
emperors ; since then, Spain, France, and Germany have struggled for tlie possession of the 
country, which has been divided among them several times. Spain predominated in Italy 
during the i6th and 17th centuries ; but was compelled to yield to the house of Austria at 
the beginning of the i8th. The victories of Bonaparte in 1797-8 changed the government 
of Italy; but the Austrian rule was re-established at the peace in 1814. In 1848 the 
Milanese and Venetians revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by Eadetzky ; 
see heloio. The hostile feeling between Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war 
broke out in April, 1859. The Austrians were defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, com- 
prising Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, the Romagna, Naples, 
and Sicily was re-established, 17 March, 1861, by the Italian parliament (consisting of 443 
deputies from 59 provinces). On 29 Oct. 1861, the internal government was re-orgauized ; 
the 59 provinces were placed under prefects, subject to four directors-general. In 1861, the 
population was 21,728,529. War with Austria was declared 18 June, 1866 ; and on 3 Oct., 
peace was signed at Vienna, and Venetia was ceded to Italy ; see below for the events. 
Estimated population, according to the census of 1862, 24,263,320. Por other details 
see Roma and the various Italian cities throughout the volume. 



476 



S96 
697 

754 

800 



Italy (Saturnia) fabled to have been ruled by 

Saturn during the golden age. . B.C. 

Arrival of CEnotrus from Arcadia, 1710 ; and of 

Bvander about 1240 

JlJneas the Trojan lands in Italy, defeats and 
kills Turnus, marries Lavinia, daughter of 
king Latinus, and founds Lavinium, in South 
Italy ....... 1182, &c. 

Greek colonies (see Magna Grwcia) founded 974-443 

Romulus builds Rome 753 

[For subsequent history, see Rome.'] 
Odoaoer, leader of the Heruli, estabUshes the a.d. 

kingdom of Italy 

The Ostrogoths invade Italy, and retain it till . 
They are expelled by the Imperial generals 

Narses and Belisarius 552 

[See Kings of Italy, p. 403, and Iron Crovm.] 
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 

from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy 
Venice first governed by a doge . . . . 
Pepin gives Ravenna to the pope 
Charlemagne invades Italy, 774 ; crowned em- 
peror of the west at Rome by pope Leo III. . 
The Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . 842 

Genoa becomes important 1000 

The Saracens expelled by the Normans . 1016-17 
Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hildebrand, pre- 
tends to universal sovereignty, in which he 
is assisted by Matilda, countess of Tuscany, 
mistress of the greater part of Italy . 1073-85 
Disputes between the popes and emperors, 
relative to ecclesiastical investitures, begin 
about 1073, and long agitate Italy and Ger- 
many. 
Rise of the Lombard cities . . . about 11 20 

Who war with each other 1144 

The Venetians obtain many victories over the 

Eastern emperors ..... 1125 
Wars of the Guelfs and GhibeUnes {which see) 

begin about 1161 

Frederic I. (Barbarossa) interferes: his wars 1154-75 

Lombard league formed 1167 

His defeat at Legnano . . .29 May, 1176 

Peace of Constance 1183 

Civil wars again 1199, &c. 

Wars of Frederick II. and the Lombard league 

1236-50 
His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, de- 
feated and killed at the battle of Benevento, 
by Charles af Anjou ... 26 Feb. 1266 
Who defeats Conradin, at Tagliacozzo 23 Aug. 1268 

The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 

The Sicilian vespers, March 30 ; the French ex- 
pelled from Sicily 1282 

Clement V. (pope, 1305), fixes his residence at 

Avignon in France 1309 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Man- 
tua, with the title of imperial vioar . . 1328 
First doge of Genoa appointed . . . . 1339 
Charles VIII. of France invades Italy, and con- 
quers Naples, 1495 ; loses it in . . . 1496 



1797 



1799 
1800 



Louis XII. joins Venice and conquei-s Milan 

(soon lost) 1499 

League of Cambray (1508) against Venice, 

which is despoiled of its Italian possessions . 1509 
Leo X. pope, patron of literature and art . 1513-22 
Wars of Chai-les V. and Francis I. . . 1515-21 

Francis defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia . 1525 
Parma and Placentia made a duchy for his 

family by pope Paul III. (Alexander Parnese) 1545 
Peace of Cateau-Cambresis .... 1559 

War of the Mantuan succession . . . 1627-31 
Catinat and the French defeat the duke of Savoy 

at Marsaglia 4 Oct. J693 

War of Spanish succession commences in Italy 1701 

Battle of Turin 7 Sept. 1706 

Division of Italy at the peace of Utrecht 

II April, 1713 
The duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . 171S 
Successful French campaign in Italy . . 1745 

Milan, <fec., obtained by the house of Austria, 

1706; confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748 
Italy overrun by the French .... 1796 
Division of the Venetian states by France and 
Austria by the treaty of Campo Formio ; Cis- 
alpine republic founded . .... 
Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte .... 
The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the 

French at Trebia, (fee 

Bonaparte crosses the Alps, 16-20 May; defeats 
the Austrians at Marengo . . 14 June, 
The Cisalpine becomes the Italian republic (Bo- 
naparte president) 

Napoleon crowned king of Italy . 26 May, 
Eugfene Beauhamois made viceroy of Italy . . 
Austi-ia loses her Italian possessions by the 
treaty of Presburg ; ratified . . i Jan. 
The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napo- 
leon, 1 8 14; the Lonibardo-Venetian kingdom 
established for Austria . . .7 April, 
Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ; 
supported by the king of Sardinia and by the 

pope April, 1848 

The king defeated at Novara, 23 March ; and 
Lombardy reverts to Austria . . May, 1849 

[See Sardinia and Austria.'] 

" Napoleon III. etritahe" published . Feb. 1859 

The Austrian ultimatum rejected by Sardinia, 

26 April, „ 

The Austrians cross the Ticino, 27 April ; and 
the French enter Genoa . . .3 May ,, 

Peaceful revolutions at Florence, 27 Apz-il ; 
Parma, 3 May; Modena . . 15 June, ,, 

The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; 
Palestro, 30-31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; 
Marignano, 8 June ; Solferino . 24 June, ,, 

Provisional governments established at Flo- 
rence, 27 April; Parma, May; and Modena 
[the sovereigns retire] . . .15 June, ,, 

Insurrection in the papal states ; Bologna, 
Feri-ara, &o 13-15 June, ,, 



15 



ITA 



401 



ITA 



ITALY, continued. 

Massacre of tlio insurgents at Perugia by the 
Swiss troops 20 June, : 

The allies cross the Mincio . . .1 July, 

Ai-mistice between Austria and France 

8 July, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Villafranoa ; 
Lorn bai-dy surrendered to Sardinia 11 July, 

Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 
Florence, Jfodena, Parma, &c. ; resignation 
of Count Cavour as minister . . Jiily, 

The pope appeals to Europe against the king of 
Sardinia 12 July, 

Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to arm 19 July, 

Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates . 21 Jnlj-, 

Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, 
II Aug. ; and at Modena . . i5 Aug. 

Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna 
enter into a defensive alliance, and declare 
for annexation to Piedmont, 20 Aug. -10 Sept.; 
fiscal restrictions between them and Pied- 
mont abolished .... 10 Oct. 

Assassination of col. Anviti at Parma . 5 Oct. 

Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscrip- 
tions in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms 
for the Italians Oct. 

Tuscany, kc, choose the prince Eugene of Carig- 
nan- Savoy, as regent of central Italy, 5 Nov. ; 
the king of Sardinia refusing his consent, 
the prince declines the office, but recom- 
mends the chevalier Buoncamijagni, 14 Nov. 

Treaty of Zurich (establishing Italian con- 
federacy, &c. ), signed ; . . 10 Nov. 

Garibaldi retires from Sardinian service, 18 Nov. 

New Sardin. constitution proclaimed 7 Dec. 

The pope condemns the pamphlet " Le Fape et le 
Congrcs " . . . . . .31 Dec. 

The emperor Napoleon recommends the pope 
to give up the legations . . .31 Dec. 

The pope refuses, and denounces the emperor, 

8 Jan. 

Count Cavour charged with the foi-mation of a 
ministry 16 Jan. 

Annexation to Sardinia voted for (Ijy universal 
suffrage) in Parma, Modena, and the Ro- 
magna ; 13 March ; Tuscany, 16 March : ac- 
cepted by the king . . 18-22 March, 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 
24 March ; approved by the Sardinian par- 
liament 29 May, 

The French troops retire from Italy . May, 

Vain insurrections in Sicily, 4 April ; 

2 iMay, 
Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, 11 May ; 

and assumes the office of dictator, 14 May ; 
he defeats the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 
15 May; and at Melazzo, 20 July; by a con- 
vention the Neapolitans agree to evacuate 
Sicily (see Sicih/) . . . -30 Julj^ 

Garibaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, 18 Aug. ; 
enters Naples ; king Francis retires 7 Sept. 

Insurrection in Papal States, 8 Sept. ; the Sar- 
dinians enter, 11 Sept. ; defeat the papal 
troops at Castel-fidardo, 18 Sept. ; take 
Ancona 17-29 Sept. 

Victor-Emmanuel takes the command of his 
army 4 Oct. 

The Sardinians enter kingdom of Naples, 15 
Oct. ; defeat Neapolitans at Isernia 17 Oct. 

Garibaldi defeats NeapoUtans at the Voltumo, 
I Oct. i860 ; meets Victor-Emmanuel, and 
says, " King of Italy ! " the latter reijlies, "I 
thank you ! " 26 Oct. 

By universal suffrage (plebiscitum), Sicily and 
Naples vote for annexation to Sai-dinia, 21 Oct. 

Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, 2 
Nov. ; and are defeated at the GarigUano, 

3 Nov. 
Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, 7 Nov. ; 

Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and retires 

to Caprera g Nov. 

Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the 



NeapoUtan clergy, &c. ; gives money to en- 
courage education ; appoints a ministry, 
including Poerio, <fec Nov. : 

Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre- 
vented by the presence of the French fleet, 
3 Nov. &c. 

Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) 10 Nov. 

Decree in honour of Garibaldi's army, 16 Nov. 

Reactionary movements suppressed, Nov. -Dec. 

Prince of C'arignan-Savoy appomted lieutenant 
of Naples Jan. i 

The French fleet retires from Gaeta, 19 Jan. ; 
after severe bombardment it surrenders ; 
Francis II. retires to Rcime . 13 Feb. 

Monastic estabhshments in Naples aboli.';hed, 
with comi^ensation to the inmates; schools 
established Feb. 

Assembly of the first Italian parliament, 18 
Feb., which decrees Victor-Emmanuel kmg 
of Italy ... 26 Feb. and 14 March, 

Naples unsettled through reactionary intrigues 
of the papal party . . March and April, 

Italy recognised by Great Britain . 31 March, 

Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April, 

Cavour forms a new ministry, including mem- 
bers from all parts of Italy . . . April, 

The pope protests against the kingdom, 

15 April, 

Altercation in parliament between Cavour and 
Garibaldi, 18 April ; reconciled . 25 April, 

Bovu-bonist bands defeated . . 7 May, <fec. 

Prince of Carignan resigns ; San Martino ap- 
pointed heutenant . . . .13 May, 

Death of Count Cavour, aged 52 . . 6 June, 

Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour's 
policy II June, 

The kingdom recognised by France 24 June, 

San Martino resigns the government of Naples ; 
active measures taken against the insurgents 
and brigands by Cialdini, his successor, ap- 
pointed 16 July, 

The king opens the exhibition of Italian in- 
dustry at Florence . . . -14 Sept. 

The kingdom recognised by Portugal and Bel- 
gium, I Oct. ; divided into fifty-nine pre- 
fectures, &c 13 Oct. 

Skirmishes in the south with brigands and 
foreign emissaries in the cause of Francis II. 

Oct. 

Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
tenant-general of Naples ... 2 Nov. 

Brigandage still prevailing in the south, aided 
by the king of Naples ; insurgents defeated ; 
and many killed 19 Nov. 

Jose Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, 15 
Sept. ; calls on the people to rise for Francis 
II., Sept. ; taken and shot . . 8 Dec. 

The reactionist warfare continues ; cruelties of 
the brigands lead to reprisals, 

Dec. 1S61, Jan. and Feb. 

Bicasoli compelled to resign by court influ- 
ence, I March ; Battazzi foiins an administra- 
tion 3 March, 

The kingdom recognised by Prussia 1 March, 

Surrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last 
Bourbon fortress in Sicily . 14 March, 

Triumphant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, 
establishing rifle clubs . March and April, 

Mr. J. F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
propagandist, captured . . .2 April, 

Conspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at 
Milan suppressed . . . . 19 April, 

The king received at Naples with great en- 
thusiasm 28 April, 

The French general Guyon aids in the suppres- 
sion of the Bourbonist brigands . . April, 

The kingdom recognised by Russia . 3 July, 

Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily; at Marsala he 
calls for volunteers, giving as his watchword 
" Rome or death !" . . . . 19 July, 

Calls on the Hungarians to rise . 26 July, 
D D 



ITA 



402 



ITA 



ITALY, continued. 

The king issues a proclamation against his pro- 
ceedings, as tending to rebellion . 3 Aug. 

Garibaldi enters Catania, and organises a pro- 
visional govrernment ... 19 Aug. 

Sicily proclaimed to be in a state of siege, 21 
Aug. ; and put under general Cialdini, 22 Aug. 

Garibaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks 
at Catania ; lands at Melito, in Calabria, and 
marches towards Beggio, 25 Aug. ; La 
Marmora proclaims a state of siege, 26 
Aug, ; Garibaldi and his followers fall in with 
the royalists, under Pallavlcini, at Aspro- 
monte, where, after a short skirmish, he is 
wounded and taken prisoner, 29 Aug. ; re- 
moved to Variguauo, near Spezzia. i Sept. 

Mr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to ten years' im- 
prisonment 6 Sept. 

General Durando issues a diplomatic circular 
condemning Garibaldi's proceedings, yet as- 
serting the necessity of the Italian govern- 
ment possessing Rome. . . 10 Sept. 

A subscription in England en.ables professor 
Partridge, of Kmg's College, London, to go to 
Garibaldi 19 Sept. 

Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to the 
king of Portugal .... 27 Sept. 

Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the 
English nation, urging its intervention for 
the cause of liberty. . . .28 Sept. 

Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the 
people of Italy by Joseph Mazzini . Sept. 

Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his fol- 
lowers 5 Oct. 

Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Du- 
rando's note 8 Oct. 

End of state of siege in Naples & Sicily 17 Oct. 

Disorderly encounter between Italians and 
Austrians on the banks of the Po . i Nov. 

Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) 
Italian priests sign a declai-ation against the 
temporal authority of the pope . . Nov. 

Garibaldi removed to Pisa, 9 Nov. ; ball ex- 
tracted from his foot by Zanetti . 23 Nov. 

Meeting of Parhament ; determined opposition 
to Rattazzi, 18 Nov. ; he resigns . 30 Nov. 

New ministry formed by Farina . . 9 Dec. 

It declines further negotiations with France on 
the Roman question . . . .18 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with France signed, 17 Jan. 

Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds, 24 March, 

Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 
opened i June, 

Income tax bill passed . . . July, 

Tristany and other bandits captured . July, 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed, 

6 Aug. 

Death of Parma .... 5 Sept. 

Several bandits captured on board the French 
ship Aunis ; given up to France, July ; re- 
stored to Italy 12 Sept. 

The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by 
La Marmora and expanded into the ' ' army of 
Italy" (250,000) Oct. 

The king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, 
&c 11-17 Nov. 

General election; triumph of the moderate 
party Jan. 

Garibaldi's visit to England amidst much en- 
thusiasm April, 

Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops 
to quit Rome in two years [from 6 Feb. 
1865], Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c.), 

15 Sept. 

Riots at Turin in consequence ; many persons 
killed by the military . . . 21-22 Sept. 

Minghetti and his colleagues blamed ; resign ; 
a ministry formed by La Marmora 24 Sept. 



864 



Garibaldi denounces the convention 10 Oct. 

Desperate state of the finances announced by 
Sella, the minister; he proposes stringent 
remedies Nov. 

Railway from Turin to Florence opened, 4 Nov. 

The convention approved by the chamber of 
deputies, 19 Nov. ; by the senate (after an 
able speech by Cialdini, 6 Dec.) . . g Dec. 

Decree for transfer of the capital published, 

II Dec. 

Prince Htimbert resides at Naples . Dec. 

Demonstration against the king at Turin, 
30 Jan. ; he goes to Florence . . 3 Feb. 

Amnesty for political offences published; 
brigandage in the Neapolitan and Roman 
states increasing * . . . . March, 

Fruitless negotiations with the x^ope by Vegezzi 
respecting the position of bishops, April to 

July, 

The king and court proceed to Florence, 
13 May; he opens the Dante festival, the 
6ooth anniversary of the poet's birth, 14 May, 

Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and re- 
tained by brigands . . . 15 May, 

45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on 
charge of a Bourbonist conspiracy 12 June, 

Inauguration of a National Rifle Meeting at 
Florence ; the king fires the first shot 18 June, 

Numerous atrocities committed by brigands ; 
GiarduUo and 8 brigands captured 19 June, 

The kingdom recognised by Spain . . June, 

Mr. Moens released after a ransom of 5000!. had 
been paid 26 Aug. 

Bank of Italy established . .7 Nov. 

French troops leaving Italy ; general election, 
the moderate party predominate . Nov. 

The new parliament meets at Florence, 18 Nov. 

Serious financial deficiency ; heavy taxation 
proposed, 13 Dec. ; much dissatisfaction ; the 
ministers resign, 21 Dec. ; a new ministry 
formed under La Marmora . . 31 Dec. 

Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo 
D'Azeglio IS Jan. 

Formation of the "Consorzio Nazionale," a 
public subscrixjtion for reducing the national 
debt 27 Feb. 

Massacre of Protestants at Barletta, Naples ; 
attributed to priests ... 19 March, 

Alliance with Prussia . . .12 May, 

Volunteers numerously enlisted 7 June, ct seq. 

War declared against Austiia . . 18 June, 

New ministry formed under Ricasoli 20 June, 

Royal manifesto to the people . 20 Jime, 

The army, headed by the king, crosses the 

Mincio, 23 June; defeated at Custozza, 

24 June, 

Venetia ceded to France by the emperor of 
Austria 3 July, 

Fruitless conflicts between the volunteers 
under Garibaldi; defeated at Monte Suello, 

4 July, 

Garibaldi and the Austrians in the Tyrol July, 

Bill for sujjpression of monasteries and confis- 
cation of property passed . ■ < 7 July> 

Cialdini crosses the Po, and enters Venetia, 

8 July, 

Naval battle near Lissa ; Italians defeated by 
Austrians {Re d Italia and Palesiro blown up), 

20 July, 

The Italians beaten at Versa ; the last conflict, 

26 July, 

Armistice for four weeks signed . . 12 Aug. 

Volunteers disbanded ; Garibaldi retires to 
Caprera 15 Aug, 

Treaty of peace with Austria signed at Vienna, 
3 Oct. ; ratified . . . .12 Oct. 

Court constituted at Florence to try admiral 



1S66 



* In Dec. 1864, it was stated that 346 brigands bad been killed in action ; 453 taken in action, and 132 
surrendered. About 300 remained to be tracked. Many pretend to be subjects of the ex-king Francis II. 
of Naples. 



ITA 



403 



ITA 



ITALY, continued. 

Persano for bi-each of duty at battle of Lissa, 

II Oct. 1866 

The Austrians retire from Peschiera, 9 Oct. ; 
Mautua, 10 Oct. ; Verona, 16 Oct. ; Venice, 

17 Oct, „ 

General Menabrea pays to count Mensdorff a 
.sum of money, and receives the iron crown 
of Italy II Oct. 

National loan freely subscribed . Oct. 

Plebiscitum in Venetia for annexation with 
Italy, 641,758; against, 6g . 21 Oct. 

This result reported, and the iron crown pre- 
sented to the king at Turin . . 4 Nov. 

The king enters Venice, 7 Nov. ; visits Verona, 
Mantua, (fee. Nov. 

Circular of RicasoU to the prefects, recommend- 
ing mdustrial development and commerce, 
forbidding agitation, and enjoining neutrality 
regarding Rome . . . - 15 Nov. 

Letter from Ricasoli to the clergy recommend- 
ing a free church in a free state 26 Nov. 

Persano committed for trial ; exammation be- 
gins I Dec. 

Parliament opened by the king, who declares 
that " Italy is now restored to herself " 

15 Dec. 

Sig. Tonello received by the pope, 15 Deo. ; 
many bishops return to their dioceses Dec. 

Persano acquitted of cowardice at Lissa (to be 
tried for incompetence) ... 30 Jan. 1867 

Government proposal for investing part of the 
propercy of the religious bodies for support 
of clergy ("Free Church and Ecclesiastical 
Liquidation bill ") brought forward Jan. 

Great reduction in the army (to 146,000) ordered 

Jan. 

Defeat of the ministry on question of the right 
of public meetings in Venetia, 11 Feb. ; par- 
liament dissolved . . . 13 Feb. 

Ricasoh reconstructs his ministry . 17 Feb. 

The pope accepts Italian help to suppress 
brigandage March, 

Elections give a majority for government, 

March, 

Resignation of Ricasoli, 5 April; a mmistry 
formed by Rattazzi .... 8 April, 

Persano condemned ; degraded and dismissed 
the service for disobedience, incapacity, and 
negUgence 15 AprO, 

Treaty of commerce with Austria signed at 
Florence 23 April, 

Public funeral of the patriot Carlo Poerio, 

I May, 

Italy joms in the conference at London respect- 
ing the Luxemburg question . 7-1 1 Slay, 

National financial embarrassments ; the king 
gives up part of his civil list; proposed sale 
of church lands, and induction of expendi- 
ture May et seq. 

17,200,000?. advanced for church lands by Fould 
and others of Paris .... May, 

Church property bill passed . . Aug. 

Garibaldi about to enter the Roman territory 
with volunteers captured by ItaUan govern- 
ment at Sinalunga (or Asinalunga) and sent 
to Alessandria 23 Sept. 

Sent to Caprera, 27 Sept. ; escapes to Leghorn, 
and is sent back 2 Oct. 

Bands of Garibaldians invade Roman territories 

Sept. -Oct. 

Garibaldi escapes from Caprera . 15 Oct. 

Embarkation of French troops at Toulon, sus- 
pended by the resignation of Rattazzi and 
his ministry .... 20 Oct. 

Cialdini tries to form a ministry in vain, 21 Oct. 

Garibaldi free at Florence . . .22 Oct. 

The French minister Moustier's circular against 
the invasion 25 Oct. 

Garibaldians defeated at Viterbo . 25 Oct. 

Enter Roman territories ; defeat papal troops, 
and take Monte Rotondo . . 26, 27 Oct. 



Menabrea's ministry formed ; proclamation of 
Victor Emmanuel against the Garibaldiau 
invasion 27 Oct. 1867 

Riots at Naples, Turin, Pavia, and other places, 
suppressed .... 26-28 Oct. et set/. „ 

French .army arrives at Civita Vecchia, 28 Oct. ; 
two brigades enter Rome . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Royal Italian troops enter papal teri'itory ; 
Menabrea's justificatory circular ; suppression 
of insurrectional committees in Italy, 30 Oct. ,, 

De Moustier's reply . . . .1 Nov. ,, 

Garibaldi defeated at Mentana, 3 Nov. ; he re- 
treats into Italy with his son ; captured and 
sent to Vai'igiiano, gulf of Spezzia 4 Nov. ,, 

Fiery manifesto of Mazzini . . 8 Nov. ,, 

Garibaldi sent to Caprera . . 25 Nov. ,, 

French pi'oposal of a European conference on 
Roman question discussed . gNov.-Dec. ,, 

French troops left Rome for Civita Vecchia, 

3 Dec. „ 

Meeting of parliament ; judicious firmness ; an 
amnesty for Garibaldians proclaimed, 5 Dec. „ 

Long army debate ; vote against the ministry 
(201 to 199) ; Menabrea resigns . 22 Dec. „ 

His ministry reconstituted . . 5 Jan. 1868 

M. Cambray Digny's financial statement ; 
great deficit ; a grist tax proposed 21 Jan. ,, 

Exculp.atory letter of La Marmora issued, Feb. ,, 

Government financial measures announced 

Feb. „ 

New order of knighthood, the "Crovm of Italy," 
constituted March, ,, 

Grist tax adopted after 21 days' debate, i April, ,, 

Enthusiastic reception of the crown prince of 
Prussia 20, 21 April, ,, 

Marriage of prince Humbert to his cousin 
Margherita at Tuiin . . .22 April, „ 

KINGS OF ITALY. 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invades Italy, and 
rules it ; he was conquered and slain by 

493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogotlis, an able 
prince. He put to death the philosophers 
Boethius and Symmachus, falsely accused, 
about 525. 

526. Athalaric, his grandson, dies of the plague. 

534. Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 

536. Vitiges elected. 

540. Theodebald elected; assassinated. 

541. Totila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in 

battle against the imperial army tmdcr 

Narses. 
552. Theias falls in battle. Italy subject to the 

eastern empire till 
568. Albom, king of the Lomhardi, with a huge 

mixed army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by 

his wife Rosamond, for compelling her to 

druik wine out of a cup formed of her father's 

skull. 
573. Cleoph ; assassinated. 
575. Autharis ; poisoned. 
591. Agilulph. 
615. Adaloald ; poisoned. 
625. Ai-ioald. 
636. Rotharis; man-ied the widow of Arioald; 

published a code of laws. 

652. Rodoald (son) ; assassinated. 

653. Aribert I. (uncle). 

661. Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by 

662. Grimoald, duke of Benevento. 
671. Bertharit re-established. 

686. Cunibert (son). 

700. Luitbert ; dethroned by 

701. Ragimbert. 

701. Aribert II. (son). 

712. Ansprand elected. 

712. Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite 

of the church. 
744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 
744. Rachis, duke of Friuli, elected; became a monk. 
749. Astolpli (brother). 

D D 2 



ITA 



404 



JAG 



ITALY, continued. 

7S6. Desiderius (Didier), quarrelled with the pope 
Adrian, who invited Charlemagne into Italy; 
by whom Desiderius was deposed ; and an 
end i)ut to the Lombaid kingdom. 

777. Pepin (son of Charlemagne). 

812. Bernard. 

820. Lothaire (son of Louis le Debonnaii-e). 

EMPERORS. 

87s. Charles the Bald. 
877. Carloman. 
879. Charles the Fat. 

888. Berengerl. 

889. ,, and Guy. 
894. ,, and Lambert. 

921. ,, and Rudolph of Burgundy. 



926. Hugh of Provence. 

945. Lothaire 11. 

950. Berenger IL and Adalbert his son ; deposed in 
961 by the emperor Otho the Great, who 
added Italy to the German empire. 

* MODERN KINGS OF ITALY. 

1805. Napoleon proclaimed king of Italy, 18 March ; 

crowned at Milan, 26 May ; abdicated, 1814. 
1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia), born 14 

March, 1820 ; declared king of Italy by the 

parliament, 14 March, 1861. 
Heir: Humbert, prince of Savoy (son), born 

14 March, 1844; married his cousin Mar- 

gherita, 22 April, 1868. 



ITHACA, kingdom of Ulysses, see Ionian Isles. 

ITINERARIES. The Roman Itinerarinm was a table of the stages between important 
places. The "Itineraria Antonini," embracing the whole Roman empire, usually ascribed 
to the emperor Aurelius Antoninus, and his successors, A.D. 138-80, was probably based 
upon the survey made by order of Julius Csesar, 44 B.C. The " Itineraiuum Hierosolymi- 
tanum" was drawn up for the use of the pilgrims about 333. 

IVRY (near Evreux, IS.^. France). Here Henry IV. totally defeated the League army, 
14 March, 1590. 

IVORY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, about 992 B.C. (i Kings -a. 22). The 
colossal statues of Jupiter, Minerva, &c., by Phidias, were formed of ivory and gold, 444 B.C. 



J. 

J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars of the i6th century, and introduced 
into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufrcsnoy. 

JACOBINS, the original name of the Dominicans {which see). The Jacobin club (first 
called " club Breton") consisted of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who met iu 
the hall of the Jacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss political and other questions. 
Fraternal societies were instituted in all the principal towns of the kingdom. Barks. The 
club was closed 1 1 Nov. 1 794. 

JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from Jacob BaradiBus, a Syrian, about 541 ; see 
Eutychians. — The partisans of James II. (Latin, Jacobus II. ) were so named after his expulsion 
from England in 1688. 

JACOBUS. A gold coin, so called from king James I. of England, in whose reign it was 
struck, 1603-25. 

JACQUARD LOOM, see Loom. 

JACQUERIE, a term applied to bands of revolted peasants (headed by one Caillot, 
called Jacques Bonhomme), who ravaged France during the captivity of king John in 1358, 
and were quelled with much bloodshed. Similar insurrections occurred in Germany. 
One was termed the Bundschuh, from the large shoe especially worn by peasants, in 1502 ; 
and another termed the Bund (or league) of the poor Conrad, 15 14 and 1524, which also 
cost about 100,000 lives, and led to the insurrection of the anabaptists. 

JAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scripture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked 
(about 862 B.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead (A.u. 38) ; in mythology the 
place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by the caliph Omar, a.d. 636 ; 
by the Crusaders 1099 ; and by Bonaparte, 7 March, 1799 ; the French were driven out by 
the British in June, the same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 
3800 prisoners by Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered by an earthquake in 
Jan. 1837, when it is said that 13,000 persons were killed. 

JAGELLONS, a dynasty which at times reigned over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and 
Bohemia, beginning with Jagellon, duke of Lithuania (husband of Hedwig, daughter of 
Louis of Hungary, 1384), who became king of Poland as Ladislas III. or V. in 1399, and 
ending with Sigismund II. , who died in 1572. 



JAM 



405 



JAN 



JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by Columlms, 3 May, 1494. Itwascon(|ueied 
from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, with land forces commanded by Venables, 3 May, 1655. 
Population in 1 86 1, 13,816 whites ; 81,074 coloured ; 346,374 blacks. 



An awful earthquake here . . 2 June, 1692 
The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to 

settle in the north of the island . . . 1738 
Desolating- hurricanes in . 1722, 1734, & 1751 
In June, 1795, the Maroons rose against the 

English, and were not quelled till . March, 1796 
Many transported to Sien-a Leone . . . 1800 
Slave-trade abolished . . . . i May, 1807 
Tremendous hunicane, by which the whole 
island was deluged, hundreds of houses 
washed away, vessels wrecked, and 1000 per- 
sons drowned Oct. 1815 

Bishopric established 1824 

Insurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous 
plantations burnt ; the governor, lord Bel- 
more, declared martial law . . 22 Dec. 18^1 
Emancipation of the slaves . . i Aug. 

About 50,000 die of cholera in . 
In May, 1853, the dissension between the colo- 
nial legislature and sir Charles Grey, the 
governor, occasioned his recall ; his successor, 
sir H. Barkly, arrived . . . Oct. 
Bishopric of Kingston established 
Charles Henry Darling appointed governor 
Edward John Eyre appointed governor . . 
Negro insuiTection begins at Morant-bay, by 
resisting the capture of a negro criminal, 
7 Oct. ; the court-house fired on ; baron 
Ketelholdt, rev. V. Herschell, and others 
cruelly murdered, and many wounded 1 1 Oct. 1865 
Rebellion spreads, and many atrocities are 
committed ; it is suppressed by the energy 
of the governor, the military and naval 
officers, volunteers, the Maroons, and the 
loyal negroes .... 13-24 Oct. ,, 
George Wm. Gordon, a coloured member of the 
legislature, convicted of encouraging the re- 
bellion, 21 Oct. ; executed . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Paul Bogle executed . . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Numerous executions . . Oct. & Nov. ,, 
Sir Henry Storks summoned from Malta, and 
sent to Jamaica, with Messrs. Russell Gumey 
and John B. Maule, as commissioners, to 



1834 



1856 
1857 
1864 



inquire respecting the disturbances, and the 
measures taken in suppressing them 

II Dec. tt serj. 1865 

Governor Eyre temporarily suspended ; sir 
Henry Storks arrives in Jamaica . 6 Jan. 1866 

The legislative assembly of Jamaica dissolves 
itself, and abrogates the constitution (which 
had existed 200 years) . . -17 Jan. ,, 

1600?. subscribed for at Jamaica for defence of 
gov. Eyre Feb. ,, 

Commission opened 23 Jan. ; closed 21 March. ,, 

They receive evidence of the existence of widely 
spread discontent during 1865 : they reported 
that 439 persons had suffered by martial law ; 
that ^about 1000 dwelhngs had been burnt; 
that about 600 (many women) had been 
flogged ; that they considered the punish- 
ments inflicted excessive, the executions un- 
necessarily frequent, the burning the houses 
wanton ; and that they saw no proof of 
Gordon's complicity in the outbreak ; or ih 
an organized conspiracy against government 

9 April, ,, 

The "Jamaica Government act" passed in 
England 23 March, „ 

Sir J. P. Grant gazetted governor in room of 
governor Eyre .... 16 July, ,, 

A "Jamaica Committee," J. S. Mill, chairman, 
propose prosecution of governor Eyre 

27 July, ,, 

He arrives at Southampton 12 Aug. ; welcomed 
by a banquet . . . . 21 Aug. ,, 

A comnnttee for his defence formed . Sept. ,, 

The governor, sir J. P. Grant, promulgates the 
new constitution ; opening of the legislative 
council (consisting of the governor and six 
members) 16 Oct. „ 

G. D. Ramsay, accused of murder, discharged 
by grand jury .... 18 Oct. ,, 

Warrants issued against gov. Eyre, col. Nelson, 
and lieut. Brand, Feb. ; the grand jury dis- 
charges the bills, against Eyre, 29 March, and 
the others 11 April, 1867 



JAMES'S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, erected for public meetings, &c., was opened 
on 25 March, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of the Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen 
Jones M-as the architect. The "Popular Monday Concerts " here began 14 Feb. 1859. 

JAMES'S PALACE, ST., &c., London, was built by Henry VIII. on the site of an 
hospital of the same name, 1530-6. It has been the official town-residence of the English 
court since the fire at Whitehall in 1698. 



The Pakk, a marsh till Henry VIII. enclosed 
and laid it out in walks 

Much improved by Charles II., who employed 
Le Notre to plant lime-trees, and to lay out 
"the mall" for the purpose uf playing a game 
with a baU called a mall 

WiUiam HI. granted a passage into it from 
Spring-gardens 

A grand display of fireworks took place here at 
the peace, when the pagoda bridge erected 



i here by sir W. Congreve was burnt . i Aug. 
1530 TheparkimprovedbyGeo.lv. . .1827, 
; The enclosure first opened to the public in Jan. 
' 1S29 : the opening by Carlton-steps in . 
The marble arch that fronted Buckingham- 
1668 palace removed to Cumberland -gate, Hyde- 
park 29 March, 

1699 An iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 
structed 

I St. James's theatre opened . . 14 Dec. 



i«i4 
et seq. 



1851 

1857 
1835 

JANISSARIES (Turkish ieni tclieri, new soldiers), an order of infantry in the Turkish 
arm}'^ : originally, young prisoners trained to arms ; were first organised by Orcan, about 1330, 
and remodelled by his son Amuratli I. 1360 ; their numbers being increased by follow- 
ing sultans. In later days they degenerated from their strict disci[)line, and several times 
deposed the sultan. During an insuiTCction i4-i5June, 1826, when nearly 3000 of them were 
killed, the Ottoman army was re-organised, and a finnan was issued on 17 June, abolishing 
the Janissaries. 

JANSENISTS, persons who embraced the doctrines of Cornelius Jausen, bishop of Ypres, 
who died in 1638. He was a pious prelate ; but the publication of his '^ AugnsU7ius," 1640, 
a book in which he maintained the doctrine of free grace, kindled a fierce controversy, and 
was condemned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. Througii the Jesuits, its vehement 
opponents, Jansenism, was condemned by Innocent X. iu 1653, and by Clement XL, in 



JAN 



406 



JAV 



I7i3> ^Y the bull TJnigenitus. This bull the French church rejected. Jansenism still exists 
at IJtrecht and Haarlem ; see Port Roycdists. 

JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an early Roman divinity. January was added 
to the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it aboiit the winter solstice, and made 
it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all business. 
In 1 75 1 the legal year in England was ordered to begin on i Jan. instead of 25 March. 

JANUS, Temple of, at Rome, was erected by Romulus, and kept open in time of war, 
and closed in time of peace. During above 700 years it was shiit only — under Numa 
714 B.C. ; at the close of the first Punic war, 235 B.C. ; and under Augustus, 29, 25, and 

5 B.C. 

JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, composed of Japan or Nipliou, and 3850 isles, with between 
35,000,000 and 40,000,000 inhabitants. It was visited by Marco Polo, the Venetian 
traveller, in the 13th centmy ; and by Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about 1535 or 1542 ; 
whose countrymen shortly after obtained permission to found a settlement. The Jesuit 
missionaries who followed made a great number of converts, who sent a deputation to pope 
Gregory XIII. in 1582 ; but a fierce persecution of the Christians began in 1590, aggi'avated. 
it is said by the indiscreet zeal and aiTOgance of the Jesuits : thousands of the converts 
suffered death ; and the Portuguese were utterly expelled 1637-42. The Dutch trade with 
Japan commenced about 1600 under severe restrictions, and has since been frequently 
suspended. The learned Engelbert Koempfer visited Japan in 1690, and published an 
account of it with plates. 



Ati American expedition, under commodore 
Parry, reaches Jeddo, and is favourably re- 
ceived ; but remains only a few days, 8 July, 1853 

A treaty of commercial alliance concluded be- 
tween the tvyo countries . . 31 March, 1854 

A similar treaty with Great Britain . 14 Oct. ,, 

With Bussia 26 Jan. 1855 

Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European 
commerce 1856 

Commercial treaty with Eussia . 19 Aug. 1858 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, with a present of a 
steamer for the emperor, and is honourably 
received, July ; obtains the treaty of Jeddo, 
opening Japan to British commerce, 26 Aug. „ 

The secular emperor dies (aged 36) . 16 Sept. ,, 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Rutherford Alcock ap- 
pointed consul-general, Dec. 1858 ; envoy 
extraordinary Nov. 1859 

A Japanese embassy -visits Washington, New 
York, &c.. United States 14 May-30 June, i860 

Received at Paris, 13 April; London, June; 
in Holland, Prussia, &c. . . July-Sept. 1S62 

Attack on the British embassy at Jeddo ; some 
persons wounded . . . . s July, 1861 

Another attack on the English charge d'affaires 
frustrated . . . . . 26, 27 June, 1862 

Foreign ministers transfer the residence from 
Jeddo to Yokohama . . . 27 June, ,, 

Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions 
cruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his 
suite 14 Sept. ,, 

The batteries and vessels of the prince of 
Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel 
at the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki, 

15, 19 Nov. ,, 

Some English, French, and American vessels 
bombard his forts and his vessels, 15-19 July, 1863 



Reparation demanded ; ioo,oooJ. paid by the 
government ; the prince of Satsuma resists 
payment of 25,000^., his portion; admiral 
Kuper enters the bay of Kagosima, and is 
fired upon ; ' whereupon he bombards the 
town and bums the prince's steamers, 15 Aug. 

The Japanese minister announces that the 
ports opened by virtue of the treaties will be 
closed 24 June, 

The prince of Satsuma pays the 25,000?. 11 Dee. 

The Japanese government refuse to abide by 
the treaties ; a combined fleet enters the 
straits of Simonosaki, 4 Sept. ; and attacks 
and destroys the JaiDanese batteries, 5, 6 Sept. 

Major Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, 20 
Nov. ; two assassins executed . -. Dec. 

Sir Harry Parkes appointed to succeed sir B. 
Alcock as envoy April, 

Treaties with England, France, <&c., ratified, 

25 Nov. 

Two more ports opened .... Jan. 

Death of the tycoon : his successor said to be 
favourable to foreigners . . . Sept. 

Civil dissensions reported . . . Oct. 

Town of Yokohama and third part of European 
settlement destroyed by fire . 26 Nov. 

Jeddo and other places opened to trade, by the 
government 25 April, 

Visit of sir Harry Parkes to the tycoon, Stots 
Bashi I May, 

Prince Minbontaiyou, brother of the tycoon, 
arrives at Dover, 2 Dec. ; presented to the 
queen 4 Dec. 

Osaka and Niogo opened to European commerce, 

1 Jan. 

Insurrection of the Daimios, and war with the 
Mikado— foreigners neutral . 27 Jan. -Feb. 



1867 



JARNAC (W. France). On 13 March, 1569, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. 
of France, here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of Coude, who was killed in 
cold blood by Montesquieu. . The victor (seventeen years of age), on account of his success 
here and at Moncontour, was chosen king of Poland. 

JASMINE or Jessamine (Jasminum officinale), native of Persia, &c., was brought 
hither from Circassia, before 1548. The Catalonian jasmine came from the East Indies, in 
1629, and the yellow Indian jasmine in 1656. 

JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently occupied by the Russians ; taken by them in 
1739 and 1769. A treaty between them and the Turks was signed here 9 Jan. 1792. 

JAVA, a large island in the Eastei-n Archipelago, is said to have been reached by the 
Portuguese in 15 11, and by the Dutch in 1595. The latter, who now possess it, built 
Batavia, the capital, about 1619 ; see Batavia. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the 



JEA 



407 



JER 



unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, 
took pkce in 1740.' The island capitulated to the British, 18 Sept. 181 1. The sultan was 
dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. 
Java was restored to Holland in 1814.* In Aug. i860, the Swiss soldiers aided by the 
natives here mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many suffered death. The diminished 
prosperity of Java led to M'arm discussions in the Dutch chamber in 1866. 

JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the Pyrenees). Soult's strong position here was 
taken by general Hill and Marshal Beresford, 10 Nov. 1813. 

JEDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On 15 June, 1858, the fanatic Mahometans mas- 
sacred twenty-six of the Christian inhabitants, among them the English and French consuls 
and part of their families ; but many Hed to the shipping. On the delay of justice, com- 
modore PuUen bombarded the town, 25, 26 July. On 6 Aug. eleven of the assassins were 
executed ; the ringleaders afterwards. 

JEDDO or Yeddo, the capital of Japan, on the island of Niphon, contains about 
2,000,000 inhabitants. The emperor's palace is said to have a hall of audience supported by 
l)illai"s of massive gold, and three towers, each nine stories high, covered with gold plates. 
On 23 Dec. 1854, and 11 Nov. 1855, severe earthquakes occurred : during the latter 57 
temples, 100,000 houses, and about 30,000 persons were destroyed. Here was signed the 
treaty of 26 Aug. 1858 ; see Japan. 

JE MAINTIENDRAI, "I will maintain." The motto of the house of Nassau. When 
"William 111. came to the throne of England, he continued this, but added " the liberties of 
England and the Protestant religion," at the same time ordering that the old motto of the 
royal arms, '^ Dicu et mon droit," should be retained on the great seal, 1689. 

JEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the first pitched battle gained by the French 
republicans (under Dnmouriez), in which 40,000 French troops forced 19,000 Austrians, who 
were entrenched in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and many cannon, 6 Nov. 
1792. The number killed on each side was reckoned at 5000. 

JENA AND AuEP.STADT (Central Germany), Avhere two battles were fought, 14 Oct. 1806, 
between the French and Prussians. The French were commanded at Jena by Napoleon, and 
at Auerstadt by Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at the former place, and the 
Icing of Prussia at the latter'. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 20,000 killed and 
wounded, and nearly as many j)risoners, and 200 field-pieces ; the French lost 14,000 men. 
Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and issued the Berlin decree {ivhich see). 

JENNERIAN INSTITUTION, founded 1803 ; see Vaccination. 

JEPiSEY. The chief island of the channel archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, 
Alderney, &c.), formerly held by the Komans in the 3rd and 4th centuries after Christ — 
Jersey being termed Ciesarea. The isles were captured by Eollo, and thus became an 
appanage of the ducliy of Normandy, and were united to the crown of England by his 
descendant, William the Conqueror. The inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to 
remain subjects of king John, at the period of the conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus, 
and while retaining the laws, crrstoms, and (until lately) the language of their continental 
ancestors, have always remained firm in their allegiance to England. Almost every war 
with France has been characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most successful of which, 
under the baron de Rullecour, was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey militia, 
commanded by major Pierson, 6 Jan. 1781. Mr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his "Armorial 
of Jersey " and his ' ' Gossiping Guide " has exhaustively treated the general and family 
history of the island. The population of the isles in 1861, was 91,147. 

JERUSALEM, called also Salem, 1913 B.C. (Gen. xiv. 18). Its king was slain by 
Joshua, 145 1 B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C. who dwelt in the fort, calling it the 
city of David ; see Jeivs. 

King Guy defeated at Tiberias, and Jerusalem 

taken by Saladiu 1187 

By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 

1217 & 1239 
SuiTendered to the emperor Frederic II. by 

treaty 1228 

Taken by the Turks 1517 

Held by the French under Bonaparte . Feb. 1799 
The protestant bishopric of Jerusalem erected, 
under the protection of Great Britain and 



Thefirst temple founded by Solomon, 1012 B.C. ; 
and solemnly dedicated on Friday . 30 Oct. 1004 
[See under article Jacs.] 

Jerusalem taken by the Persians, a.d. 614 ; re- 
taken by the emperor Heraclius, 628 ; by the 
Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when 
70,000 infidels were put to the sword ; a new 
kingdom founded .... 15 July, 1099 

The " assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, es- 
tablished by Godfrey of Bouillon, king . . I 100 



* The English promoted free labour instead of forced ; but the Dutch reverted to the old system, and 
in 1830 abolished free labour, introducing the "culture system," by which the government controls the 
cultivation of the land and buys the i^roduce at its own price. 



JER 



408 



JEW 



JEKUSALEM, continued. 
Prussia ; S. M. S. Alexander consecrated 
bishop 7 Nov. 1841 

Convention for the preservation of the holy- 
sepulchre, signed on behalf of Russia, France, 
and Turkey 5 Sept. 1862 

Jerusalem and the neighbourhood was sur- 
veyed by a party of royal engineers between 

Sept. 1864 & June, 1865 

Population about iS,coo 1866 

CHRISTIAN KINGS. 

Godfrey of Bouillon 1099 



Baldwin I iioo 

Baldwin II 1118 

Fulk of Anjou 1131 

Baldwin III 1144 

Amauri (or Almeric) 1162 

Baldwin IV 1173 

Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V. . . . . 1185 

Guy de Lusignan 1186 

Henry of Charapagne 1192 

Amauri de Lusignan . . . . . . 1197 

Jeanne de Brienne 1210 

Emperor Fredezic II 1229-39 

"JERUSALEM DELIVERED," the great Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580. 

JESTER is described as "a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform tliem of 
their faults, and those of other men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of our 
kings, particularly the Tudors, kept jesters. Rayhere, the founder of St. Bartholomew's 
priory. West Smithfield, London, 1133, is said to have been a court jester and minstrel. 
There was a jester at court in the reigns of James I. and Charles L, but we hear of no 
licensed jester afterwards. 

JESUITS, the society or company of Jesus, was founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to 
Ferdinand Y. of Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and afterwards canonised. 
Having been wounded in both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1521, he devoted himself 
to theology, and renounced the military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedicated his 
life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his 
return laid the foundation of his society at Paris, 16 Aug. 1534. He presented its institutes, 
in 1539, to pope Paul III., who made many objections ; but Ignatius adding to the vows 
of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see, the 
institution was confirmed by a bull, 27 Sept. 1546. The number of members was not to 
exceed sixty, but that restriction was taken off by another bull, 14 March. 1543 ; and popes 
Julius III., Pius v., and Gregory XIII. granted many privileges. Francis Xavier, and other 
missionaries, the first brethren, carried the order to the extremities of the habitable globe, 
but it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly in Paris ; see Paraguay and 
Jansenists. 



The society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, 
1554 ; expelled from France, 1594 ; re-ad- 
niitted, 1604 ; but after several decrees is 
totally suppressed in France and its pro- 
perty confiscated 1764 

Ordered by parliament to be expelled from 
England, 1579, 1581, 1586, 1602; and finally 
by the Relief act in 1829 

E.xpelled from — Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; 
Portugal, 1759; Spain 1767 



Abolished by Clement XIV. (at the meeting of 
the Bourbon sovereigns) . . .21 July, 1773 

Restored by Pius VI 7 Aug. 1814 

Expelled from^ Belgium, 1818; Russia, 1820; 
Spain, 1S20, 1835 ; France, 1831, 1845 ; Por- 
tugal, 1834; Sardinia, Austria, and other 
states, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily .... i860 

The cliief of the order appeals to the king of 
Sardinia for redress of grievances . 24 Oct. ,, 

Repoi-t of the order; total number of Jesuits 
8167 : in France, 2422 : in . . . . 1866 

JESUIT'S BARK, called by the Spaniards fever-wood, from the cinchona or chinchona 
tree, discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, about 1535 (and used by the order). Its virtues 
were not generally known till 1633, when it cured of fever the lady of the viceroj' (Chinchona) 
at Peru. It was sold at one period for its weight in silver, and was introduced into France 
in 1649 ; and it is said to have cured Louis XIV. of fever when he was dauphin. It came 
into general use in 1680, and sir Hans Sloane introduced it here about 1700. The cinchona 
plant, largely planted in the Keilgherry hills, India, in 1861, is thriving greatly, and also 
at Ceylon ; see Quinine. 

JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour or the World, stated to have been born on Monday, 
25 Dec. A.M., 4004, in the year of Rome, 752 ; but this event should be dated four years 
before the commencement of the common era ; see Nativity. The following dates are given 
by ecclesiastical writers. Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry, a.d. 30. He 
celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament on Thursday, 2 April, 33 ; was 
crucified on Friday, 3 April, at three o'clock in the afternoon ; arose 5 April ; ascended to 
heaven from Mount Olivet on Thursday, 14 May ; and the Holy Spirit descended on his 
disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, 24 May. The divinity of Christ, denied by the 
Arians, was affirmed by the council of Nice, 325. 

JEWELLERY, worn by most of the early nations. Pliny the elder, says he saw Lollia 
Paulina (the most beatitiful woman of her time, and wife of Caius Csesar, and afterwards of 
Caligula) wearing ornaments which were valued at a sum equal to 322,9i6Z._ sterling. Jewels 
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and extensively encouraged in England about 
1685. The standard of gold for jewellery was lowered by parliament in 1854. 



JEW 



409 



JEW 



JEWISH DISABILITIES, see under /eM?s, "general history," p. 410. 

JEWISH ERA AND Calendar. The Jews usually emxiloyed the era of the Seleucifl;-c 
until the 15th century, when a new mode of computing was adopted. They date from the 
creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years and 3 months before the commence- 
ment of our era. To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. The Jewish year 
consists of either twelve or thirteen months, of 29 or 30 days. The civil year commences 
with the month Tisri, immediately after the new moon following the autumnal etpinox ; 
the ecclesiastical year begins with Nisan. 



Civil year, 5628. 




Sebat 


. 25 Jan. 1868 Thammuz 


. 21 June, i5 


Tisri, begins . 30 Sept. 


1S67 


Adar 


. 24 Fei). „ Ab . 


20 July, , 


Harchesvan . . 30 Oct. 


J, 


Nisan or Abib . 


24 March, ,, Elul 


. 19 Aug. , 


Ohislev . . 28 Nov. 




I jar 


. 23 April, ,, ! 




Thebet . . .27 Dec. 




Sivan . 


22 Aiaj', „ j 





JEWS, the descendants of Abraham, with whom God made a covenant, i' 
Gen. xvii. 



CallofAbram B.C. 192 1 

Isaac born to Abraham i8g6 

Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 

Death of Abraham 1822 

Joseph sold into Egj-pt 1729 

The male children of the Israelites thrown into 

the Nile ; Moses born 1571 

The Passover mstituted. The Israelites go out 

of Egypt, and cross the Red Sea . . . 1491 
The law promulgated from Mount Sinai . . „ 

The tabernacle set up 1490 

Joshua leads the Israelites into Canaan . . 1451 
The first bondage lOthniel, judge, 1405J . . 1413 
The second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . . . 1343 
The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 
The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) . . . 1252 
The fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) . . . 1206 

The sixth bondage 1157 

Samson .slays the Phili.stines .... 1136 
Samuel g-overns as judge, about . . . . 1120 
Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon . .1117 

Sadl made king 1095 

David slays Goliath, about 1063 

Death of Saul ; David made king . . . 1055 
David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes 

it his capital 1048 

Solomon lays the foundation of the temple . 1012 

Which is dedicated 1004 

Death of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . . 975 

KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 

Jeroboam establishes idolatry 

Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israel 

ites slain 

Israel aflBioted vrtth the famine predicted by 

Elijah 

The Syrians besiege Samaria 

Elijah translated to heaven . 

Miracles of Elisha the prophet ... 

The Assj'riau invasion under Phul . . . 771 

Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 

Samaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten 

tribes are carried into captivity, and an end 

is put to the kingdom of Israel . . . . 721 

KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 

Shishak, king of Etrypt, takes Jerusalem, and 

pillages the temple 971 

Abijah defeats the king of Israel ; 50,000 men 

are slain in battle 957 

Asa defeats the Ethiopians ; abolishes idolatry. 941 
Jehoshaphat orders the law to be taught, 912 ; 

defeats tLe Ammonites, diic. .... 896 
Usurpation and death of Athaliah . . . . 884 

Hazael desolates Judah S57 

Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 
120,000 of the men of Judah are slaui in one 

_<iay : 741 

Hezekiah abolishes idolatry .... 726 
Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying 
angel enters the camp of the Assyrians, and 
in one night destroys 185,000 of them . . 710 



656 



624 
605 



Holofemes (apocryphal) killed at the siege of 
Bethulia by Judith . . . . b. c. 

In repairing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the 
book of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn 
Passover 

Nebuchadnezzar subjugates Judea . . . 

He takes Jerusalem after a long siege 

Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls 
razed to the ground 587 

KINGS. PBOFHETR. 

Saul began to reign . . .B.C. 1095 Samuel. 
David, king of Judah, 1055 ; of all Israel, 1048 Nathan. 
Solomon „ .... 1015 



B.C. Kings of Judah. 

975. Kehoboam . 

958. Abijah 

955. Asa 

953- 

930. 

929. 

925. 

918. „ 

914. Jehoshaphat 

897. . . . 



810. 



889. Jehoram 
885. Ahaziah 
8S4. Athaliah 
Q Q f Joash or Je 
"7«- I hoahaz. 

857. 

839. Amaziah 

82s. „ . 

( Uzziah 
![ Azariah. 

784- 

773- ,> 

772- ,, 

761. ,, 

759- .> 

758. Jotham 
742. Ahaz 
73°- >. • 
726. Hezekiah 

698. Manasseh. 
643. Amon 
641. Josiah . 

I" Jehoahaz 
610. •] (Shallum), 

(. Jehoiakim. 

( Jehoachin 
599. -< (Coniah), 

I Zedekiah 



-I 



Kings of Israel. 
. Jeroboam I. . Ahijah. 

. Nadab (954) . Azariah. 

. Baasha ,, . . Hanani. 

. Elah ,, . . Jehu. 

. Zimri . . . ,, 

. Omri . . . ,, 

. Ahab . . . Elijah. 

Ahaziah . . Elisha. 
( Jehoram or ] t„i „• i 
i Joram. | Jahaziel. 



Jehu. 



or \ 



. Jehoahaz. 
. Jehoash (841) 
Jeroboam 11. 



Anarchj'. 
. Zechariah. . 

( Shallum. 
■ ( Menahem. 
. Pekahiah. 
. Pekah. 



Hoshea. 
J [Captivity, 

1 721.] 



. Jonah. 
j Hosea. 
( Amos. 



BABYLONISH CAPTIVITi'. 

Daniel prophesies at Babylon . 



Isaiah and 
Micah. 



Nahum. 



Jeremiah. 
Zephaniah. 

Habakkuk. 



Daniel. 
Ezekiel. 

B.C. 603 



JEW 



410 



JEW 



JEWS, continued. 

Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing 
to worship tlie golden image, are cast into a B.C. 
fiery furnace, but are delivered by the angel 5S7 

Obadiah prophesies „ 

Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 
against Belshazzar .... . 538 

He is cast into the lions' den ; he prophesies 
the return from captivity, and the coming of 
the Messiah „ 

RETURN FROM CAPTIVITr. 

Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict 
for the return of the Jews and rebuilding 

of the temple 536 

Haggai and ^lechariah prophets .... 520 
The second temple finished . 10 March, 515 

The Jews delivered from Haman by Esther . 510 
Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform 

abuses 458 

Here begin the 70 weeks of years predicted by 
Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion 

of the Redeemer 437 

The walls of Jerusalem built 445 

Malachi the prophet ....... 415 

[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, accord- 
ing to Eusebius, in 442 B.C. ; and from this 
time Josephus and the Roman historians give 
the best account of the Jews.] 

Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem 
to besiege it, but it is said, on seeing Jaddus, 
the high-priest, clad in his robes, he declares 
he had seen such a figure in a vision in Mace- 
donia, inviting him. to Asia, and promising to 
deliver the Persian empire into his hands ; he 
now goes to the temple, and offers sacrifices 
to the God of the Jews 332 

Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . . . 320 

Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 Jews 
to translate the Scriptures . . . -277 

Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, 
and slays 40,000 of the inhabitants . . . 170 

Government of the Maccabees begins . .166 

Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record 
with the Jews 161 

Judas Hyrcanus Aristobulus, assumes the title 
of " king of the Jews " 107 

Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions tinder 
Pompey . 63 

The temple plundered by Crassus. . . . 54 
Antipater made intendant of Judaea by Julius 

Cajsar 49 

Herod, son of Antipater, marries Mariamne, 

granddaughter of the high priest . . . 42 

Invasion of the Parthians 40 

Herod employs the aid of the senate ; they 

decree him to be the king ,, 

Jerusalem taken by Herod, and the Roman 

general Sosius 37 

Herod rebuilds the temple 18 

Jesus Christ 4 

Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea a. d. 26 
John the Baptist begins to preach . . . ,, 

John the Baptist beheaded 31 

Christ's miuistry and miracles . . . . 31-33 
His crucifixion and resurrection • ■ • 33 
The Jews persecuted for refusing to worship 

Caligula 38 

Receive the right of Roman citizenship . . 41 
Claudius banishes Jews from Rome . . . 50 
Titus takes Jerusalem; the city and temple are 

sacked and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews 

perish 8 Sept. 70 

Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it iElia 

Capitolina), and erects a temple to Jupiter . i-^o 
Rebellion of Bar-cochba; final desolation of 

Judea 135-136 

More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the 

Eoiuans in 135-136 

See article Jerusalem, 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

Jews first arrive in England 1078 

The Jews massacred in London, on the corona- 
tion day of Richard I., at the instigation of 
the priests 1189 

500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, 
cut each other's throats to avoid their fury . 1190 

Jews of' both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or 
teeth plucked out, and numbers inhumanly 
butchered, by king John .... 1204 

The Rabbi Maimonides died ,, 

700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having 
forced a Christian to pay him more than 2s. 
per week as interest on a loan of 20s. (Stoic.) 1262 

Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold, 
passed 1269 

Every Jew lending money on interest com- 
pelled to wear a plate on his breast, signi- 
fying that he was a usurer, or to quit the 
realm. (6tow.) 1274 

267 Jews hanged and quartered, accused of 
clipping coin 1273 

15,660 Jews banished from England. (Rapw.) 1290 

Much pillaged and persecuted in France during 
the 14th and 15th centuries. 

A fatal distemper raging in Europe ; they are 
suspected of having poisoned the springs, and 
numbers are massacred, (lenglet.) . . . 1348 

Jews are banished from Spain, Portugal, and 
Prance (considered by them as great a cala- 
mity as the destruction of Jerusalem) . 1492-94 

Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Six- 
tus V 15S8 

Jews favom-ed in Holland 1603 

After having been banished England 370 years, 
they are permitted to return by Cromwell, 
who grants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel 1657 

Statute to compel them to maintain their pro- 
testant children enacted . . . . . 1702 

Jews aoquii-e right to possess land in England. 1723 

Bill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish 
religion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then re- 
sided) refused the royal assent . . . 1746 

Statute to naturalise them in England passed . 1753 

Repealed on the petition of all the cities . . 1754 

The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are 
declared to be citizens of B'rance . . . 1790 

Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris con- 
veiied by the emperor Napoleon 18 Sept. 1806 

Jews' hospital, London, founded . . . . 1807 

London society for promoting Christianity 
among the Jews established .... 1808 

Jews' free school, London, established . . . 1817 

Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of 
Azoph to converted Jews . . i Sept. 1820 

Jews' orphan asylum founded . . . . 1831 

Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London 
(the first Jewish one); an act passed to enable 
him to act 24 June, 1835 

Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost 
on the second reading by a majority in the 
commons, 228 against 165 . . 17 May, 1836 

Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff of Lon- 
don, and knighted by the queen, being the 
first Jew on whom that honour has been con- 
ferred 9 Nov. 1837 

Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permitting the 
title of citizen of the first class to be held by 
any Jew who renders himself worthy of it . 1S39 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, 
a persecution of the Jews began at Damascus 
(see Damascus) i Feb. 1840 

Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices 
from taking oaths, itc, 9 Vict. . . . 184S 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild returned to par- 
liament for the city of London by a majority 
of 6619 votes ; his opponent, lord John Man- 
ners, polling only 3104 . . .3 July, 1849 

Alderman Salomons elected member for 
Greenwich 28 June, 1851 

Neither permitted to sit „ 



JEW 411 JOI 

JEWS, continued. 

The Jews' Oaths of Abjuration bill passed the [ Alderman Salomons elected M. P. for Greenwich; 

house of commons .... 3 July, 1S51 baron Meyer de Rothschild for Hytho, 15 Feb. 183^ 

Baron Rothschild again returned for the city Protest respecting the seizure of the boy Jlor- 
of London at the general elections, July, 1852; j tara signed at London by the abp. of Cantor- 
March, 1857 ; July, 1857 ; and . . July, 1865' bury, and bishops, noblemen and gentlemen. 

Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stock;- 1 sent to the French ambassador, Oct. ; and. 

holm 3 SeiDt. 1852 I presented to lord John Russell . . Nov. ,, 

The Jewish Oath bill passed in commons, 15 , Oppre.ssivelawsagainsttheJowsinthe Austrian 

April ; thi'own out in the lords . 29 April, 1853 ; empire annulled ... 6, 10, Jan. i86(> 



Alderman Salomons the first Jewish lord mayor 
of London 9 Nov. 1855 

The Jewish Oath bill several times passed in 
the commons and thrown out in the lords 1854-7 

Edgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibl3' t iken 
from his parents by order of the archbishop 
of Bologna, ou the plea of having been bap- 
tised when an infant by a Roman Catholic 
maid-servant .... 24 .June, 1858 

An act passed enabling Jews to sit in p.uiia- 
ment by resolution of the house . July, ,, 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild takes his seat as 
M.P. for London .... 26 Julj' 



Act passed permitting Jewish M.P.'s to omit 
from the oath the words "on the faith of a 
Christian" 6 Aug. ,, 

Additional political privileges granted to the 
Jews in Russia, 26 Jan. ; and in Poland, June, 1862 

.Tews persecuted at Rome . . . Dec. 1864 

xUderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second 
Jewish lord mayor .... 9 Nov. 1865 

Persecution of Jews at Biicharest reported, July, 1866 

A synagogue at Berlin, said to be the largest 
and most beautiful in the world, conseci-ated, 

5 Sept., ,, 

Jewish emancipation bill, Hungary, received 



To coniinemorate this event ho endowed a i i-oyal assent 29 Dec. 1867 

scholarship in the City of London School . ,, Benjamin Disraeli, of Jewish extraction, pre- 

The French government having in vain urged ' mier of England .... 29 Feb. iS5S 

Mortara'srestorationtohisparents, sir Moses Jews' synagogue at Barnsbui-y, London, N., 

Montefiorc proceeds to Rome (but obtains no founded by baron F. Rothschild, 24 Dec. 

redress) 22 Dec. ,, 1 1867, consecrated . . . -29 March, ,, 

JOAIT OF ARC, the maid of Orleans, was born at Domremy. She pretended that she 
had a divine commission to expel the English, who under the duke of Bedford were besieging 
Orleans. Charles VII. entrusted her with the command of the French troops, and she 
raised the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, 29 April, 1429 ; the English, who were 
before the place from 12 Oct. preceding, abandoned the enterprise 8 May following. She 
captured several towns in the possession of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near 
Patay, 18 June, 1429. In her various achievements no vmfeminine cruelty ever stained her 
conduct. She was wounded several times herself, but never shed any blood with her own 
hand. She was taken at tlie siege of Compifegne, 25 May, 1430 ; and, after a trial, burnt 
for a witch at Rouen, 30 May, 1431. A statue of Joan of Arc, the work of the late princess 
Marie of France, was inaugurated at Orleans, 13 Sept. 185 1, and the 435th anniversary of 
the deliverance of the city was celebrated there on 14 Maj', 1865 ; see Patay, Battle of. 

JOCKEY CLUB, instituted in the reign of George II., (1727-60) is mentioned in Heber's 
" Racing Calendar," 1758. Rules were made in 1828, afterwards revised. 

JOHN", ST., Knights of, see Malta. 

JOHIST, ST. , * see Neiofoundland, Cambridge, and Oxford. 

JOHN'S GATE, ST. (St. John's Square, Clerkenwell, London), a fine vestige of monastic 
building, was the gate of the priory of St. John of Jerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was 
the place where the Gentleman's ilagazine -wns first published, 6 March, 1731. The house 
was often visited by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and their friends. 

JOHN DOE AND RiCHAUD Roe, names well known, as standing pledges for the prose- 
cution of suits. In early times real and substantial persons were required to pledge them- 
selves to answer to tire crown for an amercement or fine set upon the plaintiif, for raising a 
false accusation, if he brought an action without cause, or failed in it. And in 1285, 
13 Edw. I. sheriffs and bailiffs were, before they made deliverance of the distress, to receive 
pledges for pursuing the suit, and for the return of the property, if retiirn were awarded. 
But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious names of Doe and Roe were used until the 
form was declared to be no longer necessary by the Common Law Procedure Act, 1852. 

JOHN" O'GROAT'S HOUSE, an ancient house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay 
Head, the most northerly point in Great Britain, deriving its name from John of Groat, or 
Groot, and his brothers, originally from Holland, said to have settled here about 1489. f 

JOHNSON'S CLUB, see Literary Club. 

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES (good and bad) have been very numerous during the 
present century (especially in 1825 and 1846). Many acts have been passed for their 

* On St. John's or Midsummer eve, 23 June, bonfires are still made in Ireland, and in some parts of 
England, and thought to be the relic of a pagan custom — resembling the Phojnician worship of Baal. 

t This hoiise was of an octagon shape, being one room, with eight windows and eight doors, to admit 
eight membei-s of the family, the heads of different branches of it, to prevent their quarrels for precedeuoe 
at table, which on a previous occasion had nigh proved fatal. E j.ch came in lay this contrivance at his own 
door, and sat at an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no chief place or head. 



JOU 



412 



JUL 



regulation ; the most important in 1844, 1855, 1857 and 1858. An important act for the 
incori)oration, regulation, and winding-up of trading companies and other associations passed 
in 1862, was amended in 1867 ; see Companies, and Limited Liahility. 

JOURNALS, see Newspapers. JOURNAL DES SAVANTS, see Reviews. 

JOURNALS OF THE HoiTSE OF CoMMOKs, commenced in 1547, first ordered to be printed 
in 1752, when 5000Z. were allowed to Mr. Hardinge for the execution of the -work. The 
jom-nals of the House of Peers (commencing 1509) were ordered to be printed in 1767. 

JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the Pacific, named from its discoverer in 1567. 
xVlexander Selkirk, a native of Scotland, left on shore here by his captain for mutiny in 
1705, lived alone more than four years, till he was discovered by captain Rogers in 1709. 
From his narrative De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, 
published in 17 19. 

JUBILEES. The Jews were commanded to celebrate a jubilee every fifty j-ears, 149 1 
B.C. [Lev. XXV. 8). Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by pope 
Boniface VIII. in the year 1300. It was ordered to be celebrated every fifty years by pope 
Clement VI. ; and by Urban VI. every thirty-third year ; and by Sixtus V. every twenty- 
fifth year. 



ShaKspeare's Jubilee, projected by David Gar- 
rick, was celebrated ac Shakspeare's birth- 
place, Stratf ord-on-Avon . . 6, 7, 8, Sept. 1769 
A Bhakspeare festival at Stratford, 23 April, 1836 
National jubilee in England on account of 



George III. entering into the soth year of 
his reign 25 Oct. 18 

Jubilee in celebration of the general peace, and 
of the centenary of the accession of the 
Brunswick family .... i Aug. 18 

A Shakspeare festival at Stratford . 23 April, 18 



JUDAH, see Jews. 

JUDGES appointed by God, wlien the Israelites were in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.C. 
till the election of Saul as king, 1095 ; see Jews, Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, and Vice- 
Chancellors. 



Judge JefEeries committed by the lord mayor 
to the tower, where he died .... i68g 

The judge's office made tenable for life (during 
good behaviour) instead of during the pleasure 
of the crown (by 13 Will. III. c. 2) . . . 1702 

Their commissions made permanent, notwith- 
standing the demise of the crown (by i Geo. 
HI. c. 23) 1761 

Three additional judges appointed, one to each 
law court, 1784 : and again in . . . . 1830 

A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 

5 May, 1813 

Two jiew vice-chancellors appointed . . . 1841 

A third vice-chancellor and two new chancery 
judges (styled lords-justices) appointed . . 1851 



Judges punished for bribery, and Thomas de 

Weyland banished 1289 

AVilliam de Thorp hanged for bribery . . 135 1 
John de Cavendish beheaded by the Kentish 

rebels 1382 

TresyHan, chief justice, executed for favouring 

despotism, and other judges condemned . 1388 
The prince of Wales said to have been com- 
mitted by judge Gascoignefor assaulting him 

on the bench 1412 

Sir Thos. More, Id. chancellor, beheaded, 6 July, 1535 
Judges threatened with impeachment, and 

Berkeley taken off the bench and committed 

by the commons, on a charge of treason, 

13 Feb. 1641 
Three judges impeached 1680 

JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the Privy Council, see Privy Council. 
JUDICIAL SEPARATION of married persons may now be decreed by the Divorce Court, 
established by act of parliament in 1857. The persons separated may not marry again. 

JUGGERNAUT, or "Lord of the World," one of the incarnations of Krishna, is an idol 
formed of an irregular pyramidal black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent eyes ; 
the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. The number of pilgrims that visit the god is 
stated at 1,200,000 annually ; some are crushed by the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 
1864) ; a great many never return ; and, to the distance of fifty miles, the way is strewed 
with human bones. The temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. The state 
allowance to the temple was suspended by the Indian government in June, 1851. 

JUGURTHINE WAR. Jugurtha murdered his cousin Hiempsal, king of Numidia, 
and usurped his throne, 118 B.C. He gave him a share in the government, but killed him 
in 112. He then provoked the Romans to war. Crecilius Metellus was first sent against 
him, and defeated him in two battles ; and Marius brought him in chains to Rome to 
adorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to deatli in 104. This war has been 
immortalised by the pen of Sallust. 

JULIAN PERIOD (invented by Joseph Scaliger, about 1583), a term of years produced 
by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It 
consists of 7980 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in 
computing time to avoid the ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period antecedent to our 
era, an advantage in common with the mundane eras used at difi;erent times. By subtracting 



JUL 413 JUS 

4713 from the Julian period, our era is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period 
from 4714. For Julian era, see Calendar; and Year. 

JULIERS, a Prussian province ; was made a duchy in 1356 ; became the subject of 
contention on the extinction of the rulincj family in 1609 ; was allotted to Neuburg in 1659 ; 
seized by the French in 1794 ; and ceded to Prussia in 181 5. 

JULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Roman month, named by Marc Antony from Julius, 
the surname of Caisar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. 

JUNE, the sixth month, owes its name to Junius, which some derive from Juno, and 
others from Juniores, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons, 
Ovid, in his Fasli, introduces Juno as claiming this month. 

JUNIUS'S LETTERS hegan in the Public Advertiser, 21 Jan. 1769.* 

JUNKER PARTY {Junker, German for young noble), a term applied to the aristocratic 
party in Prussia, which came into power under Otlio von Bismarck-Schonhausen, appointed 
prime minister 9 Oct. 1862. Their political organ is the Kreuz-Zeitung. 

JUNO, the planet, discovered by M. Harding, of Lilienthal, near Bremen, i Sept. 1804. 
Its distance from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it accomplishes its revolution in four 
years and 128 days, at the rate of near!}'- 42,000 miles an hour. Its diameter is estimated 
by German astronomers at 1424 English miles. 

JUNONIA, festivals in honour of Juno, celebrated at Rome, and instituted 431 B.C. 

JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans, it is said 3000 B.C. The discovery of 
the satellites, incorrectly attributed to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1609, was made by Galileo 
on 8 Jan. 16 10 ; see Planets.— SvenEB. Ammon's celebrated temple in Libya was visited by 
Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses' army sent against this temple perished miserably, 525 B.C. 

JURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in Feb. 1855, and opened with an address by 
sir R. Bethell on 12 May following. 

JURIES. Trial by jmy was introduced into England during the Saxon heptarchy, 
mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try causes 
between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, with their whole 
estates real and personal, for false verdicts. Lambard. But by most authorities their 
institution is ascribed to Alfred about 886. In Magna Charta, jiu'ies are insisted on as the 
great bulwark of the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be 
one half denizens, and the other half aliens, stat. 28 Edw. III. 1353. By the common law 
a prisoner upon indictment or appeal might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being under 
three juries ; but a lord of pai'liament, and a peer of the realm, who is to be tried by his 
peers, cannot challenge any of his peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in 
Scotland was passed in 1815. An act to consolidate and amend the laws relating to juries 
in Ireland was passed 4 Will. IV. 1833. — Grand Juries (of not less than 12 or more than 
23 persons), decide whether sufficient evidence is adduced to put the accused on trial. — 
The constitution of 1791 established the trial by jury in France. — An imperial decree 
abolished trial by jury throughout the Austrian empire, 15 Jan. 1852. — Trial by jury 
began in Russia, 8 Aug. 1866. + 

"JUSTE MILIEU," according to Louis-Philippe (in 1830), is the only principle of 
government which can secure the welfare of France. 

JUSTICES OF THE Peace are local magistrates, invested with extensive powers in 
minor cases, but subject to supersession and punishment by the King's Bench for an abuse of 
their authority. They were first nominated by William I. in 1076. Stow. Persons termed 
conservators of the peace in each county were appointed by i Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their 
duties were defined in 1360. The form of a commission of the peace settled by the judges, 
23 Eliz. 1580. Hawkins; see jEyre. 

JUSTICES, LORDS, were appointed by English sovereigns to govern during their 

* They have Vieen ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech 
Hamilton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Roseuhagen, 
John Roberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George 
Sackville and sir Philip Francis. The last-named is generally considered to have been the author. Junius 
said, " I am the depo-sitory of my own secret, and it shall perish with me." 

t CoEftCiON OF JcRiES. — About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed the juVy em- 
panneled in their action, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing 
of the evidence. A jury may be detained during the jsleasure of the judge if thev cannot agree upon a 
verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or fire, candlelight exceptsd, till they are unanimous. 
— Some juiors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of 
their verdict, though they did not eat it. Leon. Doer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to agree, and 
having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the court where they were lacked up, and went 
home, 9 Oct. 1791. PJiillips. In Scotland, Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a majority ; iu 
France, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is required. 



JUS 



414 



KAL 



absence; especially by William III., and George I. and II. (1695-1760). George III. never 
left England. In Sept. 1824, -when George IV. went to Hanover, lords justices were 
appointed, the duke of York being the first. No such appointment has been made during 
the present reign, it having been decided by the law authorities in 1843 to be imnecessary . 
when the queen went to France. Ireland was sometimes ruled by lords justices. — Two lords 
justices of the court of appeal in chancery, having rank next after the chief baron of the 
exchequer, were aj)pointed from i Oct. 1851, salary 6000Z. 



1851. Sir James L. Knight-Bruce, resigned Oct. died 
7 Nov. 1866. 
„ Thos. lord Cranworth (afterwards lord- 
chancellor). 

1853. Sir George Jas. Turner, Jan., died 9 July, 1867. 



1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 29 Oct., became lord-chan- 

cellor 29 Feb. 1868. 

1867. Sir John Rolt, July ; resigned Feb. 1868. 

1 868. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, 8 Feb. 
„ Sir Wm. Page ^Vood, March. 



JUSTICIAES. In ancient times the kings of England used to hear and determine causes ; 
but it is declared by law that if the king cannot determine every controversy, he, to ease 
himself, may divide the labour among persons, men of wisdom and fearing God, and out of 
such to appoint judges. The Saxon kings of England appointed a judge after this manner, 
who was, in fact, the king's deputy. After the Worman conquest, the person invested with 
that power had the style of Ca^ntalis Justieice, or Justiciarius Anglia;. These judges con- 
tinued until the erection of the courts of king's bench and the common pleas. The first 
justiciars of England were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz-Osborn, in 1067 ; and 
the last was Philip Basset, in 1261. 

JUSTINIAN CODE compiled by a commission appointed by the emperor Justinian I. 
Feb. 528, wherein was written what may be termed the statute law (scattered through 2000 
volumes, reduced to fifty). It was promulgated, April, 529. To this code Justinian added 
the Digest, or Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels, promulgated 16 Nov. 534. These com- 
pilations have since been called, collectively, the body of civil law {Corpus Juris Civilis). 

JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the choncli and isbund (Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus 
aipsularis), since 1830 extensively cultivated in Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute 
has been much manufactured at Dundee as a substitute for flax, tow, &c., and in July, 1862, 
assertions were made that it could be employed as a substitute for cotton. In 1853, 275,578 
cwts., in 1861, 904,092 cwts., and in 1866, 1,625,903 cwts., of undressed jute were imported 
into the United Kingdom. 

JUTLAND (Denmark), the Jutes settled in our southern counties. South Jutland was 
taken by the allies in 1813, and restored in 1814. 

JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In 1838, an act was passed for instituting a prison for 
instructing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the military hospital at Parkhurst in the 
Isle of Wight was appropriated for this purpose. An act for their application was passed in 
1854. . ■ 

K. 

KAABA, see Caaba. ■ KABYLES, seQ Algiers. KADSEAH, see Parsees. 

KAFFEARIA, an extensive country in S. Africa, extending from the north of Cape 
Colony to the south of Guinea. Our war with the natives began in 1 798. 



The Kaffirs, headed by Mokanna, a prophet, 
attack Grahamstown ; repulsed with much 
slaughter 1819 

Again defeated, 1828, 1831 1834 

The Kaffirs rise ; sir Harry Smith, the governor, 
proclaims martial law, and orders the in- 
habitants to rise en masse for the defence of 
the frontier 31 Dec. 1850 

Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the 
Waterkloeff follow, and colonel Fordyce and 



several officers and men of the 74th regiment 
are killed 6 Nov. 1851 

Wreck of the Birkenhead with reinforcements 
from England (see Birkenhead) . 26 Feb. 1852 

The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed 
all the features of regular warfare, the go- 
vernor-general, Cathcart, attacked and de- 
feated them 20 Dec. ,, 

The conditions offered by Cathcart accepted, 
and peace restored . . . .9 March, 1853 



KAGOSIMA, see Japan, 1863. 

KAINARDJI (Bulgaria). Here a treaty was signed, 1774, between the Turks and 
Russians, which opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea to the latter. 

KALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the fortress of Widdin. This place was fortified 
by the Turks under Omer Pacha when they crossed the river, 28 Oct. 1853. In December, 
prince Gortschakoff, with the Russian army, determined to storm their entrenchments. The 
conflict lasted from 31 Dec. to 9 Jan. 1854, when the Russians were compelled to retire. 
Among these conflicts one occurred at Citate, 6 Jan. ; see Citate. Kalafat was invested 
28 Jan. and general Schilders attacked it vigorously on 19 April, without success, and the 
blockade was raised 21 April. 



KAL 415 KEN" 

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, which, by an arrangement of mirrors, produces 
a sj'mmetrical reflection of various transparent substances placed between, was invented by 
Dr. (afterwards sir David) Brewster, of Edinburgh ; it was suggested in 1814, and per- 
fected in 181 7 ; see Dchusscope. 

KALITSCH (Poland). Here the Eussians defeated the Swedes, Nov. 19, 1706, and 
here the Saxons, under the French general Eeyuier, were beaten by the Russians under 
Winzingerode, Feb. 13, 1S13. 

KALI YUGH, see Ccdl Yucjh. KALMAR, see Cahnar. KALMUCK, see Tartar. 
KALUNGA FORT (E. Indies), attacked unsuccessfully by the company's forces, and 
general Gillespie killed, 31 Oct. 1814 ; and again unsuccessfully, 25 ISTov. It was evacuated 
by the Nepaulese, 30 Nov. same year. 

KAJiITSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack 
chief, 1690 ; taken possession of by Russia, in 1697 ; and proved to be a peninsula by 
Behring, in 1728. Four mouths, couimenciug at our midsummer, may be considered as the 
spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being winter. The amiable captain 
Clarke, a companion of captain Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, 22 Aug. 1779, and was 
buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, iu the peninsula. 

KAMPTULICON, a substance used for flooring, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, 
and manufactured since 185 1, by Messrs. Tayler, Harvey, and Co. It is composed of India- 
rubber and cork, combined by masticating machines. 

KANGAROOS, animals indigenous to Australia (first seen by captain Cook, 22 June, 
1770), were bred at San Donato, the estate of prince Demidoff, in 1853, and since. 

KANSAS, a western state in N. America, organised as a territorj^, 30 May, 1854 ; 
admitted into the union, 29 Jan. 1861 ; and left open to slavery, contrary to the Missouri 
Compromise ; see Slavery in America. During greater part of 1855 this state was a scene of 
anarchy and bloodshed through eflbrts to make it a slave state. 
KARRACK, see Carrack. 

KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, renowned for its defence by general (now sir William) 
Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 men, and with three months' provisions and three days' 
ammunition, against the Russian general Mouravieff, with an armj'' of 40,000 infantry and 
10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted'from 18 June, to 28 Nov. 1855. The suff"eriugs of the 
garrison were very great from cholera and want of food. The Russians made a grand assault 
on 29 Sept. but were repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the garrison were over- 
come by famine alone.* Sandimth. Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. 

KATSBACH (Prussia) ; near this river the Prussian general Blucher defeated the French 
imder MacDonald and Ney, 26 Aug. 1813. He received the title of prince of Walilstatt, the 
name of a neighbouring village. 

KEBLE COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in memory of the rev. John Keble, author of the 
"Christian Year," born 25 April, 1792, died 29 March, 1866. The first stone of the 
building was laid by the archbishop of Cauterbur^^, 25 April, 1S68. 

KEEPER OF THE King's Conscience. The early chancellors were priests, and out of 
their supposed moral control of the king's mind gi-ew the idea of an equity court in contra- 
distinction to the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition through the lord chancellor to 
the king's conscience for remedy in matters for which the kings common law courts afford 
no redress. The keeper of the" king's conscience is therefore now the officer who presides in 
the court of chancery ; see Chancellor, and Lord Keeper. 

KEEPER (LORD) of the Great Seal of England differed only from the lord chan- 
cellor ill that the latter had letters patent, whereas the lord keeper had none. Richard, a 
chaplain, was the first keeper under Ranulph, iu ui6. The two offices were made one by 
5 Eliz. 1562. Cowell ; see Chancellor. The office of lord keeper of the great seal of 
Scotland was established in 1708, after the union. 

KENILWORTH CASTLE (Warwickshire), was built about 1120, by Geoff'rey de Clinton, 
whose grandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged and fortified by Simon de ]\Ioutfort, 
to whom Henry gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor. t Queen Elizabctli 

* On accepting general Williams' proposal for surrendering, general Mouravieff said : — " General 
■Williams, you have made yourself a name in history ; and posterity will stand amazed at the endurance, 
the courage, and the discipUne which this siege has called forth in the remains of an army. Let us 
arrange a capitulation that will satisfy the demands of war, withoiit outraging humanity." In 1S56 the 
general was made a baronet, with the title of sh- WiUiam Feu\vick WiUiams of Kars, and granted a 
pension. 

t After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of Simon de Montf ort, by prince Edward (after- 
wards Edward I.) 1=65, Montfort's younger son, Simon, shut himself up in KenUworth castle, which sus- 



KEN 416 KHE 

conferred it on her favourite, Dudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of the queen 
commenced 19 July, 1575, and cost the earl daily 1000?. 

KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey). The Chartist demonstration, 10 April, 1848, took 
place on the common. It was directed to be laid out as a public pleasure ground in 1852. 

KENSINGTON PALACE was purchased by William III., from lord chancellor Finch, 
who made the road through its park. The gardens were improved by queens Mary, Anne, 
and Caroline, who died here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, and George II. ; and 
here queen Victoria was born, 24 May, 1819. In Aug. 1855, by permission of the government, 
a military band played in Kensington gardens on Sundays, in presence of about 60,000 
persons. The practice was discontinued in 1856, being objected to by many persons ; but 
bands were ordered to play in other parks during the week. 

KENT, see Britain, and Holy Maid. Odo, bishop of Bayeux, brother of William the 
Conqueror, was made earl of Kent, 1067 ; and Henry Grey was made duke of Kent in 1710 ; 
he died without male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., was created duke of Kent 
in 1799. He was father of queen Victoria, and died in 1820 ; see England. 

KENT, an East Indiaman, of 1350 tons burthen, left the downs 19 Feb. 1825, bound for 
Bombay. In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful storm, 28 Feb. On the next 
day she accidentally took fire, and all were in expectation of perishing, either by the tempest 
or the flames. The Cambria, captain Cook, bound to Vera Cruz, providentially hove in 
sight, and nearly all on board were saved. The Kent blew up^ 2 March. 

KENTISH FIIiE, a term given to the continuous cheering common at the Protestant 
meetings held in Kent 1828 and 1829, with the view of preventing the passing of the 
Catholic Eelief bill. 

KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, admitted into the union 1792. It declared 
for strict neutrality in the conflict between the North and South in April, 1861, but was 
invaded by the southern troops in August. On their refusal to retire, after much corre- 
spondence, the legislature of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the union, 27 Nov. 1861. In 
the campaign that ensued sharp skirmishes took place, and on 19 Jan. 1862, the confederates 
under ZoUicoffer were defeated and himself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no confederate 
soldiers remained in Kentucky ; see United, States. 

KEPtOSELENE, a new ansesthetic, derived from the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. 
Merrill, of Boston, U.S., was tried and made known early in 1861. 

KERTCH, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing town on the 
straits of Yenikale, sea of Azof. It was entered by the allies (English and French) 24 May, 
1855 ; the Russians retired after destroying stores, &c. The place was totally dismantled by 
the allies, and the inhabitants removed. 

KET'S REBELLION : a revolt in Jul}', 1 549, • instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of 
Norfolk. He demanded the abolition of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors. 
The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. 
More than 2000 fell ; Ket and others were tried 26 Nov. and hanged soon after. 

KEW (Surrey). The palace was successively occupied by the Capel family and Mr. 
Molyneux ; by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1 730, and George III. Queen Charlotte died 
here, 4 Nov. 1818. A new palace erected by George III., under the direction of Mr. Wyatt, 
was pulled down in 1827. The gardens contained a fine collection of plants, and were decorated 
with ornamental buildings, most of them erected by sir William Chambers, about 1760. 

BOTANIC GARDEN'S. I Collections in the museum of Economic Botany- 

Mr. Alton retired from his office of director, began with the private collection of sir Wil- 

after fifty years service 1841 \ liam Hoolier, given by him in . . . 1847 

Succeeded' by sir AVilliam Hooker, at whose 

recommendation the gardens were opened to 

the public daily. The royal kitchen and 

forcing gardens incorporated with the botanic 

gardens 

The Meteorological Observatory presented to 

the British Association 

KEYS. The invention is ascribed to Theodore of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B.o, 

KHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving its name from Chersonesus, a peninsula), 

came under the sway of the great Mithridates about 120 B.C., and afterwards of that of Rome, 

A.D. 30. It continued important, and its possession was long disputed by the Russians and 

Greeks. It was taken by Vladimir, grand-duke of Russia, in 988, when he and his army 

tained a sisge for six months against the royal forces of Henry III., to whom it at length sun-endered. 
Upon this occasion was issued the " Dictum de Kenilwnrtk," or "ban of Kenilworth," enacting that all who 
took up arms against the king should pay him the value of their lands for five years. 



Under his charge the gardens were greatly 
improved, and magnificent conservatories 
erected. 

He died 12 Aug. 1865, and was succeeded by 
his son. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker . . . . 



KHI 417 KIL 

received Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's sister Anne, who obtained Kherson 
as her dowry. The city was destroyed by the Litliuanians ; and the Turks fonnd it deserted 
when tliey took possession of the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remains the Turks and 
Tartars liad spared, the Russians conveyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. Since 
the foundation of Odessa iu 1792, Kherson has declined. Potemkin, the favourite of 
Catherine, who died at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, and John Howard, the Englisli philan- 
tliropist, who died here 20 Jan. 1 790, is buried about three miles from the town, where an 
obelisk has been erected to his memory. 

KHIVA, in Turkistan, Asia, governed by a khan. An expedition sent against it by the 
emperor Nicholas of Russia iu 1839 perished through the rigour of the climate in 1840. 
Russian influence is extending. 

KHYBER PASS, Afghanistan ; see India, 1839, 1842. 

KIDDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), renowned for its carpet manufactures, established 
about 1735. It was made a parliamentary borough again in 1832. 

KIEL, chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a member of the Hanseatic league in 1300. 
The university was founded in 1665. By a treaty between Great Britain, Sweden, and 
Denmark, signed here 14 Jan. 1814, Norway was ceded to Sweden ; see Noriuay. An 
extraordinary assembly of the revolted provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, met here 9 Sept. 
1850. By the convention of Gastein between Austria and Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865, the 
former was to govern Holstein, but Kiel to be held by Prussia as a German federal port. 
This was annulled in 1866 by the issue of the war. 

KILCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body of the insurgent Irish defeated the British 
forces commanded by general Dundas, 23 May, 1798. The general in a subsequent engage- 
ment overthrew the rebels near Kilcullen-bridge, when 300 were slain. 

KILDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragli or race-course here was once a forest of oaks. 
Here was the nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her in the 5th century, and here was a 
building called the fire-house, where, it is supposed, the nuns kept the inextinguishable fire 
which existed till the reformation. The see was one of the earliest episcopal foundations in 
Ireland ; St. Conlseth, who died 519, the first prelate. The first Protestant bishop was 
Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. The see is valued, by an extent returned, 30 Hen. VIII., at 
69Z. IIS. 4f/. Irish per year. Kildare was imited to Dublin in 1846 ; see Duhlin. The 
insurrection in Kildare, which swelled into the rebellion, commenced in Kildare, 23 May, 
i/c,-' On that night, lieut. Gifford of Dublin, and a number of other gentlemen, were 
murdered by insurgents. This rebellion was quelled iu 1799. 

KILEENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to have been founded by St. Fachnan. Cardinal 
Paparo, in 1152, rendered it a suffragan see to Casliel ; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, 
and afterwards united to Killaloe. 

KILKENNY (S. E. Ireland), an English settlement aboiit 11 70. The castle was built 
1195, by Wm. Marshall, earl of Pembroke. At the parliament held here by Lionel duke of 
Clarence 1367, the statute of Kilkenny was passed.* After a siege the town surrendered to 
Cromwell, 28 March, 1650, on honourable terms. 

KILLALA (Mayo) was invaded by a French force landing from three frigates, under 
general Humbert, 22 Aug. 1798. The invaders were joined by the Irish insurgents, and 
the battles of Castlebar "and Colooney followed ; and the French were defeated at BaUy- 
namuck, 8 Sept. same year. 

KILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author of the tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, 
"that in 434 he came to a pleasant place where the river Muadas (Moy) empties itself into 
the ocean ; and on the south banks of the said river he built a noble church called Kil- 
Aladh, of which he made one of his discii:)les, Muredach, the first bishop. " The see of 
Achonry Avas united to Killala in the 17th century ; and both became united to Tuam in 
1839 ; see Tuam, and Bishops. 

KILLALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, 
St. Flannan, son to king Theodoric, consecrated at Rome by pope John IV. in 639, was also 
bishop. At the close of the 12th century, Roscrea was annexed to Killaloe, and Kilfenora 
has been held with it. Clonfert and Kilmacduach were united to them in 1836. 

KILLIECRANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). Here the forces of William III. commanded 
by general Mackay were defeated by the adherents of James II. under Graham of Claver- 
liouse, viscount Dundee, who fell in the moment of victory, 27 July, 1689. 

KILMACDUAGH (Galway). This see was held with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Colemau 

* It enacted, among other things, "that the alliance of the English by marriage with any Irish, the 
nurture of infantes, and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high ti-eason." And again, "if anie man of 
Enghsh race use an Irish name, Irish apparell, or anie other guisie or fashion of the Irish, his lands shall 
be seized, and his body imprisoned, till he shall conform to English modes and custoras." 

E E 



KIL 



418 



Km 



was its first bisliop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 Eliz. 1586, at 13Z. 6s. 8^. per 
annum. It is now united to Killaloe. 

KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), the nohle asylum of aged and disabled soldiers 
in Ireland, built by Wren, Avas founded by Arthur, earl of Granard, marshal-general of the 
army in Ireland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected the plan, in 1679. 

KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was founded here by St. Mochoallog or Molacli 
about 645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the 13th century. Ware. A charter 
was granted to Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Elizabeth in 1584. The town 
was invested by the Irish forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the duke of Ormoud. 
There was much fighting here in 1641 and 1642 ; see Fenians, March 1867. 

KILMOEE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses, 
from Brefnej^, and sometimes Triburnenses, from Triburna, a village ; but in 1454, the bishop 
of Tribuma, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected the parish church of St. Fedlemid into 
a cathedral. Florence O'Connact}'', the first bishop, died in 1231. Valued, 15 Jas. I. with 
Ardagh, at lool. per annum. The joint see of Elp)hin and Ardagh was united to it in 1S41. 

KILSYTH (central Scotland). Here Montrose defeated the Covenanters, 15 Aug. 1645, 
and threatened Glasgow. 

KINBUPiN", a fort, at the confluence of the rivers Bug and Dnieper, taken by the English 
and French, 17 Oct. 1855. Three floating French batteries, said to be the invention of the 
emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell-firing, were very effective. On the i8th the 
Russians blew up Oczakoff, a fort oj)posite. 

KINDER- GARTEN (children's garden), a system of education devised by Froebel, but 
practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany, in 1849, and in England in 
1 85 1. The system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and enlivened by toys, games, and 
singing, is set forth -in Rouge's " Kinder-Garten," published in 1858; and has been par- 
tially adopted in English schools. 

KING : German Konig, Latin Rex, Scythian Beis, Spanish Eey, Italian i?e, and French 
Eoy, are all said to come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief or head. Nimrod was the first 
founder of a kingdom, 2245 b.c. Dufrcsnoy. Misraim built cities in Egypt, and was the first 
who assumed the title of king in that division of the earth, 2188 B.C. The "manner of the 
king " is set forth in i Samuel viii., 11 12 B.C. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 B.C. 
Most of the Grecian states were governed bv kings ; and kings were the first rulers in Rome. 



1830 



IOS5 



King of England.' — The style was first used by- 
Egbert, 828 ; but the title Rex gentis An- 

glorum, king of the English nation, existed 

during the Hex^tarchy ; see Britain. 
The plural phraseology, we, us, our, was first 

adopted among our English kings by king 

John . 1199 

The title of "king of France " assumed, and the 

French arms quartered, by Edward III., in 

right of his mother 1340 

Pope Leo X. conferred the title of "Defender 

of the Faith" on Henry VIII. . 11 Oct. 1521 

Henry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king. 1542 
The style "Great Britain" was adopted at the 

union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne . 1707 
That of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain 

and Ireland " at the union, when the royal 

style and title was appointed to run thus : — 

" Georgius Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum 

Rex Fidei Defensor,'" "George the Third, by 

the grace of God, of the United kingdom of 

Great Britain and Ireland, king, Defender of 

the Faith " (France beuig omitted) i Jan. 1801 
Hanover omitted in the queen's style 21 June, 1837 
The queen was proclaimed in all the important 

places in India, as ' ' Victoria, by the Grace of 

God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 

and Ireland, and the colonies and dependen- 
cies thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, 

KINDRED, Table of, in the Book of Common Prayer, was set forth in 1563. 

KING-OF-AEMS : three for England,— Garter, Clarencieux, andNorroy ; Lyonkiug-at- 
arms for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland.- These offices are very ancient : Clarencieux is so 
named from Lionel, third son of Edward III., the sovereign who founded the order of the 
Garter ; see Garter. Lionel having by his wife the honour of Clare, was made duke of 
Clarence ; which dukedom afterwards escheating to Edward IV., he revived the ofiice of 
Clarence king-at-arms. Ulster was substituted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-at-arms, 
by Edward VI., 1552 ; but the monarch himself named it as a new institution. 



and Australia, queen," &c. . . i Nov. 1858 

The national assembly decreed that the title 
of ''king of Fro.nce," should be changed in 
the person of Louis XVI. to that of "■king of 
the French" 16 Oct. 1789 

The royal title abolished 1792 

Louis 'XVIII. styled "by the grace of God king 
of France and Navarre " ..... 1814 

Louis-Philippe I., the late sovereign, was in- 
vited to the monarchy under the style of the 
" king of the French " (see France) 9 Aug 

The emiDcrors of Germany, in order that their ^ 
eldest sons might be chosen their successors, 
in their own hfe-time politically obtained 
them the title of " king of the Romans." The 
first emperor so elected was Henry IV. 

Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, 
was induced to go to Germany, where he 
disbursed vast sums under tbe promise of 
being elected next emperor ; he was elected 
"king of the Romans" (l^ut failed in suc- 
ceeding to the imperial crown) . . . 1256 

The style "king of Rome" was revived by 
Napoleon I. who conferred it on his son, upon 
his birth 20 March, iSir 

The title " king of Italy " was conferred on 
Victor Emmanuel II. of Sardinia by the 
Italian parliament . . . .17 March, 1861 



KIN 



419 



Km 



KING'S ADVOCATE, see Queen's. 

KING'S BENCH or Queen's Bench, Court of, obtained its name from the king 
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judicature belongs in 
his absence, on a low bench at his feet. This court in ancient times was called Curia 
Domini Regis. 



CHIEF JUSTICES IN ENGLAND. 


1683. 


1326. 


John Fitz James. 




1539- 


Sir Edward Montagix. 




1546. 


Sir Richard Lyster. 




1552. 


Sir Roger Cholmely. 


1685. 


1553- 


Sir Thomas Bromley. 


1687. 


I5S4- 


Sir William Portman. 


1689. 


1556. 


Sir Edward Saunders. 


1709. 


1559- 


Sir Robert Catlyn. 




IS73- 


Sir Cristopher Wray. 




1591- 


Sir John Popham. 




1607. 


Sir Thomas Fleming. 


1718. 


1613. 


Sir Edward Coke. 


1725- 


1616. 


Sir Henry Montagu. 




1620 


Sir James Ley. 


1733- 


1624. 


Sir Ranulph Crewe. 




1626. 


Sir Nicholas Hyde. 




1631. 


Sir Thomas Richardson. 


1737- 


1635. 


Sir John Brampston. 


1754- 


1643. 


Sir Robert Heath. 


1756. 


164S. 


Henry UoUe. 




1655. 


John Glyn. 


1788. 


1659. 


Sir Richard Newdigate. 


1802. 


1659. 


Robert Nicholas. 




1660. 


Sir Robert Foster. 


1818. 


1663. 


Sir Robert Hyde. 




1665. 


Sir John Kelyng. 


1832. 


1671. 


Sir Matthew Hale. 




1676. 


Sir Richard Raynsford. 




1678. 


Sir Wilham Soroggs. 


1850. 


1681. 


Sir Francis Pemberton. 





Sir Edmund Saunders. 

Sir George Jefferies, after- 
wards lord Jefferies and 
lord chancellor. 

Sir Edward Herbert. 

Sir Robert Wright. 

Sir John Holt. 

Sir Thomas Parker, after- 
wards lord Parker and earl 
of Macclesfield and lord 
chancellor. 

Sir John Pratt. 

Sir Robert Raymond, after- 
wards lord Raymond. 

Sir Philip Yorke, afterwards 
lord Hardwicke and lord 
chancellor. 

Sir William Lee. 

Sir Dudley Ryder. 

William Murray, lord, after- 
wards earl of Mansfield. 

Lloyd, lord Kenyon, g June. 

Sir Edward Law, 12 April; 
created lord Ellenborough. 

Sir Charles Abbott, 4 Nov. ; 
afterwardslordTenterden. 
1832. Sir Thomas Denman, 7 Nov. ; 
created lord Denman : re- 
signed. 

John, lord Campbell, March; 
afterwards lord chancellor. 



Sir Alexander 
June. 



Cockbum, 



1695, 
1709. 
1711. 
1714. 
1727. 
1741. 
1751- 
1760. 
1764. 



CHIEF JUSTICES IN IRELANt). 

1690. Sir Richard Reynell, 6 Dec. 

Sir Richard Pj'ne, 7 June. 

Allan Brodrick, 24 Dec. 

Sir Richard Cox, 5 July. 

William Whitshed, 14 Oct. 

John Rogerson, 3 April. 

Thomas Marlay, 29 Dec. 

St.GeorgeCaulfield, 27 Aug. 

Warden Flood, 31 July. 

John Gore, 24 Aug. ; after- 
wards earl Annaly. 

John Scott, 29 April ; after- 
wards earl of Cloumel. 

Arthur Wolfe, 13 Jime ; af- 
terwards lord Kilwarden 
(killed in Emmet's insur- 
rection. 23 July, 1803). 

William Downes, 12 Sept. ; 
aftei-wards lord Downes. 

Charles Kendal Bushe, 14 
February. 

Edward Pennefather, 10 
November. 

Francis Blackbume, 23 Jan. 

Thomas Lefroy, March. 

James Whiteside, July. 



KING'S BENCH PRISON (Southwark), near the site of one of the oldest prisons of 
London, long used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it is said, prince Henry (afterwards 
Henry V. ) was committed by Justice Gascoigne. The prison was burnt down by the London 
rioters, 7 June, 1780; see Gordons No-X-iopery Mob. It was built in 1781, and contained 
about 230 rooms. Formerly, the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, to enable 
them to have houses or lodgings without the walls, or to purchase day-rules, to go out of the 
prison under certain regulations. The rules included St. George's Fields, &c. A consequence 
of the bankruptcy act, 1861, was the release of many insolvent debtors ; and an act was 
passed in 1862 " for discontinuing the queen's prison and removal of the prisoners to White- 
cross-street prison. " 

KING'S COLLEGES, see Aberdeen, and Cccvibridge. King's College, London, incor- 
porated 14 Aug. 1829, and opened 8 Oct. 1831. It was incorporated with the university of 
London in 1837. The hospital was founded in 1839. 

KING'S COUNSEL, the first under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made 
so, honoris causd, without patent or fee, in 1604, by James I. The first modern king's 
counsel was sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. 

KING'S COUNTY (Ireland), so named from Philip, king of Spain, the husband of queen 
Mary of England, in 1556. 

KING'S EVIL (scrofula), formeiij'' supposed to be cured by the king's touch ; the first 
being Edward the confessor, in 1058. In the reign of Charles II. 92, 107 persons were 
touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the kiug's i)hysician, they were nearly all cured ! 
Queen Anne officially announced in the London Gazette, 12 March, 1712, her intention to 
touch publicly. The custom was dropped by George I., 17 14. 

KING'S SPEECH. The first from the throne is said to have been by Henry I., 1107. 

KINGSTON, see ITull. — Kingston, Jamaica, was founded in 1693, after the great 
earthquake in 1692 which destroyed Port Royal ; it was constituted a city, 1802. An awful 
fire here ravaged a vast portion of the town, and consumed 500,000?. of property, 8 Feb. 
1782 ; another fire in 1843. The bishopric was established in 1856 ; see Jamaica. 

KINGSTON TRIAL. The duchess of Kingston was arraigned before the lords in 
Westminster-hall, on a charge of bigamy, having married first, captain Hervey, afterwards 
earl of Bristol, and next, during his lifetime, Eveljm Pierrepoint, duke of Kingston, 15-22 
April, 1776. She was found guilt}^, but, on pleading the privilege of peerage, the punish- 
ment of burning in the hand was remitted, and she was discharged on paying the fees. 

K E 2 



KIN 



420 



KNI 



KINGSTOWIST (Dublin). The harbour here was commenced in June, 1817. The name 
was changed from Dunleary in compliment to George IV. , who hero embarked for England 
at the close of his visit to Ireland, 3 Sept. 182 1. The Kingstown railway from Dublin was 
opened 17 Dec. 1834. 

KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of 
salutation among the Jews, i Samuel x. i, &c. The "kiss of charity," or "holy kiss," 
commanded in the Scriptures iRo7nans xvi. 16, &c.), was observed by the early Christians, 
and is still recognised by the Greek church and some others. Kissing the pope's foot began 
with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the 8th century. 

KIT-CAT CLUB, of above thirty noblemen and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to 
promote the Protestant succession. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members. It 
took its name from its dining at the house of Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in King-street, 
"Westminster. 

KITT'S, see Christopher's, St. 

KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be bent at the name of Jesus, about the year 
1275, by the order of the pope (see PMUppians ii. 10). The ceremony of a vassal kneeling 
to his lord is said to have begun in the 8th century. 

KNIGHTS. The word knight is derived from the Saxon Cniht, a servant {i.e., servant 
to the king, &c.). The institution of the Roman knights {Equites or horsemen, from equus, 
a horse), is ascribed to Eomulus, about 750 b. c. , when the curiae elected 300. Knighthood 
was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after confession and consecration of the 
sword, during the Saxon heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword 
of state was Athelstane, by Alfred, A.D. 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics 
conferring the honour of knighthood was suppressed in a synod held at Westminster in iioo. 
Ashmole's Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be 
knighted, or paji- a fine, 38 Hen. III. 1254. Salmon. On the decline of the empire of 
Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor of every manor 
became a petty sovereign ; his mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, 
and called a castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the 
women and treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich fiefs 
associated to repress these marauders, to make property secure, and to protect the ladies ; 
binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a religious ceremony. 
Cervantes' "Don Quixote," a satire on knight-errantry, was published in 1605; see 
Bannaret, Chivalry, Tournaments. 

PRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.* 



Albert, Saxony 

Alcantara, instituted about . 

Alexander Nevskoi, St., Eus- 
sia ...... 

Amaranta, Sweden (^female) . 

Andrew, St., Russia 

Andrew, St., Scotland (see 
Thistle) . . 787, 1540, 

Angelic Knights, Greece 337, 

Anne, St., Holstein, now Rus- 
sia 

Annonciada, Savoy, about . 

Annunciada, Mantua 

Anthony, St., Hainault . . 

Anthony, St., Bavaria . 

Avis, Portugal, about . . 

Bannerets, England, 1360. 
Renewed. See Bannerets . 

Bath, England, 1399. Re- 
newed. See Bath . , . 

Bear, Switzerland . 

Bee, France (female) . . . 

Belgic Lion .... 

Beuto d'Avis, St., Portugal . 

Black Eagle, Prussia . . 

Blaise, St., Armenia, 12th 
century. 

Blood of Christ, Mantua 

Bridget, St., Sweden . . 

Broomflowers, France . 

Brotherly (or Neighboxirly) 
Love, Austria (female) . . 



1850 
1156 

1722 
1645 



173s 
1360 
1618 
1382 
1382 
1162 

1485 

1725 
1213 

1703 
181S 
1162 
1 701 



1608 
1366 
1234 

1708 



Calatrava, Castile, instituted 

by Sancho III 1158 

Catherine, St., Palestine . . 1063 

Catherine, St., Russia (/eijiafe) 1714 



I7S9 

1771 
1811 
1702 
1203 
1317 
1558 



1660 



Charles, St., Wtlrtemberj 

Charles III. (or the Immacu- 
late Conception), Spain 

Charles XIII., Sweden . 

Chase, Wtirtemberg . . . 

Christ, Livonia 

Christ, Portugal and Rome . 

Christian Charity, France 

Cincinnati, America . . . 

Compostello (see St. James). 

Conception of the Virgin 

Concord, Prussia . 

Constantine, St., Constanti- 
nople, about 313 ; by em- 
peror Isaac, 1 190; Parma, 
1699 ; stuce removed to 
Naples. 

Crescent, Naples, 1268. Re- 
vived 1464 

Crescent, Turkey . . . 1801 

Cross of Christ 

Cross of the South, Brazil 

Crown of Italj' 

Crown of Oak, Netherlands 

Crown, Prussia . . . , 

Crown Royal, France (Fries 
landj ..... 

Crown, Wtirtemberg 



1217 
1822 
1868 



S02 



«IS! ' 



Danebrog, Denmark, institu- 
ted by Waldemar II., 1219; 

revived by Christian V. . 1671 
Death's Head (female), by the 

widow Louisa EUzabeth of 

Saxe Masburg . 
Denis, St., France 
Dog and Cock, France 
Dove of Castile . 
Dragon, Hungary . 
Dragon Overthrown, German 1418 
Eagle (see Black, Mexican, 

Red, White). 
Ear of Corn and Ermine, 

Brittany, about . . . 
Elephant, Denmark (about 

iigo), by Christian I. . 
Bhzabeth, St., Portugal and 

BrazQ 

EUzabeth Theresa, Austria 

(female) .... 
Esprit, St., Prance . . . 
Ferdinand, St., Naples . 
Ferdinand, St., Spain . . 
Fidelity, Baden 
Fidelity, Denmark . . . 
Fools, Cleves .... 
Francis I., Two Sicilies . . 
Francis Joseph, Austria . 
Frederick, Wtirtemberg . . 
Friesland (or Crown Royal), 

France .... 



1709 
1267 
500 

1379 
1439 



1442 
1458 
1801 



1750 
1579 
1800 
1811 
1715 
1732 
1380 



1830 



802 



* Enlarged and corrected from Edmondson, Carlisle, and the " Almanach de Gotha ;" the early dates 
are doubtful. Many orders were instituted after the settlement of Europe in 1815. 



KNI 



421 



KNI 



1349 
168s 
726 



1494 



1729 



1349 
1472 



1492 
1769 
1317 
1200 
1190 
1522 



312 



• 1770 



KNIGHTS, continued. 

Garter (which see), England . 
Generosity, Brandenburg 
Genet, France . . . . 
George, St., and the Reunion, 

Naples . . 1800 and 1819 
George, St., Angelic Knights ngi 
George, St., Austiia . 1470, 
George, St., Defender of the 
Immaculate Conception, 
Bavaria .... 
George, St., England (see Gar- 
ter) 

George, St. , Genoa . 

George, St., Hanover . . 

George, St., Ionian Isles 

George, St., Rome . . . 

George, St., Russia 

George, St., Spain . . . 

George, St., Venice 

Gerion, St., Germany . . 

Glaive, Sweden 

Glory, Turkey . . . . 

Golden Angel (afterwards St. 

George), about . 
Golden Fleece, instituted at 

Bruges by Philii^ the Good, 1429 
Golden Lion, Hesse Cassel 
Golden Shield and Thistle, 

France .... 
Golden Spur, by Pius IV. . 
Golden Stole, Venice, befoi-e 
Gregory, St., Rome 
Guelphis, Hanover . 
Henry, St., Sasony 
Henry the Lion, Brunswick 
Hermengilde, Spain . 
Hohenzollem, Prussia . 
Holy Ghost, France . 
Holy Vial (St. Remi), France 
Hospitallers [which see), 1099 
of Rhodes, 1308; of Malta, 
Hubert, St., Germany, by 
the duke of JuUers and 

Cleves 

Iron Cross, Prussia 
Iron Crown, Lombardy, 1805, 
Iron Helmet, Hesse Cassel . 
Isabella, St., Spain, 1804 ; Por- 
tugal (female) . . . 1801 
Isabella the Catholic, Spain . 1815 
James, St., Holland . . . 1290 
James, St., Portugal . . 1310 
James, St. , of the Sword, San- 
tiago, 1 175; Spain and Por- 
tugal 

Januarius, St., Naples . 
Jerusalem (see Malta) . . 
Jesus Christ, Rome, insti- 
tuted by John XXII., 1320. 
Reformed as Jesus and 
Mary, by Paul V. 
Joachim, St., Germany . . 
John of Aeon, St., after 
John of Jerusalem, St. (see 
Hospitallers) . . . . 
John, St., Pmssia . 



1370 

1559 
737 
1831 
1815 
1736 
1834 
1814 
1851 
IS79 
499 

1521 



1444 
1S13 
1816 
1814 



1177 
1738 



1615 
1755 
1377 



Joseph, St., Tuscany . . 1807 
Juhan of Alacantara, St. . 1156 
Knot, Naples . . . . 1352 
La Calza, Venice, about . . 737 
Lamb of God, Sweden . . 1564 
Lazarus, St., France, before 

1154; united with that of 

St. Maurice, Savoy 
Legion of Honour, France 
Leopold, Austria . . . 
Leopold, Belgium . 
Lily of Aragon . . . , 
Lily of Navarre, about . 
Lion, Holland 

Lion (see Sun) . . . . 
Lion of Zahringen, Baden 
Lioness, Naiales, about . . 
Loretto, Lady of . . . 
Louis, Bavaria 

Louis, Hesse Darmstadt . . 
Louis, St., France . 
Louisa, Prussia (female) 
Malta (see Hospitallers). 
Maria de Merced, St., Spain . 
Maria Louisa, Spain (female) . 
Maria Theresa, Austria . . 
Mark, St., Venice, about 828. 

Renewed .... 
Martyrs, Palestine . . . 
Maurice, St., Savoy 
Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria . 
Medjidi^, Turkey . 
Merit, Hesse Cassel . . . 
Merit, Pi-ussia 

Merit, Saxony . . . 

Mexican Eagle 
Michael, St., France . . . 
Michael, St., Germany . 
Montjoie, Jerusalem, before . 1180 
Neighbourly Love, Austria 
(female) ... . . 1708 



1572 
1802 
1808 
1832 
1410 
1043 
181S 



1399 
1587 
1827 
1807 
1693 



1218 
1792 
1757 

1562 
1014 
1434 
1806 
1852 
1769 
1740 
1815 
1865 
1469 
1618 



1382 
1704 
722 
1847 



1316 
1818 



1812 



Nicholas, St., Naples 

Noble Passion, Saxony . . 

Oak of Navarre, Spain . 

Olaf, St., Sweden . . . 

Osnianie, Turkey . 

Our Lady of Montesa . . 

Our Lady of the Conception 

of Villa Viyosa 
Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 
Palatine Lion . . . . 1768 
Palm and Alligator, Africa, 

granted to Gov. Campbell in 1837 
Passion of Jesus Christ, 

France 1384 

Patrick, St., Ireland . . . 1783 
Paul, St. , Rome . . . .1540 
Pedro I., Brazil . . . 1826 
Peter, Frederic Lewis, Old- 
enburg 1838 

Peter, St., Rome . 

Pius, founded by Pius IV. 

Pius IX., Rome. . . . 1B47 

Polar Star, Sweden. Revived 1748 

Porcupine, France . . . 1393 

Reale, Naples, about . . . 1399 



1520 
1559 



Red Eagle, Prussia, 1705, 1712, 

1734. Revived . . . 1792 
Redeemer (or Saviour), Greece 1833 
Remi, St. (or Holy Vial), about 499 
Rosary, Spam . . . .1212 
Rose, Brazil .... 1829 
Round Table, England, by 

Alfred (see Garter) . 516 or 528 
Rue Crown, Saxony . . 1807 
Rupert, St., Germany . . 1701 
Saviour, Aragon . . .1118 
Saviour, or Redeemer, Greece 1833 
Saviour of the World, Sweden 1561 
Savoy, Italy .... 1815 
Scale, Captile, about . . 1316 
Scarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 1700 
Sepulchre, St., Palestine . . 1099 
Seraphim, Sweden . 1260 or 1265 
Ship and Crescent, France . 1269 
Slaves of Virtue, Germany 



1351 

1668 
1861 
1748 
1764 
1561 
1808 
500 
1440 

1192 



Female Knights. It is said that the first were 
the women who preserved Tortosa from falling 
into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout 
resistance. Large immunities and favours were 
granted to the women and their descendants. 
Several female orders appear in the previous list. 
Ladies have been admitted to several male orders. 

Knights of Glyn and Kerry in Ireland. The 
heads of two branches of the family of Fizgerald, 



(female) .... 1662 
Stanislas, St. , Poland . . 1765 
Star, France .... 1022 
Star, Sicily . . . . 

Star of the Cross (female), 
Austria .... 
Star of India . . . . 
Star of the North, Sweden . 
Stephen, St., Hungary . 
Stephen, St., Tuscany . . 
Sun and Lion, Persia . . 
Swan, Flanders, about . 
Swan, Prussia (female) . . 
Sword (or Silence), Cyprus, 

about . . . ' . 
Sword, Sweden, 1525. Re- 
vived 1748 

Templars (see Templars) . 1119 
Teste Morte (Death's Head), 

Wiirtemberg (female) . . 1652 
Teutonic, Austria, about iigo ; 

1522 ; Reorganised . . 1840 
Thistle of Bourbon . . . 1370 
Thistle, Scotland, 809. Re- 
vived . . . 1540, 1687 
Thomas of Aeon, St., after . 
Toison d'or (golden fleece) 
Tower and Sword, Portugal, 

1459. Revived . 
Tusin, or Hungarian knights, 

about 

Two Siciles .... 
Vasa, Sweden . . . . 1772 
Vigilance (or White Falcon), 1732 
Virgin Mary, Italy . . . 1233 
Virgin of Mount Carmel, 

France 1607 

Wends, Mecklenburg . . 1864 
White Cross, Tuscany . . 1814 
White Eagle, Poland, about 

1325. Revived . . . 1705 
White Falcon, Saxe Weimar . 1732 
Wilhelm, Holland . . . 1815 
Wing of St. Michael, Portu- • 

gal 1172 

WUxdimir, St., Russia . . 1782 

who still enjoy the distinctions bestowed on then- 
ancestors by sovereigns in the 13th century. 
Knights of the Shire, or of Parliament ; sum- 
moned by the king's writ and chosen by the free- 
holders, first summoned by Simon de Montfort, in 
1254, and in a more formal manner, 20 Jan. 1265. 
There are writs extant as far back as 11 Edward I. 
1283. The knights are still girded with a sword 
when elected, as the writ prescribes. 



1377 
1429 



1562 



KNIVES. In England, Hallamshire has been renowned for its cutlery for five centuries ; 
CLaucer speaks of the " Sheffield thwytel. " Stow says that Richard Mathews on the Fleet- 
hridge was the first Englishman who made^?ie knives, &c. ; and that he obtained a prohi- 
bition of foreign ones, 1563. Clasp or spring knives became common about 1650 ; coming 



KNO 



422 



KOS 



7. Thorougli reform in the naturalisation laws. 

8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all 

sects and classes, with the Bible, God's holy 

word, as a univei-sal text-book. 

A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the 

above, called Know Somethings. Both bodies were 

absorbed into the two parties. Democrats and 

Republicans, at the presidential election in Nov. 



originally from Flanders. — Knife-cleaning machities were patented by Mr. George Kent in 
1844 and 1852 ; others have been invented, by Masters, Price, &c. ; see Forks. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose in 1853, in the United States of N. America. 
Their principles were emlaodied in the following propositions (at New York, 1855). They 
possessed several newspapers and had much political influence. 

1. The Americans shall rule America. 

2. The Union of these States. 

3. No North, no South, no Bast, no West. 

4. The United States of America — as they are — one 

and inseparable. 

5. No sectarian interferences in our legislation or in 

the administration of American law. 

6. Hostihty to the assumptions of the pope, through 

the bishops, &,c., in a republic sanctified by 
Protestant blood. 

KOH-I-NOOR, or "Mountain of Light," the East India Diamond ; see Diamonds. 

KOLIN or KoLLiN (Bohemia). Here the Austrian general Daun gained a signal victory 
over Frederick the great of Prussia, 18 June, 1757. In commemoration, the military order 
of Maria Theresa was instituted by the empress-queen. 

KOMOEN or Comoen (Hungary), an ancient fortress town, often taken and retaken during 
the wars with Tm'key. Near it the Hungarians defeated the Austrians 11 July, 1849, but 
surrendered the town, i Oct. 1849. 

KONIEH (fonnerly Iconium). Here the Turkish army was defeated by the pacha of 
Egypt, after a long sanguinary fight, 21 Dec. 1832. The grand vizier was taken prisoner. 

KONIGGRATZ (Bohemia), near here was fought the decisive battle between the Austrians 
commanded by marshal Benedek, and the Prussians commahded by their king William I,, 
3 July, 1866. Prince Frederick Charles halted at Kammeniz on Monday 2 July, his troops 
commenced their march at midnight, and the first shot was fired about 7. 30 A. m. 3 July. 
The attack began at Sadowa (after which the battle is also named) about 10 o'clock, and a 
desperate struggle ensued, the result appearing uncertain, till the army of the crown prince of 
Prussia arrived about 12.30. When Chlum, which had been taken and lost seven times by 
the' Prussians, was taken for the eighth time, the fate of the day was decided ; the retreat of 
the Austrians, at first orderly, eventually became a hasty disastrous flight. Above 400, 000 men 
were engaged in this battle, one of the greatest in modern times. The Austrians are said to 
have lost 174 guns, about 40,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The Prussian 
loss was about 10,000 men. The victory gave the supremacy in Germany to Prussia ; unity 
to North Germany, and Venetia to Italy. It has led to the legislative independence of 
Hungary. 

KONIGSBERG, the capital of east Prussia, was founded by the Teutonic knights in 
1255, and became the residence of the grand master in 1457. It joined the Hanseatic league 
in 1365. It was ceded to the elector of Brandenburg in 1657, and here Frederick III. was 
crowned the first king of Prussia in 1701. It was held by the Russians 1758-64, and by the 
French in 1807. Here the present king and queen were crowned, Oct. 18, 1861. 

KONIGSTEIN tun (Nassau, Germany), most capacious, was built by Frederick 
Augustus, king of Poland, in 1725. It was made to hold 233,667 gallons of wine ; and on 
the top, which was railed in, was accommodation for twenty persons to regale themselves. 
The famous tun of St. Bernard's holds 800 tons ; see Heidelberg Tun. 

KORAN or Alcokan (Al-Kuean), the sacred book of the Mahometans, was written 
about 610, by Mahomet (who asserted that it had been revealed to him by the angel Gabriel 
in "twenty- three years), and published by Abubeker about 635. Its general aim was to unite 
the professors of idolatry and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one God (whose unity 
was the chief point inculcated), under certain laAvs and ceremonies, exacting obedience to 
Mahomet as the prophet. The leading article of faith preached is compounded of an eternal 
truth and a necessary fiction, namelj'-, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet is the 
apostle of God. Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 1143 ; into French 1647 j 
into English by Sale 1734 ; and into other European languages 1763 et seq. It is a rhapsody 
of 6000 verses, divided into 114 sections ; see Mahometanism, &c. 

KOREISH, an Arab tribe which had the charge of the Caaba, or sacred stone of Mecca, 
and strenuously opposed the pretensions of Mahomet. It was defeated by him and his 
adherents, 623-30. 

KOSZTA AFFAIR. Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee, when in the United States in 
1850, declared his intention of becoming an American citizen, and went through the pre- 
liminary forms. In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on 21 June was seized by a boat's crew 



KRA 423 LAC 

from the Austrian brig Iluzzar. By direction of the American niinister at Constantinople, 
captain Ingraliam of the American sloop St. Louis, demanded his release ; bnt having heard 
that the prisoner was to be clandestinely transported to Trieste, he demanded his surrender 
by a certain time, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on 2 July; Koszta was then 
given up. On i Aug. , the Austrian government protested against these proceedings in a 
circular addressed to the European courts, but eventually a compromise was effected, and 
Koszta returned to the United States. 

KRASNOI (central Russia). Here the French defeated the Russians, 15 Aug. 1812; and 
here they were themselves defeated after a series of conflicts, 14-18 Nov. following. 

KREASOTE, see Creasotc. 

KREMLIiS!', a palace at Moscow, built by Demetri, grand-duke of Russia, about 1376. 
It was burnt down in Sept. 1812, and re-built in 1816. 

KU KUX KLAjST, the name of a secret society in the southern states of the Union, prin- 
cipall}'' in Tennessee in ISTorth America, bitterly opposed to the ruling men. Early in 1868, 
this society issued lists of proscribed persons, who if they did not quit the country after 
warning became liable to assassination. General Grant endeavoured to suppress this society 
in April. 

KUNNERSDORF, Battle of, see Cunncrsclorf. 

KUNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John Hunniades, the Hungarian, defeated the 
Turks, 24 Dec. 1443. 

KURRACHEE, a floiuishing port in N". "\V. India, was taken by the British, 3 Feb. 1839. 

KUSTRIlvT or Custrin (Prussia), a fortified town, besieged and biu-nt by the Russians, 
22 Aug. 1758 J taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814. 

L. 

LABARUM, see Standards. 

LABORATORY. The Royal Institution laboratory, the first of any importance in 
London, was established in 1800. In it were made the discoveries of Davy, Faraday, Tyn- 
dall, and Frankland ; see Royal Institution. 

LABOURERS, Statute of, regulating wages, enacted 1350. A conference of philan- 
thropists on the condition of agricultural labourers was held at Willis's rooms, "Westminster, 
28 March, 186S. 

LABOURING CLASSES Dwelling House Acts, passed, 1855, and May 1866 ; see 
Working -Men. 

LABRADOR (North America), discovered by Sebastian Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Corte 
Real in 1500 ; made a Moravian missionary station in 1771. 

LABUAN, an Asiatic island N. W. Borneo ; ceded to the British in 1846, and given up 
to sir James Brooke in 1848. The bishopric was founded 1855. Governor, John Pope^Hen- 
nessy, 1867 ; see Borneo. 

LABURNUM, called also the golden chain and Cytisus Laburnum, was brought to these 
countries from Hungary, Austria, &c., about 1576. Ashe. 

LABYRINTH. Four are mentioned : the first, said to have been built by Dajdalus, in the 
island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 B.C. ; the second, of Arsinoe, in Egypt, 
in the isle of Mreris, by Psammeticiis, king of that place, about 683 B.C. ; the third, 
at Lemnos, remarkable for its sumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a stalactite 
grotto ; and the fourth at Clusium, in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 
520 B. c. Pliny. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected with the story of Fair Rosamond ; 
see Rosamond. The Maze at Hampton Court, was formed in the 1 6th century. 

LACE of very delicate texture was made in France and Flanders in 1320. Its importa- 
tion into England was prohibited in 1483 ; but it was iised in the court costume of 
Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous 
for their fine lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four 
j)ounds in London ; and its value, when manufactured, has been increased to forty pounds, 
ten times the price of standard gold. A framework knitter of Nottingham, named Ham- 
mond, is said to have invented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the manufacture of 
lace from studying the lace on his wife's cap, about 1768. Macculloch. So many improve- 
ments have been made in this manufacture, particularly by Heathcote (1809, 1S17, &c.), 
Morley and Leaver (181 1, &c.), that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost 17Z. may now lie 
had for 7s. ( 1 853). Urc. The process of ' ' gassing, " by which cotton lace is said to be made 



LAC 424 LAM 

equal to fine linen lace, was invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Nottingham, He 
died in Nov. 1862. 

LACEDiEMON or Laconia. {Tzakonia), see Sparta. 

LACTEALS (absorbent vessels connected with digestion), were discovered in a dog by 
Jasper Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and their termination in the thoracic duct by Pecquet, 
165 1 ; see Lympliatics. 

LADRONE ISLES (N". Pacific), belonging to Spain, discovered by Magellan, in 1520. 
He first touched at the island of Guam. The natives having stolen some of his goods, he 
named the islands the Laclrones, or Thieves. In the 17th century they obtained the name 
of Marianne's islands from the queen of Spain. 

LADY. The masters and mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out bread 
to the poor weekly ; and M'ere therefore called Lafords and Lef-cla7js— signifying bread-givers 
(from Jilaf, a loaf) : hence Lords and Ladies. "Wedgwood considers this fanciful, and derives 
the words from the Anglo-Saxon, laford, lord, and Moifdig lady.— Lady day (March 25), a 
festival instituted about 350, according to some authorities, and not before the 7th century 
according to others ; see Annunciation. The year was ordered to begin on Jan. ist, in 
France in 1564 ; and in Scotland, by proclamation, on 17 Dec. 1599 ; but not in England 
till 3 Sejjt. 1752, when the style was altered. 

LAGOS, in the Bight of Benin (Africa), was assaulted and taken by the boats of a 
British squadron, under commodore Bruce, 26, 27 Dec. 1851. This affair arose out of 
breaches of a treaty for the suppression of the slave-trade. In 1862, the place was ceded 
to the British government, and created a settlement : Henry Stanhope Freeman, first 
governor. 

LAGOS-BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a battle between admiral BoscaAven and the 
French admiral De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the engagement, and died next day, 
17, 18 Aug. 1759. The Centaur and Modeste were taken, and the Redoubtable and Ocean 
run on shore and burnt : the scattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz. 

LA HOGUE (N". W. France), Battle of, 19 May, 1692, between the English and Dutch 
combined fleets, under admirals Russell and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded by 
admiral Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid 
victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly, 
and thus preventing a threatened descent upon England. 

LAHORE (K W. India), was taken by Baber about 1520, and was long the capital of the 
Mongol empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. It was occupied by sir Hugh 
Gough 22 Feb. 1846, who in March concluded a treaty of peace. 

LAKE DWELLINGS contain relics of the stone, iron, and brass ages. Herodotus (about 
450 B.C.) described the Pa?.onians as living on platforms in Lake Prasias. In 1855, Dr. 
Keller discovered the remains of lake habitations which had been supported on piles in 
several Swiss lakes ages ago. His book was published in England in 1866. 

LAKE POETS, a term applied to Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, from their having 
resided in the neighbourhood of the lakes of Westmoreland. 

LAKE REGILLUS (Italy), where, tradition states, the Romans defeated the Latin 
auxiliaries of the expelled Tarquins, about 499 b. c. 

LAKES CHAMPLAIJSr, ERIE, and ONTARIO. These lakes were the scenes of many 
actions between the British and Americans in the war of independence (about 1776 and 
1777), and in the war of 1813-14. 

LAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet, is a corrupt form of Buddjiisni 
{which see). 

LAMBETH PALACE. A considerable portion was built in the 13th century, by Hubert 
■ Walter, archbishop of Canterbury. The chapel was erected in 1196. The tower of the 
church was erected about 1375 ; and other parts of the edifice in the 15 th century. Simon 
of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, was barbarously killed here by the followers of Wat 
Tyler, who attacked the palace, burnt the furniture and books, and destroyed the registers 
and public papers, 14 June, 1381. The domestic portion of the palace Avas greatly enlarged 
for archbishop Howley (who died 1848), by Mr, Blore, at an expense of 52,000/. ; see Canter- 
bury, and Articles. 

LAMIAN WAR, 323 e.g., between Athens and her allies (excited by Demosthenes, the 
orator), and Antipater, governor of Macedon. Antipater fled to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was 
there besieged. He escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at Cranon, 322 B.o. 

LAMMAS-DAY, the ist of August, one of om four cross quarter-days of the year. Whit- 
suntide was the first, Lammas the second, Martinmas the third, and Candlemas the last ; 



LAM 425 LAN 

and such partition of tlie yeai- was once equally common with the pi-esent divisions of Lady- 
daj'-, Midsummer, Michaelmas, and Christmas. Some rents are yet payable at each of these 
quarterly days in England, and very generally in Scotland. Lammas probably comes from 
the Saxon, hlammoissc, loaf-mass, because formerly upon that day our ancestors offered bread^ 
made of new wheat ; anciently, those tenants that held lands of the cathedral church of 
York were by tenure to bring a lamb alive into church at high mass. 

LAMPETER COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), Avas founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and 
incorporated 1828. Henry James Prince, founder of the Agapemone {loliich see), was one of 
the revivalist brotherhood, begun among the students here about 1836. 

LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictetus the philosopher sold after his death for 3000 
drachms, 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. London streets were 
first lighted with oil-lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps in 1814. A lamp "constructed to 
produce neither smoke nor smell, and to give considerably more light than any lamp hitherto 
known," was patented by M. Aime Argand in 1784, and was brought into general use in 
England early in the present century. On his principle are founded the lamp invented by 
Carcel about 1803, and since 1825,' the moderator lamps of Levavasseur, Hadi-ot, and Neu- 
burger ; see Safety Lamp. 

LANARK (W. Scotland), was a Roman station, and made a royal bi;rgh 1103. 

LANCASHIRE was created a county palatine by Edward III. for his son John of Gaunt, 
who had married the daughter of Henry first duke of Lancaster, in 1359, and succeeded him 
in 1361. The court of the Duchy Chamber of Lancaster was instituted in 1376. On the 
accession of Henry IV. in 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. Net revenue to the queen 
in 1866, 29,000^. ; total receipts, 42,545?. ; see Cotton. 

LANCASTER, supposed to have been the Ad Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was 
gi-anted by William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, who erected a castle upon its hUl. It was 
taken by the Jacobites, Nov. 1715 and Nov. 1745. It was disfranchised for bribery by the 
Reform act of 1867. 

LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS, on a system of education by means of mutual instruction, 
devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, but were not much patronised till about 1808. The 
system led to the formation of the British and Foreign School society, in 1805, whose schools 
are uusectarian, and use the Bible as the only means of religious instruction. Lancaster was 
accidentally killed at New York in 1838. 

LANCASTRIANS, see Roses. 

LANCET, a weekly medical journal, edited by Thomas "Wakley, surgeon (afterwards 
coroner for Middlesex and M.P. for Finsbury), and first published in the autumn of 1823. An 
injunction obtained by Mr. Abernethy against the publication of his lectures in the Lancet, 
was dissolved by the lord chancellor in 1825. Tlie proprietors of the " Lancet " have at various 
times employed medical men as commissioners of enquiry. The reports of the Analytical 
Sanitary Commission of the " Lancet" in 1851-54, were published by Dr. A. H. Hassall, as 
"Food and its Adulterations," in 1855. The "Lancet " commissioners (three physicians) en- 
quired into the state of workhouse infirmaries in London, 1865, and in the country, 1867. 

LAND was let generally in England for is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The whole 
rental of the kingdom was about 6,ooo,oooZ. in 1600; about 14,000,000?. in 1688 ; in 1798 
Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the 
rent of land at 50 millions, that of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 mil- 
lions ; but in his estimate were exempted much land, and the inferior class of houses. The 
rental of the United Kingdom was estimated at 59,500,000?. in 1851. An act for rendering 
more easy the transfer of land was passed in 1862 ; see Agriculture. 



A species of Land-tax was exacted in England 
in tlie loth century, which produced 82,000!. 
(see Danegelt) in loiS 

Land Banks were proposed by Yarranton in . 1648 

The Land-tax imposed 1699, grew out of a sub- 
sidy scheme of 4s. in the pound, which pro- 
duced 500,000?. in 1692 

Ministers were left in a minority in the House 
of Commons on the land-tax bill in 1767 ; it 
being the first instance of the kind on a 
money bill since the Revolution. Its rate 
varied in different years from is. to 4s. in the 
pound. 

Mr. Pitt made the tax perpetual .at 4s. in the 
pound, but introduced his plan for its re- 
demption 2 April, 1798 

The tax in iSio produced 1,418,337?. ; in 1820, 



1,338,420?. ; in 1830, 1,423,618?. ; in 1840, 
1,298,622?. ; in 1852, 1,151,613?. 

Lord Braybrooke's successful experiment in 
Essex, of allotting small portions of land to 
poor families, to assist them and relieve the 
parish poor-rates 

[The little colony was first called Pauper Gar- 
dens, but afterwards IHeio Village, and it is 
calculated that 200?. per annum were saved to 
the parish.] 

Landed Estates Court, established to "facili- 
tate the sale and transfer of land in Ireland " 
(see Encumbered JisUUes Act) .... 

The Land Registry office was opened in . . 

From the Revolution to the year iSoo, the land- 
tax had yielded 227,000,000?. 



LAN 426 LAN 

LAND CREDIT COMPANY (for Silesia), established by Frederick the Great ; see Credits 
Foncieres, 1763. 

LANDEN or Neerwinden (Belgintn). Near here the French iinder marshal Luxembourg 
defeated the allies, commanded by William IIL of England, chiefly through the cowardice 
of the Dutch, 19 July (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Berwick, illegitimate son of James IL, 
fighting on the side of France, was taken prisoner. 

LANDGRAVE (from land and grave, a coiint), a German title, which commenced in 
1 130 with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title of the house of Hesse about 1263. 

LANDLORD, see Rent. 

LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians were defeated by the Austrians under marshal 
Laudohn, 23 June, 1760. 

LANGENSALVA (N. Germany). Here the Hanoverian army on its way to join the 
Bavarians was attacked bythe Prussians, who were defeated with the loss of about a thousand 
killed and wounded, and 912 prisoners, 27 June 1866. The victoiy was of little avail, for 
the Hanoverians were soon surrounded by Falckenstein, and compelled to capitulate on 
honourable terms on 29 June. 

LANGOBARDI, see Lomhards. 

LANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of 
Murray, defeated the army of Mary queen of Scots, 13 May, 1568. Mary fled to England 
and crossed the Solway Frith, landing at Workington, in Cumberland, 16 May. Soon after- 
wards she was imprisoned by Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE must either have been revealed originally from heaven, or the fruit of 
human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most 
of the Greek and Roman writers ; the former by the Jews and Christians, and many profound 
modern philosophers. Some suppose Hebrew to have been the language spoken by Adam ; 
others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic are only dialects of the original tongue. 
"And the whole earth was of one language and of one speech," Oeriesis xi. i. The original 
European languages were thirteen, viz. : Greek, Latin, German, Sclavonian, spoken in the 
east ; Welsh ; Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, in the mountains of Epirus ; 
Tartarian ; the old lllyrian ; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the 
north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in east Friesland. From the Latin sprang the Italian, 
French, Spanish, and Portuguese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From 
the Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. 
There are 3664 known languages, or rather dialects, in the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 
587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American languages and dialects. Adehbng. George I. 
in 1724, and George II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of modern languages and of 
history to each of the universities of England. In 1861 and 1862 professor Max Miiller 
lectured on the "Science of Language" at the Royal Institution, London.* He divides 
languages into three families : — 



I. Ary 4.N" (in Sanskrit, noble). 
Southern Division. India (Prakrit, and Pali; Sans- 

ki-it ; dialects of India ; Gipsy). 
Iranic (Parsi ; Armenian, &c.). 

Northern Division. 

Celtic (Cjrmric : Cornish, Welsh, Manx, Gaelic, Bre- 
ton, <&c.). 

Italic (Oscan; Latin; Umbrian; — Italian, Spanish, 
Portuguese, French, &c.). 

lUyrio (Albanian). 

Hellenic (Greek, and its dialects). 

Windio (Lettic : Old Prussian ; Slavonic dialects,— 
Bohemian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, &c.). 

Teutonic {High German : Modern German ; Loio 
German : Gothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch ; Frisian ; 

LANGUE D'OC, see Troubadours. 

LANGUEDOC (a province, S. France), formed part of the Roman Gallia Narbonensis ; was 
named Gothia, as having been held by the Visigoths 409, who were expelled by the Saracens, 
in turn driven out by Charles Martel in the 8th century. In the dark ages the country was 
named Septimania (probably from its containing seven important towns) : afterwards Lan- 
guedoc (from its dialect, see Troubadours), about 1270, when annexed to the monarchy. It 
suffered during the persecutions of the Albigenses and Huguenots. 

* Cardinal Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-1848) knew 114 languages or dialects ; and Niebuhr knew 20 
languages in 1807, and more afterwards. 



English. Scandinavian : Old Norse, Danish, Swe- 
dish, Norwegian, Icelandic). 

II. Semitic : Southern. Arabic (including Ethiopic 
and Ambaric). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Sama- 
ritan, Phoenician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic 
(Chaldee, Syriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Baby- 
lon and Nineveh). 

III. TuKANiAN (from Tura, swiftness). 
Northern Division. Tungusic (Chinese, (fee); Mon- 

golic ; Turkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 
Southern Division. Taic (Siamese, <fec. ) ; (Himalayas) ; 
Malayic (Polynesia, &c.) ; Gangetic ; Lonitic 
(Burmese, &c.) ; Munda ; Tamulic. 



LAN" 



427 



LAT 



LANSDOWIST (Somersetshire). The parliamentary army under sir "Wm. Waller was 
here defeated, 5 July, 1643. 

LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in England, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is 
supposed that horn was used for window lights also, as glass was not known, 872-901. 
Stow. London was lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, 1415. 

LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. 

LAOCOON, an exquisite work of Grecian art, in marble, modelled by Agesander, 
Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and other eminent statuaries (about a.d. 70) ; 
it represents the death of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, and his two sons, as 
described by Virgil, JEneis ii. 200. It was discovered in 1506 in the Sette Salle near Rome, 
and purchased by pope Julius IL It is now in the Vatican. 

LAODICEA, see Seven Churches. 

LAON" (N. France). Here a succession of actions between the allies (chiefly the 
Pnissians) and the French, was fought under the walls of the town, which ended in the 
defeat of the latter with great loss, 9-10 March, 1814. 

LA PERO USE'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, 
with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his command, and was last heard of from Botany Bay, 
in March, 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search of Pei'ouse ; 
but no certain information was obtained until captain Dillon, of the East India ship 
Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast away on the New Hebrides, 
authenticated by articles which he brought to Calcutta, 9 April, 1 828. 

LAPLAND or Sameland (N. Europe), nominally subject to N'orway in the 13th 
century, and now to Sweden and Russia. 

LA PLATA, see Argentine Rejjuhlic. 

LARCENY, French, larcen; Latin, lafroeinium; see Theft. 

LARENTALIA, see Laurentalia. 

LARGS (Ayrshire, S. Scotland). Here the great expedition of Haco of N'orway was 
finally defeated by Alexander III. after a succession of skirmishes, 3 Oct. 1263. 

LA ROTHlfiRE (France), Battle of, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, 
and the Prussian and Russian armies, which were defeated with great loss after a desperate 
engagement, i Feb. 1814. This was one of JSTaxJoleon's last victories. 

LARYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consisting of a concave mirror, by which light is 
thrown iipon a small plane mirror placed in the posterior part of the cavity of the mouth. 
By its means the vocal chords of the interior of the larynx, &c., are exhibited, and have 
been photographed. One constructed by Dr. Tiirck was modified, in 1857, by Dr. Czermak, 
who exhibited it in action in London in 1862. A similar apparatus is said to have been 
constructed by Mr. John Avery, a surgeon in London, in 1846, and used by M. Garcia. 

LATERAN", a church at Rome, dedicated to St. John, was originally a palace of the 
Laterani, and was given to the bishops of Rome by Constantine, and inhabited by them till 
their removal to the Vatican in 1377. Eleven councils have been held there. 

LATHAM-HOUSE (Lancashire), was heroically defended for three months against the 
parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. She was relieved by prince Rupert, 
May, 1644. The house was, however, surrendered 4 Dec. 1645, and dismantled. 

LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, a grandson of Dajdalus, about 1240 B.C. 
Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 b. c. 

LATIN KINGDOM, Empiee, &c., see Latium, Eastern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem. 

LATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, Etruscan, and Greek), one of the original 
languages of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, French and Spanish ; see Latium. 
A large portion of our language is derived from the Latin. It ceased to be spoken in Italy 
about 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of Ina, in the 7th centur}^ 
The use of Latin in law deeds in England gave way to the common tougue about 1000 ; 
was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; and again was replaced hy English in the reign of 
Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious worship in 1558, and in conveyancing 
and in courts of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. II. c. 25). A corrupt Latin is still spoken in 
Roumelia. 



PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. Died 
Plautus . . . B.C. 184 

Ennius 169 

Terence . . (flou7-ishes) 166 
Cato the Elder . . . .149 

Lucilius 103 i Vitruvius 

Lucretius 52 i Propertius 



Died 
Julius Cajsar . . b.c. 44 

Cicero 43 

Catullus 40 

Sallust 34 

. (flourishes) 27 
.' . .26 



Dkd 

Virgir. . . . B.C. 19 

Tibullus 18 

Horace 8 

Celsus . (flourishes) a.d. 17 

Livy 18 

Ovid 18 



LAT 428 LAV 



LATIIT LAIiGU AGE,, continued. 



Died 
Paterculus . . . a.d. 31 

Persius 62 

Lucan 65 

Seneca 65 

PUny the Elder . . . . 79 
Quintilian . (flourishes) 80 
Valerius Placcus . ,, .81 



Died 
Pliny the Younger (flhs.) a.d. 100 
Statius . . . (about) 100 
Tacitus . . (flourishes) 100 
SOius ItaUcus .... loi 
Martial . . (flourishes) 104 
Suetonius . . (about) 120 
Juvenal ;i28 



Died 
Aulus Gellius (flourishes) A.D. 169 

Apuleius 174 

Ammianus Marcelliaus . . 390 

Claudian 408 

Macrobius 415 

Boethius 524 

(See Fathers of the Church). 



LATITAT, an ancient writ, directing the sheriff to apprehend persons to he brought 
before the King's Bench court, had its name from its being supposed that he was lurking, 
or lying hid, and could not be found in the county to be taken by bill. The writ was 
abolished by the Uniformity of Process act, 23 May, 1832. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the extent 
of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to cither pole. Maupertuis, in 
1737, in latitude 66 '20, measured a degree of latitude, and made it 69 "493 miles. Swan- 
berg, in 1803, made it 69-292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68732 ; 
and Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 61 743. Mudge, in England, made it 69 •148. Cassini, 
in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69 '12 ; and Biot, 68769 ; while a recent measure in 
Spain makes it but 68*63 — l^ss than at the equator, and contradicts all others, proving the 
earth to be a prolate spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernoulli, Euler, and 
others), instead of an oblate spheroid ; see Longitude. 

LATIUM, now Campaitia (Italy), the country of Latinus, king of Janiculum, 1240 B.C. 
Laurentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium under ^neas, 
and Alba under Ascanius ; see Italy, and Mome. 

LATTER-DAY SAINTS, see Mormonites. LA TEAPPE, see Trappists. 

LAUDANUM, see Opium. 

LAUENBUEG, a duchy, N. Germany ; was conquered from the "Wends by Henry the 
Lion of Saxony, about 11 52; ceded to Hanover, 1689 ; incorporated with the French empire, 
1810; ceded to Denmark, 1815 ; annexed by Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865; possession taken 
15 Sept. following; see Gastein. Population in 1855, 50,147. 

LAUFACH, Bavaria (S. "W. Germany), was taken by the Prussians under Wrangel on 
13 July, 1866, after a sharp action, in which the Hessians were defeated, the Prussian needle 
gun being very efficacious. 

LAUREATE, see Poet Laureate. 

LAUREL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; and from the eai'liest times the poets and 
generals of armies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. Petrarch was crowned with 
laurel, 8 April, 1341. — The Prunus laurocerasus was brought to Britain from the Levant, 
before 1629 ; the Portugal laurel, Prunus lusitanica, before 1648 ; the royal bay, Laurus 
indica, from Madeira, 1665 ; the Alexandrian laurel, Ruscus race7nosics, from Spain, before 
1713 ; the glaucous laurel, Laurus aggrcgata, from China, 1806 or 1821. 

LAURENT ALIA were festivals celebrated at Rome in honour of Acca Laurentia, or 
Larentia, who is said to have been either the nurse of Romulus or Remus, or a rich dissolute 
woman, who bequeathed her property to the Roman people. They commenced about 
621 B.C., and were held on the last day of April and the 23rd of December. 

LAURUSTINE, Viburnum Tinus, an evergreen shrub, was brought to England from the 
south of Europe, before 1596. 

LAUSANNE, capital of the canton of Yaude, Switzerland. Here Gibbon completed his 
"Decline and Fall," 27 June, 1787. The International Workmen's congress assembled 
here Sept. 1867. 

LA YALETTA, see Malta. 

LAYALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Laval ette, for joining the emperor Napoleon on his 
return in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped from prison in tlie clothes of his wife, 
20 Dec. 1 81 5. Sir Robert Wilson, Michael Bruce, esq., and captain J. H. Hutchinson, 
were convicted of aiding the escape, and sentenced to three months' imprisonment in the 
French capital, 24 April, 1816. Lavalette was permitted to return to France in 1820, and 
died in retirement in 1830. 

LA YENDliE (W. France). The French royalists of La Yendee took arms in March, 
1793, and were successful in a number of hard-fought battles with the republicans, between 
12 Juty, 1793, and I Jan. 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Their leader, 
Henri, comte de Larochejaquelein, was killed, 4 March, 1794. A short peace was made at 



LAV 



429 



LAY 



La Jaiiuay, 17 Feb. 1795. The war was terminated by gen. Hoche in 1796. A treaty of 
peace was signed at Lugon, 17 Jan. 1800 ; see Chouans. 

LAVENDER, Lavandula spica, bronglit from the south of Eurojie, before 1568. 

LAW, see Codes, Canons, Co7nmon La^o, Civil Law, Digest. The Jewish law was given 
by God, and promidgated by Moses, 149 1 u. c. 

The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of 

Argos (1807 B.C.) were the first Attic laws ; 

they were reduced to a system by Draco, for 

the Athenians, 623 B.C. ; whose code was 

superseded by that of Solon, 594 B.C. 
The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made about 

844 B.C. ; they remained in full force for 700 

years, and formed a race totally different 

from aU others living in civilised society. 
The Roman laws, the Twelve Tables, were 

published 449 b.c , and remained in force till 

Justinian, nearly a thousand years. 



io6s 
1136 



BRITISH LAWS. 

The British Laws of earliest date were trans- 
lated into the Saxon in . . . . A.D. 

Saxon laws of Ina published about . . . 

Alfred's code of laws, the foundation of the 
common law of England, is said to have been 
arranged about (see Common Law) . 

Edward the Confessor collected the laws in . 

Stephen's charter of general liberties 

Henry II. 's confirmation of it . 1154 and 1175 

The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Oleron) . 1194 

Magna Charta, by king John, 1215; confirmed 
by Henry 111. 1216 tt seq. (see Magna Charta, 
and Forests' Charier). 

Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the king's 
bench, declared, "That no fiction of law 
shall ever so far prevail against the real 
truth of the fact, as to prevent the execution 
of justice" 21 May, 1784 



1291 



Law Association charity founded in . . . i8i7 
Incorporated Law Society formed in 1823 ; plan 
enlarged, 1825 : a charter obtained, 1831 ; 
renewed, 1845. The building in Chancery- 
lane, from the designs of Vulliamy, was com- 
menced in 1829 

Juridical Society estabUshed in . . . . 1855 
A professorship of International law, at Cam- 
bridge, endowed by bequest of Dr. Wm. 

Whewell, master of Trin. Coll 1867 

See Barristers, Counsel. 

Law Amendment Society, founded in 1843. It 
holds meetings during the session of parliament, 
and publishes a journal and reports. Its first 
chairman was lord Brougham, who introduced 
the subject of Law Reform by a most eloquent 
speech in the house of commons, on 7 Feb. 1828. 
Many acts for Law Reform have been passed 
since, and vigorous measures were proposed by 
the late lord chancellor Westbury. 

Law-Coubts. — Commissioners appointed in 1859 
reported in favour of the concentration of the 
law-courts in London, on a site near Carey-street, 
Chancery-lane. The estimated expense was about 
1,500,000?., which it was recommended to take 
from the accumulated Chancery fund, termed 
"Suitors' fund." Acts of parhanient to carry out 
the plan were passed in 1865 and 1866. 

Royal commission to inquire into the operation and 
constitution of the English courts of law, &c. 
issued 18 Sept. 1867. 

Law Reports : A new and more economical plan 
of preparing and ijublishing law reports was finally 
adopted by a committee of barristers on 11 March, 
1865 (see Year-books). 

Expenditure for law and justice from the public 
purse, exclusive of county rates, iu the year 
1865-6, 2,344,54oJ. 

LAWS BUBBLE. John Law, of Edinburgh (168 1), was made comptroller-general of 
the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, and an East 
India and a Mississippi company, by the profits of which the national debt of France was 
to be paid oft'. He first off"ered his plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him 
he was not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted it ; and in 1716, 
he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of 
France ; and the deluded rich of every rank subscribed for shares both in the bank and the 
companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of 
twenty-fold the original value ; so that, in 17 19, they were worth more than eighty times 
the amount of all the current sj^ecie in France. In 1720 this fabric of false credit fell to the 
groimd, spreading ruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty in 1729 at Venice. 
— The South Sea Bubble in England occurred in the fatal year 1720 ; see South Sea. 

LAYAMON'S BRUT, or Chronicle of Britain, a poetical serai-Saxon paraphrase of the 
Brut of Wace, made between iioo and 1230, was published with a literal translation by 
sir Frederick Madden, in 1847. 

LAYBACH (near Trieste, in Illyi'ia). A congi-ess met here in Jan. 1821, and was 
attended by the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Naples. It broke up in May, 
after having issued two circulars, stating it to be their resolution to occupy Naples with 
Austrian troops, and put down popular insurrections. 

LAYER'S CONSPIRACY. Christopher Layer, a barrister, conspired with other per- 
sons to seize George I., the prince of Wales, lord Cadogan, and the principal officers of state, 
to take the Tower by surpiise, to plunder the Bank, and finally to biing in the Pretender. 
He was hanged, 17 May, 1723. Bishop Atterbury was accused of complicity and attainted, 
but permitted to quit the country. 



LAWYERS. 

Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to 
have been first appointed by Edward I. . 

Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, 
were alono permitted to plead in the court of 
Common Pleas. The first king's counsel 
under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis 
Bacon, in 1604 



LAZ 430 LEA 

LAZAEISTS (the Priests of the Mission), a congregation devoted to education, founded 
"by St. Vincent de Paul, 1625 ; were so named from their first establishment in a house 
which once belonged to the military order of St. Lazarus. They are also called Vinccntines. 

LAZZAPtO, ST. (N. Italy). Here the king of Sardinia and the Imperialists defeated the 
French and Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, 4 June, 1 746. 

LAZZAE.ONI (from lazzdro, Spanish for a pauper or leper), a term applied by the Spanish 
viceroys to the degraded beings in Naples, who lived like cattle, half-clothed and houseless. 
No man was born a lazzaro ; and he who turned to a trade ceased to be one. The viceroy 
permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chief with whom he conferred respecting the imposts on 
the goods brought to the markets. In 1647, Masaniello held the office ; see Naples. In 
1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled several thousands of lazzaroni as pikemen (spontoneers), who 
generally favoured the court party. On 15 May, 1848, they were permitted, on the king's 
behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the ill-fated city. Colletta. 

LEAD is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Britain, and in 
some places richly mixed with silver ore. Pattinson's valuable method for extracting the 
silver was made known in 1829. The famous Clydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. 
The lead-mines of Cumberland and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. British 
mines produced 65,529 tons of lead in 1855 ; 69,266 tons in 1857 ; and 67,181 tons in 1865. 

Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were I imported, and 18,414 tons exported ; in 1866, 

brought into use in 1236 36,446 tons imported ; 25,291 tons exported. 

In 1859, 23,690 tons of pig and sheet lead were | 

LEAGUES. Four kings combined to make war against five, about 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.) 
The kings of Canaan combined against the invasion of the Israelites, 145 1 B.C. The more 
eminent Greek leagues were the Jiltolian, powerful about 3^0 e.g., which lasted till 189 B.C., 
and the Achaean, revived 280 B.C., which was broken up by the conquest of Greece by the 
Eomans, 146 B.C. The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissension. 

Lombard leagues against emperors (see Lom- 
bards) ...... ij.y6 and 1225 

Caddee league {vMch see) . . 1400 et seq. 
League of the Public Good was formed in Deo. 

1465, by the dukes of Calabria, Brittany, and 

Bourbon, and other priuces against Louis XL 

of France, under pretext of reforming abuses ; 

an indecisive battle was fought at Monthleri, 

16 July ; and a treaty was signed . 25 Oct. 1465 
League of Cambray against Venice . . . 1508 
Holy League (the pope, Venice, &c.), against 

Louis XII. X510 

League of Smalcald 1529 

League of the Beggars (Gueux ; the Protestants 

so called, though Boman Catholics joined the 



league) to oppose the institution of the In- 
quisition in Flanders 1566 

The Holy League, so denominated by way of 
eminence, to prevent the accession of Henry 
IV. of France, who was then of the reformed 
religion, was comraenced at Peronne in 1576 
and lasted till 1593, when Henry embraced 

■ Eomanism. 

League of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of Halle, 
by Protestants 1610 

League against the emperor 1626 

Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, 
against the episcopal government of the 
Church, and the regal authority (see Covenant) 1638 

League of Augsburg against France . . . 16S6 

LEAP-YEAE or Bissextile, originated with the astronomers of Julias Cresar, 45 B.C. 
They fixed the solar years at 365 days, 6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the period 
from one vernal equinox to another; the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four 
years, forming a day, the fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added 
was called intercalary, and was placed a day before the 24th of February, the sixth of the 
calends, which was reckoned tivice, hence called bissextile or ttuice sixth. This added day 
with us is Feb. 29th ; see Calendar. This arrangement makes the year nearly three minutes 
longer than the astronomical year : to obviate this, 1700 and 1800 were not, and 1900 -roU. 
not be leap-years, but 2000 will be one ; see Julian Year, Gregorian Calendar, &c. 

LEAENING and the Arts flourished among the Greeks, especially under Pisistratus, 
537 B.C., and Pericles, 444 B.C. ; and with the Eomans at the commencement of the Christian 
era, under Augustus. The Greek refugees caused their revival in Italy, particularly after 
the taking of Constantinople by the Tm-ks in 1453, and the invention of printing shortly 
before the period of the Renaissance. Leo X. and his family (the Medici) greatly promoted 
learning in Italy, in the i6th century ; when literature revived in France, Germany, and 
England ; see Literature, and authors under Greek, Latin, English, and other languages. 

LEASE (from the French laisser, to let), a kind of conveyance invented by Serjeant 
Moore, soon after the statute of uses, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. Acts relating to leases were 
passed in 1856, and 1858. 

LEATHEE was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured 
hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by ail ancient nations. The Gordian knot was made 
of leather thongs, 330 B.C. A leather cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired thi'ee times, 
and found to answer, 23 Oct. 1778. Phillips. The duty on leather produced annually in 



LEG 431 LEG 

England, 450,000?. and in Ireland about 50,000?. It was abolished, 29 May, 1830. Many 
bankruptcies were declared in the leather trade, in the autumn of i860 in England. In the 
case of Lawrence, Mortimore, and Co., enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were disclosed. 
A plan for making artificial leatlier out of cuttings, &c., was made known in i860. — Leatlier- 
cfo<7i (invented by Messrs. Crockell, of Newark, U.S., and patented in 1849) is unbleached 
cotton coated with a mixture of boiled linseed oil and turpentine, and coloured. 

LECH, a river, S. Germany, near which the cruel general Tilly was defeated by the 
Swedes, under Gustavus Adolphus, 18 April, 1632. Tilly died of his wounds soon after. 

LECTURES. Those on physic were instituted by Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of 
Physicians (founded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. Clinical lectures, at the bed-side of the 
patient, were begun by sir B. C. Brodie (i 813- 17); Mr. G. Macilwain, about 1824, gave surgi- 
cal clinical lectures in connection with a dispensary ; see Gresham College, Boyle's Lectures, 
Royal and London Institutions, &c. The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced in Jan- 
uary, 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. In the autumn of 1857 and since, many 
distinguished noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics' institutes. An act passed in 
1835 prohibited the publication of lectures without the consent of the lecturers. 

LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loiclis, once a Eoman station, received a charter in 1627. 
Population in 1861, 207,165. 
Shenfield grammfir school founded . . . 1552 I Great Eeforra meeting ; Mr. Bright there, 



8 Oct. 
An additional M.P. given to Leeds by Eeform 

act IS Aug. 

Exhibition of art treasures, to be opened by the 
prince of Wales .... 19 May, 



Coloured Cloth hall built 1758 

Literary and Philosophical society established. 1820 
Enfranchised by the Reform act (2 members) . 1832 
Magnificeutnew town-hall openedby the queen, 
and the mayor, Peter Pairbairu, knighted 

7 Sept. 1S5S 

LEEK, the Welsh emblem, in consequence of a command from Dewi or David, afterwards 
archbishop of St. David's, in 519. On the day that king Arthur won a great victory over the 
Saxons, Dewi is said to have ordered the soldiers to place a leek in their caps. 

LEESBURG HEIGHTS, see Bcdl's Bluff. 

LEEWARD ISLES, West Indies : Antigua, Barbuda, Montserrat, St. Chi-istopher's, 
ISTevis, Anguilla, Virgin Isles, and Dominica. Governor-general of the British Isles, 
coL Stephen John Hill, 1863. 

LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies were subjected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 
the legacy duty was imposed. The impost Avas increased several times subsequently, par- 
ticularly in 1S05, 1808, and 1845. The revenue derived from it varies considerably in 
amount in consecutive years ; but it may be said to average about one and a half to two 
millions annually. In 1853, the legacy duty was extended to landed or real property ; see 
Succession Buty Act. 

LEGATES {lega(us). Roman ambassadors ; and also governors of the provinces into 
which Augustus divided the empire, 27 B.C. Legates are also ambassadors from the pope. 
The legate's court in England, erected in 15 16 by cardinal Wolsey, to prove wilLs, and for 
the trial of offences against the spiritual laws, was soon discontinued. 

LEGATIOISTS were the twenty administrative divisions in the states of the church, 
governed by legates. They rebelled in 1859-60, and are nearly all included in the kingdom 
of Italj" ; see Rome. 

LEGHORN, Livorno, Tuscany, a mere village in the 15th century, owes its prosperity 
to the Medici family. It suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741 ; was entered by the 
French army, 27 July, 1796, but the British property had lieen removed. It was evacuated 
by the French in 1799, and retaken, 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British 
and Italian forces in Dec. 1813. The Austrians took this city from the insurgents, 
12 and 13 May, 1849, and quelled a slight insurrection, July, 1857. In June, 1857, above 
60 persons were killed at the theatre, tlu'ough an alarm of fire ; see Tuscany. 

LEGION, Legio, a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, first formed by Romulus, when 
it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 750 B.C. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 
B.C., the legion consisted of 5200 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 88 B.C., it was 6200 soldiers 
besides 700 horse. There were ten, and sometimes as many as eighteen, legions kept at Rome. 
Augustus had a standing army of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and 37,000 light- 
armed troops, about 5 B.C. ; and the peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these for- 
midable brigades. A legion was divided into ten cohorts, and every cohort into six centuries, 
with a vexillum, or standard, guarded by ten men. The peace of Britain was protected by 
three legions. The French army has been divided into legions since Francis I ; see Thundering 
Legion. 

LEGION OF HONOUR, a French order embracing the army, civil officers, and other 



LEG 432 LEN 

individuals distinguished for services to the state ; instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when 
first consul, 19 May, 1802. The order was confirmed by Louis XVIIL in 181 5, and its con- 
stitution modified in 1816 and 185 1. The honour was conferred on many British subjects 
who distinguished themselves in the Russian war, 1854-6, and in the Paris exhibitions of 
1855 and 1867. 

LEGITIMISTS, a term (since 1814) applied to those who support the claims of the elder 
branch of the Bourbon family to the throne of France : whose representative is Henry, due 
de Bordeaux, called comte de Chambord, born 29 Sept. 1820. They held a congress at 
Lucerne on 24-29 June, 1862, and agreed to continue a pacific policy. 

LEGNAGO, a fortress on the Adige, IST. Italy, one of the Quadrilateral. It was captured 
by the French in 1796 ; but reverted to the Austrians in 1815. It was surrendered to the 
Italians in Oct. 1866. 

LEGIST AN 0, Lombardy, where the emperor Frederick Barbarossa was defeated by 
the Milanese and their allies 29 May, 1 1 76, which victory led to the treaty of Constance 
in 1 183. 

LEICESTER (central England), a bishopric for a short time in the 8th century, returned 
two members to parliament in the reign of Edward I. Here Richard III. was buried 
25 Aug. 1485 ; and here cardinal Wolsey died, 29 Nov. 1530. During the civil war, it was 
taken by Charles I. 31 May, and by Fairfax, 17 June, 1645. The stocking manufacture was 
introduced in 1680. 

LEIGHLIN (W. Carlow), a see founded by St. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the 
Norwegian, the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the priory of St, Stephen of Leighlin. 
Bishop Doran, a worthy prelate, appointed in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, 
Maurice Cavenagh, who was hanged for the crime on the spot where he had committed the 
murder. Beatson. In 1600 Leighlin was united to Fernfe ; the combined see united to 
Ossory in 1835 ; see Ferns and BisJwps. 

LEININGEN (or Linange), a principality partly in Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse, 
mediatised in 1806. The present prince Ernest, born 9 Nov. 1830, a captain in the British 
navy, is the son of prince Charles, the half-brother of queen Victoria. The first husband of 
the duchess of Kent, prince Enrich of Leiningen, died 4 July, 1814. 

LEINSTER, a kingdom in T167, now one of the four provinces of Ireland, divided into 
four archbishoprics by pope Eugenius III., at a national synod, held at Kells, 9 March, 
1 15 1-2, and in which his holiness was represented by cardinal Paparo. The abduction of 
Devorgilla, wife of O'Ruave, a lord of Coniiaught, by Dermot king of Leinster in 1152, is 
asserted' to have led to the landing of the English and the subsequent conquest. The 
province of Leinster gave the title of duke to Schomberg's son in 1690. The title became 
extinct in 1719, and was conferred on the family of Fitzgerald in 1766. 

LEIPSIC (Saxony), an ancient city, famous for its university (founded 1409) and its 
fair (1458). At Breitenfeld, near here, Gustavua Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated the 
Imperialists, under Tilly, 7 Sept. 1631 ; and the Imperialists were again defeated here by 
the Swedes, under Torstensen, 23 Oct. 1642. Here took place, on 16, 18 and 19 Oct. 1813, 
"the battle of the nations," between the French army and its allies, commanded by 
Napoleon (160,000), and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies (240,000 strong). 
The French were beaten, chiefly owing to 17 Saxon battalions, their allies, turning upon 
them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished on the field, of whom more than 
40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of artillery, and many standards. Tlie victory 
was followed by the capture of Leipsic, of the rear-guard of the French army, and of the king 
of Saxony and his family. The 50th anniversary was celebrated 18 Oct. 1863. 

LEITH, the port of Edinburgh, was burnt by the earl of Hertford in 1544. It was 
fortified by the French partisans of queen Mary in 1560, and surrendered to the English, 
The "Agreement of Leith" between the superintendents and ministers was made, Jan. 
1572. The docks were commenced in 1720. 

LEITH A, a river dividing the Austrian territories ; see Austria. 

LELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited Laconia about 1490 B.C., and after many 
contests merged into the Hellenes. 

LEMURES. The ancients supposed that the soul, after death, wandered over the world, 
and disturbed the peace of the living. The happy spirits were called Lares familiares, and 
the unhappy Lemures. The Roman festival, Lemuralia, kept on 9, 11 and 13 May, is said 
to have been instituted by Romulus about 747 B. c, to propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered 
Remus. 

LENT (from the Saxon, lencten, spring). The forty days' fast observed in the Roman 
catholic church from Ash- Wednesday to Easter-day, said to have been instituted by pope 



LEO 433 LEV 

Telesphorus, 130. — The early Christians did not eomnience their Lent until the Sunday 
Avhich is now called the first Sunday in Lent ; and the four days beginning witli Ash- 
Wednesday Avere added by pope Felix IIL, in the year 487, in order that the number of 
lasting days sliould amount to forty. — Lent was first observed in England by command of 
Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640 or 641. Baker's Cliron. Flesh was prohibited during 
Lent ; but Henry VIIL permitted the use of white meats by a proclamation iu 1543, which 
continued iu force until, by proclamation of James L, in 1619 and 1625, and by Uharles L, 
in 1627 and 1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden ; see Ash- Wednesday, Quadragesima. 

LEOjST, Kixgdom of, see Spain. 

LEONINES, hexameter and pentameter verses, rhyming at the middle and the end, 
are said to have been first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the middle of the I2tli 
centiuy, or by pope Leo IL about 682. 

LEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle of, 7 Oct. 1571 : when the combined fleets of Spain, 
Venice, Genoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don John of Austria, defeated the 
whole maritime force of the Turks, and checked their progress. 

LEPROSY, a skin disease described in Leviticus xiii. (b.c. 1490), which prevailed in 
ancient times throughout Asia. It has now almost disappeared from Europe, except i:i the 
south and in Norway. It chiefly affected the lower classes, yet occasionally has proved fat;il 
to the very highest personages. Robert Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy in 1329. A 
hospital for lepers was founded at Granada, by queen Isabella of Castile, about 1504, and a 
large number of leper houses were founded in Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with a case in 
Edinburgh in 1809. 

LEHIDA, the ancient Ilerda, E. Spain, founded by the Carthaginians. Near it Julius 
CjEsar defeated Pompey's lieutenants, 49 B.C. It was made the residence of the kings of 
Aragon, 1 149. It was captured for Philip V. by the French under the duke of Orleans, 
13 Oct. 1707, and by Suchet, 13 May, 1810. 

LETTERS, HQQ Alphabet, Anonymous, Belles Lettrcs, Copying Machine, Epistles, Literature, 
Marque, and Privateers. 

LETTRES DE CACHET, scaled letters issued by the king of France, beginning about 
1670, by virtue of which those persons against whom they were directed were thrown into 
prison, or sent into exile. The National Assembly decreed their abolition, i Nov. 1789. 

LETTUCE, introduced into England from Flanders about 1520. It is said that when 
(^ueen Catherine wished for a salad, she had to send to Holland or Flanders for lettuce. 

LEUCTRA, in Breotia, N. Greece, where the Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the 
superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 8 July, 371 B.C. 4000 Spartans, with their 
king, were slain. The Spartans gradually lost their preponderance in Greece. 

LEUTHEN (S. Prussia), see Lissa. 

LEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant 
companies, in London, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. 

LEVELLERS, a fanatical party in Germany, headed by Muncer and Storck in the i6tli 
century, who taught that all distinctions of rauk were usurpations on the rights of mankind. 
At the head of 40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign princes of Germany and the 
magistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march his followers ravaged the 
countr}\ The landgrave of Plesse at length defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell iu 
battle, and the rest fled ; their leader was taken and beheaded at Mulhausen in 1525. 
The English "Levellers," powerful in parliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell 
in 1649, and their leader Lilburn imprisoned. At the period of the Fi-ench revolution some 
knots of persons, styled Levellers, appeared in England. A " Loyal Association " was 
foi-med against them and republicans, by Mi*. John Reeves, Nov. 1792. 

LEVELS. The great Level of the Fens is a low-lying district of about 2000 square 
miles, in Lincolnshire, Hirntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, said to have, been 
overflown by the sea during an earthquake, 368. It was long aftei'wards an inland sea in 
winter, and a noxious swamp in summer, and was gradually drained — by the Romans, the 
Saxons, and especially by the monks during the reigns of the Plantagenet kings. One of 
the first works on a large scale was carried out by iMorton, bishop of Ely, in the reign of 
Henry VII. A general drainage act was passed by the advice of lord Burghley, in 1601, 
but little work was done till the reign of James I., wlio, in 1621, invited over the great 
Dutch engineer, Cornelius Verniri}alen, to assist in the general drainage of the country. 
After completing several gi-eat works, Vermuyden agreed (in 1629) to drain the "Great 
Level." He was at first prevented from proceeding with his imdertaking through a popular 
outcry against foreigners ; but eventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford, in spite of 

F F 



LEV 



434 



LIB 



the great opposition of the people, for whose benefit he was labouring, he declared his 
great work complete in 1652. He also reclaimed much valuable land at Axholme, in 
Lincolnshire, 1626-30, and many Dutch and French j^rotestants settled here about 1634 ; and 
a few of their descendants now remain. There are the Middle, Bedford, South, and North 
Levels. 



land were inundated, causing a loss of about 
2S,oooL After unwearied, and, for a while, 
unsuccessful efforts, a new coffer dam was 
constructed under the superintendence of 
Mr. Hawkshaw, which was reported sound 
in July. 
Another inundation, begun through the burst- 
ing of a marshland sluice, near Lynn, was 
checked, 4 Oct. 1862. 



The drainage of the Great Level employed the 
talents of Rennie (about 1807), and of Telford 
(1822), and of other eminent engineers. 

In 1844 the Middle Level commission cut 
through cei-tain barrier banks, and replaced 
them by other works. 

These were reported unsound in March, 1862 ; 
and on 4 May, the outfall sluice at St. Ger- 
main's, near King's Lynn, gave way. 

High tides ensuing, about 6000 acres of fertile 

LEVERIAN MLTSEUM, formed by sir Ashton Lever, exhibited to the public at Leicester- 
house, London ; it was offered to the public, in 1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and 
won by Mr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction, in lots, in 1806. 

LEVIATHAN, see Steam Navigation. 

LEWES (Sussex), where Henry III., king of England, was defeated by Montfort, earl of 
Leicester, and the barons, 14 May, 1264. Blaauw. The king, his brother Richard, king of 
the Romans, and his son Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken prisoners. One division 
of Montfort's army, a body of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, 
who, pursuing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost ; see Evesham. 

LEXICON, see Dictionaries, and Lexicography. 

LEXINGTON (Massachusetts), Battle of, between Great Britain and the United States 
of America in the war of independence. The British obtained the advantage, and destroyed 
the stores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the battle 273 men, killed and wounded, 
19 April, 1775. The hostilities thus commenced continued to 1783.^ — Lexikgton, a town in 
Missouri, U.S., fortified by the Federals, was attacked bj' the confederate general Price, on 
29 Aug. ; and after a gallant resistance by colonel Mulligan, surrendered on 21 Sept. 1861 ; 
see United States. 

LEYDEN (Holland), Lugclunum Batavorum, important in the 13th century. From 
31 Oct. 1573, to 3 Oct. 1574, when it was relieved, it endured a siege by the armies of Spain, 
during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence. In commemoration the 
university was founded, 1575. In 1699 two-thirds of the population perished by a fever, 
which, it is said, was aggravated by its improper treatment by professor De la Boe. The 
university Avas almost destroyed by a vessel laden with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder 
blowing up, and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing numbers of people, 
12 Jan. 1807. The Leyden jar was invented about 1745, hj Kleist, Muschenbroek, and 
others ; see Electricity. 

LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the Twelve Tables), libels which aff'ected the 
reputation of another were made capital offences. In the British law, whatever renders a 
man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a libel. 
"The greater the truth the greater the libel," the well known law maxim of a high 
authority, is now disputed; see Trials, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1803, 1808 et seq., and 1863. 



Wm. Prynne, a puritan lawyer, fined 5000^, 
placed in the pillory, where his ears were 
cut off, and imprisoned, for writing "Histrio- 
mastix," a condemnation of stage plays ; 
which was considered to be a libel on the 
queen, who favoured them, 1633 ; he was 
tried and further punished for Ms satirical 
writings in 1637 

Fox's libel bill, which enlarged the discre- 
tionary power of juries in cases of libel, 
thrown out by the lords in 1791 ; passed in . 1792 

Blasphemous and seditious libels, on the second 
offence, made punishable with transportation 
in i8ig 

An action for libel was brought in the court of 
King's Bench by a bookseller named Stock- 
dale, against Messrs. Hansard, the printers 
to the house of commons ; this action related 
to an opinion expressed in a parliamentary 
report of a book published by Stockdale, 
7 Nov. 1836. Lord Denman, in giving judg- 



ment, said he was not aware that the autho- 
rity of the house of commons could justify 
the publication of a libel — an opinion which 
led to some proceedings on the part of the 
house, and to other actions by Stockdale, 

1837-39 

Verdicts were given in his favour, and in Nov. 
1839, the sheriffs took possession of Hansard's 
premises. This caused much excitement in 
parliament, and they were ordered to appear 
at the bar of the house of commons, and 
were formally committed to the custody of 
the serjeant-at-arms, 21 Jan., but ' imme- 
diately discharged : the conflict was main- 
tained between the law of&cers and the 
commons till May, 1S40 

A law was passed giving summary protection 
to persons employed by parliament in the 
publication of its reports and papers, 

14 April, ,, 

The severity of the law in respect to news- 



LIB 



435 



LIB 



LIBEL, continued. 

papers relaxed by lord Campbell's act, 6 & 7 meetings was read a third time in the 

Vict., e. 96 1843 commons Aug. 1867, but dropped; read _ a 

A bill for relieving newspapers from actions for second time i April, 1868 

libel in reporting speeches at lawful public 

LIBERIA, the negro repiiMic on the coast of Upper Guinea, "West Africa, was founded in 
1822 by the American Colonization Society, which was established by Henry Clay in 1816. 
The independence of Liberia was proclaimed, 24 Ang. 1847 ; recognised by Europe in 1848 ; 
by America in 1861 ; and is stated to be flourisliing (1868). The president visited the 
International Exhibition of London in 1862. Present president, Daniel B. Warner, elected 
1864. 

LIBERTINES (signifying freedmen and their sons), was a sect headed by Quintin, and 
Corin, about 1525, who held various monstrous opinions. 

LIBRARIES. The first imhlic library of which we have any certain account in history 
was founded at Athens by Pisistratus, about 540 b.c. The second of note was founded by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B.C. It was partially destroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to 
Alexandria 47 B. c. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to have been lost by this 
catastrophe. Blair. 



The first private library was Aristotle's. Strabo. 

B.C. 

The first library at Rome brought from Mace- 
donia 

According to Plutarch, the Ubrary at Pergamos 
contained 200,000 books. It came into the 
possession of the Romans at the death of 
Attains III., who bequeathed his kingdom to 
the Roman people 

The library of Appellicon, sent to Rome from 
Athens, by Sylla 

Library founded at Constantmople by Constan- 
ttne, about a.d. 

Library at St. Mark's, Venice, begun, by gifts 
from Petrarch, 1352; enlarged by cardinal 
Bessarion 

Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, collected 
a library of nearly 50,000 vols, at Buda ; died 

The first public library in Italy was founded at 
Florence by Nicholas Nicooli, one of the great 
restorers of learning. At his death, he left 
his library to the public, 1436. Cosmo de' 
Medici enriched it with the invaluable Greek 
and Hebrew MSS about 

The Vatican Library at Rome, founded by pope 
Nicholas V. in 1447, and imxwoved by Sixtus 
v., 1588, contains about 150,000 volumes and 
40,000 MSS. 

Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by Frede- 
rick III. in 1440, and by Maximilian I. . . 

Royal (now Imperial) Library of Paris, by John 
1350, enlarged by Charles V., 1364. It was 
said to contain 815,000 volumes and 84,000 
MSS. in i860. A new reading-room, has been 
built. 

Royal Libraries founded at Copenhagen by 
Christian III. about 1533 : Stockholm, by 
Gust;ivus Vasa, about 1540 ; at Munich, by 
Albert III. about 

Escurial at Madrid, commenced with the 
foundation of that sumptuous palace, by 
Philip II 

Harvard University Library (see Harvard), Mas- 
sachusetts, U.S., founded 1632, endowed 

Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (principally 
the spoils of Poland), founded 

Astor Free Public Library, New York, founded 
by John Jacob Astor, by gift of 80,000?. 



1468 
1490 



1560 



1550 



LIBRARIES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

Richard deBury, chancellor and high treasurer 
of England, purchased thirty or forty volumes 
of the abbot of St. Alban's for fifty pounds' 

weight of silver 1341 

University Library, St. Andrew's, founded . 1411 
Glasgow University Library, founded about . 1473 
Sion CoUege Library, founded .... 1630 
Royal Society Library, founded . . . . 1667 
Harleian Library (w/iic/i see) begun . . . 1705 
University Library, Cambridge, founded 1475 ; 
Geo. 1. gave 6000 guineas to purchase L)r. 

Moore's collection 1715 

Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded, 
1598 ; opened 8 Nov. 1602 ; contains nearly 
400,000 volumes and upwards of 30,000 MSS. 
Cottonian Library, founded by Sii- Robei-t Cotton 
about 15S8; appropriated to the public, 1701 ; 
partly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; removed to the 

British Museum 1753 

Radeliffe Libraiy at Oxford, founded by the 

will of Dr. Radcliffe, 1714 ; opened . . 1749 
The Libraries of the Royal Institution (founded 
1803), the London Institution (1S05), and the 
Koyal College of Surgeons (1786), have classi- 
fied caialofiiws. 
Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and 
the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh (1680), 
are extensive and valuable.* 
Library of East India Company, founded . . 1800 
Royal Libraries in England : that of Edward 
IV., mentioned 14S0, increased in the reigns 
of Edw. VI. and James I. ; much enlarged by 
Richard Bentley, while librarian, 1694-1735; 
added to the British Museum by Geo. II., 
1759; rich Library of Geo. III., presented to 
the nation, 1823; deposited in the British 

JIuseum 1829 

British Museum (w/jic/i «ee) .... 1753 



1557 Free Libraries have been successfully esta- 

i blished, since 1850, at Manchester, Liverpool, 

1638 ; Salford, ifec. Many others have been formed 

I \inder acts passed in . . 1845, 1850 <fc 1856 
1714 ' On 5 Nov. 1855, a proposal to establish a Free 
, Library in the city of London was negatived, 
1839 I and in 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for 
want of support. 

Sec Circulating Library. 



* In 1609 the Stationers' Company agreed to give a copy of every book published, to the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II. c. 33 (1662), three copies were required to be given to certain pubhc 
libraries; by 8?Anne, c. 19(1709), the number was increased to nine: by 41 Geo. III. c. 107, to eleven; 
whichfnumber was reduced to five by 5&6Will. IV. c. 110(1835): viz. , the British Museum, the Bodleian, 
Oxford, the Public Library, Cambridge, the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, and Trmity College, Dublin. 

F F 2 



LIB 436 LIF 

LIBYA (Africa), was conquered by tlie Persians, 524 B.C., and by Ptolemy Soter, 320, 
LICElSrCES. This mode of levying money was introduced by Richard I. about 1190; 
but was then confined to such of the nobility as desired to enter the lists at tournaments. 

Games and gaming-liouses licensed in London 1620 I for refreslament-hoiises, with -wine licences i860 
Licence system for exciseable articles enforced The licensing system was applied to India as a 



kind of income-tax, 1859; ceased in . . 1861 
Acts for licensing plays and playhouses by the 
lord chamberlain, were passed in 1737 do 
Geo. II. c. 28) ; and in 1843 f6 & 7 Vict. c. 68) ; 



in various reigns, frorn tbe 12th Charles II. . 1660 
Lottery office-keepers to take out licences, and 

pay 50/^. for each. This reduced the number 

from 400 to 51 Aug. 1778 

General licensing act, 9 Geo. IV. c. 61 . . 1828 j and for music and dancing in piiblic-houses. 
Licences for pubHc-houses granted in 1551, and i in 1752 (25 Geo. II. c. 36). 

LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of Mercia (at Liclifield) was founded about 656 ; 
removed to Cliester 1075 ; to Coventry, 1102. In 1121 Piobert Peche was consecrated bishop 
of Lichfield and Coventry. By an order in council, Jan. 1837, the archdeaconry of 
Coventry was added to the see of Worcester, and Dr. Samuel Butler became bishop of 
Lichfield. This see has given three saints to the Eomish church ; and to the British 
nation one lord chancellor and three lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's books at 
559Z. 1 8s. 2cl. Present income, 4500?. Lichfield cathedral was first built about 656. The 
present structure was built by Roger de Clinton, the 37th bishop, in 1148.* In Lichfield 
castle, king Eichard II. kept his Christmas festival, 1397, when 200 tuns of wine and 
2000 oxen were consumed. A charter was granted to Lichfield, constituting it a city, bj'^ 
Edward YL, 1549. 



BISHOPS or LICHFIELD AND COVENTRY. 

1781. James, earl of Cornwallis, died 1824. 
1824. Hon. Henry Ryder, died 31 March, 1836. 



BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD. 

1836. Samuel Butler, died 4 Dec. 1839. 
1839. James Bowstead, died 11 Oct. 1843. 
1843. John lyonsdale, died 19 Oct. 1867. 
1867. Geo. Aug. Selwyn, late bishop of N. Zealand 
(present bishoi?). 

LICINIAN" LAWS. In 375 b.c.,C. Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius, tribunes of the people, 
promulgated various rogationes or laws to weaken the power of the patricians and benefit the 
plebs : one was to relieve the plebeians from their debts ; another enacted that no person 
should possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, or more than 100 head of large cattle, 
or 500 of small, in the Roman states ; and the third, that one of the consuls should be a ple- 
beian. After much opposition these were carried, and L. Sextius became the first plebeian 
consul, 365. Another law, 56 B.C. of this name, imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, 
or societies assembled for election purposes; and another, about 103 B.C. (brought forward 
by P. Licinius Crassus), limited the expenses of the table. 

LIEBENAU (Bohemia). Here was fought the first action of the seven weeks' war, 26 
June, 1866 ; when the Austrians were compelled to retreat by the Prussians under general 
Yon Home. 

LIECHTENSTEIN, a principality, S. Germany. Population, in 1861, 7994. Consti- 
tutional charter, 26 Sept. 1862. Prince John, born 5 Oct. 1840, succeeded his father Aldis- 
Joseph, 12 Nov. 1858. 

LIEGE (Belgium), a bishopric, under the German empire, from the 8th century till 1795. 
Liege frequently revolted against its prince-bishops. After a severe contest, the citizens 
were beaten at Brusthem, 28 Oct. 1467, and Liege taken by Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- 
gundy, who treated them with great severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the poAver of De la 
Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself 
beheaded two j'ears after. Liege was taken by the duke of Marlborough, 23 Oct. 1702 ; and 
by the French and others, at various times, up to 1 796, when it was annexed to France. It 
was incorporated with the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. Iron-works were 
established at Liege in the i6th centm'y. 

LIEGNITZ, see Pfaffendorf. 

LIEUTENANTS, Lord, for counties, were instituted in England, 3 Edw. YL, 1549, and 
in Ireland in 1831. For the lords lieutenants of Ireland, see Ireland. 

LIFE-BOAT, &c. It was stated, in Sept. 1865, that there were 185 life-boats on the 
coasts of the United Kingdom. 3619 lives were saved in 1864 by means of rocket apparatus, 
life-boats, &c. In the ten years, 1855-64, 30,261 lives were saved; in 1867, 1086 lives were 
so saved ; see Wrecks. 

* Walter de Langton (bishop in 1296), built the chapel of St. Mary, now taken into the choir, and 
under bishop Heyworth (1420) the cathedral was perfected. The building was despoiled at the Reforma- 
tion, and was scandalously injured in the parliamentary war (when its monuments, its fine sculptures, 
and beautifully painted windows, were demolished) ; but it was repaired at the restoration, and again 
thoroughly in 1788. 



LIF 



437 



LIG 



LIFE-BOAT, continued. 

Patent granted to Mr. Lukin for a life-boat . 1785 1 

A reward offered by a committee of gentlemen 
in Soutli Shields for a life boat, 1788, obtained 
by Mr. Henry Greathead, of that town. . 1789 

It was first put to sea, 30 Jan. 1790 ; and Mr. 
Greathead received 1200?. from parliament 
for this great means of saving life in cases of 
shipwreck. 

31 life-boats built, and 300 lives saved up to . 1804 

The duke of Northumberland offered a reward 
of los'- for a life-boat fulfilling certain con- 
ditions, 1850 ; obtained by Mr. James Beech- 
ing, of Yarmouth 1851 

The tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the 
ChaUtnger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was 
made by him from Liverpool to London in it 1852 

The JS^atioiial Life-boat Insiitittion, founded in 
1824 ; its journal first published, 1852. In 
1856 its funds were enlarged by a bequest of 
lo.ooo^ from Hamilton Fitzgerald, esq. It 
is very effective. 

The American Life-raft, composed of cylinders 
lashed together, sailed from New York 4 June, 



1867, navigated by three men, capt. John 
Mikes and Messrs. Miller and MuUano, and 
arrived at Southampton 25 July following. 

Life-Presehver, the apparatus of cajit. Manby 
(brought into ii.se in Feb. 1808), effects a com- 
munication with the distressed vessel by a 
rope, thrown by a .shot from a mortar, with 
a line attached to it. For the ni.:ht, a night- 
ball is provided with a hollow case of thick 
Ijasteboard, and a fuze and quick match, and 
charged with fifty balls, and a sufficiency of 
powder to inflame them. The fuze is so gra- 
duated that the shell shall explode at the 
height of 300 yards. The balls spread a bril- 
liant light for licarly a minute, and give a 
clear view of every surrounding object. In 
20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews 
and passengers had been saved. Cajjt. Manby 
died 18 Nov. 1854, aged 89. 

The Boat-Lowering Apparatus, invented by 
Mr. Charles Clifford, of London, in 1856, has 
been much approved of, and is generally 
adopted in the royal navy. 



LIFE-GUARDS, see Guards. LIFE IXSUKANCE, see Insurance. 

LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about 1624. The motion and 
velocity of light discovered by Eeaumur, and after him by Cassini, and calculated by Koemer 
(1676) and Bradley (1720). Its velocity ascertained to be about 190,000,000 of miles in 
sixteen minutes, or nearly 200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of times swifter 
than the velocity of a cannon ball, about 1667. The light of the sun is eight minutes and 
eight seconds in its transmission through the space from that orb to the earth. The undu- 
latory theory of light, its polarisation, and its chemical action, have all been made known in 
the present century by Drs. Tho.s. Young, Fresnel, Mains, Arago, Biot, Brewster, Wheat- 
.stone, Ritter, Niepce, Daguerre, Talbot, &c. ; see Optics, Photograi^hy, Caloresccncc, and 
Fluorescence. 

LIGHTHOUSES, anciently called Pharos (and wavf ]phare, French ; faro, Italian), from 
one erected at Pharos, near Alexandria, Egypt, 550 feet high, said to have been visible 
forty-two miles, about 285 B.C. There was one at Messina, at Rhodes, &c. The light was 
obtained by fires. A coal-fire light was exhibited at Tynemouth castle, Northumberland, 
about 1638. The first true lighthouse erected in England was the Eddystone lighthouse 
{which see) in 1758-60. Lights were exliibited in various places by the corporation of the 
Trinity-house early in the i6th century. 



devised by professor Holmes — was first employed 
at the South Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, on 
8 Dec. 1858 ; and at Dengeness (or Dungeness) in 
1862. Mr. Holmes' arrangement, and a similar one 
constructed by iM. Serin, were shown at the Inter- 
national exhibition, London, in 1862. 

Mr. H. Wilde's apparatus for producing a most power- 
ful magneto-electric light, on trial in northena 
lighthouses, Oct. i856. 

Lime-light (which see) employed at the S. Foreland 
lighthouse in 1861. 

The cost of erecting the three great British light- 
houses — viz., the SkeiTy-Vore (west coast) 158 feet 
high, was 83,126^. ; the Bishop Rock, Scilly Isle.% 
145 feet high, 36,559/. ; and the Bell Rock, Scotland, 
117 feet high, 61,331/. 



BRITISH LIGHTHOUSES. 

The Commissioners on Lights, &c. (1861), report 171 

shorelights in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 in 

Ireland (total 357) ; and 47 floating-lights. 
6 lighthouses building, April, 1867. 
The French have 224 lighthouses on shore. 
The souice of light in our lighthouses is principally 

oil ; but in harbour lights gas has been successfully 

used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and 

copper ones in 1807. A common coal fire-light 

was discontinued at St. Bees so recently as 1822. 

Fresnel's Dioptric system (w/iicli see), devised about 

1819, was adopted for the first time in England by 

Messrs. WUkius, at the direction of the corpora- 
tion of the Trinity house, i July, 1836. 
The most brilliant artificial light ever produced — 

derived from magneto-electricity by a machine 

LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were first set up for the protection of buildings by 
Franklin shortly after 1752, when he brought down electricity from a thunder-cloud. Rich- 
raann, of St. Petersburg, was killed while repeating these experiments, Aug. 1752. The 
first conductor in England was set up at Payne's Hill, by Dr. Watson. In 1766 one was 
placed on the tower of St. Mark, at Venice, which lias since escaped injury, although fre- 
quently injured by lightniug previously. A powder magazine at Glogan, in Silesia, was 
saved by a conductor in 17S2 ; and, from the want of one, a quantity of gunpowder was 
ignited at Brescia in 1767, and above 3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. Watson recom- 
mended conductors to be used in the navy ; and they were employed for a short time, but 
soon fell into disuse from want of skill and attention. Mr. (since sir William) Snow Harris 
devoted his attention to the subject from 1820 to 1854, and published a work in 1843, de- 
tailing his experiments. In 1830, above thirty ships were fitted up with his conductors, and 



LIG 438 LIN 

in 1842 his plans were adopted, and his conductors are now manufactured in the royal dock- 
yards. In 1854 jiarliameut granted him 5000?. 

LIGNY (near Fleurus, Belgium), where Napoleon defeated the Prussian army under 
Blucher, 16 June, 1815 ; see Waterloo. 

LIGUORIANS or KEDEMrroRiSTS, a Eoman catholic order, established in 1732 by 
Alfonso de Liguori, and approved by pope Benedict XIV. in 1759. 

LIGUEIANS, a Celtic tribe, IST. Italy, invaded the Roman territory, and were defeated 
238 B.C. They were not subjugated till 172 B.C. — The Ligukian Republic, founded in May, 
1797, upon the ruins of the republic at Genoa, was incorporated with France in 1805, and 
then merged into the kingdom of Italy. 

LILAC TREE, Syringa. The Persian lilac from Persia was cultivated in England about 
1638 ; the common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. 

LILLE, see Lisle. 

LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy, was brought to England before 1460 ; the 
martagon from Germany, 1596. 

LILYBtEUM, a strong maritime fortress of Sicily, besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 
276 B.C., and relieved by the Carthaginians 275 B.C. It was taken by the Romans, 241 B.C., 
after a siege of nine years, which led to the end of the second Punic war. 

LIMA (Peni). In 1534, Pizarro, marching through Peru, was struck with the beauty of 
the valley of Rimac, and there he founded this city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de los 
Reyes, or city of the kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, 26 June, 1541. Awful earth- 
quakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 1687, and 28 Oct. 1746. In 1854-5, thousands perished 
by yellow fever. Mr. Sullivan, the British consul, was assassinated at Lima, n Aug. 1857. 

LIMBURG (Netherlands), a duchy in the loth century ; acqiiired by the dukes of Brabant 
about 1288 ; added to Burgundy aboiit 1429 ; passed to the house of Austria in 1477 ; one of 
the United Provinces, 1609 ; conquered and annexed to the French republic, 1795 ; restored 
to the Netherlands, 18 14; divided between Holland and Belgium, 1830; completely separated 
from the German confederation by treaty, 11 May, 1867. 

LIME or Linden Teee, probably introduced in the i6th century. The limes in St. 
James's park are said to have been planted at the suggestion of Evelyn, who recommended 
multiplying odoriferous trees, in his "Fumifugium" (1661). A lime-tree planted in Swit- 
zerland in 1410, existed in 1720, the trunk being thirty-six feet in circumference. 

LIME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion of oxygen and hydrogen or carburetted 
hydrogen on a surface of lime. This light evolves little heat and does not vitiate the air. It is 
also called Drummond Light, after its inventor, lieut. Thomas Drummond, * who successfully 
produced it as a first-class light in 1826, and employed it on the ordnance survey. It is said 
to have been seen at a distance of 112 miles. It was tried at the South Foreland lighthouse 
in 1861. 

LIMERICK, anciently Lumneach (S. "W. Ireland). About 550, St. Munchin is said to 
have founded a bishopric and built a church here, which latter was destroyed by the Danes 
in 853. Donald O'Brien, king of Limerick, founded the cathedral about 1200. Limerick 
obtained its charter in 1195, when John Stafford was made first provost; and its first mayor 
was Adam Servant, in 1198. It was taken by Ireton after six months' siege in 1655. In 
Aug. 1 69 1, it was invested by the English and Dutch, and surrendered on most honourable 
terms, 3 Oct. same year.'h An awful explosion of 218 barrels of gunpower greatly shattered 
the town, killing 100 persons, i Feb. 1694. Another explosion of gunpowder here killed 
many persons, 2 Jan. 1837. Awful and destructive tempest, 6-7 Jan. 1839. 

LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limiting the liability of joint stock companies, 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 133 (passed 1855), was several times amended 1856-7-8. On 31 May, 1864, 
"3830 joint-stock companies had been formed and registered on the limited liability prin- 
ciple, and 938 had ceased to exist." Much calamity in 1866 was occasioned by the abuse of 
the system. The Companies act of 1862 was amended in 1867. 

LINCELLES (N. France), where the allied English and Dutch armies defeated the 
French, 18 Aug. 1793. General Lake commanded three battalions of brave foot guards. 

* He was born 1797, died 15 April, 1840. To him is attributed the maxim that "property has its 
duties as well as its rights." 

t By the treaty it was agreed that all arms, property, and estates should be restored ; all attainders 
annulled, and all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but that of allegiance should be required of high 
or low ; the freedom of the Catholic religion was secured ; relief from pecuniary claims incurred by hos- 
tilities was guaranteed ; permission to leave the kingdom was extended to all who desired it ; and a general 
pardon proclaimed to all then in arms. Burns. 



LIN 



439 



LIO 



LINCOLN, the Eoman Linduvi Colonia, and at the period of the conquest rich and 
populous. It was taken several times by Saxons and Danes. The castle was built by 
William I. in 1086. Without Newport-gate upon Lincoln plain was fought the battle 
between the partisans of the empress Maud, commanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the 
army of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner, 2 Feb. 1141. Louis, 
dauphin of France, having been invited over by the discontented barons in the last year cf 
king John's reign, was acknowledged by them as king of England here ; but the nobilit)', 
summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester to crown Heury III., marched against 
Louis and the barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary fight (called the Fair of Lin- 
coln), 20 Ma}', 1217 ; and Louis withdrew. 

LINCOLN, BiSHOPEic of. Sidnacester or Lindesso and Dorchester, two distinct sees in 
Mercia, were united about 1078, and the see was removed to Lincoln by bishop Remigius de 
Feschamp, who built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by fire, but rebuilt by bishop 
Alexander (1127) and bishop Hugh of Burgundy. The diocese is the largest in the kingdom, 
notwithstanding that the diocese of Ely (1109), and those of Oxford and Peterborough were 
formed from it in 1541, and Avere further enlarged from it in 1837. The see was valued at 
the dissolution of monasteries at 2065Z. per annum ; and after man}' of its manors had been 
seized upon, it was rated in the king's books at 894Z, lo.s. id. Present income, 5000^. It 
has given three saints to the church of Rome, and to the civil state of England six lord 
chancellors. The great beU of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, weighs four tons 
eight pounds. 

1820. Hon. George Polham, died i Feb. 1827. 



1787. 



RECENT BISHOPS OF LINCOLN. 

George Pretyman (afterwards Tomline), trans- 
lated to Winchester, 1820. 



1827. 



John Kaye, died ig Feb. 1852. 
John Jackson. 



LINCOLN'S-INN (London), derives its name from Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, who 
erected a mansion on this spot in the reign of Edward I., which had been the bishop of 
Chiclie.ster's jialace. It became an inn of court, 13 10. The gardens of LincoLn's-inn-fields 
were laid out by Inigo Jones, about 1620, and erroneously said to occupy the same space as 
the largest pyramid of Egypt, which is 764 feet square ; Lincoln's-inu square being 821 feet 
by 625 feet 6 inches. William lord Russell was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn-fields, 21 July, 
1683. The square (formed in 1618) was inclosed with iron railings about 1737. The new 
hall and other buildings were opened, 30 Oct. 1845, and the square planted. The theatre in 
Lincoln's-inn-fields was built in 1695 ; rebuilt in 1714; made a barrack in 1756, and pulled 
down in 1848. 

LINDISFARNE or Holy Island, on the coast of Northumberland, became a bishop's 
see, 635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Regnar Lodbrok in 793, and the monastery 
destroyed by them in 875. The see was removed to Chester-le-street in. 900, and to Durham 
iu 995" (or 990). 

LINEN. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen, 1716 B.C. [Gen. xli. 42.) 



Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yam, from Ire- 
land, permitted to be exported duty free . 1696 

Irish linen board established in 1711 ; the 
Linen-hall, Dublin, opened 1728 ; the board 
abolished 1828 

A board of trustees to superintend the Scotch 
linen manufacture established . . . 1727 

Duty on linen taken off i860 

Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Angus- 
shire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are chief 
seats of our linen manufaotm'o. 



First manufactured in England by Flemish 

weavers, under the protection of Henry III. 1253 
A company of linen-weavers established in 

London 1368 

The art of staining linen became known, about 1579 
A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and 

other Presbyterians who fled from i3ertiecu- 

tion in succeeding reigns, planted themselves 

in the north-east part of Ireland, and there 

established the linen manufacture, which 

was liberally encouraged by the lord deputy 

Wentworth in 1634; by William III. . . 1698 ^ 

LINLITHGOW-BRIDGE (near Edinburgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, 
who held James V. in their power, defeated the forces of tlie earl of Lennox, who, after 
receiving promise of ipiarter, was killed by sir James Hamilton, 1526. Mary, queen of 
Scots, was born in the palace of Linlithgow, 8 Dec. 1542, James V., her father, dying of a 
broken heart, 14 Dec. 

lilNNiEAN SYSTEM of botany, arranged by Linne or Linnreus, a Swede, 1725-30. 
He classed the plants according to the number and situation of the sexual parts, and made 
the flower and fruit the test of his various genera. Linnaeus lived from 1707 to 1778. 
His library and herbarium were purchased by sir James E. (then Dr.) Smith, and 
given to X\\e Linnccan Society in Loudon, which was instituted in 1788, and incorporated 
26 March, 1802. 

LION AND UNICORN, tlie former English, the latter Scottish, became the supporters 
of the royal arms on the accession of James I. in 1603. The lions iu Trafalgar-square, de- 
signed by sir Edwin Landseer, were uncovered, 31 Jan. 1867. 



LIP 



440 



LIT 



LIPPAU, see Hussites. 

LIPPE, a constitutional principality (N.W. Germany). Population, Dec. 1861, 108,513. 
Eeigning ])rince, Leopold, born i Sept. 1821 ; succeeded his father, Leopold, i Jan. 185 1. 
Lippe became a member of the I^lorth German confederation, 18 Aug. 1866. 

LIPPSTADT, see Lutzen. 

LISBON (Olisippo, and Felicitas Julia, of the ancients) -was taken by the Arabs about 
716, and became important under the Moorish kings, from whom it was captured by Alfonso 
I. of Portugal in 1 147. It was made the capital of Portugal by Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon has 
suffered much by earthquakes, and was almost destroyed by one, i Nov. 1755 ; see Earth- 
quakes. The coi^rt fled to the Brazils, 10 Nov. 1807, and on 30 Nov. the French, under 
Junot, entered Lisbon, and held it until the battle of Vimeira, in which they were defeated 
by the British, under sir Arthur VVellesley, 21 Aug. 1808. A military insurrection at Lisbon, 
21 Aug. 1831, was soon suppressed, and many soldiers were executed ; see Portugal. 

LISLE (now Lille, N. Prance) has a strong citadel by Vauban. It was besieged by the 
duke of Marlborough and the allies ; and, though deemed impregnable, was taken after a 
three months' siege in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, in conside- 
ration of the demolition of the fortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a severe bombard- 
ment from the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, 7 Oct. 1792. 

LISMOEE (S. Ireland). St. Carthage, first bishop, 636, sa5's: "Lismore is a famous and 
holy citj'-, of Avhich nearly one half is an asylum where no woman dare enter." The castle 
(built by king John when earl of Moreton, 1185), burnt in 1645, was rebuilt with great mag- 
nificence by the duke of Devonshire. The cathedral, built 636, was repaired by Cormac, 
son of Muretus, king of Munster, about 1 130 ; and the bishopric was united to that of Water- 
ford, about 1363 ; and both to Cashel in 1839. ' 

LISSA (or Leuthen, Silesia), Battle of, in which the king of Prussia vanquished prince 
Charles of Lorraine ; 6000 Austrians were slain, 5 Dec. 1757. — LissA, in Poland, was laid 
in ruins by the Prussian army in the campaign of 1707. — LissA, an island in the Adriatic. 
Near here the Italian fleet, commanded by Persano, was defeated with severe loss by the 
Austrian fleet commanded by Tegetholf, 20 July, 1866. 



The Italians had 23 vessels, 11 of which were 
ironclads, and the Austrians had 23 vessels, 7 
only being ironclads. 

Persano, when in sight of the enemy, quitted 
his ship, the Jie d'ltalie, and hoisted his flag 
on the Affondaiore. His ironclads did not 
keep well" together. 

During the action, the ironclad, Palestro, took 
fire and exploded, and all on board perished 



(except 19 out of 200 men), exclaiming, Viva 
ilEe! Viva Italia! The Re d'Jtulia was sur- 
rounded and sunk by the Austrians. The 
Kc di Portogello disabled the Austrian line-of- 
battle ship, Kaiier, and compelled her to run 
ashore. Both parties soon after returned from 
the conflict, which had lasted 4 hours, 
x^dmiral Persano was tried for misconduct and 
dismissed the service . . .15 April, 1S67 



LITANIES (Greek Utaneia, supplication), were first used in processions, it is said, about 
469 ; others say about 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope 
Gregory I. about 595. The first English litany was commanded to be used in the Eeformed 
churches by Henry VIII. in 1543. 

LITERARY CLUB (at first called "The Club" and "Johnson's Club"), foundedby 
Dr. Johnson and sir Joshua Reynolds in 1764. Hawkins, Topham, Beauclerk, Goldsmith, 
Burke, Bennett, and Langton, were among the first members. The opinion formed of a new 
work b}'^ the club was speedily known all over London, and had great influence. The cliib 
still exists. Hallam, Macaulay, the marquess of Lansdowne, and bishop Blomfield, were 
members ; Dr. Milman, dean of St. Paul's, was in the chair at the centenary dinner on 7 
June, 1864. 

LITERARY EUND, Royal, was founded in 1790, to relieve literary men of all nations, 
by David Williams,* the friend of Benjamin Franklin, and incorporated in 1818. 

LITERARY PROPERTY, SOCIETIES, &c., see Copyright, Societies, &c. 

LITERATURE, called also Letters and Belles Lettrcs, is held to comprehend eloquence, 
poetry, history, language, and their subordinates ; see Bible, and also Greek, Latin, English, 
French, German, Italian, S'panish, Portuguese. 

* Floyer Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of Wadham college, Oxford, and translator of some of 
the works of Plato, was arrested and thrown into prison for a trifling debt due for his frugal meals, and 
there, in 1788, died of a broken heart in want and misery, when nearly eighty years of age. The sympathy 
excited gave rise to this institution, since well supported. Williams was in early life a dissenting 
miinister, and wrote on education. He was consulted by the early revolutionary party in France as to the 
form of a constitution for that country, he. Dr. Priestley, sir James Mackintosh, and other distinguished 
Englishmen, having been previously declared French citizens. He died 29 July, 1816. 



LIT 441 LIV 

LITHIUM, a metal, the lightest substance in nature except the gases (its specific gravity 
being o '59), is obtained from an alkaline substance termed lithia; discovered by M. Arf- 
wedson, a Swede, in 1817. 

LITHOGRAPHY (engraving on stone). The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Senne- 
felder, whose first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was an- 
nounced in Germany, and was known as polyautogi'aphy. It became partially known in 
England in 1801, ct scq., but its general introduction may be referred to Mr. Ackermann, of 
London, about 181 7. Sennefelder died in 1841. Improvements in the art have been made 
by Engelmann and many others ; see Priniing in Colours. 

LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of cutting for the stone, it is said, was performed 
by Ammonias, about 240 e.g. The "small apparatus," so called from the few instruments 
used in the operation, was practised by Celsns, about A. D. 1 7. The operation called the ' ' high 
apparatus," was practised (on a criminal at Paris) by Colot, 1475 ; by Franco, on a child, 
about 1566; and in England by Dr. Douglass, about 15 19. The "lateral operation," in- 
vented by Franco, much performed in Paris by Frere Jacques, in 1697, has been greatly im- 
l)roved. The " great apparatus " was invented by John de liomauis, and described by his 
pupil Marianus Sanctus, 1524. 

LITHOTRITY (or bruising the stone). The apparatus produced by M. Leroy d'Etiolles 
in 1S22 has since been improved. 

LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duch}', N. E. of Prussia. The natives (belonging to the 
Slavonic race) long maintained their independence against the Russians and Poles. In 1386, 
their gi'aud-duke Jagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : Lithuania was not incor- 
porated with Poland till 1501, when another duke, Casimir, became king of that country. The 
larger part of Lithuania now belongs to Russia, the remainder to Prussia. 

LITURGIES (from the Greek litai, prayers, and ergon, work). The Greek and Roman 
litirrgies are very ancient, having been committed to writing about the 4th and 5th centuries. 
The Romish church recognises four : the Roman or Georgian, the Ambrosian, the Gallican, 
and the Spanish or Mosarabic. The Greek church has two principal liturgies : St. Chry- 
sostom's and St. Basil's, and several smaller ones. Parts of these litiu'gies are attributed to 
the Apostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, to St. Ambrose (died 397), and to St. Jerome (died 420). 

ThepresentEnglishLiturgy was fir.st composed, 1 nierly chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by 

and was approved and confirmed by paiiia- ! bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pilking- 

laent, in 1547-8. The offices for morning and ' " ' ' 

evening prayer were then put into nearly the 
same form in which we now have them. 

At the solicitation of Calvin and others, the 
liturgy was reviewed and altered . 

It was first read in Ireland, in the English 
liuigxiage, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it 
occasiuned a tumult, in 1637, and was with- 
drawn 

The Liturgy was revised by Whitehead, for- 

LIVERIES OF THE CITY OF LONDON. The term is derived from the custom of 
the retainers of the lord mayor and sheriffs wearing clotlies of the form and colour displayed 
by those functionaries. It was usual for the wardens of companies to deliver a purse con- 
taining 20s. to the lord mayor on i Dec. to obtain for individuals, so desiring, sufficient cloth 
to make a suit, and the privilege of wearing the livery. This added to the splendour of the 
mayor's train Avhen the civic court went forth. Ashe. Liveries were regulated by statute in 
1392, and frequently since. 

LIVERPOOL ("W. Lancashire), is supposed to be noticed in Domesday-book under the 
i\a.vci& Esmcdicnc, ov Smedime.* Soon after tlie con([uest, William granted that part of the 
country situated between the rivers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of Poitiers, who, according 
to Camden, built a castle here, about tlie year 1089. It afterwards was held by the earls of 
Chester and dukes of Lancaster. Population in 185 1, 375,995 ; in 1861, 443,874. 

Liverpool made a free borough by Henry III. . 1229 ' Town rated for ship-money in only 26i. by 

Made an independent port 1335 Charles 1 1630 

Liverpool "a paved town" (Xc/and) . . . 1558 Besieged ;md taken by prince Rupert, 26 Jime, 1644 

" The people of her majestj'"s decayed town of Made a separate parish 1698 

Liverpool " petition Elizabeth to be relieved The old dock, the first in England, constructed 

from a subsidy 1571 , and opened 1699 

Separated from the duchy of Lancaster . . 1628 | Blue coat hospital founded 1709 



ton, dean May, and secretary Smith. 
John Knox is said to have used a liturgy for 
several years. The rev. Bobert Lee, of Edin- 
burgh, introdviced a form of prayer in x^ublic 
worship, but gave it up when ordered to dis- 
continue it in May, 1859 ; he soon after 
resumed it, and the discus.sion on the subject 
ceased only at his death . . 14 March, 1S68 
See Common Prayer. 



* In other ancient records its appellations are LUherpul and Lyrpul, signifying probably, in the ancient 
dialect, tlie lower pool ; though some have deduced its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic 
fowl, called the "Liver," or from a sea-vreed of that name ; and others, fi-om its having belonged to a 
family of the name of Lever, whose antiquity is not sufficiently established to justify their conclusion. 



LIV 



442 



LIV 



LIVERPOOL, continued. 

The town opposes the Young Pretender, and 

raises several regiments 1745 

Town-hall conamenced 1749 

Infirmary established ,, 

Seamen's hospital founded 1752 

A most destructive fire 1762 

House of industry founded 1770 

Theatre licensed, 1771; opened .... 1772 
Liverpool equips, at the commencement of the 
war against France, 120 privateers, carrying 
1986 guns, and 8754 seamen .... 1778 

King's dock constructed 1785 

[The Queen's dock was also constructed about 
the same time.] 

Memorable storm raged 1789 

The exchange burnt 1795 

The town-hall (since restored) destroyed by fire ,, 
The Athenaeum opened . . . .1 Jan. 1799 

Union news-room erected iSoo 

The Lyceum erected 1802 

Awful fire, whose ravages exceeded i,ooo,oooZ. 

. sterling 14 Sept. ,, 

Com exchange opened . . . 4 Aug. 1808 

Royal exchange completed 1809 

Statue of Geo. III. commenced . . 25 Oct. „ 
Fall of St. Nicholas' tower, 20 lulled 11 Feb. i8io 

Royal Institution founded 1814 

Wellington-rooms built 1815 

Rpyal Institution opened by Mr. Roscoe, 2 Nov. 1S18 
American seamen's hosisital .... 1820 
Prince's dock opened . . . 19 July, 1821 
St. John's market-place . . . Feb. 1822 

Royal Institution incorporated . . . . ,, 
Marine Humane Society formed . . . 1823 
New house of industry erected .... 1824 

Liver theatre o]Dened 1825 

Old dock closed 1826 

Foundation of new custom-house laid, 12 Aug. 1828 
Blackrock lighthouse built, and light first 

shown I March, 1830 

Lunatic asylum founded, 1792 ; new buildings 

erected „ 

Clarence dock completed . . . Sept. „ 
Liverpool and Manchester railway opened * 

IS Sept. ,, 

Zoological gardens opened 1833 

Great fire ; property valued at 3oo,oooZ. de- 
stroyed I Jan. ,, 



Lock hospital and Waterloo dock opened . . 1834 
Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened 8 Sept. 1836 
Mechanics' institute opened .... 1837 
New fish market opened . . .8 Feb. ,, 

Apothecaries' company formed . . . • j, 
Livei-pool and Birmingham (Grand Junction) 

railway opened 4 July, ,, 

Railway to London (now the North-Western) 

was opened its entire length . . 17 Sept. 1838 

Statistical society founded „ 

The Liverpool steamer, of 461-horse power, sails 

for New York .... 28 Got. „ 

Awful storm raged .... 6 Jan. 1839 
Foundation of the collegiate institution laid by 

lord Stanley 1840 

Foundation of St. George's hall and courts laid 1841 
Immense fire ; property worth more than half 

million sterling destroyed . . 25 Sept. 1842 
Mr. Huskisson's statue erected. . . Oct. 1847 

Procession of Orangemen at Liverpool, and fatal 

riot 14 July, 1851 

The queen visits Liverpool ... 9 Oct. „ 
St. George's hall opened . . . 18 Sept. 1854 
Bread riots (150,000 persons out of employ 

through the frost) .... 19 Feb. 1855 
Gigantic landing stage for large steamers com- 
pleted 1857 

Free library, <Stc., founded by Mr. (afterwards 

sir) W. Brown, M.P. for S. Lancashire, 5 April, 

1857; free library, &c., opened . . 18 Oct. i860 
Many commercial failures . . Sept. to Nov. 1857 
Association for Social Science meets . . Oct. 1858 
Sailors' home (cost 30,000^.) burnt . 29 April, i860 
Free museum opened .... 17 Oct. 1861 
Brownlow Hill church and workhouse-school 

burnt, and 23 lives lost (20 children) 8 Sept. 1862 
Explosion of iij tons of gunpowder in the Inttie 

Sieigr/i, in the Mersey, great damage 16 Jan. 1S64 
Death of sir Wm. Brown, a great benefactor to 

Liverpool 3 March, „ 

Additional M.P. (now 3) granted by Reform 

act 15 Aug. 1867 

Royal bank of Liverpool stopped . 21 Oct. ,, 
Greek steamer {Bubulina) in the Mersey ex- 
ploded ; about 19 lives lost . 29 Nov. ,, 
The dock space in 1810 was 26 acres for ships, 

to the amount of 704,000 tons ; in 1857, 209 

acres, tonnage 4,320,000. 



LIVERPOOL ADMINISTRATION". Shortly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval 
(II May, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became iirst minister. f His administration terminated 
when he was attacked by apoplexy, 17 Feb. 1827, and Mr. Canning succeeded as prime 
minister, 10 April. 



Earl of Liverpool, first lord of the treasury. 

Earl of Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrowby, lord preddent of the council. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lurd privy seal. 

N. Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded 
by F. J. Robinson, 1823). 

Viscount Sidmouth, home secretary (succeeded by 
Robert Peel, 1822). 

Viscount Castlereagh, afterwards marquess of Lon- 
donderry, fiireign secretary (succeeded by George 
Canning, 1S22). 

Earl Bathur&t, colonial secretary. 

Viscount Melville, JJ/-it lord of admiraUy. 



Earl of Buckinghamshire, hoard of control (succeeded 
by George Canning, 1816; C. Bathurst, 1820; C. 
Wynne, 1822). 

Charles Bathurst (1813), chancellor of duchy of Lan- 
caster (succeeded by N. Vansittart, lord Bexley, 
1823). 

Wellesley Pole, afterwards lord Maryboi-ough, 1815, 
master of the mint. 

F. J. Robinson, 1818; W. Huskisson, 1S23, board of 
trade. 

Earl of Mulgrave, ordnance (succeeded by duke of 
Wellington, i8ig). 



LIVONIA, a Russian province on the Baltic sea, first visited by some Bremen merchants 
about 1 158. It has belonged successively to Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It 
was finally ceded to Peter the Great in 1721. 

* The first g^-and work of the kind, about 31 miles long. The first shaft was commenced in Oct. 1826, 
and the excavation of the tunnel, one mile aud a quarter long, Jan. 1827 ; the tunnel was completed in 
Sept. 1828, and opened 30 July, 1829. At the opening of the railroad, the duke of Wellington and other 
illustrious persons were present ; and Mr. Huskisson, who ahghted during a stoppage of the engines, was 
knocked down by one of them, which went over his thigh and caused his death, 15 Sept. 1830. 

+ Robert Jenkinson, born 7 Jan. 1770, entered the house of commons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the 
abolition of the slave trade in 1792 ; in 1796 became loi'd Hawkesbury ; became foreign minister under 
Mr. Addington, in iSoi ; succeeded his father as earl of Liverpool in 1808 ; died 4 Dec. 1828. 



LLA 443 LOG 

LLANDAFF (Wales). The first known bishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died 
in 612. The see is valued in the king's books at 154?. 14s. id. per annum. Present 
income, 4200?. 

1826. Charles Richard Sumner; translated to ■Win- 
chester, 1827. 



RECENT BISHOPS OF LLANDAFF. 

1782. Richard Watson ; died 4 July, 1816. 

1816. Herbert Marsh; trans, to Peterborough, 1819. 

1819. Wm. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1826, 



1827. Edward Copleston ; died 14 Oct. 
1849. Alfred OUivant, present bishop. 



LLANDEWEYER (Carmarthenshire). Here Llewelyn, prince of Wales, having descended 
into the plains, was surprised, defeated, and slain by the lords marchers, 11 Dec. 1282. 
This disaster led to the subjugation of Wales in 1283. 

LLEREISrA, see Villa Franca. 

LLOYD'S (London), at the Royal Exchange. About 1710, a coffee-house, kept by Lloyd, 
in Abchurch-lane, became a place of meeting of merchants. After several removals it was 
established finally at the Royal Exchange in 1774, and remained there till the fire in 1838, 
when it was removed till the present building was completed in 1844. Here resort eminent 
merchants, &c. ; and here are effected insurances on ships and merchandise. Lloyd's is 
supported by subscribers who pay annually 4I. 4s. The books kept here contain an account 
of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are remarkable for their early intelligence of 
maritime affairs. In 1803, the subscribers instituted the Patriotic Fund (which see).* 

LOADSTONE, see Magnetism. 

LOAjSTO, Piedmont (IST. Italy). Here the Austrians and Sardinians were defeated by the 
French, under Massena, 23 Nov. 1795. 

LOANS for the public service were raised by Wolsey in 1522 and 1525' In ^559 
Elizabeth borrowed 200,000^. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own coin, 
and sir Thomas Gresham and the city of London joined in the security. Rainn. The 
amount of the English loans, during several memorable periods, viz. : — 

amount required ; 2,533,888,450 were from Paris ; 
from the departments, 1,118,703,535. The num- 
ber of subscribers was 316,864. No less than 
231,920,155 francs was made up by subscription of 
50 francs and under. About 600 millions camo 
from foreign countries. The English subscription 
of 150,000,000 francs was returned, as double the 
amomit required had been proffered. 

The French government raised a loan of 20,000,000^. 
for the Italian war from its own people without 
difficulty. May 1859. 

A Turkish loan of 5,000,000?., on the security of 
England and Prance, was taken up by Rothschild 
in Aug. 1855, and was well received : the stock 
rose to a small premium. 

French loan for 17,600,000?. announced 29 Jan. 1868. 



Seven years' war . . 1755 to 1763 .£52,100,000 
American war . . 1776 to 1784 . 75,500,000 
French revolutionary war 1793 to 1802 . 168,500,000 
War against Bonaparte . 1803 to 1814 . 206,300,000 
War against Russia t . 1855101856 . 16,000,000 
For deficiency in revenue t 1856 . 10,000,000 

2 loans, 1813 . . . 2i,ooo,oooJ. and 22,000,000 
By East India Company 1858 . 8,000,000 

A subscription loan (i8,ooo,oooZ.) to carry on thewar 

against France, filled up in London in 15 hours and 

20 minutes (see Loyalty Loans), 5 Dec. 1796. 
French loan on 9 July, 1855, on account of the 

war with Russia. The French legislature passed 

a bill for raising by loan 750 million francs 

(30,000,000?. sterling;. On the 30th the total 

subscribed in France amounted to 3,652,591,985 

francs (about 146,103,679?.), nearly five times the 

LOAN SOCIETIES. The laws relating to them were amended by the Act 3 & 4 Vict. 
c. no; passed Aug. 1840. 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT, passed in 1858, was amended in 1861. 

LOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), built on an isle in Loch Leven, it is said by the 
Picts, was the royal residence of Alexander III. and his queen when taken from it to 
Stirling. It was besieged by the English in 1301, and in 1334. Patrick Graham, first arch- 
bishop of St. Andrew's, was imijrisoned for attempting to reform the church, and died here 
about 1478. The earl of Northumberland was confined in it, 1569. It was the place of 
queen Mary's imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape on Sunday, 2 May, 156S. 

LOCKS used by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Denon has engraved an Egyptian 
lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks and padlocks as early as 1381. Bramah's locks 
were patented in 1784. Mr. Hobbs, the American, exhibited his own locks in the Crystal 
palace, in 185 1, and showed great skill in picking others. 

LOCOMOTIVES, see Railways. The use of steam locomotives on ordinary roads is 
regulated by acts passed in 1861 and 1865. 

LOCRI, a people of Northern Greece. They resisted Philip of Macedon, were aided by 
the Athenians and Thebans, and defeated by him at Chserouea, 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 

* The Austrian Lloyd's, an association for general, commercial, and industrial purposes,'was founded at 
Trieste, by Baron Bruck, in 1833. It has established regular communication between Trieste and the 
Levant, by means of a fleet of steamers, cai-rying the mails, and pubUshes a joui-nal. 

t Both taken by the RothschUds alone. 



LOG 444 LOM 

LOCUSTS, one of the plagues of Egypt, 1491 B.C. {Exod. x.) Owing to the putrefaction 
of vast swarms in Egypt and Libya, upwards of 800,000 persons are said to liave perished, 
128 B.C. Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air; and after 
devouring the fruits of the earth, they died, and their intolerable stench caused a pestilential 
fever a.d. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred in France in 837. A swarm of locusts 
settled upon tlie ground about London, .iind consumed the vegetables ; gTcat numbers fell in 
the streets, they resembled grasshoppers, but were three times the size, and their colours 
more variegated, 4 Aug. 1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and 
Warsaw in June, 1S16. They are said to have been seen in London in 1857. Eussia was 
infested by them in July, i860 ; Algeria, severely, in 1866 ; and Sardinia in 1868. 

LODGEKS paying loZ. a year for a whole year for apartments without furniture, acquired 
the suffrage, by Reform act passed 15 Aug. 1867. 

LODGING-HOUSES. An act placing common lodging-houses under the watch of the 
police was passed in 185 1. In that year a model lodging-house erected by prince Albert 
appeared at the Great Exhibition. Since then, blocks of lodging-houses for the poor have 
been erected by Miss Burdett Coutts and others. Mr. Peabody's donation of 12 March, 1862, 
has been appropriated for a similar purpose ; see Pcahody. Oa 19 Nov. 1863, the city of 
London voted 20,oooZ. and a piece of land in Victoria-street for the purpose ; see London, 1845. 

LODI (N. Italy). Napoleon Bonaparte, commanding the French army, totally defeated 
the Austrians, under Beaulieu, after a bloody engagement at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 
1796. The republican flag floated in Milan a few days after. 

LOGAEITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of numbers one to another, were invented by 
baron Napier of Merchiston, who published his work in 1614. The invention was completed 
by Mr. Henry Briggs, at Oxford, who published tables, 1616-18. The method of computing 
by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence called 
Napier s hones. 

LOGIC, "the science of reasoning." Eminent works on it are by Aristotle; Bacon, 
Novum Organon ; Locke on the Understanding ; and the modern treatises on Logic, by arch- 
bishop Whately, sir William Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill. 

LOGIERIAN SYSTEM of musical education, commenced by J. B. Logier, in Jan. 1815, 
and introduced into the chief towns of the United Kingdom, Prussia, &c. 

LOG-LINE, used in navigation, about 1570 ; first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is 
divided into spaces of 50 feet, and the way which the ship makes is measured by a half- 
minute sand-glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour that 50 feet bear to a 
mile : the line used in the royal navy is 48 feet. 

LOGOGRAPHIC PRINTING, in which the commoner words were cast in one mass, was 
patented by Henry Johnson and Mr. Walter of the Times in 1783. Anderson's History of 
Commerce, vol. iv. was printed by these types in 1789. 

LOGRONO, see Najara. 

LOI DES SUSPECTS, enacted by the French convention, 17 Sept. 1793, during the 
reign of terror, tilled the prisons of Paris. The Public Safety bill, of a similar character, 
was passed, 18 Feb. 1858, shortly after Orsini's attempt on the life of the emperor. 

LOLLARDS (by some derived from the German Mien, to sing in a low tone), the name 
given to the first reformers of the Roman catholic religion in England, the followers of 
WyklilTe. The sect is said to have been founded in 13 15 by Walter Lollard, who was 
burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. The Lollards are said to have devoted themselves to 
acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr in England was William Sawtree, parish priest of 
St. Osith, London, 12 Feb. 1401, when the Lollards were proscribed by parliament, and 
numbers of them were burnt alive.* 

LOMBARDISTS, disciples of Peter Lombard, the schoolman, bishop of Paris, author of 
the " Book of Sentences," who died 1164. 

LOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, were understood to be composed of natives 
of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or Venice. Atiderson. Lombard 
usurers were sent to England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, 
and private persons who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected through- 
out the kingdom with great rigour that year, 13 Hen. III. 1229. They had offices in the 

* Among others, sir John Oldcastle, baron Cobham, was cruelly put to deathin St. Giles'-in-the-Fields. 
His crime was the adoption of the tenets of the great reformer Wykliffe. He was misrepresented to our 
Henry V. by the bigoted clergy, as a heretic and traitor, who was actually at the head of 30,000 Lollards in 
these fields. About 100 inoffensive people were found there. Cobham escaped ; but was taken some time 
after in Wales. He suffered death, being hung on a gallows, by a chain fastened round his body, and, 
thus buspeuded, burnt alive, in Dec. 1418. Pennant. 



LOM 



445 



LON- 



street named after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion 
from the kingdom iu the reign of Elizabeth. 

LOMBAIiDY CN. Italy) derived its name from the Langohardi, a German tribe from 
Brandenburg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into Italy by Justinian to serve against 
the Goths. Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which lasted from 568 to 774. The 
last king, Desiderius, was dethroned by Charlemagne. (For a list of the Lombard kings ; 
see Italy.) About the end of the 9th century the chief towns of Lombardy fortified 
themselves, and became republics. The first Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, 
Pavia, Modena, &c., was formed to restrain the power of the German emperors, in 1167. 
On 29 May, 11 76, they defeated the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Legiiano, and even- 
tually compelled him to sign the peace of Coustanco in 11S3. In 1226 another leagiK was 
formed against Frederick II., which was also successful. After this, petty tyrants rose iu 
most of the cities, and foreign influence quickly followed. The Guelf and Ghibclline factions 
greatly distracted Lombardy ; and from the 15th century to the present time, it has beeu 
contended for by the German and French sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it 
in 1748, and held it till 1797, when it was conquered by the Fi-ench, who incorporated it into 
the Cisalpine republic, and in 1805 into the kingdom of Italy. On tlie breaking up of the 
French empire in 1815, the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom was established by the allied 
sovereigns and given to Austria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. Lombardy and 
Venice revolted, and joined the king of Sardinia in March, 1848 ; they did not snpport him 
well, and were again subjected to Austria after his defeat at Novai'a. 23 March 1849. An 
amnesty for political offences was granted in 1856. Great jealousy of Sardmia was felt by 
Austria after 1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended ; and in April, 1859, war 
broke out ; the Austrians crossing the Ticino and entering Piedmont. The French emperor 
declared war against Austria, and immediately sent troops into Italy. The Austrians were 
defeated at Moutebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 31 May; Magenta, 4 June ; and Solferiuo, 
24 June. By the peace of VUlafranca (11 July), the largest part of Lombardy was ceded to 
Louis Napoleon, who transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms part of the new 
kingdom of Italy, to which Venetia was also surrendered by the treaty of Vienna, 3 Oct. 
1867. 

LONATO (Brescia, E. Italy). Here Napoleon Bonaparte ^defeated "VVurmser and the 
Austrians, 3 Aug. 1796. 

LONDON". Some assert that a city existed on the spot 1 107 years before the birth of 
Christ, and 354 years before the foundation of Rome,* that it was the capital of the Trino- 
hantes, 54 B.C., and long previously the seat of their kings. In A.D. 61 it was known to 
the Romans as Lundinium, or Colonia Augusta, and the chief residence of the merchants. 
It is said, but not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an old British king, who was 
buried near where Ludgate formerly stood; but its name is from Llyii- Din, the "town on 
the lake."f It became the capital of the Saxon kingdom of Essex, and was called Limdcn- 
ceaster. In i860, London and the suburbs were estimated to cover 121 square miles, 11 miles 
each way, being three times as large as in 1800. The population of the metropolitan districts 
in 1851, was 2,362,236 ; in 1861, it was 2,803,034. The population of " the city" in 1851, 
was 127,869 ; in 1861, it was 112,247. Revenue of the corporation in 1862, 437,341/. Tlie 
"port" of London extends from London Bridge to the North Foreland; see Docks, 
Mayors, and Treaties.X 



Boadicea, queen of the Icenl, reduces London 
to ashes, and puts 70,000 Romans and stran- 
gers to the sword 61 

She is defeated by Suetonius, 80,000 Britons are 



massacred, and she takes poison . . . 61 
Bishopric said to have been founded by 

Theanus 179 

London rebuilt and waUed ia by the Romans . 306 



* The fables of Geoffrey of Monmouth, with regard to the origin of London, are unworthy of the 
attention of the antiquary. Tliat London was founded by Brute, a descendant of the Trojan iEiieas, and 
called New Troy, or Troy-novant, until the time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls, and gave it the 
name of Caer Lud, or Lud's town, &c., may be considered as mere romance. Leigh. 

t The original walls of Lond^m were the work of the Romans. Theodosius, governor of Britain, is 
said to have raised them, 379 ; but they are supposed to have been built a'lout 306. There were origmally 
four princip-il gales, but tlie number inci eased ; and among others were the Praetorian way, Newgate, 
Dowgate, Cripplegate, Aldgate, Aldersgate, Ludgate, Bridegate, Moorgate, Bishopgate, the Postern on 
Tower-hill; eight gates were removed in 1760-1, and the only one of the city boundaries now remaining 
is Temple-iiar, rebuilt 1670-2, and its removal is expected. 

X Lc^DON Citizens. To them many privileges and immunities have been granted from the time of 
"William the Conqueror, whose first charter, granted in 1079, is still preserved iu the city archives. This 
charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a slip of parchment six iuches'long, and one broad, 
and is in English as follows : — " William the king gi-eeteth William the bishop, and Godfrey the pjrtreve, 
and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye be all there law- 
worthy as ye were in king Edward's days. And I will that every child be his lather's heir, after his 
father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any wrong. God preserve you." 



lo:n" 



446 



LON 



LONDON, continued. 

800 vessels said to be employed in the port of 

London for the export of corn . ... 359 
Bishopric revived by St. Mellitus; St. Paul's 

and Westminster abbey built .... 604 

A plague ravages London 644 

Great fire which nearly consumed the city . 798 
London pillaged by the Danes . . . . 839 
Alfred repairs and strengthens London . . 884 
Easterlings settle in London before . . . 978 

Another great fire 982 

Tower built by William 1 1078 

First charter granted to the city by the same 

king (see London Citizens, note, t p. 44s) . 1079 
Another great fire, St, Paul's burnt . . . io85 
606 houses thrown down by a tempest . . 1090 

Charter granted by Henry I iioo 

St. Bartholomew's priory founded by Eahere, 

about IIOO 
London-bridge built, 1014 ; burnt . . .1136 

Old London-bridge beg^m 1176 

Henry Fitz-Alwhyn, the ,first mayor (served 

twenty- four years) 11 89 

Massacre of Jews ,> 

Charter granted by Henry II 11 54 

First stone bridge finished .... 1209 

Charter of king John ; mayor and common 

council to be elected annually* . . . . 1214 
Foreign merchants invited, settle here 1 199-1220 

Charter of Henry II 1233 

Aldermen appointed .... about 1242 
Watch in London, 38 Henry III. . . . 1253 
Privileges granted to the Hause merchants 

{which see) • • 1259 

Tax called murage, to keep the walls and 

ditches in repair .... about 1282 
Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap . 1285 
Expulsion of the Jews (16,511) • ■ • • 129° 
Livery companies incorporated . . . 1327 

Charter granted by Edward III. . ' . . 1328 
Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens 

perisht 1348 

London first sends members to parliament . 1355 
William of Walworth lord mayor . . . . 1380 
Wat Tyler's rebelhon (see Tyler) . . . 1381 

Aldermen elected for life 1394 

Great plague, 30,000 (?) died .... 1406 
City first lighted at night by lanterns . . . 1415 
Guildhall commenced 1411, finished . . . 1416 
Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz., 1397, 1406, 1419 
Jack Cade's rebellion ; see Cade . . . . 1450 
First civic procession on the water ; sir John 

Norman lord mayor 1453 

Falconbridge attempts the city . . . . 1471 
Printing-press set up by Caxton . . . ,, 

Sweating sickness rages 1485 

Fleet ditch navigable 1502 

St. Paul's school founded by dean Colet . .1509 
The fatal sweat, ;SMdor ^»?£riictts. . . . 1517 

Evil May-day (which see) ,, 

Streets first paved (Ft)Je7-'s 5tai.) . . . 1533 
" Bills of Mortality " ordered to be kept . . 1538 
Dissolution of religious houses . . . . 1539 



St. Bartholomew's monastery changed to an 

hospital 1539 

Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the 
city, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. 
VI. (there are now 7000) .... 1553 

Christ's hospital founded by King Edw. VI. . ,, 
Russian trading company estabUshed . . . „ 

Coaches introduced about 1563 

Royal Exchange built (see Exchange) . . . 1566 
New buildings in London forbidden "where no 
former hath been known to have been," to 
prevent the increasing size I . . . . 1580 

Levant corapany established 1581 

Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden 

pipes 1580-94 

Stow publishes his survey 1598 

Nearly all London yet buUt of wood . . . 1600 
East India company incorporated . . . ,, 

30,578 persons said to perish by the plague . 1603 

Gunpowder plot {which see) 1605 

Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, <fec. 1611 
New river water brought to Loudon . . . 1613 
Virginia company estabhshed . . . . 1616 

Pi'incipal streets paved ,, 

Hackney coaches first pUed 1625 

Building of the western parishes, St. Giles's, &c. 

begun 1640 

The city held for the parliament . . . 1642 

London fortified 1643 

Jews allowed to settle in Loudon by Cromwell 1650 

The Jews begin jto return 1656 

Banking begun by Francis Child . . about 1660 
Royal Society of London chartered . . . 1662 
68,596 persons said to have perished by the 

great plague (see Plagues) .... 1665 
" Oxford" afterwards " London Gazette " pub- 
lished 7 Nov. ,, 

Great fire of London (see Fires) .... 1666 
Act for a " new model of building " in the city „ 
Hudson's-bay company chartered . . . 1670 
Monument erected by Wren (see Monument) 1671-7 
St. Paul's founded .... 21 June, 1675 
Gates' pretended popish plot .... 1678 
A London dii'ectory published . . . . 1679 

Charter granted by Charles II 1680 

Penny post established 1683 

Settlement of French protestants . . . 1685 
Charter declared forfeited, 1682 ; but restored . 1689 
Bank ot England estabhshed .... 1694 
St. Paul's opened .... 2 Dec. 1697 
Awful storm .... 26 Nov.-i Dec. 1703 
Sacheverel's sernaon and mob . . . . 1710 
Act for the erection of fifty new churches . 1711 
South Sea bubble commenced, 1710; exiDloded 1720 

(see South Sea company) 
Chelsea water-works formed .... 1722 

Bank of England built 1732-4 

Glass lamps in the street . between 1694 & 1736 
Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened . 1737 
" Great Frost," 25 Dec. 1739 to 8 Feb. . . 1740 

London Hospital instituted ,, 

New Mansion-house founded, 1739 ; completed 1733 



* Stow incorrectly states this charter to have been given in 1209, but it bears date May 19th in the 
i6th year of king John's reign, which began in 1199. This charter was acted on at that period in various 
instances, as many of the mayors were afterwards continued in their oflices for several years together ; and 
the same right was exerted in the case of Mr. Alderman Wood, who fiUed the office of lord mayor during 
two succeeding years, those of 1816 and 1817. Leigh. 

t This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and spreading itself westward through every country on 
the globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were so great, that the common cemeteries were not 
sufficient for the interment of the dead ; and various pieces of ground without the walls were assigned for 
burial-places. Amongst these was the waste land now forming the precincts of the Charter-house, where 
upwards of 50,000 bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not subside till 1357. Ldem. 

t This proclamation or decree was dated from Nonesuch, 7 July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect 
new buildings where none had before existed in the memory of man. The extension of the metropoUs 
was deemed calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; create a trouble in governing such multi- 
tudes ; a dearth of victuals ; multiplying of beggars, and inabihty to reheve them ; an increase of artisans 
more than could live together ; impoverishmg other cities for lack of inhabitants. The decree stated that 
lack of air, )ack of room to walk and shoot, &c., arose out of too crowded a city. A proclamation to the 
same effect was also issued by James I. 



LON 



447 



LON 



LONDON, contimted. 

British Museum established 1753 

Society of Arts established ,, 

Eight gates removed 1 760-1 

Shop-sigus removed 1762 

Westminster paving-act passed . . . . „ 

Blackfriars-bridge opened . . -19 Nov. 1769 
The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to 

the Tower by the House of Commons for a 

breach of privilege ... 27 March, 1771 
Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob (see Gor- 

don'-i mob) June, 17S0 

Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's 

cathedral . . . . • . 23 AprU., 1789 

Royal Institution of Great Britain founded . 1799 

London docks opened .... 20 Jan. „ 

London Institution founded 1805 

Lord Nelson's funeral ... 9 Jan. 1S06 

Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall .... 1807 
Biots on the committal of sir F. Burdott to the 

Tower 6 Ajsril, 18 10 

The Mint finished 18 n 

Regent-street begun 1813 

Civic banquet to the alhed sovereigns at Guild- 
hall 18 June, 1814 

Custom-house burnt .... 12 Feb. ,, 

The city generally lighted with gas . . . „ 

Waterloo-bridge opened . . 18 June, 1817 

New Custom-house opened , 

Southwark-bridge opened . . 24 March, 1819 

The great increase in building commences . 1820 

Bank of England completed by sir John Soane 1821 

Tumults at Queen Carulme's funeral 14 Aug. ,, 

Cabs introduced 1823 

London Mechanics' Institution founded . . ,, 

Bubble companies' panic 1825 

London University chartered . 11 Feb. 1826 

27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . 1S27 

New Post-office completed 1829 

Farringdon-market opened ,, 

Omnibuses introduced „ 

New metropolitan police began . 29 Sept. , . 

Covent-garden market rebuilt .... 1S30 
Memorable political panic, 5 Nov. ; and no lord 

mayor's show 9 Nov. ,, 

New London-bridge opened . . .1 Aug. 1S31 
General Fast on account of the cholera in 

England 6 Feb. 1832 

Hungerford-market opened . . 3 July, 1833 

Houses of parliament burnt . . . 16 Oct. 1S34 

City of London school founded . " . . 1835 

The Queen dines at Guildhall . . 9 Nov. 1837 

Royal Exchange burnt ... 10 Jan. 1838 
Railway opened from London to Birmingham, 

17 Sejat. ; to Greenwich . . .28 Dec. ,, 

Penny-postage begun ... 10 Jan. 1840 

Railway to Southampton opened . 11 May, ,, 

Wood pavement tried ; fails .... 1841 

London library estabhshed ,, 

Railway to Bristol opened . . 30 June, ,, 

Blackwall tunnel opened ... 2 Aug. ,, 

Railway to Brighton opened . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Thames Tunnel opened ... 25 March, 1843 

Royal Exchange opened by the Queen 28 Oct. 1844 

Erection of baths and wash-houses begins . . ,, 

Fleet prison taken down ,, 

New building act begins operation . i Jan. 1845 

Penny steamboats begun ,, 

Model lodging-houses built ,, 

Railway mania „ 

Twopenny omnibuses begun . . . . 1846 

Great Chartist demonstration in London (see 

Chariists) 10 April, 1848 

Re-appearance of the cholera . . Sept. 1849 

Ooal Exchange opened ... 30 Oct. ,, 
Lord Mayor's great banquet (of mayors)— (see 

Lord Mayor^ .... 21 March, 1850 

Attack upon general Haynau . . 4 Sept. ,, 

Great Exhibition op«?!«d, 1 May; dosetZ, II Oct. . 1851 
Duke of Wellington dies, 14 Sept. ; his funeral 

at St. Paul's (which see) . . .18 Nov. 1852 

Cab-strike 27-29 July, 1853 



Visit of king of Portugal . . • 19 May, 1854 
Attack of cholera . . Aug. and Sept. ,, 
Meeting for Patriotic fund . . . 2 Nov. ,, 
Visit of emperor and empress of the French to 

the lord maj'or . . . .19 April, 1855 

The queen distributes Crimean medals, 18 May, ,, 
Failure of Paul, Strahan, & Co. (see Trials) 

5 June, „ 
MetropoUtan Local Management Act passed 

14 Aug. „ 
Visit of the king of Sardinia . . 30 Nov. ,, 

Metropolitan Board of works, first meeting 

22 Dec. ,, 
Peace proclaimed, 29 April ; illuminations and 

fireworks in the parks . . .29 May, 1856 
Royal British Bank stops payment (see BritUh 

Bank) 4 Sept. „ 

Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smith- 
field Feb. 1857 

Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act 

suspended 12 Nov. ,, 

James Morrison (originally a poor boj'), who 
mainly introduced the system of quick re- 
turns and small profits, dies exceedingly 

rich 30 Oct. ,, 

Metropolis divided into 10 postal districts, i Jan. 1858 
Great Eastern launched (began 3 Nov.), 31 Jan. „ 
Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for 

its purification passed . . . .2 Aug. „ 
Panic on stock exchange {40 or 50 failures) at 
reported French and Russian alliance against 

Austria April, 1859 

A strike among the building trades, and a 
lock-out by the masters, 8 Aug. ; the latter 
require the men to sign a document, de- 
claring that they will not belong to any 
society which interferes with the freedom 
of the workman ; the strike was dying out in 

Nov. ,, 
Disgraceful riots at the church of St. George's 
in the East, through the indiscretion of the 
Tractarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, 
Sept. and Oct. The church (closed for a 
time) re-opened ; fresh disturbances on 6, 
13, 20 Nov. ; the agitation continued till Mr. 
King retired ; a compromise was effected 

29 July, i860 
Metropolitan railway (underground) com- 
menced in spring of ,, 

Great distress through the severe winter ; 
thousands relieved at the poUce offices, 

Dec. i860, and Jan. 1861 
Another strike in the building trades com- 
mences 22 March, „ 

A street railway in the metropolis opened 

near Bayswater .... 23 March, „ 
Great fire near Tooley-street (see Ji'tres) 22 June, ,, 
Sale of the East India house . . 23 June, „ 
Meeting to establish the "City of London 
College," the bishop of London in the chair 

2 Oct. „ 
Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, 
gives 150,000^. to ameliorate the condition of 
the poor and needy of London . 12 March, 1862 
The International Exhibition opens . i May, ,, 
Thames embankment bill passed, after much 

discussion Aug. „ 

The masons' strike not over . . June, „ 
Fights in Hyde park between the Garibaldians 

and Ii'ish . . . .28 Sept. & 5 Oct. „ 
Public meetings there prohibited . g Oct. „ 
Oomtesse de Silly leaves 4000?. to poor of 

London „ 

The Metropolitan railway opened . 10 Jan. 1863 
Pneumatic despatch company begins to convey 

post-office bags 21 Feb. ,, 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London 

March 7, ,, 
Prince and princess of Wales present at the 

city ball at Guildhall ... 8 June, ,, 

Ajipeal of the bishop of London on account of 



LON 



448 



LON 



LONDON", continued. 

the spiritual destitution of the metropolis 
(nee CInirch of Sngland) . . . June, 

The commou council vote 20,000^. and a site in 
Victoria-street, E.G., for a lodging-house for 
the poor 19 Nov. 

New street between Blaokfriars and London- 
bridge opened i Jan. 

Chi.ring Cross railway opened . .11 Jan. 

first block of Peabody's dwellings in Spital- 
fields opened 29 Feb. 

Garibaldi enters London, 11 April ; receives the 
fr^-'edom of the city . . . 21 April, 

Many turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished 

I July, 

Great excitement through the murder of Mr. 
Briggs in a carriage of the North London rail- 
way 9 July, 

The first railway train enters the city of 
London near Blackfriars-bridge . . 6 Oct. 

North London industrial exhibition, Islington, 
opened by earl R.ussell . . -17. Oct. 

Excitement through the performance of the 
Davenport brothers . . . Oct. -Dec. 

Great bullion robbery in Lombard-street, 

3 or 4 Dec. 

Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at 
Walker's, the jewellers, Cornhill 4, 5 Feb. 

South London industrial exhibition opened by 
earl of Shaftesbury . . . .1 March, 

The prince of Wales present at the opening of 
the main drainage vsforks, at the southern 
outfall, near Erith ... 4 April, 

Prince of Wales opens the international re- 
format<jry exhibition at Islington . 19 May, 

Cattle plague breaks out in cow houses near 
Bamsbury, about . . . .27 June, 

Investigation into the state of the workhouse 
infirmaries fi'om several paupers dying 
through neglect Aug. 

Many turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished 

31 Oct. 

Mr. Peabody adds 100,000?. to his gift of 1862 

29 Jan. 

City industrial exhibition opened by lord 
mayor 6 March, 

Horrible murder of Sarah Millson in Cannon- 
street (culprit undiscovered) . II April, 

Black-Friday ; commercial panic ; failure of 
Overend, Gurney, & Co., Discount Company, 
on 10 May (see Bank) . . . n May, 

Agra and Mastennan's bank stops ; great ex- 
citement 6 June, 

Shocking revelations in London workhouse 
infirmaries .... June, et seq. 

Cholera prevails in east London (see Cholera) 
July-Sept. 

Riots in Hyde-park . . .23, 24 July, 

Cannon-street railway station opened 1 Sept. 

Lord mayor honourably entertained at Brussels 
by the king of the Belgians . . . Oct. 



1S65 



Working classes industrial exhibition at 
Islington closed . . . 12 Nov. 

Report of committee at common council recom- 
mending enlargement of constituency voting 
for municipal questions (from about 6700 to 
15,000) 12 Nov. 

Reform demonstration by trades unions : pro- 
cession of about 25,000 to Beaufort-house 
grounds, Brompton . . . .3 Dec. 

Estimated population of the "City" by day, 
283,520 ; by night, about 100,000 . . Dec. 

Severe frost : 40 lives lost by breaking in of ice 
on ornamental waters in Regent's Park, 1 5 Jan. 

" Icy night " ; many accidents through fall of 
rain and immediate frost . . .22 Jan. 

London Street Reform Association organised 

Jan. 

Great distress in east London ; large subscrip- 
tions ; Mansion-house Metropolitan Relief 
Fund established .... 26 Jan. 

Metropolitan poor act passed . . 29 March, 

London conference on Luxemburg question 

7-11 May 

First stone laid of Holborn viaduct 3 J<me ; of 
new meat market . . . .5 June 

The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of 
Egypt, II June ; the Belgians, 12 July ; the 
Sultan 18 July, 

The Sultan gives 2500?. to the poor of London 

22 July, 

Electors for M.P.'s to have 3 votes only, by 
Reform act passed ... 15 Aug. 

County Court for the city established by act 
of ijarliament 20 Aug. 

Edw. M'Donnell shot by supposed Fenian, 28 
Sept., died 5 Oct. 

Tailors' strike, began 22 April ; over . . Oct. 

Lord mayor's state coach not used . 9 Nov. 

Common Council imdertake erection of another 
cattle market (for foreign cattle) . 6 Dec. 

Premeditated explosion outside Clerkenwell 
house of detention to release Fenians (7 per- 
sons killed and about 50 wounded) 13 Dec. 

Much excitement through other attempted ex- 
plosions ; about 30,000 special constables 
sworn in 17-24 Dec. 

Mysterious disappearance of the rev. B. Spoke 
in Westminster .... 8 Jan. 

Great distress in the east of London through 
want of employment ; meeting of employers 
and employed ; work offered to the iron ship- 
wrights at lower wages declined . 25 Jan. 

52,974 special constables in the metropolis up 
to 28 Jan. 

Mr. Speke (partially insane) found in Cornwall 

24 Feb. 

The queen lays foundation of the new St. 
Thomas's hospital . . . -13 May, 

[See England; and the occurrences not noticed 
here, under their respective heads.] 



1867 



LONDON, BiSHOPEic of, is said to have been founded in the reign of Luciu.s, about 
179, Theanus the first archbishop. Aiignstin made Canterbury the metropolitan see of 
England. Mellitus was bishop in 604. The see has given to the church of Eome five 
saints, and to the realm sixteen lord chancellors and lord treasurers ; it was valued in the 
king's books at 1119Z. 2:S. ^d. per annum. Present income, io,oooZ. 



BECENT BISHOPS. 

1787. Beilby Porteus, died 14 May, 1809. 
1809. John Randolph, died 28 Julj-, 1813. 
1813. W. Howley, trans, to Canterbury, Aug. 



1828. 



I 1828. Charles James Blomfield ; resigned Oct. 1856 
I (died 5 Aug. 1857), 

1856. Archibald Campbell Tait (present) bishop. 



LONDON BRIDGE. One is said to have existed, 978. A bridge built of wood, 1014, 
was partly burned in 1136. The late old bridge was commenced about 1176, by Peter of 
Colechurch, and completed in 1209, -with houses on each side, connected together by large 
arches of timber which crossed the street. 

A fire at the Southwark end brought crowds escape; and upwards of 3000 persons lost 
on the bridge ; the houses at the north end their lives, being either killed, burned, or 
caught fire likewise, and prevented their drowned July. 1212 



LOJT 



449 



LON 



LONDOISr BRIDGE, continued. 

The bridge was restored in 1300, and again was 
destroyed by fire in 1471, 13 Feb. 1632, and 

Sept. 1725 
All the houses pulled down . . . .1756 
Waterworks begun, 1582 ; destroyed by fire . 1774 
The toll discontinued . . . 27 March, 1782 
In 1S22 the corporation advertised for designs 
for a new bridge : that by John Rennie was 
approved, and the works were executed by 
his sons John and George. 
The first pile was driven 200 feet to the west of 
the old bridge . . . .13 March, 1824 



The first stone was laid by the lord mayor, 
alderman Garratt ... 15 June, 1825 

The bridge opened by "WiUiam IV. and his 
queen i Aug. 1831 

The cost was 506,000!. 

On 17 March, 1859, it was computed that there 
passed over London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (of 
which 4483 were cabs and 42S6 omnibuses), 
and 167,910 persons (107,074 on foot, and 
60,836 in vehicles). 



LONDOISr CONFERENCE, of representatives of the chief EiTropean powers to reconcile 
Austria, Prussia, and Denmark, met 25 April to 25 June, 1864, without effect. 

LONDON GATES, see note, p. 445. 

LONDON INSTITUTION, "for the advancement of literature and the diffusion of use- 
ful knowledge, " in imitation cf the Royal Institution, was founded in 1805 by sir Francis 
Baring, hart., aird others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside. Prof. Person, the first librarian, 
died 25 Sept. 1808. The present building in Finsbury-circus was completed in 1819, and 
opened on 21 April ; the first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Brande, on 5 May follow- 
ing. Mr. W. R. Grove, Q.C. (the inventor of the Voltaic battery which bears his name), 
was the first professor of experimental jjhilosophy, 1840 to 1846. The institution possesses 
an excellent library, lecture-room, laboratory, &c. 

LONDON GAZETTE, see Newspapers. LONDON STEAMER, see Wrecks, 1866. 

LONDON STONE. A stone said to have been placed by the Romans in Cannon-street, 
then the centre of the city, 15 B.C. London stone was known before the time of William I. 
It was removed from the opposite side of the way in 1 742 ; and again moved to its present 
position in the wall of St. Swithin's church, 1798. It was against this stone that Jack Cade 
struck his sword, exclaiming " Now is Mortimer lord of this city ! " 1450. 

LONDON UNIVERSITY was founded by the exertions of lord Brougham, Thomas 
Campbell, and others ; the deed of settlement dated 11 Feb. 1826. The buiding was com- 
menced 30 April, 1827 (when the first stone was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and was 
opened by an inaugural lecture from professor Bell, i Oct. 1828. On 28 Nov. 1836, two 
charters were granted : by one the London university was changed to " University college," 
and by the other the University of London was established, with a chancellor and other 
officers. New charters Avere granted to the latter on 5 Dec. 1837 and 21 April, 1858. It 
has power to grant degrees to students of the universities of the united kingdom, and many 
collegiate establishments. It had offices in Burlington-Iiouse, Piccadilly, London, till 1867, 
when temporary offices were engaged till a new building was erected in Piccadilly. — 
University Ball, Gordon-square, was founded in 1847. 

LONDONDERRY or Deruy (N. Ireland), mentioned 546. An abbey here was burned 
by the Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the London companies in 1615. The town 
was surprised, and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the entire garrison were put to the 
sword by rebels, in 1606. It was besieged by O'Neill in 1641. A grant was made of Deny, 
with 210,000 acres of land, to various companies in London, in 1619, when it took its pre- 
sent name. The siege of Derry by James II. commenced 20 Ajwil, 1689. The garrison and 
inhabitants were driven to the extremity of famine ; but under the rev. George Walker, 
they defended it until the siege was raised by gen. Kirke, on 30 July. James's army, under 
the French general Rosen, retired with the loss of about 9000 men. 

LONE STAR, a secret society formed in 1848, in Alabama and other southern states of 
the North American union. Its object was declared to be the "extension of the institu- 
tions, the power, the influence, and the commerce of the United States over the whole 
of the western hemisphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans." The first 
acquisition to be made by the order were Ciiba and the Sandwich Islands. The knowledge 
of the existence of this society reached England in August, 1852. 

LONG ISLAND or Flatbxtsh (N. America), Battle of, 27 Aug. 1776, between the 
British troops under sir Willianr Howe, and the revolted Americans, who suffered a severe 
defeat, after a well-fought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded, and 1000 prisoners. 

LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 969, 2349 B.C. {Gen. v. 27). Colour M'Crain, 
of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to have kept 180 Christmases in his own 
house, and died in the reign of Charles I., being the oldest man on anything approaching 
to authentic records for upwards of 3000 years. Grcig. " In 1014 died Johannes de Tem- 
poribus, who lived 361 years (!) " Stmo. Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was 

G G 



LON 



450 



LOR 



brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and said to be then in his 153rd year, 
and in perfect health ; he died 15 Nov. in the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, 
died in 1670, and was buried in Bolton churchyard, 6 Dec, aged l69 years. Most cases of 
alleged longevity are now regarded as very doubtful. 



OTHER RECORDED INSTANCES. 

1656. James Bowles, Killingworth . . aged 152 
i6gi. Lady Bccleston, Ireland . . . . 143 

1749. A man named Collier, Dublin . . .137 
1757. An Englishman named Eccleson . . . 144 
1759. James Shell, Irish yeoman .... 136 
1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . . . 146 

,, John Mount, Scotland .... 136 
1768. Frances Conceist, Burythorpe . . . 150 
1772. Mrs. Clun, Lichfield 138 

1774. William Beeby, Dungarvon fan ensign who 

served at the battles of the Boyne and 
Angln-im) 130 

1775. Peter Gordon, Anchterless .... 131 
,, Mary Baton, Lochwinnoch . . . . 138 

1776. Mr. Movet, surgeon, Dumfries . 
„ Sarah Brookman, Glastonbury . . . 

1778. Thomas Cockey, Blechingley 

1779. Mr. Lawrence, Orkney 

1750. Robert Mac Bride, Herries .... 
,, Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool . . . . 
„ Louisa Truxo, a negress, was living in this 

year, at Tucuman, South America . . 

1782. Evan Wilhams, Carmarthen 

1786. Cardinal de Solis 

17S7. Mary Brook, of Leek 148 

1792. Mr. Johnson, of Birmingham . . . 120 

,, Mrs. Judith Scott, Islington . . . 162 

1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow 125 

,, Mr. J. Tucker, llching ferry . . . 131 

J, Catharine Lopez, of Jamaica . . . . 134 

,, Sarah Anderson, a free black . . . 140 

1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore . . . 130 

1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye .... 137 
„ Mrs. Judith Crawford, Spanish-town . . 151 



1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath-fields, Clerkenwell 116 
1840. Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of 

Kildare, 27 Aug. . • . . .133 
1853. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of Rd. Lalor 

Shiel), Ursuline convent, Cork, 20 March, 116 
1858. James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow . . 116 

WEBSTER, F.R.S. 



Aged. 
148I 

• I2S 

• 177 
. 127 

• 137 



136 
172 
164 
132 



EXAJIPLES FURNISHED BY DR, 

Died. Buried at 

1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts 

1678. Juan Burtamente, Seville 

1688. Elizabeth Torathe, Glamorganshire 

1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lane . 

1723. W. Robertson, Edinburgh . 

1724. Peter Torten, Temeswar, Hungary . . 185 
1726. Juan de Outeyri, Villa de Fofinanes, in 

Asturias 146 

1736. John Rousej-, Distrey, Scotland . . . 1^8 
1739. Margaret Patten, Christchiu-ch, Westmin 

ster 

1741. J. Rovin, Temeswar, Hungary 

,, Jane Rovin, ditto .... 

1757. Alexander M'CuUoch, Aberdeen . 
1759, Donald Cameron, Rannach, Aberdeenshire 130 
1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly .... 131 
1766. John Mount, Langhara, Dumfries . . 136 

„ John Hill, Leadhills, near Edinbui-gh . 130 
1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe . . . . 121 
1775. Widow Jones, Campbell .... 125 

1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfields 139 

1784. Mary Cameron, Braemar, Aberdeen . . 129 
1791. Archbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . 122 
1851. Jean Golembeski, Hotel des Invalidos, 

Paris 126 

LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus, at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the 
Canaries, 162 B.C. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. 1759, which in two voyages was 
found to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament 12 Anne, 
1714 ; and obtained the reward ; see Harrison's Time-piece. The chronometers of Arnold, 
Earnshaw, and Breguet, are highly esteemed. Chronometers are now received on trial at 
Greenwich Observatory. The act relating to the discovery of the longitude at sea was 
repealed in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes at Paris was established in 1795. 

LONG PARLIAMENT met 3 Nov. 1640 ; was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 20 April, 
1653- 

LONGWOOD, in St. Helena (S, Atlantic Ocean), the residence of the emperor Napoleon 
from Dec. 181 5 till his death, 5 May, 1821. 

LONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, was taken by the allied army of Austrians 
and Prussians, 23 Aug. 1792, the beginning of the great war. It was again taken 18 Sept. 
1815. 

LOOKING-GLASSES, see Mirrors. 

LOOM. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was broirght into use in London 
from Holland, about 1676. There were, in 1825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great 
Britain, and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three hand-looms, making twenty-two 
yards each per day. The Jacquard loom was invented about 1800. The steam-loom was 
introduced in 1807 ; see Cotton, Electric-loom, and Pneumaiic-loom. 

LORD, see Lady. When printed in the English Bible in small capitals Lokd stands for 
Jehovah, the self-existing God, the name first revealed to Moses, 149 1 B.C. Exod. vi. 3 ; 
when Lord is in ordinary type, it represents Adonai, a lord or master. 

LORD CHAMBERLAIN, CHANCELLOR, &c., see Chamberlain, Chancellor,' kc. 

LORD'S DAY ACT, 29 Char. II. c. 7, see SaUath. 

LORD'S SUPPER, instituted by Jesus Christ {Matt. xxvi. 17), 33, see Sacrament and 
Transuhstantiation. 

LORDS.* The nobility of England date their creation from 1066, when William Fitz- 

• Peers of England are free from all arrests for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors ; 
therefore a peer cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his person; but 



LOR 451 LOT 

Osborn is said to liave been made earl of Hereford by William L ; and afterwards "Walter 
d'Evreux, earl of Salisbur}' ; Copsi, earl of JSTorthumberland ; Henry de Ferrers, earl of 
Derby ; and Gerodus (a Fleming) earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were made in 
this sovereign's reign. The first peer created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, 
bj' Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by Malcolm III. 
1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy Avas created baron of Kinsale, &c., in 1181 ; the first 
peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. 

LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulendum, to consult, 
in early reigns, and were summoned by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205, but the earliest WTit extant 
is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation 
until some ages after tlie conquest ; see Parliament. The house of lords includes the 
spiritual as well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The liishops are su^jposed to hold 
certain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in this house. 
Some of the temporal lords sit by descent, some by creation, and others by election, since 
the union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland, 1801. — Scotland elects 16 representative 
peers, and Ireland 4 spiritual lords by rotation of sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. 
The house of loi'ds in Jan. 1868 consisted of 4 princes of the lilood, 3 archbishops, 20 dukes, 
21 marquesses, 128 earls, 30 viscounts, 231 barons, and 27 bishops ; in all, 464. 

House of lords at death of Char. II. 1685 . 176 peers. Held the government 1264-5 

„ Will. III. . . 192 , House of lords abolished by the commons, 6 

,, Anne, 1714 . 209 Feb. 1649; met again, 25 April . . . 1660 

,, Geo. I. . . 216 Unite with the commons in making WiUiam 

,, Geo. II. . . 229 and Mary king and queen .... 1689 

,, Geo. III. 1820 . 339 Reject the great reform bill, 7 Oct. 1831 ; pass 

,, Geo. IV. 1830 . 396 it, 4 June 1832 

,, Will. IV. 1837 . 456 The parliament house destroyed by fire, 16 Oct. 1834 

In the 1 8th Vict. 1855 .... 448 Take possession of their new house, 15 April . 1847 

,, 24th Vict, i860 462 Oppose successfully the creation of life peer- 

,, 32nd Vict. 1868 . • . . 464 I ages,* 7 Feb 1856 

I Voting by proxy abolished by standing order, 

The barons enact the constitutions of Claren- 31 March 1868 

don in 1164 New regulations respecting committees, 2 April, ,, 

Obtain Magna Charta in 1215 j Six new peers were gazetted . . 17 April, ,, 

LORDS' JUSTICES, see Justices. 

LORDS OF THE PALE, see Pale. 

LORETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the Casa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is 
pretended the Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and was said to have been carried by angels 
into Dalmatia from Galilee in 1291, and brought here a few years after. The lady of Loretto, 
gaudily dressed, stands upon an altar holding the infant Jesus in her arms, surrounded with 
gold lamps. Loretto was taken by the French in 1797, and the holy image, which had been 
carried to France, was brought back with pomp, 5 Jan. 1803. 

L'ORIENT ("W. France). Lord Bridport off this port defeated the French fleet, 23 June, 
1795. The loss of the French was severe : that of the British inconsiderable. — The French 
flag-ship, L'Opjent, blew up during the battle of the Nile, i Aug. 1798. Admiral Brueys 
and about 900 men perished. 

LORRAINE (formerly Lotharingia), a French province, became a kingdom under Lothaire 
(son of the emperor Lothaire I.) about 855 ; and was divided at his deatli, in 869, part of it 
being made a duchy. From the first hereditarj'- duke, Gerard, nominated by the emperor 
Henry III. in 1048, descended the house of Lorraine, represented now by the emperor of 
Austria, whose ancestor, the empress Maria Theresa, married in 1736 Francis, formerly duke 
of Lorraine, then of Tuscany. Lorraine, given to the dethroned king of Poland, Stanislaus I., 
for life, was, at his death in 1 766, united to France ; see Nancy. 

LOTS. Casting lots was sacred among the Jews, as an appeal to God, Proverhs xvi. 33. 
It was employed in the division of the land of Canaan, about 1444 B.C., by Joshua (xiv.), 
and in the election of Matthias the apostle, A.D. 33, Acts i. — Lots for life or death have been 
frequently cast. For an instance, see Wales, 1649, note. 

LOTTERIES are said to have originated in Florence about 1530, and to have been 

execution maybe taken upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they are free from all attendance 
at courts leet or sheriffs' turns : or, in case of a riot, from attending the posse comitaiv^. He can act as a 
justice of the peace in any part of the kingdom. See Baron, Earl, &c. 

* Peerage for life only, with the title of lord Wensleydale of Wensleydale, was gi-anted to baron sir 
James Parke, 10 Jan. 1856 ; the house of lords opposed his sitting and voting as a peer for life, and on 25 
July, 1856, he was created a peer in the usual way, with the title of lord Wensleydale of Walton. He died 
in 1868. 

r; G 2 



LOU 



452 



LUC 



legalised in France in 1539. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at the 
western door of St. Paul's cathedral, 11 Jan. 1569, and continued day and night until 6 May 
following. It contained 40,000 " lots" at 105. each lot. The profits were for repairing the 
harbours on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate; see Art Union. 



A lottery, granted by the king, in favour of 
the colony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), 
di-awn near St. Paul's 29 June, 20 July, 1612 

First lottery for sums of money took place in . 1630 
Lotteries established (for more than 130 years 

yielded a large annual revenue to the crown) 1693 
Lottery for the British Museum . . . 1753 
Cox's museum, containing many rare speci- 
mens of art and articles of virtu, disposed of 
by lottery, by an act of parliament . . . 1773 
An act passed for the sale of the buUdings of 
the Adelphi by lottery . . . 16 June, ,, 

Irish state lottery drawn 1780 

Lottery for the Leverian Museum . . 1784-5 



For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan._ 2, 
1801 ; it was afterwards sold at Christie's 
auction for 9500 guineas . . 10 May, 1802 
For the collection of pictures of alderman Boy- 
dell, by act 1804-5 

Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60 Oct. 1826 

The last drawn 18 Got. „ 

Act passed declaring that the then pending 

Glasgow lottery should be the last . . . 1834 
An act passed imposing a penalty of 50Z. for 

advertismg lotteries in the newspapers . 1836 

Lotteries suppressed in France . 1793 and 1836 
Mr. Dethiers' twelfth-cake lottery, Argyll- 
rooms, Hanover-square, suppressed 27 Dec. i860 



LOUDOIST-HILL or Drumcloo ; see Drumclog. 

LOUIS-D'OR, a French gold coin of 24 francs, first struck by Louis XIII. in 1640 ; its 
value fluctuated. In 18 10 it was superseded by the Napoleon. 

LOUISIANA (IST. America), one of the United States; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, 
1541 ; traversed by M. de Salle, 1682; settled by Louis XIV. (from whom it derived its 
name), 1718. It formed the basis of Law's Mississippi scheme. It was ceded to Spain when 
all east of the Mississippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, Baton Rouge. 

Restored to France 1801 I Seceded from the Union by ordinance 25 Jan. 1861 

Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state 1812 Adm. Farragut takes New Orleans for the 

Gen. Jackson defeated the British at New Federals 28 April, 1862 

Orleans 8 Jan. 1815 1 Louisiana restored to the Union . . . . 1865 

LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris is said to have been originally a royal residence 
in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a prison -tower constructed by Philippe Augustus in 
1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles VI. made it his palace (about 1364). The 
new buildings were begun by Francis I. in 1528, and successive kings enlarged and adorned 
it, particularly Louis XIV. — -Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and deposited here the 
finest collection of paintings, statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief 
of those brought from Italy have since been restored to the rightful possessors. The magni- 
ficent buildings of the new Louvre, begun by Napoleon I. and completed by Napoleon III., 
were inaugurated by the latter in great state, 14 Aug. 1857. 

LOVE FEASTS, see Agapoe. 

LOW COUNTRIES, the Pays Bas, now Holland and Belgium [loliich see). 

LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make it begin with the reign of Valerian, 253 ; 
others with that of Constantine, 323. 

LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS, see Life-hoats. 

LOW SUNDAY, the fii'st Sunday after Easter, said to derive its name from the contrast 
between its solemnities and those of Easter Sunday ; see Easter. 

LOYALTY LOANS were raised during the revolutionary wars. The term "loyalty 
loan" was applied to one opened in London on the 5th Dec. 1796 ; in fifteen hours and 
twenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions sterling was subscribed ; see National Asso- 
ciation. 

LUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the four republics of the German confederation, 
was built in the 12th century, and was the chief founder of the Hanseatic league about 1240, 
which lasted till 1630. Liibeck was declared a free imperial city about 1226 ; but was fre- 
quently attacked' by the Danes. The French took it by assault, 6 Nov. 1806, and Napoleon 
incorporated it with his empire in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once more a free 
imperial city. It joined the North German confederation 18 Aug. 1866. Population in 
1862, 50,614. 

LUCANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy, defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 
332 B.C. ; were subdued by the Romans, 227; revolted after the battle of Cannse, 216; were 
reduced by Scipio, 201 ; again revolted, 90; admitted as Roman citizens, 88. 

LUCCA (central Italy), a Roman colony, 177 B.C. ; a Lombard duchy, A.D. 1327 ; a free 
city about 1370; took an active part in the civil wars of the Italian republics. It was united 
with Tuscany, and given as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by her brother Napoleon I. 
Lucca, as a duchy, was given to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of Etruria, in 1814. It 



LUC 



453 



LUN 



was exchanged by her son Charles- Louis for Parma and Placentia in 1847 ; was annexed to 
Tuscany, and with it became part of the kingdom of Italy, in i860. 

LUCERNE (Switzerland) became independent in 1332, and joined the confederation. The 
city Lucerne is said to derive its name from a light {luccrna) set up to guide travellers. It 
dates from the 8th century, and was subject to the abbots of Murbach, wlio surrendered it 
to the house of Hapsburg. It was taken by the French in March, 1798, and was for a short 
time capital of the Helvetic republic. It was the focus of the insurrection against the French, 
suppressed Oct. 1802. As a catholic canton, Lucerne was very active ou behalf of education 
by the Jesuits, 1844 ; see Sivitzerland. 

LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), settled by the French in 1650 ; taken by the British several 
times in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of the French negroes, April, 1795. St. Lucia 
was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was seized by England, 1803, and coufinned 
to her in 18 14. Population in 1861, 26,705. 

LUCIFER MATCHES came into use about 1834. In March, 1842, Mr. Reuben Partridge 
patented machinery for manufacturing the splints. In 1845, Schrotter of Vienna produced 
his amorphous phosphorus (by heating ordinary phosphorus in a gas which it cannot absorb), 
by the use of which lucifers are rendered less dangerous, and the manufacture less unhealthy. 
Phosphorus (Greek) and lucifer (Latin), both signify light-bearer. 

LUCKNOW, the capital of Oude, since 1675 ; see Oude, and India, 1857. 

LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this designation, derived from Ned Lud, an 
idiot, who once broke some frames in a passion, commenced depredations at Nottingham, 
breaking frames and machinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military there, 29 Jan. 1812. 
Serious riots occurred again in 1814 ; and numerous bodies of unemployed artisans com- 
mitted g:-eat excesses in 1816 et seq. Several of these Luddites were tried and executed, 
1813-17 ; see Derby. 

LUGDUNUM, see Leyden and Lyons. 

LUNATICS. Insanity, in a thousand male patients, has been traced to — 



Drunkenness . . . .110 
Consequences of disease . . 100 

Epilepsy 78 

Ambition 73 

Excessive labour . . .73 

Bom idiots 71 

Misfortunes . . . .69 



Old age 69 

Cbagrin 54 

Love 47 

Accidents . . . -39 

Religious enthusiasm. . . 29 
Unnatm-al practices. . . 27 



Political events 



26 



Poisonous effluvia . 

ni-usage 

Crimes, remorse, and despair. 
Malformation of the skull 
Other and unknown causes . 

Pretended insanity . . . 



1324 



1742 



" The king shall have the custody of the lands 
of natural fools," <&c., 17 Edw. II. . . . 

Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo, 
II. c. 30 

Act regarding criminal lunatics passed Aug. 

The numerous laws respecting lunatics were 
consohdated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. 
cc. 70, 96, 97 . . . . . . . 1853 

A new lunacy act for Scotland passed . .1858 

An act to amend the law relating to commis- 
sions of lunacy passed (said to be in conse- 
quence of the Wyndham case ; see Trjais, 1862) 1862 



TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. 

Till the end of the last century lunatics were 
treated with cruel severity ; see Conolly " On 
the Treatment of the Insane," 1856. 

The insane were exhibited at Bethlem as a 
show, for id. or 2d. tUL 1770 

Private. 



1815 



Enlightened principles of treatment were in- 
troduced by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of 
Friends' "Eetreat," at York, and by Pinel, 
at the Bicetre, Paris, with very great success 1792 

Esquirol succeeds PLuel, and strongly recom- 
mends instruction in the management of 
mental disorders 1810 

Exposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
hospital 

This led to gradual improvements, and at last 
to the total abolition of mechanical restraints 
at Lincoln, 1837 ; and at Hanwell Asylum 
(under the superintendence of Dr. John 
Conolly) and at other places .... 1839 

Psychological Journal first published by Dr. 
Forbes Winslow 1848 

Journal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Buck- 

nill 1852 

See Hospitals. 



Lunatics in charge in England 
and IVales, i Jan. 1855. 
County Asylums 
Hospitals 
Licensed houses 



Male. 
132 



Female. 
123 
723 
1350 



Pauper. 

Male. Female. 

6008 7316 

91 94 

1034 1279 



Total. 

13.579 
1,803 

5,1" 



247s 2196 7133 8689 20,493 

On I Jan. 1858, there were in charge in England and W.ales 22,310 hmatics of all classes; 1859, 22,853 
i860, 17,837; 1861, 23,721; 1862, 26,169; ^^864, 28,285; 1865, 29,425; 1866, 30,869. 

• In 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of all classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge 
in 1855, 7403 ; of which only 3328 were imder the protection of the law. 

LUND-HILL, near Barnsley, in South Yorkshire. While the miners were dining in the 
pit, 19 Feb. 1857, the inflammable gas took fire and exploded. Above 180 miners perished 
In April and May bodies were still being extricated. There had been great laxity of disci 
pline in the pit. "joool. were subscribed for the bereaved. 



LUN 454 LYC 

LUNEBURG, see Brunswick. 

LUNEVILLE (France), Peace of, concluded between the Frencli republic and the 
emperor of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the treaty of Campo Formio, stipulated 
that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form the boundary of France, and recog- 
nised the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, 9 Feb. 1801. 

LUPERCALIA, a yearly festival observed at Eome on 15 Feb. in honour of Pan, 
destroyer of wolves (lupi), instituted by the Romans, according to Plutarch ; but according 
to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. These feasts are said to have been abolished in 
496, by pope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders. 

LUSATIA, a marquisate in IST. Germany, given to John of Bohemia, 13 19; obtained 
by Matthias of Huugarj^, 1478 ; and ceded to Saxony in 1635. 

LUSIAD, the great epic poem of the Portuguese, written in honour of their discoveries 
in India by Ijuis de Camoens, and published by him at Lisbon, 1572. The English transla- 
tions are by sir Richard Fanshawe, 1655 ; and by Wm. Julius Mickle, 1775. 

LUSITAlSriA, see Portugal. 

LUSTRUM, an expiatory sacrifice made for the Roman people, at the end of every five 
years, after the census had been taken, 472 e.g. Every fifth year was called a lustrum ; and 
ten, fifteen, or twenty years, were commonly expressed by two, three or four lustra. The 
number of Roman citizens was — in 293 B.C., 272,308 ; 179 B.C., 273,294 ; 70 B.C., 450,000; 
28 B.C., 4,164,060 ; A.D. 48, 5,984,072. 

LUTHERANISM,* the form of Christianity professed by the majority of the people of 
the north of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The doctrines are mainly embodied 
in Luther's catechisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in! the Formula Concordice of the 
Lutherans, published in 1580. Their first university was founded at Marburg, in 1527, by 
Philip, landgrave of Hesse. 

LUTZEN, or Ltttzengen (N. Germany). Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
defeated the Imperialists under Wallenstein, 16 Nov. 1632, but was himself killed ; and here 
the French army, commanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined armies of Russia and 
Prussia, commanded by general Wittgenstein, 2 May, 1813. The battles of Bautzen and 
"Wiirtzchen immediately followed (19-21 May), both in favour of Napoleon. The allies were 
compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, and afterwards prolonged ; but, 
unfortunately for the French emperor, did not produce peace. 

LUXEMBURG, capital of the grand duchy of Luxemburg, once considered the strongest 
fortress in the world, has been many times besieged and taken : by the French in 984, 1443, 
1479, 1542-3 ; by the Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 1684 ; restored to Spain in 1697 ; 
taken by the French in 1701 ; given to the Dutch as a barrier town, but ceded to the 
emperor at the peace in 1713. It withstood several sieges in the last century. It surren- 
dered to the French after a siege, from Nov. 1794 to July, 1795 ; and was retaken by the 
allies in May, 1814. 



In consequence of the opposition of Prussia, a 
conference of representatives of the great 
powers met in London 7- 11 May, who agreed 
upon a treaty guaranteeing the neutrality of 
the province, the retirement of the Prussian 
gan-ison, and the dismantling the fortress of 
Luxemburg . . . . 7-1 1 May, 1867 

The Prussian soldiers retired . . Nov. ,, 

French uneasiness about the fortifications, 



The grand duchy was annexed to the Nether- 
lands, still remaining a member of the Ger- 
manic confederation, the capital having a 
Prussian garrison 1815 

A portion given to the new kingdom of Bel- 
gium 1830 

After the dissolution of the Germanic confede- 
ration, the emperor Napoleon objected to the 
Prussian garrison, and offered to buy the 
grand duchy from the king of Holland 

March, 1867 

LUXOR, see TJieles. 

LUXURY. LucuUus (died 49 B.C.), at Rome, was distinguislied for inordinate luxury ; 
see Sujnptuary Laws. 

LYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, 
son of Apollo) was a spot near the Ilissus, in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy ; 
and as he generally taught as lie walked, his pirpils were called peripatetics, walkers-about, 
and his philosophy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanley ; see Theatres. 

LYCURGUS, see Laws. 

* Martin Luther was bom at Eisleben, 10 Nov. 1483 ; studied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philo- 
sophy at Wittenberg, 1508; resisted the sale of indulgences, 1517; defended himself at Augsburg, 1518; 
at Worms, 1520; was excommunicated, i6 June, 1520; began his German bible, 1521 ; married Kather in e 
de Bora, 1525 ; pixbUshed his German bible complete, 1534 ; died i3 Feb. 1546. 



LYC 



455 



LYR 



LYCIA (Asia Minor) belonged successively to Crcesus (about 560 B.C.), the Persians 
(546 B.C.), to Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his successors the Seleircidse. The 
Eomans gave Lycia to the Ehodians (188 B.C.). It became nominally free under the Romans, 
and was annexed to the empire by Claudius. The marbles brought from Lycia by sir Charles 
Fellows, were deposited in the British Museum, 1840-6. 

LYDIA, or Mreouia, an ancient kingdom in Asia Minor, under a long dynasty of kings, 
the last being Crcesus, ' ' the richest of mankind. " The coinage of gold and silver money, 
and other useful inventions, are ascribed to the Lydians. itlsoj:^, the Phrygian fabulist, 
Alcman, the first Greek erotic poet, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon 
of Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. 



Argon, a dcsoendant of Hercules, reigns in 

Lj'dia. Herod B.C. 1223 

The kingdom of Lydia, properly so called, 
begins under Ai'dysus I. Blair. . . . 797 

Alyattes I. reigns 761 

Meles commences his rule 747 

Reign of Candaules . . ■ 735 

Gyges, first of the race Jlermnadje, kills Can- 
daules, marries his queen, usurps the throne, 
and makes great conquests . . . . 718 

Ardysus II. reigns, 67S ; the Cimbri besiege 

Sardis, the capital of Lydia .... 635 
The Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is 
continued by Sadyattes, who reigns . . . 628 

Reign of Alyattes II 617 

Battle upon the river Halys, between the 
Lydians and Medes, interrupted by an 
almost total ecUpse of the sun. This eclipse 



had been predicted many years before by 
Thales of Jliletus. Mair. . 28 May, B.C. 585 

Crcesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the 
throne, and conquers Asia Minor . . 560-50 

Crcesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, whose 
conquests had reached to the borders of 
Lydia, crosses the Halys to attack the Medes, 
with 420,000 men and 60,000 horse . . . 548 

He is defeated, jiursued, and besieged in his 
capital by Cyrus, who orders him to be 
burned alive ; the pile is already on fire, 
when Croesus calls aloud, Solon ! and Cyrus 
hearing him, spares his life. Lj'dia made a 
province of the Persian empire . . . . 

Sardis burnt by the lonians .... 

Lydia conquered by Alexander . . . . 

Becomes part of the kingdom of Pergamus 

Conquered by the Turks .... a.d. 



546 
499 
332 
283 
1326 

LYING-m HOSPITALS. The first, established in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, 
a physician, amidst strong opposition, was opened March, 1745 ; see Hos]pilals. 

LYMPHATICS (absorbent vessels connected with digestion), discovered abottt 1650 by 
Rudbek in Sweden, Bartholin in Denmark, and Jolyff"e in England. Asellius discovered the 
lacteals in 1622. In 1654, Glisson ascribed to these vessels the function of absorption ; and 
their properties were studied by Wm. and John Hunter, Monro, Hewson, and other great 
anatomists. 

LYNCH LAW, punishment inilicted by private individuals, independently of the legal 
authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who exercised it upon the 
fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the "dismal swamp," North Carolina, when they 
committed outrages upon persons and property which the colonial law could not promptly 
repress. This mode of administering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and 
still exists in the outlying districts of the United States. 

LYNDHURST'S ACT (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54), introduced by lord Lyndhurst, rendered 
valid certain marriages within the forbidden degrees of kindred up to that time, but prohi- 
bited them for the future ; passed 31 Aug. 1835. 

LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, foimded by M. Plancus, 43 B.C. The city 
was reduced to ashes in a single night by lightning, A.D. 59, and was rebtiilt in the reign 
of Nero. It was a free city tiU its union with France in 1307. 



Battle near Lyons ; Clodius Albinus defeated 
and slain by Septimus Sever us . .19 Feb. 

Two general councils held here (13th &, 14th) 

124s, 

Silk manufacture commenced .... 

Lyons taken by the republicans after 70 days' 
siege, 9 Oct. ; awful pillage and slaughter 
follow ; the Convention decreed the demoli- 
tion of the city 12 Oct. 



Capitulated to the Austriaus 



1274 
1515 



1793 



, March, 1814 



Entry of Napoleon, 8 March, 1815 ; An insurrec- 
tion among the artisans, which led to great 
popular excesses ; quelled by an army, 

21 N0V.-3 Dec. 1831 
Dreadful riots, put down by military 15 April, 1834 
Railway to Paris opened . . . 7 April, 1839 
A dreadful inundation at Lyons (see Inunda- 
tions) 4 Nov. 1840 

Another insurrection quelled, with much loss 
of life 15 June, 1849 



LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Hermes (in Latin Mercury), who, 
according to Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and 
accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre, with three strings, is 
ascribed to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several strings to the lyre, making 
the number seven, 673 c.c. Phrynis, a musician of Mityleue, added two more, making 
nine, 438 B.C. 



MAC 



456 



MAC 



M.- 

MACADAMISING, a system of roacl-making devised by Mr. Jolin Macadam, and pub- 
lislied by him in an essay, in 1819, having practised it in Ayrshire. He prescribed stones 
to be broken to six ounces weight, and the use of clean flints and granite clippings. He 
received io,oooZ. from parliament ; was appointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan 
roads in 1827, and died in 1836 ; see Roads. 

MACAO (N. China) was given to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586 (in 
return for their assistance against pirates), siibject to an annual tribute, which was remitted 
in 1863. Here Camoens composed part of the " Lusiad." 

MACAROlSr]. This name was given to a poem by Theop. Folengo, 1509, and it continues 
to designate trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, anagrams, ' ' wit without wisdom, 
and humour without sense." His poem was so called from an Italian cake of the same name, 
pleasant to the taste, but with little alimentary virtue: These poems became the reigning 
taste in Italy and France, where they gave birth to Macaroni academies, and reaching 
England, to Macaroni clubs (about 1772), till, in the end, everything ridiculous in dress and 
manners was called "Macaroni." 

MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during the perse- 
cution of Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 B.C., when Mattathias, a priest, resisted the tj^ranny of 
the governor. His son, Judas Maccabseus, defeated the Syrians in three battles, 166, 
165 B.C.; but fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jonathan made a league with the 
Romans and Lacedaemonians, and after an able administration was treacherously killed at 
Ptolemais by Tryphon, 143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, 
135 B.C. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aristobulus, 
took the title of king, 107 b.c. The history of the Maccabees is contained in five books of 
that name, two of which are included in our Apocrypha, Four are accounted canonical by 
the Roman Catholic church ; none by Protestant communions. 

MACDONALD AFFAIR, see Prussia, 1861. 

MACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry of most nations, was originally a spiked 
club, hung at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces were also early ensigns of 
authority borne before officers of state, the top being made in the form of an open crown, 
and commonly of silver gilt. The lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons 
have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted to London the privilege of having 
gold or silver maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, aldermen and corporation, 1354. 
It Avas ynth the mace usually carried before the lord mayor on state occasions, that Walworth, 
lord mayor of London, knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off his horse, for rudely approaching 
Richard II., a courtier afterwards despatching him with his dagger, 15 June, 1381. _ Crom- 
well, entering the house of commons to disperse its members and dissolve the parliarnent, 
ordered one of his soldiers to "take away that fool's bauble, the mace," which was done, 
and the doors of the house locked, 20 April, 1653. 

MACEDON (W. Greece). The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, about 814 B.C. 
It was sometimes imder the protection of Athens, sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of 
Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a 
politician, and exploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way for 
his son's greatness. 



Eeigns of Caranus, 814 B.C., or 796, or 748; 
Perdiocas I., 729 ; Argaeus I., 684; Philip I., 
640 or 609. 
JEropus conquers the Illyrians . . .B.C. 602 
Reign of Amyntas, 540 ; of Alexander I. . . 500 
Macedon conquered by the Persians, 513 ; de- 
livered by the victory of Platasa . . . 479 

Eeign of Perdiccas II 454 

Potidsea taken by the Athenians . . . 429 
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, miirders 
the legitimate heirs of his father ; seizes the 
throne and improves the country . . . 413 
He is murdered by a favourite, to whom he 
promised his daughter in marriage . . . 399 

Pausanias reigns 394 

Reign of Amyntas II., 393 ; expelled . . . 398 
Recovers his throne, and kills Pausanias . . 397 
The Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, 



and make Ai-gseus, brother of Pausanias, 

king B.C. 392 

Amyntas again recovers his kingdom . . . 390 

Reign of Alexander II., 369 ; assassinated . . 367 

Reign of Perdiccas III. , 364 _; killed in battle . 360 
Reign of Philip II., and institution of the 

Macedonian phalanx 359 

He defeats the Athenians and Illyi-ians 360,359 

He takes Amphipolis. See Archery . . . 358 
He conquers Thrace, lUyria, and Thessaly 356-352 

Birth of Alexander the Great .... 356 

Close of the first Sacred war 346 

lUyricum overrun by the army of PhUip . . 344 

Thrace made tributary to Macedon . . . 343 

Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander . . ,, 

War against the Athenians . . . B.C. 341 

Philip besieges Byzantium unsuccessfully . 340 

fiattte of Chseronea ; PhiUp victor . . ■ 338 



MAC 



457 



MAD 



311 
301 



281 

279 
278 
277 

274 
272 



50 



MACEDON, continued. 

Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at M^ie 1 

during tlie celebration of games in bonoiir 

of his daughter's nuptials; Alexander 111., 

the Great, succeeds 336 

The Greeks appoint him general of their armies | 

against the Persians 335 | 

The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to the 

ground ; the house of Pindar alone left . . ,, 
He passes iiito Asia, and gains his first battle ! 

over Darius at the Granicus . 22 May, 334 I 
Sardis surrenders, Halicamassus taken, and i 

cities in Asia Minor , 

Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes | 

the field with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 

cavalry ......... 333 

Darius defeated at Issus (wJnch sec) . Nov. ,", 

Alexander on his way to Egypt, lays siege to 

Tyre, which is destroj^ed after seven months 332 
Damascus is taken ; Gaza surrenders . . „ 
Alexander enters Jerusalem ; Egypt conquered ; 

Alexandria founded ,, 

The Persians totally defeated at Arbela i Oct. 331 
Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon . , , 
Alexander sits on the throne of Darius at Susa 330 
Parthia, Media, &c., overrun by him . . . 329 
Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him . ,, 
He puts his friend Parmeuio to death, on a 

charge of conspiracy supposed to be false . ,, 
His expedition to India ; Porus, king of Iiadia, 

is defeated and taken ; and the country as 

far as the Ganges is overrun . . . . 327 
Callisthenes is pvit to the torture for refusing 

to render divine homage to Alexander . . 328 
Voyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus 

to the Euphrates 328-325 

Keturns to Babylon, 324 ; dies .... 323 

Philip Aridreus III. king „ 

Alexander's conquests are divided among his 

generals, 323 ; his remains are transported to 

Alexandria, and buried by Ptolemy . . 322 
The Greeks defeated by Antipater and the 

Macedonians, near Cranon (w/iic/t see) . . . ,, 
Cassander reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes . B.C. 315 
Seleucus recovers Babylon 312 

MACEDOlSriANS, a semi-Arian sect, followers of Macedonius, made bisho}) of Constanti- 
nople about 341. His appointment was greatly opposed and led to much bloodsbed. He 
was expelled by tlie decree of a council held 360. 

MACHIAVELLIAN PRmCIPLES, those of Nicolas Machiavelli of Florence (born 1469, 
died 1527), in his " Practice of Politics" and " The Prince." By some they are stigmatised 
as "the most pernicious maxims of government, founded on the vilest policy;" and bj' 
others as "sound doctrmes, notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised against 
them." The author said that if he taught princes to be tyrants, he also taught the i^eople 
to destroy tyrants. " The Prince " appeared at Home in 1532, and was translated into 
English in 1761. 

MACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). Here the Poles were totally defeated by the 
Eussians, aud their general, Kosciu-sko, taken prisoner, 10 Oct. 1794, after a murderous 
action. He strenuously endeavoured to prevent the junction of the Russian and Austrian 
armies. The statement that he said "Finis Polonise !" is contradicted. 

MADAGASCAR. (S. E. coast of Africa), 
discovered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1506. 

The French attempted to settle at Antongel- 
bay in 1774 

Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into 
the hands of the Engh.sh with Bourbon and 
Mauritius in 1810-11 

The settlements ceded to king Radama, on his 
giving up the slave trade .... 181S 

Radama, who favoured Europeans and encou- 
raged Christianity, died 1828 

A reautionaiy policy under his energetic queen 
immediately began ; the English missionaries 
who came in 1 820 obUged to depart . . 1836 

The application of the native laws to the Euro- 
pean settlers occasioned an unsuccessful 



Cassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of 
Alexander's family), and usurps the throne . 

Battle of Ipsus (which see) ; Antigonus killed . 

New division of the empire . . . • ,. 

Death of Cassander 298 

Reign of Alexan^ier V. and Antipater, his sons ,, 

Demetrius I., Poliorcetcs, son of Antigonus, 
murders Alexander, and seizes the crown of 
Macedon 2Q4 

Achaian league formed against Macedon . 281-243 

Guvonimentsof Pyrrhus, 287; Lysimachus, 286; 
Ptolemy Ceraunus 

Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . 

Sosthenes governs 

Reign of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius 

Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats Antigonus, 
and is proclaimed king 

Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . 

Antigonus takes Athens 

The Gauls again invade Macedon 

Revolt of the Parthiaus 

Reign of Demetrius H 239 

Philij), his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus 
Doson 229 

Philip v., 220 ; w.ars unsuccessfully against the 
Rhodians 202 

Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephalas 197 

Reign of Perseus, his son, 178 ; war with Rome 171 

Perseus defeated at Pydna; Macedon made a 
Roman province 16S 

Perseus and his sons walk in chains before the 
the chaiiot of yEmilius iii his triumph for the 
conquest of Macedon 167 

Insun-ection of Andriscus, calling himself son 
of Perseus, quelled 148 

Macedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
goth A.D. 482 

Conquered by the Bulgarians . . . . 978 

Recovered by the emperor Basil . . . looi 

Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thessa- 
lonica, by Boniface, of Montferrat . . . 1204 

After various changes, conquered by Amurath 
II., and annexed to Turkey .... 1430 



a large populous island, said to have been 



attack on the town of Tamatave, by a united 
expedition from the Enghsh at the Mauritius, 
and the French from the isle of Bourbon, 

June, 

All amicable intercourse ceases for ten years, 
during which the native Christians suffer 
persecution 

The French defeated in an attack on the island, 

19 Oct. 

The rev. "W. Ellis published account of his 
three visits to the island, on behalf of the 
London Missionary Society, in . 1854-5-6, 

The queen dies ; succeeded by her sou Radama 
II., a Christian Aug. 



1S4S 



MAD 



458 



MAE 



Disputes with tlie French continue . Nov. 1865 
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ; Chris- 
tians to be tolerated, &c. ; ratified . 5 July, i865 
Rev. Wm. ElUs's "Madagascar Revisited," pub- 
lished 1 Feb. 1867 



MADAGASCAE, continued. 

A revolution ; the king and his ministers assas- 
sinated ; the queen proclaimed the sovereign, 

May, 

Embassy from Madagascar arrives at South- 
ampton Feb. 

MADEIRA, an island, N. W. coast of Africa, discovered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr. 
Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from France for an illicit amour. He 
was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, he made a canoe, and 
carried the news of his discovery to Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report 
■ that the island was discovered by a Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that the Portuguese 
did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, or colonise it until 143 1. It was taken by the 
British in July, 1801 ; and again by admiral Hood and general Beresford, 24 Dec. 1807, and 
retained in trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had emigrated to the Brazils. It 
was restored to the Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned vintages here have been 
totally ruined by the vine disease. 

MADIAI PERSECUTION", see Tuscamj. 

MADRAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the natives Chennapatam, colonised by the 
English, 1640. 

Port St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency 1653 
Bengal placed under Madras .... 1658 
Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made 

a presidency 1701 

Madras taken by the French . . 14 Sept. 1746 

Restored to the Bnghsh 1749 

Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, 

12 Dec. 1758 
Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favour- 
able treaty April, 1769 

Sir John Lindsay arrives . . . July, 1770 
He is succeeded by sir R. Hartland . Sept. 1771 

Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own 

council, 24 Aug. 1776; dies in confinemieut, 

17 April, 1777; his enemies convicted and 

fined -LOQol. each .... 11 Feb. 1780 
Sir Eyre Coote arrives .... 5 Nov. „ 
He defeats Hyder .... 1 July, 1781 
Lord Macartney arrives as governor 22 June, ,, 
The Madras government arrest gen. Stuart for 

disobedience, and sends him to England, 

June, 1783 
Lord Cornwallis arrives here . . 12 Dec. 1790 
Sir Charles Oakley succeeds gen. Meadows as 

governor i Aug. 1792 

Madras system of education introduced (see 

Monitorial) 1795 

Lord Momington (afterwards the marquess 

Wellesley) visits here .... Dec. 179S 
General Harris with the Madras army enters 

Mysore, 5 March ; and arrives at Seringa- 



patam, 5 April, which is stormed by the 
British under major-general Baird, and 
Tippoo Saib killed .... 4 May, 179^ 

Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, first judge 
of Madras under the charter . 26 Dec. 1800 

More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt Feb. 1803 

The Madras army under general Arthur Welles- 
ley (afterwards duke of Wellington) marches 
for Poonah (see India) . . . March, 

Mutiny among the British forces at Vellore 

600 sepoys killed ; 200 executed . 10 July 

Mutiny of the sepoy troops at Madras 

Arrival of lord Minto at Madras, who publishes 
a general amnesty . . . .29 Sept. 

Awful hurricane, by which the ships at anchor 
were driven into the town and seventy sail 
sunk, many with their crews . . May, 

Madras attacked by the Pindarees 

Appointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first bishop 
of Madras 14 Feb. 1835 

Sir Charles Trevelyan,* governor, Jan. 1859; 
recalled for publishing a minute in opposi- 
tion to Mr. Jas. Wilson's financial schemes, 

10 May, i860 

His successor, sir H. Wood, dies at Madras, 

2 Aug. ,, 

Sir Wm. Denison appointed governor, Nov. 
i860; arrives 18 Feb. 1861 

Lord Napier appointed governor . 31 Jan. 1866 



1806 



1817 



[For other events, see India.} 
MADRID (New Castile), mentioned in history as Majerit, a Moorish castle. 



Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of 

Spain (but soon retires) . . .20 July, 180S 

Madrid retaken by the French, 2 Dec. 1808 ; 

and retained till it is entered by Wellington 
and his army .... 12 Aug. 1812 

Ferdinand VII. restored . . .14 May, 1814. 
Population, in 1857, 483,795. 

See Spain, 1S40 et seq. 



Sacked by the Moors 1109 

Retaken and fortified by Plenry III. about . . 1400 

Humiliating treaty of Madrid between Charles 
V. and Francis I. , his prisoner . . . 1526 

Made the seat of the Spanish court by Philip II. 1560 

The Escm-ial built 1563 et seq. 

Taken by lord Gal way 1706 

The old palace bm-nt down 1734 

Madrid taken by the French . . March, 1S08 

The citizens attempt to expel the French ; de- 
feated with much slaughter . . 2 May, ,, 

MADRIGAL, an unaccompanied song for three or more voices, of which the finest 
examples are by English composers. Madrigals were published by Morley, 1594 ; Weelkes, 
1597 ; Wilbye, 1598 ; and Bennet, 1599. The Madrigal Society in London began in 1741. 

MAESTRICHT (Holland). It revolted from Spain, and was taken by the prince of 
Parma in 1579, when a dreadful massacre took place. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced 
it after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it 
in 1673 ; William, prince of Orange, invested it in vain in 1676 ; but in 1678 it was restored 
to the Dutch. In 1 748 it was besieged by the French, who were permitted to take possession 



* Appointed financial secretary and a member of the Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1862. 



MAG 



459 



MAG 



of the city on condition of its being restored at the peace then negotiating. In Feb. 1793, 
Maestricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters of it, Nov. 
1794. In 1814 it was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands ; and now belongs to 
Holland. 

MAGAZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical publication. There are now magazines 
devoted to nearly every department of knowledge. The following are the dates of the first 
publication of the principal magazines. In Jan. 1865, 544 magazines were in course of pub- 
lication in Great Britain and Ireland ; see Eeviews and Newspapers. 



Gentleman's Magazine . . 1731 

London 1732 

Scots ..... 1739 

Royal 1759 

Court 1760 

Gospel 1768 

Lady's ..... 1772 
European 1782 



Methodist Magazine . . 1784 

Evangelical . . . . 1792 

Monthly. .... 1796 

Philosophical . ... 1798 

Blackwood's .... 1817 

New Monthly . . . . 1814 

Eraser's 1830 

Metropolitan . . . . 1831 



Penny Magazine . . . 1832 

Tait's 1833 

Coruhill .... 1859 

Macmillan's . . . . ,, 
St. Paul's .... 1868 
Many new ones published 1860-8 



MAGDALA, a very strong place in Abyssinia {toMcli see). On Good Friday, 10 April, 
1868, the troops of the emperor Theodore attacked the first brigade of the British arm)'' under 
sir Eobert Napier, and were repulsed with great slaughter. On the next day all the Euro- 
pean prisoners were given up, but Theodore himself refused to surrender; and on Easter 
Monday, 13 April, Magadala was stormed, and Theodore himself killed— it is said by his 
own hand. The British loss Avas trifling ; and the expedition commenced its return imme- 
diately. 

MAGDALENS and Magdalenette.s, communities of nuns, consisting chiefly of penitent 
courtesans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen was founded 1272, at Marseilles. The 
convent of Naples Avas endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. That at Metz was instituted in 
1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by pope Leo X., in 1515, and 
favoured by Clement VIII., in 1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, Avas founded in 1758, 
principally under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The asylum in Dublin was opened in June, 
1766. 

MAGDEBURG (Prussia). The archbishopric was founded about 967. The city suS'ered 
much during the religious Avars in Germany. It was blockaded for seven months by the 
imperialists, under Wallenstein, in 1629; and was barbarously sacked by Tilly on 10 May, 
1631. It Avas given to Brandenburg in 1648; AA'as taken by the French, 8 Nov. 1806, and 
annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia ; but was restored to Prussia in 1813. 

The Magdeburg Experiment is shown by means of by the pressure of the atmosphere, and require 

a hollow sphere, composed of two hemispheres, great force to separate them. The apparatus was 

fitting air-tight. When the air is exhausted by suggested by Otto von Guericke, the inventor of 

the air-pump, the hemispheres are held together the air pump. He died in 16S6. Bramle. 

MAGELLAN, Straits of (connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans), was passed by 
Fernando de Magelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on 27 Nov. 1520. He gave the latter 
ocean its name on account of its calmness. Magellan completed the first voyage round the 
world, with a fleet of discoA^ery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but was killed in 1521. 
The Spaniards had a fort here, called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished for Avant. 

MAGENTA, a small toAvn in Lombardy, near which the French and Sardinians defeated 
the Austrians, 4 June, 1859. The emperor Louis Napoleon commanded, and he and the 
king of Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is said that 55, 00c French and Sardi- 
nians, and 75,000 Austrians Avere engaged. The former are assei'ted to have lost 4000 killed 
and wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners. The French generals Espi- 
nasse and Clerc were killed. The arrival of general M 'Mahon during a deadly struggle 
betAveen the Austrians and the French, greatly contributed to the victory. The contest near 
the bridge of Bufl'alora was very severe. The Austrians fought Avell, but AA'ere badly com- 
manded. The emperor and king entered Milan on 8 June following ; M'Mahon and Eegnault 
d'Augely Avere created marshals of France. — The red dye, rosaniline, obtained by chemists 
from gas-tar, is termed magenta ; see Aniline. 

MAGI or Worshippers of Fire. The Persians adored the invisible and incompre- 
hensible God as the principle of all good, and paid homage to fire, as the emblem of his power 
and purity. They built no altars nor temples ; their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and 
their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi, their priests, are said to have had skill 
in astronomy, &c. ; hence the term Magi aams applied to all learned men, till they were con- 
founded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, AA'as the reformer of the sect of the 
Magi ; he flourished about 1080 B.C.; others say 550 B.C. Their religion AA'as superseded in 
Persia by Mahometanism, a.d. 652. The Parsees at Bombay are descendants of the Guebres 
or fire- worshippers. 



MAG 



460 



MAG 



MAGIC, see Alchemy, Witchcraft, &c. The invention of the Magic Lantern is ascribed 
to Eoger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to Athanasius Kircher, who died 1680. 

MAGISTRATES, see Justices. Stipendiary borough magistrates may be appointed by 
5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76, 1835 ; and by 26 & 27 Vict. c. 97, 1863. The present arrangement o^f 
metropolitan magistrates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was made by act of parliament in 
1792. Henry fielding, the novelist, was acting magistrate for Westminster and at Bow- 
street. He was succeeded by his half-brother, sir John Fielding, in 1761 ; by 

. . 1827 



Sir William Addington 
Sir Bichard Ford . 
Mr. Bead . 



1780 
1800 



Sir Nathaniel Conant 
Sir Bobert Baker 
Sir Bichard Birnie 



Sir Frederick Boe 
Mr. T. J. Hall 
Sir Thomas Henry 



MAGNA CHARTA. Its fundamental parts were derived from Saxon charters, continued 
by Henry I. and his successors. It was signed by John at Eunnymede, near Windsor, 
15 June, 1215,* &c. It was many times confirmed, and frequently violated, by Henry III. 
This last king's grand charter was granted in 1224, and was assured by Edvrard I. ; see 
Forests. 

MAGNA GRjECIA, the independent states founded by Greek colonists in South Italy, 
Sicily, &c. Cumfe, in Campania, is said to have been founded in 1034 B.C. Pandosia and 
Metapontum in 774 B.C. These states were ruined through siding with Hannibal when he 
invaded Italy, 216 b.c. 

Syracuse founded about b. c. 734 
Leontium and Catana . . 730 
Sytaaris 721 



Crotona 

Tarentum . 

Locri Epizephyrii . 



B.C. 710 



673 



Lipara . . . B.C. 627 
Agrigentum .... 5S2 
Thurium 432 



MAGNANO (K Italy.) Here Scherer and a French army were defeated by the Austrians 
under Kray, 5 April, 1799. 

MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus the great, kihg of Syria, was defeated by the 
Scipios, 190 B.C. — Magnesia alba, the white alkaline earth used in medicine, was iu use in 
the beginning of the 18th century. Its jjroperties were developed by Dr. Black in 1755. 

MAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from magnesia by sir Humphry Davy, about 1807, 
and since produced in larger quantities by Bussy, Deville, and especially by Mr. E. Sonstadt, 
in 1862-4. Its light when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in chemical rays that it may 
be used in photography. Lamps have been made for burning magnesium wire, which is so 
employed by the excavators of the tunnel through Mount Cenis. By its light photographs 
of the interior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. Larkin's magnesium lamp (in which the 
metal is burnt in the form of a powder) was exhibited at the Royal Institution on i June, 1866, 
and before the British Association at Nottingham in Aug. 1866. 

_ MAGNETISM. Magnes, a shepherd, is said to have been detained on Mount Ida by the 
nails in his boots. The attractive power of the loadstone or magnet was early known, and is 
referred to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was also known to the Chinese and Arabians. 
The Greeks are said to have obtained the loadstone from Magnesia in Asia, 1000 B.C. Roger 
Bacon is said to have been acquainted with its property of pointing to the north (1294). The 
invention of the mariner's compass is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about 1320 ; but 
it was known in Norway previous to 1266 ; and is mentioned in a French poem, 1150 ; see 
under Electricity, p. 264. 



Robert Norman, of London, discovered the 
dip of the needle about 1576 

Gilbert's treatise " De Magneto," published . 1600 

Halley's theory of magnetic variations pub- 
lished 1683 

Marcel observed that a bar of iron becomes 
temporarily magnetic by position . . . 1722 

Artificial magnets made by Dr. Gowan Knight 1746 

The variation of the compass was observed by 
Bond, about 1668 : the diurnal variation by 
Graham, 1722 ; on which latter Canton made 
4000 observations previous to ... 1756 

Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for de- 
termining the laws of attraction and repiol- 
sion, 1786; also investigated by Michel, Euler, 
Lambert, Bobison, and others . 1750-1800 

The deflection of the magnetic needle by the 
voltaic current was discovered by CErsted . 1820 

Mr. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for 
persons engaged in grinding cutlery . . 1821 

The magnetic eSects of the violet rays of light 



exhibited by Morichini, 1814; polarity of a 
sewing needle so magnetised shown by Mrs. 
Somerville 1S25 

Mr. Christie proved that heat diminishes 
magnetic force .... about ,, 

Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of 
the compass 1831 

Electricity produced from a magnet by pro- 
fessor Faraday, 1831 : his "researches on the 
action of the magnet on Ught, on the mag- 
netic properties of flame, air, and gases 
(published 1845), on dia-magnetism (1845), 
on magno-crystallic action (1848), on atmo- 
spheric magnetism (1850), on the magnetic 
force 1851-2 

Magnetic observations established in the British 
colonies under the superintendence of col. 
Edward Sabine 1840 et seq. 

Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-mag- 
netic polarity 1856 

Wm. Eobinson patented a method of making 



* On 20 Nov. 1214, the archbishop of Canterbury and the barons met at St. Edmondsbury. On 6 Jan. 
1215, they presented their demands to the king, who deferred his answer. On 19 May they were censured 
by the pope. On 24 May they marched to London, and the king was compelled to yield. 



MAG 



461 



MAI 



MAGNETISM, continued. 

■WTOught-iron from cast-iron by the help of 
magnetism . . . announced, July, 

Wilde's magneto-electric machine exhibited (see 
under Electricity, p. 264) 

In the present centuiy our knowledge of the 



phenomena of magnetism has also been 
greatly increased by the labours of Arago, 
Ampfere, Hansteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggen- 
dorft", Sabine, Lament, Du Moncel, &c.* (see 
Animal Magnetism). 



MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, the discovery of professor Faraday ; see Electricity, p. 264. 
Magueto-electricity lias been recently applied to telegraphic and to lighthouse purposes, t 

MAGNOLIA. Magnolia glauca was brought here from N. America, 1688. The 
laurel-leaved Magnolia, Magnolia granclifiora, from N. America about 1734. The dwarf 
Magnolia, Magnolia picmila, from China in 1789 ; and (also from China) tlie brown stalked, 
1789; the purple, 1790; and the slender, 1804. 

MAGYARS, see Hungary. 

MAHARAJPOOR (India). Here sir Hugh Gough severely defeated the Mahratta army 
of Gwalior, 29 Dec. 1843. Lord EUenborough was present. 

MAHEDPORE, see McUdpore. 

MAHOGANY is said to have been brought to England by Raleigh, in 1595 ; and to have 
come into general use about 1720. 

MAHOMET ANISM embodied in the Koran, includes — ^the unity of God, the immortality 
of the soul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual paradise. Mahomet asserted that 
the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a j)eriod of twenty-three years. 
He enjoined on his disciples circumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablution, and fasting, and 
permitted polygamy and concubinage. 



Mahomet, or Mohammed, bom at Mecca . 569 or 570 
Annoimced himself as a prophet about . . . 611 
Fled from his enemies to Medina (his flight is 

called the H^gira) . . . .15 July, 622 
Overcomes his enemies, the Koreish, the Jews, 

in battle 623-5 

Defeats the Christians at Muta . . . . 629 
Is acknowledged as a sovereign .... 630 
Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by 

a Jew to test his divine character . 8 June, 632 
The Mahometans are divided into several sects, 
the two chief being the Sonnitcs, or the Ortho- 
dox, who recognised as caliph Abubeker, the 
father-in-law of Mahomet, in preference to 
Omar and Ali ; and the Skiites (Sectaries), or 
Fatimites, the followers of Ah, who married 
Fatima, the prophet's daughter. 
The Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the 
Sonnites, the sultan being considered the 
representative of the caliphs ; whUe Persia 
has been for centuries the stronghold of the 
Shiites. 
The Mahometans conquered Arabia, North 



Africa, and part of Asia, in the 7th centiiry ; 
in the 8th they invaded Europe, conquei-ing 
Spain, where they founded the Califat of 
Cordova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, when 
it was broken up into smaller governments, 
the last of which, the kingdom of Grenada, 
endured till its subjugation by Ferdinand in 
1492 : but the Mahometans were not finally 
expelled from Spain till 16 

Their progress in France was stopped by their 
defeat at Tours by Charles Martel, in . .7 

After a long contest, the Turks under Maho- 
met II. took Constantinople; he made it his 
capital and the chief seat of his religion . . 14 

Though considered to be declining', Mahome- 
tanism is calculated as mcluding 100 millions 
amongst its votaries. 

Cooraroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, admitted 
to practise as aii attorney, having taken the 
oaths upon the Koran . . . Nov. 18 

Budroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, caUed to 
the bar 30 April, 18 



MAHRATTAS, a people of Hindostan, who originally dwelt north-west of the Deccan, 
which they overran about 1676. They endeavoured to overcome the Mogul, but were re- 
strained by the Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East India company in 1767, 
made war against it in 1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally subdued in 1818. 
Theii- last iirince, Sindiah, is now a pensioner of the British government. 

MAID, see Holy Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and Joan of Arc, maid of Orleans. 

MAIDA (Calabiia), where the French, commanded by general Regnier, were signally de- 
feated by the British under major-general sir John Stuart, 4 July, 1806. 

MAIDEN, see Guillotine. 

MAIDS OF HONOUR. Anne, daughter of Francis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of 
Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France, was the first to have young and beautiful ladies 
about her person, called maids of honour. When Charles died (1498), she put a cordelier 
(a black knotted lace) round her coat-of-arms, as a token of mourning, which introduced the 

* In the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by Logeman, of Haarlem, constructed on the prin- 
ciples of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lbs., and can sustain 430 lbs. Hrecker, of Nuremberg, constructed a 
magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of sustaining 146 times its own weight. This wa.s exhibited in 1S51, 
also at the Royal Institution. 

t The South Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated by the magneto-electric light in the 
winters of 1858-9 and 1859-60, and at Dmigeness in 1861-2. The light is said to excel all other artificial 
lights in brilliancy, continuance, &c. 



MAI 462 MAL 

custom which was abolished in 1673. The queen of Edward I. of England is said to have 
had four maids of honour ; queen Victoria has eight. 

MAIL. Coaches for the conveyance of letters were first set up at Bristol hy Mr. John 
Palmer, of Bath, 2 Aug. 1784. They were employed for other routes in 1785, and soon he- 
came general in England. The mails were first sent by rail in 1838. 

MAILLOTINS (small mallets), a name given to certain citizens of Paris, who, in March, 
1382, violently opposed the collection of new taxes, imposed by the duke of Anjou, the 
regent. They armed themselves with small iron mallets (taken from the arsenal), and 
killed the collectors ; for which they were severely punished in Jan. 1383. 

MAIMING AND WOUNDING, see Coventry Act. 

MAIN PLOT, a name given to a conspiracy to make Arabella Stuart sovereign of 
England in place of James I. in 1603. Lord Cobham, sir Walter Ealeigh, and lord Grey, 
Avere condemned to death for implication in it, but reprieved ; others were executed. 
Ealeigh was executed 29 Oct. 1618. 

MAINE, a province, N.W. of France, was seized by WiUiam I. of England in 1069. 
It acknowledged prince Arthur, 1199; and was taken from John of England by Philip of 
France, 1204 ; was recovered by Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After various 
changes it was finally united to France by Louis XI. in 1481. — Mainp: (N. America), was 
discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by the English about 1638 ; it became a state of 
the union in 1820. The boundary line between the British and the United States territories 
in Maine was settled by the Ashburton ti'eaty, concluded 9 Aug. 1842. The Maine liquor 
law prohibiting the manufacture and use of intoxicating drinks, with certain exceptions, 
was enacted in 185 1. 

MAJESTY. Among the Eomans, the emperor and imperial family were thus addressed, 
and also the popes and the emperors of Germany. The style was given to Louis XL of 
France in 1461. Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 15 19, the 
kings of Spain took the style. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of 
England, on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. 
James I. used the style "Saei'ed," and "Most Excellent Majesty." 

MAJOLICA WAEE, see Pottenj. 

MAJOECA, see Balearic Isles, and Minorca. Majorca rebelled against Phillip V. of 
Spain in 1714 ; but submitted 14 July, 1715. 

MALABAE (W. coast of Hindostan). The Portuguese established factories here in 
1505 ; the English did the same in 1601. 

MALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, was a flourishing Portuguese settlement 
in 15 1 1. The Dutch factories were established in 1640. The Dutch government exchanged 
it for Bencoolen in Sumatra in 1824 ; it was placed under the Bengal presidency. It is now 
part of the Straits Settlements (which see). 

MALAGA (S. Spain), a Phoenician town, taken by the Arabs, 714 ; retaken by the 
Spaniards, after a long siege, 1487 ; see Naval Battles, 1704. 

MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on which was situated an old tower, strongly 
fortified by the Eussians during the siege of 1854-55. The allied French and Eng].ish 
attacked it on 17 and 18 June, 1855, and after a conflict of forty-eight hours were repulsed 
with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed and 1126 wounded; that of the 
French 3338 killed and wounded. On 8 Sept., the French again attacked the Malakhoft"; 
at eight o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the 
conquered redoubt ; see Sebastopol. In the Malakhoff and Eedan were found 3000 pieces of 
cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 

MALAY AECHIPELAGO, see Mohwcas, Philippines, &c. 

MALDON (Essex), built 28 B.C., is supposed to have been the first Eoman colony in 
Britain. It was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the Eomans. It was burnt by 
the Danes, a.d. 991, and rebuilt by the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and 
Mary. The singular custom of Borougli-English is kept up here, Ijy which the youngest 
son, and not the eldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his father's death; see 
Borough- EnglisJi. 

MALEGNANO or Melegnano, modern names of Marignano {which see). 

MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law respecting them was consolidated and amended by 
24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works of art, electric telegraphs, &c., 1861. 

MALINES, see Mechlin. 

MALO, ST. (N. W. France). This port sustained a tremendous bombardment by the 
English under admiral Benbow in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 1695. In 1758 



MAL 463 MAL 

the British lauded in consideraljle force in Cancalle bay, and went up to the harbour, where 
they burnt ujnvards of a hundred ships, and did great damage to the town, making a 
number of prisoners. It is now defended by a very strong castle, and the harbour is most 
difhcult of access. 

MALO-JAROSLAVITZ, near Moscow, S. Russia : the site of severe encounters between 
the Russians and the retreating French army, 24 Oct. 1812. The latter were victorious, but 
with great loss. 

MALPLAQUET (IST. France). Here the allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene defeated the French commanded by marshal Villars, 11 Sept. 1709. Each army 
consisted of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great slaughter on both sides, the 
allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid by the capture of Mons. 

MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distillation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667, 
1697, et scq. Important acts for the regulation of malt duties were passed in 1830 and 1837. 
In March, 1S58, there were 6157 licensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. The duty on 
malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273,727^. In 1864 the duty was remitted on malt used for 
cattle feeding ; and in 1S65, an act was passed allowing the excise duty to be charged 
according to the weight of the grain used. A parliamentary committee to consider repeal of 
malt tax was agreed to, 14 May, 1867. 



Malt made in the United Kingdom : in 1825, 
36,205,451 bushels ; in 1835, 42,892,012 ; in 1847, 
35,307,815 ; in 1857, 45,967,461 ; in 1861, 47,914,614. 



Revenue from the malt duties : in the year ending 31 
March, 1850, 5,391,522?. ; in 1854, 5,418,418;. ; in 
1856, 6,676,849?. ; in 1S57 (tax reduced), 5,690,950?. ; 
in i860, 6.648,881?. ; in 1862, 6,208,813?. ; in 1867, 
6,816,385?. 

MALTA (formerly Melita), an island in the Mediterranean, held successively by the 
Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, which last conquered it, 259 B.C. The apostle 
Paul was wrecked here, A.D. 62 (Acts xxvii. xxviii.). Malta was taken by the Vandals, 534; 
by the Arabs, 870 ; and by the Normans from Sicily, 1090. With Sicily it became succes- 
sively part of the possessions of the houses of Hohenstaufen, Anjou (1266), and Aragon 
(1260). In 1530 Charles V. gave it to the Knights Hospitallers, who defended it most 
courageously and successfully against the Turks in 155 1 and 1565, when the Turks were 
obliged to abandon the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was taken by 
general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, 12 June, 1798. He found in it 
1200 pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, a frigate, four galleys, 
and 40,000 mu.skets ; besides an immense treasure collected by superstition ; and 4500 
Turkish prisoners, whom he set at libert}'. Malta was surrendered to the British under 
Pigot, 5 Sept. 1800. At the peace of Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored 
to the knights. The British, however retained possession, and the war recommenced 
between the two nations ; but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was guaranteed to 
Great Britain. La Valetta, the capital, was founded in 1557 by the grand, master La Valetta, 
and completed and occupied by the knights, 18 Aug. 1571. The Protestant college was 
founded in 1846. 

MALTA, Knights of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of St. John 
of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some merchants of Malfi, 
trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of Egy]5t to build a house for those who 
came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, 1048. 
They afterwards founded a hospital for the reception of pilgiirns, from whence they M-ere 
called Hospitallers (Latin hospes, a guest). The military order was founded about 1099; 
confirmed by the pope 11 13. In 11 19 the knights defeated the Turks at Antioch. After 
the Christians had lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights 
retked to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290. They next followed John, king of 
Cyprus, who gave them Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed till 13 10, in which 
year they took Rhodes, under their grand master De Yallaret, and the next year defended it 
under the duke of Savoy against an army of Saracens. The story tliat his successors have 
used F. E. R. T. {Fortitudo ejus Rhodicm teniiit, or His valour kept Rhodes) for their device 
is doubted. From this they were called hiighfs of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by 
Sol3anan in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted 
them the city of Viterbo for their retreat ; and in 1530 the emperor Charles V. gave them 
the isle of Malta. The order was suppressed in England in 1540 ; restored in 1557 ; and 
again suppressed in 1559. St. John's Gate, Clerkenwell, a relic of their possessions, still 
exists. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself grand master of the order in June, 
1799. The knights sent a hospital establishment into Bohemia during the war in 1866, 
wliicli afforded great relief to the wounded and sick. Governor of Malta and Gozo, sir 
Patrick Grant, 1867. 



MAM 



464 



MAN 



MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, established by the sultan as a 
body-guard, 1230. They advanced one of their own corps to the throne, about 1250, and 
continued to do so until Egypt became a Turkish jn-ovince, rii 15 17, when the beys took 
them into pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On the 
conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into ITubia ; but, assisted by the 
Arnauts, they reconquered Egypt from the Turkish government. On i March, 181 1, they 
were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, Meliemet Ali, and slain at Cairo to the 
number of 1600. In 1804, Napoleon embodied some of them in his guard. 

MAMERTINI, sons of Mamers or Mars, were Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. They 
seized Messina in Sicily in 281 B.C., and when closely besieged by the Carthaginians, and 
Hiero of Syracuse, in 264, they implored the help of the Eomans, which led to the first 
Punic War. 

MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was 
discovered in Siberia, in 1799. Eemains of this animal have since been found at Harwich 
in 1803, and at places in Europe, Asia, and America. 

MAN, Antiquity of. In 1846, M. Boucher de Perthes found some rude flint imple- 
ments, which he believed to be of human manufacture, mingled with bones of extinct 
animals, in the old alluvium near Abbeville in Picardy, France. Similar flints have since 
been found in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixham by Mr. Pengelly, and lately in various 
parts of the world. Hence many geologists infer that man existed on the earth many ages 
earlier than has been hitherto believed. Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man " was pub- 
lished in 1863, and sir John Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times" in 1865. 

MAN, Isle of, was subdued by Edwin, king of Northumberland, 621 ; by Magnus of 
Norway, 1092; ceded to the Scots, 1266; and taken from them in 13 14, by Moutacute, 
afterwards earl of Salisbury, to whom Edward III. gave the title of king of Man, in 1343. 
It was afterwards siibjected to the earl of Northumberland, on whose attainder Henry IV. 
granted it in fee to sir John Stanley, 1406 ; it was taken from this family by Elizabeth, 
but was restored in 1608 to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by inheritance to the 
dukeof Athol, 1735. He received 70,000?. from parliament for the sovereignty in 1765 ; 
and the nation was char'ged with the further sum of 132,944?. for the purchase of his interest 
in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. The countess of Derby held the isle against the 
parliament forces in 1651. The bishopric is said to have been presided over by Araphibalus 
about 360. Some assert that St. Patrick was the founder of the see, and that Germanus was 
the first bishop, about 447. It was united to Sodor in 1 113. The bishop has no seat in the 
house of lords ; but lord Auckland (bishop, 1847-54) sat by right of his barony. Present 
income, 2000Z. 



1841. Tlios. Vowler Sliort, trans, to St. Asaph, 1846. 
1846. Walter Augustus Shirley ; died in 1847. 
1847.' John Eden (lord Auckland), ti-ans. to Bath, 

1834. 
1854. Hon. Horatio Powya (present bishop). 



RECENT BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 

1784. Cladius Crigan ; died in 1813. 

1813. George Murray, trans, to Eochester, 1827. 

1828. William Ward ; died in 1838. 

1838. James Bowstead, trans, to Lichfield, Dec. 1839. 

1840. Henry Pepys, trans, to Worcester, 1841. 

MANASSAS JUNCTION (Virginia, United States), an important military position, 
where the Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named Bull Extn. It 
was held by the confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by the federal general Irvin 
McDowell. He began his march from Washington on 16 July, and gained some advantage 
on the i8th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Eun. The 
federals, who began the fight, had the advantage till about three o'clock, p.m., when the 
confederate general Johnston Torought up reinforcements, which at first the federals took for 
their own troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and, 
in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large 
quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The confederate generals Johnston and 
Beauregard did not think it prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt till they 
arrived at Washington. The federal army is said to have had 481 killed, ion wounded, 
1216 missing. The loss of the confederates was stated to be about 1500. — In March, 1862, 
when the army of the Potomac, under general McClellan, marched into Virginia, they found 
that the confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On 30 Aug. 1862, 
this place was the site of another great battle between the northern and southern armies. 
In August, general "Stonewall" Jackson, after compelling the federal general Pope to 
retreat, defeated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned liis flank on the 22nd, and 
arriving at Manassas repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th general E. E. Lee 
(who had defeated general McClellan and the invading northern army before Eichmond, 
26 June to I July) joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from 
Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which ended in the confederates gaining a de- 



MAN 



465 



MAN 



cisive victory, compelling the federals to a hasty retreat to Ceutreville, where they were 
once more routed, i Sept. The remain? of their army took refuge beliind the lines of Wash- 
ington on 2 Sept. Pope was at once superseded, and JM'Clellan resumed the command to 
march against the confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland ; see 
United States. 

MANCHESTER (Lancashire), in the time of the Druid.s, was one of their principal 
stations, and had the privilege of sanctuary attached to its altar, in the British language 
Mcyne, a stone. It was one of the seats of the Brigantes, avIio had a castle, or stronghold, 
called Manccnion, or the place of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell, 
the site of which, still called the "Castle Field," was, about 79, selected by the Piomans as 
the station of the Colwrs Prima Frisiorum, and called by them Mancunium ; hence its 
Saxon name Manceastre, from which its modern ajipellation is derived. Lewis. 



Mancenion taken from the Britons . 
Captured by Edwin of Northumbria . . . 
The inhabitants become Christians . about 
The town taken by the Danes, 877 ; retaken 
The charter {Mu()ua Charta of Manchester), 

14 May, 
" Manchester cottons " introduced . . . 

The church made collegiate .... 

Free grammar-school fovmded . , . . 

Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester about 

An aulnager (measurer) stationed here 

Sir Thomas Fairfax takes the town . . . 

The walls and fortifications razed 

Cheetham college, or Blue- coat hospital, 
foimded 

Tumult raised by '• Syddall, the barber," after- 
wards hanged 

Prince Charles Edward, the young pretender, 
makes it his quarters . . .28 Nov. 

Queen's theatre first built 

The Infirmary instituted, 1752 ; built . . . 

The inhabitants discharged from their obhga- 
tion to grind their corn at Irk-mill 

Cotton goods first exported 

Manchester navigation opened, by Bridgewater 
canal 

Limatic asylum founded 

Agricultural society instituted .... 

Christian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, 
and ptits up at the Bull-inn . . . . 

The Queen's theatre rebuilt .... 

Subscription concerts established . . . . 

Riots against machinery ... 9 Oct. 

Manufacture of muslin attempted here about 

Philosophical society established . . . . 

New Bailey bridge completed .... 

Queen's theatre burnt down . . 19 June, 

And re-erected 

New Bailey built 

Assembly-rooms, Mosley-street, built . . . 

Philological Society instituted .... 

Fever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre-royal 

The portico erected 

The weavers' riot . . . .24 May, 

Exchange and Commercial buildings erected, 

Jan. 

Manchester and Salford water-works established 

131anketeers' meeting ...... 

Lock-hospital established 

Manchester reform meeting, called Peterloo. The 
assembly consisted of from 60,000 to 100,000 
persons, men, women, and children. Mr. 
flunt, who took the chair, had spoken a few 
words, when the meeting was siiddenly as- 
sailed by a charge of the Manchester cavalry, 
assisted by a Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, 
and a regiment of hussars, the outlets being- 
occupied by other military detachments. The 
unarmed multitude were in consequence 
driven one upon anothei-, by which many 
were killed, ridden over by the. horses, or cut 



620 
627 
923 

1 301 
1352 
1421 
1516 
1541 
1565 
1643 
1652 

1653 



1745 
1753 
1755 

1759 
1760 

1761 
1765 
1767 

1768 

1775 
1777 
1779 
1780 
1781 
1785 



1B17 
1819 



down by their riders. The deaths were it, 
men, women, and children, and the wounded 

about 600 16 Aug. 1819 

New Brunswick-bridge built . . . . 1S20 

Chamber of commei-ce established . . . „ 

Law hbrai-y founded ,, 

Natural History society projected . . . 1821 
New Quay company founded . . . . 1822 

Deaf and Dumb school instituted . . . 1823 

Royal Institution formed ,, 

Floral and Horticultural society established . ,, 
Jfochanics' institution founded .... 1S24 

Musical festival first held 1828 

At the launch of a vessel which keeled and up- 
set, upwards of 200 persons precipitated into 
the river; 51 perished . . . 29 Feb. „ 
In a tumult here, a factory burnt, and much 

machinery destroyed ... 3 May, 1829 
New concert-room established . . . . ,, 

The races established 1830 

Manchester and Livei-pool railway opened — Mr. 

lluskisson killed (see Liver (lool) . 15 Sept. ,, 
Manchester a parliamentary borough (2 mem- 
bers) 7 June, 1832 

Cho)-al society established 1833 

Statistical society formed, the first in England 

2 Sept. „ 
Church-rate refused .... 3 Sept. 1834 
Manchester incorporated, by JIunicipal Reform 

act 1835 

Matjchester and Leeds railway act passed . 183S 

Geological Society instituted .... 1838 
Charter of incorporation . . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Manchester police act ... 26 Aug. 1839 
Great di.?orders in the midland counties among 

artisans : they extend to this town Aug. 1842 

British Association meeting here . 23 June, ,, 
Great free-trade meetings held here (see Coryi 

Lews) 14 Nov. 1843 

Important meeting held at the Athenajum (see 

Athenamm) 3 Oct. 1844 

Great anti-corn law meeting, at which 64,984;. 

were subscribed in four hours . 23 Dec. 1845 
The Queen's-park, Peel-park, and Philip's-park, 

opened Aug. 1846 

Manchester made a bishopric . . 10 Aug. 1847 
Oijcning of Owens' collegiate institution, to 
which John Owens bequeathed loo.oooZ. 

10 March, 1851 
The Queen's visit to Manchester . 7 Oct. ,, 
Great meeting in the Free-trade hall, to greet 

M. Kossuth II Nov. ,, 

The engineers' strike . . 3 Jan. -26 April, 1852 
The Guild of Literature entertained at a ban- 
quet by the citizens ... 31 Aug. ,, 
Opening of the Free library . . 2 Sept. „ 
Great Free-trade banquet . . .2 Nov. „ 
Manchester declared to be a city, and formally 

so gazetted 16 April, 1853 

Great strike of minders and piecers . 7 Nov. 1855 
Exhibition of AetTreasvres'* determined on. 



* The temporary building consisted of a hall upwards of 700 feet long and 100 feet wide, and, including 
a transept, covered an area of 80,000 square feet. It cost above 2$,ocol. It contained the most extra- 
ordinary collection of works of art (valued at 6,000,000?.) ever brought together in this country. The 



MAN 



466 



MAN 



Meeting of Manchester and Liverpool agricul- 
tural society . . . .27 Aug. 1867 

Trades' Unions commission opened; evidence 
obtained of gross outrages . 3-24 Sept. „ 

Two Fenians, Kelly and Deasy, forcibly taken 
from a police-van, near Manchester ; and 
Brett, a policeman, killed . . 18 Sept. ,, 

23 persons committed for trial ; trial, 29 Oct.-i2 
Nov. ; five condemned to death for murder, 
I Nov. ; others to imprisonment ; Allen, 
Gould, and Larkin executed . 23 Nov. „ 

Jacob Bright elected M.P. (.Lily Max-well, a vsri- 
dow, voted for him) . . . . 26 Nov. ,, 



MANCHESTER, continued. 

20 May, 1856 ; opened by prince Albert, 5 May; 
visited by the Queen, 29, 30 June ; closed, 

17 Oct. 1837 
Sir John Potter, a benefactor to the town, died 

25 Oct. 1858 
British Association meet here (2nd time), 

4 Sept. 1861 
Great county meeting ; 130,000!. subscribed to 

the Lancashire Relief fund . . 2 Deo. 1862 
Meeting of the Church Congress . 13-15 Oct. 1863 
Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there 

24 Sept. 1 865 
An additional M.P. granted by Reform act 

15 Aug. 1867 

MANCHESTER, Bishopkic of. An order in council in Oct. 1838, declared that the 
sees of St. Asapli and Bangor should be united on the next vacancy in either, and that the 
bishopric of Manchester should be immediately created within the jurisdiction of the 
archiepiscopal see of York ; tlie county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached from 
Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) tire sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to exist undisturbed, 
and that of Manchester was to be created. The rev. Dr. James Prince Lee (the present 
bishop) was appointed in 1847, and consecrated in 1848. Income, 4200L 

MANES, the name applied by the ancients to the soul when separated from the body. 
The Manes were reckoned among the infernal deities, and were generally supposed to 
preside over the burial-places and monuments of the dead. They were solemnly wor- 
shipped by the Romans, and invoked by the augurs ; Virgil (22 B.C.) introduces his hero 
as sacrificing to the Manes. The Romans superscribed their epitaphs with D. M., Diis 
Manibus. > 

MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, long used to decolorise glass, and called 
Magnesia nigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. Its distinctive character 
was proved by the researches of Pott (1740), Kairn and Winterl (1770), and Scheele and 
Bergmann (1774) ; it was first eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with potassium 
is called mineral chameleon, from its rapid change of colour under certain circumstances. 
Forchammer employed it as a test for the presence of organic matter in water ; and Dr. 
Angus Smith successfully applied this test to air in 1858. 

MANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, which began to infest the East about 261. 
It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and particularly into Persia. A ricli widow, 
wliose servant Manes had been, left him much wealth, after which he assumed the title 
of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Clu'ist, and announced that he was the paraclete or comforter 
that Chi'ist had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good and the 
other bad ; the first he called light, which did .nothing but good, and the second he 
called darkness, which did nothing but evil. He rejected the Old Testament, and 
composed a system of doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the ancient fire- 
worsliippers. He obtained many followers. Sapor, king of Persia, believed in him at one 
time ; but afterwards banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahrain or Varanes, king of 
Persia, about 274. His followers spread themselves over the Roman empire, and several 
sects sprang from them. 

MANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the Philippine isles, a great mart of Spanish 
commerce. Manilla was taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. 
The archbishop engaged to ransom it for about a million sterling ; never wholly paid. 
Manilla has suffered greatly by earthquakes. It is stated that nearly 3000 persons perished 
by one in 1645. In Sept. 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and on 3 July, 1863, about a 
thousand lives were lost. 

MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, became the court residence of the 
Palatine of the Rhine in 1719 ; but his becoming elector of Bavaria in 1777 caused the 
removal of the court to Munich. Mannheim surrendered to the French, under command of 
general Pichegru, 20 Sept. 1795. On 31 Oct. the Austrians under general Wurmser 
defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in the 
neighbourhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, was assassinated at 
Mannheim, by Sand, a student of Wurtzburg, 2 April, 1819. 

MANORS are as ancient as the Saxon Constitution, and imply a territorial district 
with the jurisdiction, rights, and perquisites belonging to it. They were formerly called 
baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was empowered to hold a court called the 

collection of national portraits was very remarkable. There were 1,300,000 visitors. The expenses of the 
undertaking amounted to 99,500!. ; the receipts to 98,500!. 



MAN" 467 MAR 

court-baron for redressing misdemeanors, and settling disputes between the tenants. 
Cabinet Lawyer. 

MANSION-HOUSE, London. The residence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the 
east end of the Poultry, on the site of the ancient Stocks-Market. It was built of Portland 
stone by George Dance the elder, 1739-53 ; repaired and redecorated, 1867-68; see Mayor. 

MANSOURAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken 
prisoner, 5 April, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 livres for his ransom. 

MANTINEA (Arcadia, Greece). Several Battles here — (i) Athenians and Argives 
defeated by Agis II. of Sparta, 418 e.g. (2) Between Epaminondas and the Thebans, and 
the combined forces of LacedEcmon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.C. The 
Theban general was victorious, but was killed in the engagement, and from that Thebes 
lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states. The emperor Adrian buUt a 
temple at Mantinea in honour of his favourite Alcinolis. The town was also called Anti- 
gonia. Other battles were fought in the neighbourhood. 

MANTUA (N. Italy), an Etruscan city, near which Virgil w^as born, 70 B.C. Mantua 
was ruled by the Gonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, when it was seized by the 
emperor Joseph I. It surrendered to the French, 2 Feb. 1797, after a siege of eight months. 
It was retaken by the Austrian and Russian army, 30 July, 1799, after a short siege. In 
1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again obtained possession of it. It was 
included in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was restored to the Austrians, who 
surrendered it to the Italians, 11 Oct. 1866, after the peace. 

MANUFACTURES, see Silk, Cotton, &c. MAORIS, see New Zealand. 

MAPLE-TREE. The Acer ruhrum, or scarlet maple, was brought here from N. America, 
before 1656. The Acer Negunclo, or ash-leaved maple, before 1688. From the Acer saccha- 
rimcm (introduced here in 1735) the Americans make very good sugar. 

MAPS, see Charts, and Mercator. 

MARATHON (in Attica). Here, on 28 or 29 Sept. 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 10,000 
strong, defeated the Persian army amounting to 500,000, who had 200,000 killed. The 
former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles. Among the slain was 
Hippias, the instigator of the war. The Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia. 

MARBLE. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who sculp- 
tured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously being of wood, about 568 B.C. 
Pliny. The edifices or monuments of Rome were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine 
marble. The ruins of Palmyra are chiefiy of white marble. The marble arch, London, 
was removed from Buckingham-palace to Hyde-park, March, 1851. 

MARBURG (W. Germany). The cathedral was founded, 1231 ; and the first Protestant 
university in 1527. It suff'ered mUch during the Seven years' war, 1753-60. 

MARCH, the first month of the year, until Numa added January and February, 713 B.C. 
Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave to this month the name of his supposed 
father. Mars ; though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had the month of March before 
the time of Romulus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year 
formerly commenced on the 25th of this month ; see Year. 

MARCHES, Lords of, noblemen who lived on boimdaries settled between England and 
"Wales, and England and Scotland, and, according to Camden, had their laws, and power of 
life, death, &c., like petty princes. Tliese powers were abolished, 1535, and 1547. 

MARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his 
rival, the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, 26 Aug. 1278 ; see Bohemia. 

MARCIONITES, followers of Marcion, a heretic, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, 
and taught similar doctrines. Cave. 

MARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Germany, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, 
united with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were repelled by the emperors Anto- 
ninus and Verus ; defeated by the Legion called, from a fabled miracle, the Thundering 
Legion, 179 ; and finally driven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. 

MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, commanded by Bonaparte, attacked 
the Austrians, 14 June, 1800 ; his army was retreating, when the arrival of general Dessaix 
turned the fortunes of the day. The slaughter on botli sides Avas dreadful. By a treaty 
between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, signed 15 June, the latter obtained 
twelve strong fortresses, and became master of Italy. 

MARESCHALS or Marshals, in France, were the esquires of the king, and originally 
had the command of the vanguard to observe the enemy and to choose proper places for its 
encampment. Till the time of Francis I., in 15 15, there were but two marshals, wlio had 

11 n -1 



MAR ' 468 MAR 

500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of peace. The rank afterwards became 
of the highest military importance, the number was without limit, and the command supreme. 
Napoleon's marshals were renowned for skill and courage ; see Marshal. 

MARIAN PERSECUTION, see Protestants. 

MARIGNANO (now Malegnano), N. Italy, near Milan. Three battles have been fought 
near here — i. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of Milan and the Swiss, 13, 14 Sept. 
15 15 ; above 20,000 men were slain. This conflict has been called the Battle of the Giants. — 
2. Near here was fought the battle of Pavia {which see). — 3. After the battle of Magenta, 
4 June, 1859, the Austrians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The emperor sent marshal 
. Baraguay d'Hilliers with 16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a loss of about 
850 killed and wounded, on 8 June. The Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed and 
wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. 

MARINER'S COMPASS, see Compass, and Magnetism. 

MARINES were first established with the object of forming a nursery to man the fleet. 
An order in council, dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorised 1200 soldiers to be raised and formed 
into one regiment. In 1684, the 3rd regiment of the line was called tlie Marine Regiment ; 
but the sj'stem of having soldiers exclusively for sea-service was not carried into effect until 
1698, when two marine regiments were formed. More regiments were embodied in subse- 
quent years ; and in 1741 the corps consisted of ten regiments, each 1000 strong. In 1759 
they numbered 18,000 men. In the latter years of the French war, ending in 1815, they 
amounted to 31,400, but there were frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The jollies, 
as they are called, frequently distinguished themselves. The " Royal Marine Forces " now 
comprehend artillery and light infantry. The vote for 1857 was for 16,000 marines, inclu- 
sive of 1500 artillery. P. II. Nicolas. 

MARINO, SAN, a republic in central Italy. Its origin is ascribed to St. Marinus, a 
hermit, who resided here in the 5th century. Its independence was confirmed by pope Piiis 
YII. in 181 7. Population, in 1858, about 8000. 

MARITIME EXHIBITION (Inteknational), to be opened at Havre by the emperor, 
I June, 1868. 

MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, and the name mark-luhs is still retained in 
Denmark. In England, the mark means the sum of 13s. 4c?., and here the name is also re- 
tained in law courts. 

MARKET, see Sviithficlcl, and Metropolitan Cattle Market. 

MARK'S, St. (Venice). The church was erected in 829; the piazza in 1592. 

MARLBOROUGH, Statutes of, were enacted in the castle of Marlborough, in "Wilt- 
shire, 1267.— MaPvLboeotjgh House, Pall Mall, London, was built b}- Wren for the duke of 
Marlborough, 1709-10; was bought for the princess Charlotte and prince Leopold in 1817 ; 
held by queen Adelaide till 1849, and became the residence of the prince of "Wales, 1863. 

MARONITES, Christians in the East, followers of one Maron in the 5th century ; they 
are said to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites, Nestorians, and Monothelites : in 1 180 
they numbered 40,000 living in the neighbourhood of mount Libanus, and, being a brave 
people, they were of great service to the Christian kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled 
to the church of Rome in the 12th century. For an account of the massacres of the Maron- 
ites in i860, see Druses. 

MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island was con- 
quered from the Spaniards, a number of their negroes fled to the hills and became very 
troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons 
capitulated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they 
again took arms, but were speedily put down and many were transported to other colonies. 
Brande. 

MAR-PRELATE TRACTS, virulently attacking episcopacy, were written, it is believed, 
by Henry Penry, who was cruelly executed, 29 May, 1693, for having written seditious 
Avords against the queen (found about his person when seized). The tracts appeared about 
1586. Some had very singular titles : such as "An Almand for a Paixat," "Hay any 
AVorke for Cooper ? " &c. They were collected and reprinted in 1843. 

MARQUE, Letters of, see Privateer. 

MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named 
them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoja. They were visited by Cook in 1774, 
and were taken possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, i May, 1842. 

MARQUESS, a dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, by the Germans Markgrave, 
took its original from Mark or March, a limit or bound (see Marches) ; the office being to 



MAR 



4G9 



MAR 



guard or gorern the frontiers of a province. Marquess is next in honour to a duke. The 
hrst Englishman on whom the title was conferred was the fiwourite of king Richard II., 
Robert tie Vere, earl of Oxford, created maniuess of Dublin, and placed in parliament between 
the dukes and earls, 1385. Jarees Stewart, second sou of James III. of Scotland, was made 
marquess of Ormond, in 1476, without territories; afterwards earl of Ross. 

MARRIAGE was instituted by God {Gen. ii.), and confirmed by Christ {Marh x.), who 
performed a miracle at the celebration of one [John ii.). Matrimonial ceremonies among the 
Greeks are ascribed to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B.C. 



Law favouring marriage passed at Rome . B.C. iS 
Priests forbidden to marry after ordination a.d. 325 
Marriage was forbidden in Lent . . . 364 

It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests 
in 1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take 

the vow of celibacy in 1073 

The celebration of marriage, as a sacrament, in 
churches was ordained by pope innocent III. 
about 1 199 ; and so aflBrmed by the council of 

Trent 1547 

Marriages were solemnised by justices of the 
peace under an act of the commons in Oliver 
Cromwell's administration .... 1653 
A tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the mar- 
riage of a duke, 5oi. ; of a common person, 

IS. 6d 1695 

Irregular mamages prohibited (see Fled Mar- 
riages) 1753 

MaiTiages were again taxed in . . . . 1784 
New marriage act, 1822 ; partially repealed . 1823 
Acts prohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic 
priests in Scotland, or other ministers not 
belonging to the church of Scotland, repealed L834 
Act to render the children of certain marriages 
within forbidden degrees of kindred legiti- 
mate ; such marriages in future prohibited 

(Lyndhurst's act) 1835 

The present marriage act for England, autho- 



rising man-iages with religious ceremony, 
by registrar's certificate, or in a dissenting 
chapel, passed 1836 [amended in 1837 and 1856] 

Marriage Registration act 1837 

Amendment acts passed in . . 1840 and 1856 

A bill to suppress irregular marriages in Scot- 
laud (see Gntna) passed in . . . ■ „ 

A court established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes, which has the power of giving sen- 
tence of judicial .sejjaration for adultery, 
cruelty, or desertion without cause for two 
years and upward (see Divorce) 

The Marriage Law Reform association insti- 
tuted (to legalise a marriage with a deceased 
wife's sister), 15 Jan. 1851. A bill for this pur- 
pose passed the commons, 2 July ; was re- 
jected by the lords, 23 July, 1858 ; again 
rejected, 1862 ; and again by the commons, 

2 May, 

In the case of Brook v. Br-ook, it was decided 
that such a marriage celebrated in a foreign 
country was not valid . . .17 April, 1858 

This decision confirmed on appeal to the house 
of lords, on 18 March, 1S61 

A commission appointed to inquire into the 
working of the marriiige laws in Scotland 
and Ireland, in consequence of the Yelverton 
case (see Trials, 1861) 1865 



1857 



1866 



NUMBEE, OF EEGISTEKKD MAEKIAGES IN ENGLAND AND "WALEH. 



40,300 
73,228 
84,473 
91,946 
96,883 
98.378 
102,437 



1840 


. . 121,083 


i8,ss( 


1845 . 


■ 143.743 


i8s6 


1848 . 


. 138,230 


18=57 


1850* 


• • 152.744 


i8s8 


1853 • 


. 164,520 


iBSQ 


1854 • 


• 159,727 


i860 



1750 • 

1800 
i8io . 
1815 
1820 
1825 
1830 . 

Royal Marriage Act was passed in 1772, in conse- 
quence of the marriage of the duke of Gloticester, 
the king's brother, with the widow of the earl 
Waldegi-ave, and of the duke of Cumberland with 
the widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord 
Imham. [Bj' this act, none of the descendants of 
George II. , unless of foreign biith, can marry tinder 
the age of 25, miless with the consent of the king ; 
at and after that age, the consent of parliament 
is necessary to render the marriage vallid.J The 
marriage of the duke of Stissex with the lady 
Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pro- 
nounced illegal, and the claims of their son, sir 
Augustus d'Este, declared invalid, by the house of 
lords, 9 July, 1844. 

Half Marriage. Semi-Matrimoaium. Among the 
Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
merely tolerated but authorised. The concubine 
had the name of se^ni-conjux. Jlen nright have 
either a wife or a concubine, provided they had 
not both together. Constuntine tlie Great checked 
concubinage, but did not abolish it. This ancient 
custom of the Romans was preserved, not only 
among the Lombards, but by the French when 
they held dominion in that country. Cujas assures 
us that the Gascons and other people bordering on 



• 159.337 


1862 


• 159.097 


1863 


. 156,070 


1864 


• 167.723 


1865 


. 170,156 


1866 




1867 



i8s5(.Crim,eati 7TOr)i52,ii3 ; iS6i(co«on/ni/iiuc) 163,706 

. . 164,030 

• 173.510 
. . 180,387 

• 185.474 
. . 187,776 

- 178,791 

the Pyrenean mountains had not relinquished this 
custom in his time, 1590. The women bore the 
name of "wives of the second order." Uc'nauU. 
See Morqanalic Marriages. 

Double Marriages. There are some instances of a 
husband and two wives (but they are very rare) in 
countries where polygamy was interdicted by the 
state. The first Lacedremonian who had two wives 
was Anaxandrides, the son of Leon, about 510 B.C. 
Bionysius of Syr.icuse married two wives, viz. : 
Doris, the daughter of Xeuetus. and Aristomaehe, 
sister of Dion, 398 B.C. It is said that the count 
Gleichen, a German nobleman, was permitted, 
under peculiar cii-cumstances. by Gregory IX., in 
A.D. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The 
Mormonites practise and encourage polygamy. 

Forced Marriages. The stat. 3 Henry VII. (1487) 
made the principal and abettors in marriages with 
heiresses, &c., contrary to their will, equally guilty 
as felons. By 39 Eliz (1596) such felons were de- 
nied the benefit of clergy. This offence was made 
punishable by transportation, i Geo. IV. (1820). 
The remarkable case of Jliss Wharton, heiress of 
the hotise of Wharton, whom captain Campbell 
married by force, occurred in William III.'s reign. 
Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing the 



* Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrars' returns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could 
not write, and that they signed the marriage register with their marks. — In France, the marriages were 
208,893 in 1820 ; 243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, the statistics of that city, which 
are very minute and curious, furnish the following classes as occurring in 7754 marriages : — Bachelors and 
maids, 6456 ; bachelors and widows, 36S ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers and widows, 222. 



MAR 



470 



MAR 



MARRIAGE, continued. 

young lady, and the marriage was annulled by 
parliament, i6go. — Edward Gibbon Wakefield was 
tried at Lancaster, and found guilty of the felo- 
nious abduction of Miss Turner, 24 Marcb, 1827 ; 
and his marriage with her was immediately dis- 
solved by act of parUameut. 



Marriages by Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a 
certain time every year, the marriageable females 
were assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. 
This custom is said to have originated with 
Atossa, daughter of Belochos, about 1433 B.C. 

Fleet Maeeiages. See Fleet. 



MARSAGLIA (Piedmont, N. Italy). Here the imperialists under prince Eugene and the 
duke of Savoy M'ere defeated by the French under Catinat, 3 Oct. 1693. 

MARSEILLAISE HYMIST. The words and music are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, a 
French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to 
cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. It derived its name from a body of troops from Marseilles 
marching into Paris in 1792 playing the tune, it being then not much known. Brande. 

MARSEILLES, the ancient Massilia (S. France), a maritime city, founded by the 
Phocseans about 600 B.C. ; was an ally of Rome, 218 B.C. Cicero styled it the Athens of 
Gaul, on account of its excellent schools. 



[It carried ofi 50,000 of the hihabitants. The 
bishop Belsunce devotedly exerted himself 
to relieve the sufferers.] 
Revolutionary commotions here . 30 April, 1789 
Marseilles opposes the revolutionary govern- 
ment, and is reduced ... 23 Aug. 1793 



Taken by Julius Caesar after'a long siege B.C. 49 
By Euric the Visigoth . . . . a.d. 470 

Sacked by the Saracens 839 

Marseilles a republic 1214 

Subjected to the counts of Provence . . . 1251 
United to the crown of France .... 1482 
The plague rages .... 1649 and 1 720-1 

MARSHALS. Two were appointed in London to clear the streets of vagrants, and to 
send the sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for relief, 1567. Nortfiouck. 1 

MARSHALS, British Field-. This rank was first conferred upon John, duke of 
Argyle, and George, earl of Orkney, by George 11. in 1736. Sir John Burgoyne was made 
field marshal in Jan. 1868 ; see Mareschal. 

MARSHALS of Feance, &c., appointed by ISTapoleon I. during his wars, 1804-14. 



Murat, king of Naples, executed 13 Oct. 1815. 
Ney, prince of Moskwa, executed 7 Dec. 1815. 
Oudinot, duke of Reggio. 
Soult, duke of Dalmatia. 
Suchet, duke of Albuera. 
Victor, duke of Belluno. 

OFFICERS or state. 

Cambac^rfes, duke of Parma. 

Caulainpourt, duke of Vicenza. 

Champagne, duke of Cadore. 

Duroc, duke of Friuli, killed at Bautzen, 1813. 

Fouchfi, duke of Otranto. 

Le Brun, duke of Piacenza. 

Maret, duke of Bassano. 

Savary, duke of Rovigo ; and 

Talleyrand de Perigord, prince of Benevento, died 



Arrighi, duke of Padiia. 

Augereau, duke of Castiglione. 

Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo ; afterwards king 
of Sweden. 

Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, com- 
mitted suicide at Bamberg, 1815. 

Bessiferes, duke of Istria. 

Davoust, prince of Bckmtihl and duke of Auerstadt. 

Jourdan, peer of France. 

Junot, duke of Abrantes, suicide 1813. 

Kellerman, duke of Valmy. 

Lannes, duke of Montebello, killed at Aspern, 1809. 

Lefebvre, duke of Dantzic. 

Macdonald, duke of Tarento. 

Marmont, duke of Ragusa. 

Massena, prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli. 

Moncey, duke of Conegliano. [1835. 

Mortier, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, 28 July, 

MARSHALSEA COURT of the Queen's house was very ancient, of high dignity, and 
coeval with the common law. Since the decision of the case of the Marshalsea (see Lord 
Cokeys 10 Rep. 68) no business had been done in this court ; but it was regularly opened and 
adjourned at the same time with the Palace court, the judges and other officers being* the 
same. These courts were removed from Southwark to Scotland-yard in 1801, were abolished 
by parliament, and discontinued, 31 Dec. 1849 ; see Prisons. 

MARSI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who, after several contests, yielded to the 
Romans, about 301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their allies rebelled, having 
demanded and been refused the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After many successes 
and reverses, they sued for and obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. The 
Marsi being Socii of the Romans, this was called the Social xoar. 

MARSTON MOOR (near York). The Scots and parliamentary army were besieging 
York, when prince Rupert, joined by the marquess of Newcastle, determined to raise the 
siege. Both sides drew up on Marston-moor, on 2 July, 1644, and the contest was long 
undecided. Rupert, commanding the right wing of the Royalists, was opposed by Oliver 
Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by himself Cromwell was victorious ; he drove 
his opponents ofi" the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement and a 
second victory. The prince's artillery was taken, and the royalists never recovered the blow. 



MAR 471 MAS 

MARTELLO TOWERS or Mortella Towers, were circular buildings of masonry 
erected in the beginning of the present centurj', on the Southern coast of England, as 
defences against invasion. 

MARTIAL LAW, see Courts-Martial, and Military Law. 

MARTINESTI, see Mmnik. 

MARTINIQUE (French West Indies), discovered in 1493 or 1502 ; settled by France, 
1635. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were 
taken by the British from the French in Feb. 1762. They were restored to France at the 
peace of the following 5'ear. Tliey were again taken, 16 March, 1794 ; were restored at the 
peace of Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured, 23 Feb. 1809. A revolution took 
place in this island in favour of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed bj'' the British, i 
June, 1815, and Martinique reverted to its French masters. Severe earthquakes occurred 
here in 1767 and 1839. 

MARTINMAS, 11 Nov., tlie feast of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, in the 4th century. 
In parts of the north of England and in Scotland it is quarter day. 

MARTIN'S HALL, ST. (Long Acre, London), was opened as a concert-room for Mr. 
John Hiillah, on 11 Feb. 1850 ; burnt down, 26 Aug. i860 ; rebuilt, 1861 ; opened as the 
New Queen's Theatre, by Mr. Alfred Wigan, 24 Oct. 1867. 

MARTYRS. Stephen, the first Christian mart}'r, was stoned, 37. The festivals of the 
martyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered 
martyi-doni about 166. St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 286 ; see Persecutions, Pro- 
testants, and Diocletian Era. 

MARYLAND, one of the first thirteen United States of North America, was granted 
in 1632 to lord Baltimore, and settled by a company of English Romanists in 1634. It 
contains the district of Colombia, in which Washington is situate. It continued in the 
Union when the other slave states seceded in i860 and 1861. The Confederate armj"-, under 
general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, 30 Aug. 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered 
Maryland. They were followed by the Federal army under McClennan. Severe conflicts 
ensued, especially on 17 Sept., at Antietam Creek, with great loss on both sides, each 
claiming the victory. The Confederates retired into Virginia in good order, and it is said 
with much booty. 

MASKS. Poppffia, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard her 
complexion from the sun ; but theatrical masks were in use among the Greeks and Romans. 
Horace attributes them to iEschylus ; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time of their intro- 
duction were unknown. — Modern masks, and niutfs, fans, and false hair for the women, were 
devised in Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572. Stoio ; see Iron Mask. 

MASQUERADES were in fashion in the court of Edward III., 1340 ; and in the reign of 
Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the citizens. The bishops preached against 
them, and made such representations as occasioned their suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. They 
were revived, and carried to shameful excess in violation of the laws, and tickets of ad- 
mission to a masquerade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty-five 
guineas each. 1776. Mortimer. At the close of a bal masque, 5 March, 1856, Covent- 
garden theatre was destroyed by fire. 

MASS, in the Roman church, is the office or prayers used at the celebration of the 
eucharist, in memory of the passion of Christ, and to this every part of the service alludes. 
The general division consists in high and low ; the first is that sung by the choristers, and 
celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in wliich 
the prayers are rehearsed without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latia about 394 ; 
it was introduced into England in the" 7th century. Prostration was enjoined at the eleva- 
tion of the host in 1201. Dr. Daniel Rock, in "The Church of our Fathers" (1849), 
describes an ancient MS. of "The Service of tlie Mass, called the Rite of Salisbury," com- 
piled for that cathedral, by St. Osmund and others, during the 12th century. The English 
communion service was adopted in 1549 ; see Jtitualism. 

MASSACHUSETTS, the mother state of New England, North America, founded by 
the English puritans at Plymouth-rock, 1620. It adopted the constitution of the United 
States, 1788. 



MAS 



472 



MAS 



MASSACRES. The following are among the most remarkable 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

Of all the Cai'thaginians in Sicily, 397. 

2000 Tyriaiis crucified and 8000 put to the sword for 

not surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 
Of 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 

211. 
A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, 

near Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 

being left dead on the spot, 10: 



Of French Royalists (see Se.ptanbrizers), 2 Sept. 1792. 

Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 

In St. Domingo, whero Dessalines made proclama- 
tion for the massacre of all the whites, 29 March, 
1804, and many thousands perished. 

Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, 
2 May, 1808. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes, m the citadel of Cairo, 
I March, 1811. 



The Romans throughout Asia, women and children [ Massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by 



not excepted, ma.ssacred in one day, by order of 

Mithridate.=, king of Pontus, 88. 
A great number of Roman senators massacred by 

Cinua, Marius, and Sertorius, 87. 
Again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of 

vengeance, 82. 
At Perusia, Octavianus CtBsar ordered 300 Roman 

senators and other persons of distinction to be 

sacrificed to the manes of Julius Cassar, 40. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of Jews 
are said to have been put to the sword, 70. 

The Jews, headed by one Andy's, put to death 
many Greeks and Romans, in andnear Gyrene, 115. 

Cassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M. 
Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants 
of Selencia, 165. 

At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were 
mas.'iacred by order of Antoninus, 215. 

The emperor Probus is said to have put to death 
400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. 

Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 

Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the 
circus were put to the sword, by order of Theo- 
dosius, 390. 

Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order 
of Andronicus, 1184. 

Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at 
Toulouse, 1208. Thousands perished by the sword 
and gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282 ; see 
Sicilian Vespers. 

At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 
duke of Burgundy, 1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of 
Christian II., 1520. 

Of Protestants at Vassy, i March, 1562. 

Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in 
France (see St. Bartholomerv), 24 Aug. 1572. 

Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 
65,000 were slain, 1592. 

Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adhe- 
rents, 27 May, 1606. 

Of Protestants in the Valteline, N. Italy, 19 July, 
1620. 

Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pre- 
tended legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, 
for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a 
Roman Catholic procession, 1724. All the Protes- 
tant powers in Europe interceded to have this un- 
just sentence revoked, but unavailingiy. 

At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the 
natives, Oct. 1740, under the pretext of an in- 
tended insurrection. 

At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old 
and young, were slain, Dec. 1790. See I.imail. 



the Catholics, May, 1815. 
Massacre at Soio, 22 April, 1822 ; see Chios. 
Destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople, 

14 June, 1826. 
600 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, 18 June, 

1845 ; see Dohra. 
Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, 16 Oct. 1S50. 
Of Maronites, by Druses, in Lebanon, June, i860 ; 

and of Christians, by Mahometans, at Damascus. 

9-11 July, 1S60 ; see Druses and Damascus. 

MASSACRES IX BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 English nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hen- 
gist, about 450. 

Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by 
Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, 
in the night of 13 Nov. 1002, and the 23rd Ethel- 
red II. At London it was most bloody, the 
churches being no sanctxiary. Amongst the rest 
was Gunild;^, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, 
left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but 
newly concluded. Baker's CUronicle. 

Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into 
"Westminster hall at PLichard J.'s coronation, were 
put to death by the people ; and a false alarm 
being given that the king had ordered a general 
massacre of them, the people in many parts of 
England .slew all they met. In York 500, who had 
taken shelter in the castle, killed themselves, 
rather than fall into the hands of the multitude, 
1189. 

Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's "Wood, Ireland 
(see Cullen's Wvod), 1209. 

Of the English factory at Amboyna, iu order to dis- 
possess its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. 

Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O'Neill's 
rebellion, 23 Oct. 1641. Ufiwards of 30,000 British 
were killed in the connnencement of this rebellion. 
Sir Wiiliam Petty. In the first three or four days 
of it, forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants 
were destroyed. Lord Clarendon. Before the re- 
bellion was entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants 
were massacred. Sir W. Temple. 

Of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see Glencoe), 13 Feb. 
i6q2. 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protes- 
tants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes ; 
perpetrated by the insurgent Ii-ish, at the barn of 
ScuUabogue, Ireland, in 1798. Musgrave. 

Of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, &c., by mutineers 
of the native Indian army (see India), May and 
June, 1857. 

Of Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of 
Borneo, i May, 1859. 

Of the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by the 
infuriated negroes, 11-12 Oct. 1S65 ; see Jamaica. 



MASSAGET/E, an ancient Scj'thian people (probabl)'' the ancestors of the Goths), Avho 
invaded Asia about 635. In a conflict \\\t\\ them Cj'rus the Great was killed, 529 B.C. 

MASSANIELLO REVOLUTION, 1647 ; see Nnples, note. 

MASSILLIA, see Marseilles. MASTER of the Ceeemonies, see Ceremonies. 

MASTERS IN Chancehy, chosen from the equity bar, were first appointed, it is said, 
to assist the ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chancellor of England, in 1588. The 
office was abolished in 1852. 

MASTER AND Servant Act (amending the statute respecting them) was passed 
20 Aug. 1867 ; see Servants. 



HAS 473 MAU 

MASTER OF THE Great "Wardrobe, an officer of great antiquity and dignity. The 
estaMisliment was abolished in 1782, and the duties transferred to the lord chamberlain. 

MASTER OF THE Rolls, an ecpiity judge, derives his title from having the custody of 
all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recognizances, made into rolls of parchment ; 
his decrees are appealable to the court of chancery. The repository of public papers, called 
the Rolls, is in Chancery-lane. They were ibrmerl}'' kept in a chapel founded for the 
converted Jews ; but after the Jews were expelled the kingdom, it was annexed for ever 
to the office of the mastership of the rolls. Here were kept all the records since the 
beginning of the reign of king Richard III., 1483 ; all prior to that period being kept in the 
Tower of London ; see Records. The first recorded master of the rolls was either John de 
Langtou, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, appointed i Oct. 1295 ; but it is clear 
that the office was in existence long before. Hardy. The duties were detiued in 1833, and 
the salary regulated in 1837. 

RECENT JiASTERS OF THE- TiOLLS. ! Sir Johii Leach 3 May, 1827 

Sir Wm. Grant appointed . . .27 May, 1801 : 8ir C. Pepys {aft. lord Cottenham) 29 Sept. 1834 
Sir Thomas Plumer .... 6 Jan. 1818 ' Henry Bickersteth (a/Y. lord Langdale) ig Jan. 1836 
Robert, lord Gifford .... 5 April, 1824 ' Sir John («/t. baron) Uoniilly, 1865 28 March, 1851 
Sir J. S. Copley {aft. lord Lyndhurst) 14 Sept. 1826 

MATHEMATICS formerly signified all kinds of learning ; but the term is now applied 
to the sciences relating to nunrbers and quantity ; see Arillimctic. Among the most eminent 
niathematicians were Euclid, 300 B.C. ; Archimedes, 287 B.C. ; Descartes, died 1650; 
Barrow, died 1677 ; Leibnitz, died 1716 ; sir Isaac Newton, died 1727 ; Euler, died 1783 ; 
Lagrange, died 1813; Laplace, died 1827; and Dr. Peacock, died 1858; Mr. G. B. Airy 
(astronomer royal), professor de Morgan, Bartholomew Price, I. Todhunter, and Mary 
Somerville, boin 1790, author of the " Mechanism of the Heavens," are eminent mathe- 
maticians. 

MATHURmS, see under Triniti/. 

MATIN'S. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the 
day in the Roman Catholic church. The French Matins Avere the massacre of St. 
Bartholoinew, 24 Aug. 1572. The Matins of Moscow were the massacre of prince 
Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, at six o'clock in the morning of 27 May, 1606. 

MATTERHORN, a part of the main ridge of the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Swit- 
zerland. After various fruitless attempts by professor Tyndall, Mr. Whymper, and other 
eminent climbers, in i860, the summit was reached on 14 July, 1865, by Mr. Edward 
Whymper and others. During their descent, four of the party were killed. Mr. Hadow 
fell ; the connecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis Douglas, the rev. ]\Ir. Hudson, 
and Michael Croz, a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice nearly 4000 feet high. 

MAUNDY-THURSDAY (derived by Spelman from manclc, a hand-basket, in which 
the king was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others from dies mandati, the day 
on which Christ gave his grand mandate, that we should love one another), the Thursday 
before Good Friday. Wheatly. On this day it Avas the custom of our sovereigns or their 
almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as many poor men as they were years old. It 
was begun by Edward III., when he was fifty years of age, 1363, and is still continued. 

MAUR, ST., see Benedictines. 

MAURITANIA (N". Africa), with Kumidia, became a Roman province, 45 B.C., with 
Sallust for pro-consul. Augustus created (30 B.C.) a kingdom formed of Mauritania and 
pai't of Getulia, for Juba II., a descendant of the ancient African pi'inces. Suetonius 
Paulinus .suppressed a revolt here, a.d. 42, when it was made a province, divided into two 
parts. The country was subjugated by the Vandals and Greeks, and fell into the hands of 
the Arabs, about 667 ; see Morocco, and Moors. 

MAURITIUS or Isle of France (in the Indian Ocean), was discovered by the 
Portuguese, 1505 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince 
Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope, they deserted 
it ; and it continued unsettled until the French landed, and gave it the name of one of the 
finest provinces in France, 1715. This isLind was taken by the British, 2 Dec. 1810, and 
confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. The bishopric was founded 1854. Sir 
Henry Barkly became governor in 1863. Population in 1861, 313,462 ; in 1867, 340,664. 
In 1866 two railwaj's were in progress ; both now opened. By an awful hurricane, on 
II March, 1868, great damage was done to shipping and buildings, with much loss of life. 

MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia 
Minor, 377 B.C. At his death she drank in liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, 
and erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a monument, one of the seven Avonders of the 



MAU 



474 



MAY 



this entertainment was instituted to commemo- 
rate the circumstance of Mrs. Montague's having 
once found a boy of her own, or that of a relation, 
among the sooty tribe. In allusion to this inci- 
dent, perhaps, a story resembling the adventures 
of this lost child is pathetically related by Mont- 
gomery, in " The Chimney-Sweeper's Boy." 



world (350 B.C.), termed MausoMmi. She invited all the literary men of her age, and 
proposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric npon her husband. The 
prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 B.C. She died 352 B.C. The statue of Mausolus is 
among the antiquities broiight from Halicarnassus by Mr. C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed 
in the British Museum. A mausoleum for the royal family of England was founded by the 
queen at Progmore, 15 March, 1862. 

MAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye produced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 
1848 ; now produced from Aniline {v;hicJi sea). 

MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its name, some say, from Eomulus, who gave 
it this appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated 
majorcs ; others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom 
they offered sacrifices on the first day. The ancient Eomans used to go in procession to the 
grotto of Egeria on May-day ; see Evil May-day. 

Mrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for 
many years, on May-day, an entertainment at 
her house in Portman-square, to the chimney- 
sweepers of London. They were regaled with 
roast beef and plum pudding, and a dance suc- 
ceeded. Upon their departure, each guest received 
a shilling from the mistress of the f^ast. It is 
said, though the statement is much doubted, that 

MAYENCE, see Mentz. 

MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a 
yearly grant voted for the education of students designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood 
in Ireland. An act for its government was passed in 1800. It contains about 500 students. 
Permanent endowment of this college (30,000?. for the enlargement of the buildings and 
26,oooZ. annually) was granted by parliament, June, 1845. This occasioned much controversy 
in England, a motion being made for its abolition almost every session. The college was 
repaired and enlarged in i860. 

MAYOES OF THE Palace (high officers in France, who had gi-eat influence during the 
later Merovingian kings). Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 el seq. ; Pepin Heristal, 
687-714 ; Charles Martel, despotic, 714-741 ; Pepin le Bref, 741, who shut up Childeric III. 
in a monastery, and himself took the kingdom, 752. 

MAYORS OF CoPvPOKATiONS. At the time of the ISTorman conquest, 1066, the chief 
ofiicer of London was called ;port-grave, afterwards softened into port-reeve, from Saxon 
words signifying chief governor of a harbour. He was afterwards called provost ; but in 
Henry II. 's reign the iSforman title oimaire (soon after mayor) was brought into use. At 
first the mayor was chosen for life, but afterwards for periods of irregular duration ; now he 
is chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. He must be an alderman, and have been 
sheriff'. His duties commence on 9 Nov. The prefix LOED is peculiar to the chief civic 
ofiicer of London, Dublin, Edinburgh, and York. 

The first mayor of London, Henry Pitz-Alwhyn, 

appointed in 1189 ; held office for 24 years. 
First presented to the barons of the exchequer 125 1 
The prefix of lord granted by Edward HI. , with 

the style of right honourable .... 1354 
Sir Henry Pickard, who had been lord mayor 

of London in 1357, sumptuously entertained 

in one day four monarchs ; Edward, king of 

England ; John, king of France ; the king of 

Cyprus ; and David, king of Scotland ; the 

Black Prince and many of the nobility beinj 

present. Stow. ..... 

Sir John Norman, the first lord mayor who 

went by water to be sworn at Westminster, 

and lord mayor's show instituted . . . 
The more costly pageants and triumphs of the 

show laid aside 

LORD MAYORS OF LONDON. 

1800-1. Sir William Staines, bart. 

1801-2. Sir John Eamer, bart. 

1802-3. Charles Price. 

1803-4. John Perring. 

1804-5. Peter Perchard. 

1805-6. Sir James Shaw. 

1806-7. Sir William Leighton, bt. 

1807-8. John Ainsley. 

Sir Charles Flower, bart. 



1363 



1685 



The lord mayor entertained the prince regent 
of England, the emperor of Russia, king of 
Prussia, and numerous foreigners of high 
rank 18 June, 1814 

The lord mayor, Parncombe, gave a banquet to 
prince Albert and the mayors of most of the 
boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- 
ance of the project of the great International 
Industrial Exhibition to be held in 1851, 

21 March, 1850 

The lord mayor, sir F. Moon, entertained the 
emperor and empress of the French 19 April, 1855 

The lord mayor, B. S. Phillips, entertained the 
king and queen of the Belgians, July ; en- 
tertained by them at Brussels . . Oct. 1866 

The " Lord Mayor's court " is very ancient. 



T808-9 

1809-10. Thomas Smith. 



1810-11. Joshua Jonathan Smith. 
1811-12. Sir Claudius S. Hunter,bt. 
1812-13. George Soholey. 
1813-14. Sir William Domville, bt. 
1814-15. Samuel Birch. 
1S15-16. Matthew Wood. 
1816-17. Matthew Wood again. 
1817-18. Christopher Smith. 
1818-19. John Atkins. 
1819-20. George Brydges. 
1 820-1. John T. Thorpe. 



1821-2. Christopher Magnay. 

1822-3. William Heygate. 

1823-4. Robert Waithman. 

1S24-5. John Garratt. 

1825-6. William Venahles. 

1826-7. Anthony Browne. 

1827-8. Matthias Prime Lucas. 

1828-9. William Thompson. 

1829-30. John Crowder. 

1830-1. Sir John Key, bart. 

1831-2. Sir John Key, bt. again. 



MAY 



475 



MEG 



MAYORS, continued. 



1832-3. 
1833-4. 
1834-5- 
1835-6. 
1836-7. 
1837-8. 
- --9. 



1844-5. 
1845-6. 
1B46-7. 
1847-8. 
1848-g. 



Sir Peter Laurie. 

Charles Farebrother. 

Henry Winchester. 

William Taylor Copeland. 

Thomas Kelly. 

Sir John Cowan, bart. 

Samuel Wilson. 
1839-40. Sir Chapman Marshall, bt. 
1840-1. Thomas Johnson. 
1841-2. John Pirie. 
1842-3. J. Humphery. 
1843-4. Sir W. Magnay, bart. 

LORD MAYOBS OP DUBLIN. 

John le Decer was appointed first provost in 
1308 ; a gilded sword was granted to be borne 
before the provost bj' Henr.v IV. . . . 1407 
Thomas Cusack appointed first mayor . . . 1409 
The collar of SS. and a foot company granted 
by Charles II. to the mayors .... 1660 



Michael Gibbs. 
John Johnson. 
Sir George Carroll. 
John Kinnesley Hooper. 
Sir James Duke, bt., M.P. 



1849-50. Thomas Farncombe 

1850-1. Sir John Musgrove. 

1851-2. William Hunter. 

1852-3. Thomas Challis, M.P. 

1853-4. Thomas Sidney. 

1854-5. Sir Fras. G. Moon, bt, 

1855-6. David Salomons. 



1856-7. Thomas Quested Finnis. 

1857-8. Sir Robt. W. Garden, bt. 

1858-9. David W. Wire. 

1859-60. James Carter. 

1860-1. William Cubitt, M.P. 

1 861-2. Wilham Cubitt, again. 

1862-3. W. A. Rose. 

1863-4. Wm. Lawrence. 

1864-5. Warren S. Hale. 

1865-6. Benj. Sam. Phillips. 

1866-7. Thos. Gabriel. 

1867-8. Wm. Ferneley Allen. 
Sir Daniel Bellingham, the first mayor honoured 
with the title of lord, by Charles II., who 
granted 5oo(. per annum, in lieu of the com- 
pany of foot ........ 1665 

A new collar of SS. granted by William III. to 
the mayor, value loooL, the former having 
been lost in James II. 's time .... 1697 



MEAL-TUB PLOT, against the duke of York, afterward.s James IL, contrived by one 
Dangerfield, who secreted a bundle of seditious letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, 
and then gave information to the custom-house officers to search for smuggled goods, 
23 Oct. 1679. After Dangerfield's apprehension, on suspicion of forging these letters, papers 
were found concealed in a meal-tuh at the house of a woman with whom he cohabited, which 
contained the scheme to be sworn to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protestant 
interest, who were against the duke of York's succession, of treason, — particularly the earls 
of Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield being whipped the last time, as part 
of his punishment, i June, 16S5, one of his eyes was struck out by a barrister named 
Piobert Erancis ; this caused his death, for which his assailant was hanged. 

MEASURES, see WcAcjUs. 

MEATH (Ireland), Bishopric of. Many episcopal sees in Meath (as Clonard, Duleek, 
Kells, Trim, Ardbraccan, Dimshaughlin, and Slane, and others of less note) were fixed at 
Clonard, before 115 1-2, when the division of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by John 
Paparo, then legate from Pope Eugene III. Eugene was the first styled bishop of Meath, 
about 1174. Meath was valued, 30 Heniy VIII., at 373Z. 12s. per annvrm. 

MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Mahomet, 569, from whence he was compelled to 
fly, 15 July, 622 (the Hegira). On one of the neighbouring hills is a cave, where it is 
asserted he retired to perform his devotions, and where the greatest part of the Koran was 
brought to him by the angel Gabriel, 604. Two miles from tlie town is the hill where, 
they say, Abraham went to oS'er up Isaac, 1871 B.C. Mecca after being vainly besieged 
by Hosein for the Caliph Yezid, a.d. 682, was taken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 it 
fell into the hands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. They. were expelled by the pacha of 
Egypt in 1818, who retired in 1841. It is said that 160,000 pilgrims visited Mecca in 1858, 
and only 50,000 in 1859. 

MECHANICS. The simple mechanical powers have been ascribed to heathen deities ; 
the axe, wedge, wimble, &c., to Dtedalus ; see Steam Engine. 



Aristotle wi'ites on mechanics about . B.C. 

The properties of the lever, &c., demonstrated 
by Archimedes, who died .... 

[He laid the foundations of nearly all those in- 
ventions, the further prosecution of which is 
the boast of our age. WalLis (1695).] 

The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; 
the Romau.s found one in Yorkshire. 

Cattle-mills, riwUv jumenlarUe, were also in use 
by the Romans. 

The water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; 
the first that was described was near one of 
the dweUings of Mithridates .... 

A water-mill is said to have been erected on 
the river Tiber, at Rome .... 

Pappus wrote on mechanics . about a.d. 

Floating-mills on the Tiber 

Tide-mflls were, many of them, in use in Venice 

about 

Wind-mills were in very general use in the 12th 
century. 

Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augs- 
burg 



5° 
350 
536 

1078 



Theory of the inclined plane investigated by 

Cardan about 154° 

Work on Statics, by Stevinus . . . . 1586 

Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . . . 1638 

Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren . . about 1668 
Theory of oscillation, Huygcns .... 1670 
Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels. 

Rocmer 1675 

Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli ; he 

died 1679 

Application of mechanics to astronomy, paral- 
lelogism of forces, laws of motion, <fec., New- 
ton, Hooke, <fec 1666-1700 

Problem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. 

Gregory 1697 

Spirit level (and many other inventions), by 

Dr. Rookc .... from 1660 to 1702 
D'Alembert's researches on dynamics about 1743 
Burgnis' Dictionnaire de M&anique appUqu^e 

au.x Arts, 10 vols 1818-23 

[.\mong the best modern writers on the 
science of mechanics are Foncelot, Whewell, 
Barlow, Moscley, Delauuay, and Bartholo- 
mew Price.] 



MEO 



476 



MED 



MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and 
another in Glasgow, in 1823; and soon after others arose in different parts of the empire. 
Tliey have revived since 1857, many noblemen and gentlemen giving lectures in them. 

MECHLIN or Malines (Belgium), renowned for its lace manufacture, was founded in 
the 6th century ; destroj^ed by the Normans in 884 ; sacked by the Spaniards, 1572 ; taken by 
the prince of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580 ; and frequently captured in the 17th 
and i8th centuries, partaking in the evil fortunes of the country. A Roman Catholic con- 
gress was held here Sept. 1867. 

MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now inde- 
pendent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (population in 1866, 560,123) 
and Mecklenburg-Strelitz (population in 1866, 98,225). The house of Mecklenburg claims 
to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the western empire in the 5th 
century, and died 477. During the Thirty years' war, Mecklenburg was conquered by Wal- 
lenstein, who became its duke, 1628 ; it was restoi'ed to its own duke, 1630. After several 
changes the government was settled in 1701 as it now exists in the two bi'anches of Schwerin 
and Strelitz. In 18 15 the dukes were ^made grand dukes. The dukes joined the new 
North German confederation by treaty, 21 Aug. 1866. 

Heir : Ms son, Adolphus-Prederic, born 22 July, 
1848. 

The royal family of England is intimately allied 
with the house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. King 
George III. married Charlotte, a daughter of 
the duke, in 1761 ; their son, the duke of 
Cumberland (afterwards king of Hanover) 
married princess Frederica Caroline, a daugh- 
ter of the duke, in 1815 : and princess Augusta 
of Cambridge married, 28 June, 1843, Frederic, 
the present grand-duke. 



GRAND-DDKES OF MECKLBNBUEG-SCHWERIN. 

1815. Frederic-Francis I. 

1842. Frederic-Francis II., 7 March; born 28 Feb. 
1S23 (PRESENT grand- duke). 
Heir: his son, Frederic-Francis, bom 19 March, 



GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 

1 815. Charles. 

1816. George, bom 12' Aug. 1779; succeeded Nov. 6. 
1S60. Frederic, Sept. 6 ; born 17 Oct. i8ig (the 

PRESENT grand-duke). 

MEDALS, see Nimiismatics. There is hardly any'record of medals or decorations as 
rewards in the army or navy before the time of the commonwealth. The house of com- 
mons resolved to grant rewards and medals to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penu, 
and Lawson) and men gained a glorious virtory over the Dutch fleet, off the Texel, in 1653. 
Blake's medal of 1653 was bought by his majesty, "William IV. for 150 guineas. In 1692 an 
act was passed for applying the tenth part of the proceeds of prizes for medals and other 
rewards for officers, seamen, and marines. Subsequent to lord Howe's victory, i June, 
1794, it was thought expedient to institute a naval medal. Medals were presented by the 
queen to persons distinguished in the war in the Crimea, 18 May, 1855. 

MEDIA, a province ofthe Assyrian empire, revolted 711 B.C. Its chronology is doubtful. 

Kevolt of the Modes B.C. 711 "War with the Lydians (see /TaJys) . B.C. 603 

Deioces, founder of Bcbatana, reigns . . . 709 Astyages reigns 594 

Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns; (he conquers Astyages deposed by Cyrus, 550; who esta- 

Persia, Armenia, and other countries) . . 656 blished the empire of Persia {which see) . . 560 
Warlike reign of Cyaxares . . . 632-594 

MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE (Epsom, Surrey), opened in 1855 by the prince 
consort. It provides an asylum for 20 pensioners male and female ; and 40 foundation 
scholars (sons of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. 

MEDICAL COUNCIL. In 1858 an act was passed "to regulate the qualifications of 
practitioners in medicine and surgery;" amended in i860. It established " the General 
Council of Medical Education and Registration of the United Kingdom." The first meeting 
of this council took place on 23 Nov. 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was elected first president 
(who on 30 Nov. was elected president of the Royal Society). He was succeeded by Mr. J. 
H. Green in June, i860 ; by Dr. George Burrows, Jan. 1864. The first Medical Register 
was issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the council was incorporated by parliament, and autho- 
rised to prepare and sell a new Pharraacopceia, which was published as the "British Phar- 
macopoeia," in 1864. New edition appeared May, 1867. 

MEDICI FAMILY, the restorers of literature and the fine arts in Italy, were chiefs or 
signoH of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which year Cosmo de' Medici, who had 
been banished from the republic, was recalled and made its chief ; he ruled for thirty years. 
Lorenzo de' Medici, styled " the Magnificent," and the " Father of Letters," ruled Florence 
from 1469 to 1492. Giovanni de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of Lorenzo. Eoscoe. 
From 1569 to 1737 the Medici family were hereditary grand-dukes of Tuscany (i/j/wc/z. see). 
Cattarina de' Medici became queen of France in 1547, and regent in 1550. She plotted with' 
the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants hi 1565. 



MED 



477 



MEL 



MEDICINE, see Physic, and Physicians. 

MEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the tomb of Mahomet, iu a large mosi|ue, lighte 1 
by rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Mahomet was 
protected when he fled from Mecca, 15 July, 622 ; see. Ilcglra. Medina was taken by tlie 
^Yahabees in 1804 ; retaken by the pacha of Egypt, 1818. 

MEDINA DE RIO SECO (Yalladolid, Spain). Here Bessieres defeated the Spaniards 
15 July, 1 80S. 

MEDIOLANUM, see Milan. 

MEEANEE. The Beloochees, amounting to 30,000 infantry, with 15 guns and 5000 
cavalry, posted in a formidable position at Meeanee, were defeated with great loss on 17 
Feb. 1843, by lieut-gen. sir Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all arms. 

MEERUT (near Delhi). Here the Indian mutiny began, 10 May, 1857; see India. 

MEGAEA, a city of ancient Greece, was subdued by the Athenians in the 8th century 
B.C. Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Megarians founded Byzantium 657 B.C. and 
sent a second colony 628 B. c. The Megarian (Eristic or disputatious) school of philosophy 
was founded by Euclid and Stilpo, natives of Megara. 

MEHADPORE or Mahedpobe (W. India). Here sir Thomas Hislop and sir John 
Malcolm defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, 21 Dec. 1817. 

MEISTERSINGERS, see Minnesingers. 

MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on 20 and 21 July, i860, defeated the Neapo- 
litans under general Bosco, who lost about 600 men ; Garibaldi's loss being 167. The latter 
entered Messina ; and on 30 July a convention was signed, by which it was settled that the 
Neapolitan troops were to quit Sicilj'. They held the citadel of Messina till 13 March, 1861. 

MELBOURNE (Australia), capital of Victoria {lohich see). It was laid out as a town by 
orders of sir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale took place in Jime, and specu- 
lation continXied till it caused wide-spread insolvency in 1841-2. 



Made a municipal corporation, 1842; abishopric 1847 
First legislative assembly of Victoria meets . 1852 
Gold found in great abundance about 80 miles 

from Melbourne in the autumn of 1S51, and 

immense numbers of emigrants flocked there 

in consequence, causing an enormous rise in 

the prices of provisions and clothing. . . ,, 
Population 23,000 in 1851 ; about 100,000 at the 

end of ,, 

The city gi-eatl y improved with pubUc buildings, 

handsome shops, &c 1853 

The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 

14,300?. iu money and 200 ounces in gold dust 

cari-icd off [one of the robbers was taken in 

MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. On the retirement of earl Grey, 9 July, 1834, 
viscount Melbourne * became first minister of the crown. When viscount Altliorpe became 
earl Spencer, on his father's decease, Nov. same year, lord Melbourne waited on the king to 
receive his majesty's commands as to the appointment of a new chancellor of the Excliequer, 
when his majesty said he considered the administration at an end. Sir Robert Peel suc- 
ceeded, but Avas compelled to resign in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to office. His 
administration finally terminated, 30 Aug. 1841, sii' Robert Peel again coming into power ; 
see Administrations. 



England, sent back to llelboume, and there 
tried and hanged] .... 8 Oct. 1854 

Monster meeting held at Ballarat resijecting 
the collection of the goldlicences, followed by 
riots, during which the Southern Cross fla,g 
was raised ; intervention of the militai-y ; 26 
rioters and three soldiers killed, and many 
wounded 30 Nov. ,, 

The mayor comes to London to congratulate 
the queen on the marriage of the j)rinces3 
royal 1838 

Intercolonial exhibition opened . 25 Oct. i865 

Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . 23 Nov. 1867 
See yicLoriu. 



FIRST ADMINISTRATION, July, 1S34 ; resigned 
Nov. 1834. 
Viscount Melbourne, flrtt lord of the treasury. 
Marquess of Lansdowne, lord president. 
Earl Mulgrave, privi seal. 
Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Viscount Duncannou, viscount Palmerston, and T. 

Spring Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, 

foreuin, and colonial secretaries. 
Lord Auckland, admiralty. 
Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), and 

Mr. C. P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), 

boards of control Mid trade. 
Lord John Russell, imyniaster of the forces. 
Lord Brougham, lonl chancellor. 
Sir John Hobhouse, Mr. Ellice, marquess of Conyng- 

ham, Mr. Littleton, &c. 



SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 

Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, loid president. 

Viscount I)uncannon,j))vr ?/seai, and woods and forests 

(succeeded by earl of Clarendon, Jan. 1840). 
T. Spring Rice, chancellor nf the exchequer (succeeded 

by Francis T. Baring, Aug. 1S40). 
Lord John Russell, h'»,ie secretary (succeeded by 

marquess of Novmanby, Aug. 1839). 
Viscount Palmerston, /or?iV/n secretary. 
Lord Glenelg, colonial secretary (succeeded by mar- 
quess Normanby, Feb. 1839 ; lord John Russell, 

Aug. 1839). 
Viscount Howick, secretary .at-icar (succeeded by T. 

B. Macaulay, Sept. 1S39). 
Lord Auckland, aihairalttj (succeeded by earl of 

Minto, Sept. 183.5). 



* Wm. Lamb, bom iu 1779 ; became M.P. for Westminster, 1812 ; secretarj* f or Ireland, 1827 ; succeeded 
his father as viscount Melbourne, 182S ; died 24 Nov. 184S. 



MEL 478 MEN 



MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS, contimied. 

The chancellorship in commission; sir C. Pepys 
(afterwards lord Cottenham), became lord chancellor 



Sir John C. Hobhouse, board of control. 

C. Poulett Thomson, board of trade (succeeded by- 
Henry Latouchere, Aug. 1839). Jan. 1836. 

Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster (sue 
ceeded by earl of Clarendon, Oct. 1840). 

MELEGNANO, see Marignano. 

MELFI (Apulia, S. Italy) was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 14 Aug. 185 1 : about 
600 persons perished. 

MELODRAMA originated with or was introduced by Thomas Holcroft in 1793. 

MELORA or Melokia, a small isle in the Mediterranean, near which the Pisan fleet de- 
feated the Genoese, in 1241, capturing many bishops going with much treasure to a council. 
The total destruction of the Pisan fleet on 6 Aug. 1284 by the Genoese near the same place, 
after a most sanguinary conflict, was considered to be the just pimishment of impiety. 

MELOS (now Milo), one of the Cyclades in the ^gean sea, colonised by the Spartans 
about 1 1 16 B.C. During the Peloponnesian war the Melians adhered to Sparta, till the 
island was captured, after seven months' siege, by the Athenians, who massacred all the men 
and sold the women and children as slaves, 416 b.c. 

MEMEL, an important commercial port in Prussia, built about 1279. It was taken by 
the Teutonic knights, about 1328. It has suff"ered much by fire, and was almost totally de- 
stroyed 4 Oct. 1854. The loss was estimated at i, loo.oooZ. 

MEMNONEIUM or Rameseion (Thebes, Egypt), the tomb of Osymandyas, according to 
Diodorus, now considered to be that of Rameses III., 1618 B.C. 

MEMORY, see Mnemonics. 

MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of which the very ruins are stupendous"), is said 
to have been built by Menes, 3890 B.C.; or by Misraim, 2188 B.C. It was restored by 
Septimus Severus, a.d. 202. In the 7th century, under the dominion of the Saracens, it fell 
into decay. The invasion of Cambyses, 525 e.g., began the ruin of Memphis, and the found- 
ing of Alexandria, 332, completed it. — Memphis, Tennessee, U.S., on the Mississippi, was 
taken from the confederates by the federals after a severe conflict, 6 June, 1862. 

MENAI STRAIT (between the Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius 
Paulinus, when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops across this strait in flat-bottomed 
boats, while the cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last 
retreat. Their horrid practice of sacrificing then- captives, and the opposition he met with, 
so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no quarter, throwing all that 
escaped from that battle into fires which they had prepared for the destruction of himself 
and his army, A.D. 61. — In crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty persons, chiefly 
Irish, 4 Dec. 1785. The road from London to Holyhead has long been regarded as the 
highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; Mr. Telford was applied to by the govern- 
ment to perfect this route by the London and Holyhead mail-coach road, which he did by 
erecting beautiful suspension bridges over the river Conway and the Menai Strait, commenced 
in July, 1 818, and finished in July, 1825. The Britannia tubular bridge over the Menai was 
constructed by Stephenson and Fairbairn in 1849-50 ; see Tubular Bridges. 

MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th 
century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe, and formed many 
communities ; but at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, 
were reduced to four orders— Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines, The 
Capuchins and others branched off ; see Franciscans, &c. 

MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, London), was established in 1818 for the 
suppression of public begging, and other impositions. Tickets received from the society are 
given by subscribers to beggars, who obtain relief at the society's house, if deserving. The 
society has caused above 23,000 vagrants to be convicted as impostors. In 1857, S4)074 
meals, in i860, 42,912, and in 1865, 52,137 were distributed. In 1857, 3785, and in 1865, 
3809 begging letters were investigated. 

MENDOZA, an Argentine republic, nearly destroyed by an earthquake, one of the most 
awful recorded, 20 March, 1861 : above 7000 persons perished. 

MENSURATION. The various properties of conic sections were discovered by Archi- 
medes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration may be attributed. He also deter- 
mined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., about 218 B.C. ; see Arithmetic. 

MENTANA (near Monte Rotondo, in the papal states). Here Garibaldi and his volun- 
teers, after having intrenched his positions at Monte Rotondo and Mentana on their march 
towards Tivoli, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 1867, were totally defeated by the pontifical and Freneli 



MEN 479 MES 

troops undei" generals Kanzler and Polhes, after a severe conflict, in which general Failly 
said "the Chassepot rifles did wonders." There were ahout 5000 men on each side, but the 
Garibaldians were ver}' badly armed. The loss of the papal and French troops was ahout 
200 killed and wounded ; that of Garibaldi about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, 
and was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to Caprera (about 25 Nov.). 

MENTZ or M.ytence (S. W. Germany), the Konian Moguntiacum, built about 13 B.C. 
The arclibishopric was founded by Boniface, 745. Many diets have been held here ; and here 
John Faust established a printing press, about 1440. A festival in honour of John Gutten- 
burg was celebrated here in 1837. Mentz was given up to the Prussians, 26 Aug. 1866. 

MENU, Institutes of, the very ancient code of India. Sir Wm. Jones, who translated 
them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between Homer (about 962 
B.C.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.). 

MERCANTILE MARINE ACT was passed in Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 185 1. 

MERCATOR'S CHARTS, said to have been constructed by a Mr. Wright, who made 
several voyages ; in his absence Gerard Mercator published the charts in his own name, 1556. 
They are, however, now confidently ascribed to Mercator. 

MERCHANDISE MARKS ACT, passed in 1862 to punish forgeries of trade-marks. 

MERCHANT ADVENTURERS' COMPANY, established by the duke of Brabant in 
1296, was extended to England in Edward III.'s reign, and was formed into a corporation in 
1564. — The Merchant-Tailoils, a rich company of the city of London, of which many kings 
have been members, were so called after the admission of Henry VII. into theii' company, 
1501, but were incorporated in 1466. Their school was founded in 1561. Stow. 

MERCHANT SHIPPING ACT of 1854 was amended by an act passed in 1867. 

MERCHANTS were protected by Magna Charta, 1216, and by many statutes. An 
attempt made by queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the house of 
commons in 171 1, failed. 

MERCIA, see under Britain. MERCURY, see Quicks ilver, and Calomel. 

MERCY, Order of (in France), was established with the object of accomplishing the 
redemption of Christian captives, by John de Matha in 1198. Renault. Another order was 
formed by Pierre Nolasque in Spain, 1223. 

MERIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura (built by the Romans), was taken by the 
French, Jan. 181 1. Near this town, at Arroyos Molinos, the British army under general 
(afterwards lord) Hill defeated the French under general Girard, after a severe engagement, 
28 Oct. 181 1. The British took Merida from the French in 1812, general Hill leading the 
combined forces of English and Spanish troops. 

MERGE, an ancient city and country of inner Africa, near the soxirces of the Nile, said to 
have flourished under sacerdotal government in the time of Herodotus, about 450 B.C. 

MEROVINGIANS, the first race of French kings, 418-752 ; see France, and Mayors. 

MERRIMAC, see United States, 1862. 

MERRY- ANDREW. The name is said to have been first given to Andrew Borde, a phy- 
sician, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account of 
his facetious manners, appeared at court, 1 547. 

MERTHYR-TYDVIL (Glamorganshire). Riots commenced here, 3 June, 1831, and con- 
tinued for several days ; many persons were killed and wounded ; see Coal-Mine Accidents, 
p. 184. 

MERTON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the barons under Henry III., 23 Jan. 1236, held 
a parliament which enacted the Provisions of Merton, the most ancient body of laws next 
after Magna Charta. They were repealed in 1863 ; see Bastards. 

MESMERISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, of Mersburg, pub- 
lished his doctrines in 1766, contending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly 
bodies diffused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of ani- 
mated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous proselytes to his 
.system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 livres. The government 
appointed a committee of physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate 
his pretensions. Among these were Franklin and Bailly, and the results appeared in an ad- 
mirable paper drawn iip by the latter, 1784, exposing the futility of animal magnetism. 
Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau and others 
announced their belief in it. In 1859, the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, 
arclibishop Whately being president, and the earl of Carlisle and Mr. ^Mouckton ililnes (since 
lord Houghton) among the vice-jjresidents. 



MES 



480 



MET 



MESSALIANS, a sect professing to adhere to tlie letter of the gospel, ahout 310, refused 
to work, quoting this passage, " Labour not for the food that perisheth." 

MESSE'S I A {now M aura- Matr a), in the Peloponnesus, a kingdom commenced hyPolycaon, 
1499 B.C. It had long sanguinary wars with Sparta, and once contained a hundred cities. 
It was at first governed by kings ; after its restoration to power in the Peloponnesus it formed 
a repirblic, under the protection first of the Thebans, and afterwards of the Macedonians ; but 
it never rose to eminence. 



The second war -w&s commenced alDout 685 B.C., 
to throw off the Spartan yoke, ending in the 
defeat of the Messenians, who fled to Sicily, 

B.C. 668 

The third war 466-455 



The first Messonian war began 743 B.C. ; was oc- 
casioned by violence offered to some Spartan 
women in a temple of devotion common to 
both nations ; the king of Sparta being killed 
in his efforts to defend the females. Eventu- 
ally, Ithome was taken, and the Messenians 
became slaves to the conquerors. . .B.C. 724 

MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, who seized this city, then called Zancle, 
671 B.C. It was seized by the Mamertini (which see), about 281 B.C. It belonged for many 
ages to the Pioman empire ; was taken by the Saracens, about A.D. 829. Priestley. Roger 
the Norman took it from them by surprise, about 1072. 



Revolts a<rainst Charles of Anjou, and is suc- 
coured by Peter of Arragon .... 1282 

Revolts in favour of Louis XIV. of France, 1676 ; 
the Spaniards punish it severely . . . 1678 

Almost ruined by an earthquake and eruption 
of Etna 1693 I 

Nearly depopulated by a plague . . . . 1740 



Half destroyed by an earthquake . . .17 
Head-quarters of the British forces in Sicily, 

prior to 18 

An insurrection here subdued . 7 Sept. 18 

Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at 

Melazzo 20-21 July, 18 

The citadel surrenders to Cialdini . 13 March, 18 



METALS. The metals and metalloids are now above fifty in number. Tubal-Cain is 
mentioned as an "instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." {Gen. iv. ) Moses and 
Homer speak of the seven metals, and Virgil of the melting of steel. The Phoenicians had 
great skill in working metals. Bunsen and Kirchhoff's method of chemical analysis by means 
of the spectrum has added cfesium, rubidium, thalliirm, and indium to the known metals ; 
see Mines, Iron, and the other metals. 

METAMORPHISTS in the 15th century aflarmed that Christ's natural body, with which 
he ascended into heaven, was wholly deified. 

METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract reasoning, or that which contemplates the 
existence of things without relation to matter. The term, literally denoting "after physics," 
originated from these words having been put at the head of certain essays of Aristotle, which 
follow his treatise on Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphj^sics arose in the 15th century — 
the period when an extraordinary impulse was given to the human mind in Europe, com- 
monly called the "revival of learning." Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. Coleridge, Dugald Stewart, 
and sir W. Hamilton, were eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, Pascal, Kant, 
and Fichte, foreign ones ; see Philosophy. 

METAURUS, a river in central Italy, where Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was 
defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant reinforcements. The Romans 
were led by Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of 
Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother's camp. This victory saved Rome. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed to Pythagoras, about 528 B.C., supposes the 
transmigration of the soul from one body to another. It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, 
who would eat no animal food lest they should devour the body into which the soul of a 
deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea that so long as the body of the deceased 
was kept entire, the soul would not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed the dead. 

METEOROGRAPH, an apparatus for the invention of which Father Secchi of Rome 
received a grand prize at the Paris International Exhibition, July, 1867. It is self-acting, 
and registers the various changes of the atmosphere in the form of a diagram. 

METEOROLOGY (from the Greek oneienros, aerial), the science which treats of the 
phenomena which have their origin in the air, such as rain, lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. 
Bacon, Boyle, and Franklin wrote on the subject. 



John Dalton's es;3ay on meteorology appeared in 1793. 
Luke Howard's work on the clouds appeared in 
1802, and his " Barometrographia " in 1848. 

Sir W. Beid published his work on the "law of 
storms" in 1838. The works of Daniell (1845), 
Ksemtz (1845), and MuUer (1S47) 'W'e esteemed. 

Mr. James Glaisher, the secretary of the Meteorolo- 



gical Society (established in 1850 and chartered in 
1866) is the most eminent meteorologist of the day. 
By his exertions the apparatus at Greenwich was 
erected ; and meteorology has appeared in the 
"Greenwich Observations" since 1848. See Sal- 
loon — Scientific Ascents. 



MET 



481 



MET 



METEOEOLOGY, continued. 

Meteorological observcatories have been erected in all 
parts of the globe within the last 20 years. 

The meteorological department of the board of trade, 
estabhshed in 1855, under admiral FitzRoy, com- 
menced the publication of reports in 1S57.* It 
has issued apparatus and instruction books to 
captains of ships and established observatories in 
many places in the empire. The Kew meteorolo- 
gical observatory was given to the British Asso- 
ciation in April, i860. 

At the recommendation of M. Le Vemer ;xud admi- 
ral FitzRoy, meteorological information, obtained 
by the telegraph from the principal places in the 



United Kingdom, has been transmitted daily to 
Paris, and thence to other parts of Europe since 
1 Sept. i860. 

Meteorological observations appear in the Times 
daily. 

Storm-w^arnings &rst sent to the coast by the Board 
of Trade, 6 Feb. ; and first published 31 July, 1861 ; 
suspended 7 Dec. 1866; restoration proposed, Nov. 
1867. 

Daily international bulletin of the imperial observa- 
tory at Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, 
first published, Nov. 1862. 

See Barometer, Thermometer, &c. 



METEORS, Luminous, include shooting stars, fire-balls, and falling stones'or aerolites. 
They were described by Halley, Wallis, and others early in the 1 7th century. The periodicity 
of the star showers about the loth of August (termed in the middle ages St. Lawrence's 
tears) was discovered separately by Quetelet, 1836, and by Herrick in 1837. The following 
are remarkable epochs for their annual return : — 2 Jan. ; 29 July ; 3 and 9-12 Aug. ; 8-14 
Nov. ; II Dec. Ji. P. Greg. 



The magnificent continuous stai'-shower of 14 Nov. 
1866, had been predicted by professor Newton 
some time previously. A similar phenomenon 
had been witnessed by Humboldt at Cumana, 



(S.A.), 12 Nov. 1799: and by Dr. D. Olmsted, at 
Newhaven (U.S.), 13 Nov. 1833. 
Aerolites, falling-stones accomijanying meteors, are 
found in our musemns. They contain iron, nickel, 
and other minei-als. 



METHODISTS, see Wesleyans. 

]\IETHUEN' TREATY, a treaty for regulating the commerce between Great Britain and 
Portugal, made in 1703, concluded by Paul Methuen, our ambassador atj Lisbon. It 
greatly favoiu-ed the importation of port wine into this country by lowering the duty, to the 
discouragement of French wines. It was abrogated in 1834. 

METHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, was obtained 
first in the free state by Frankland and Kolbe separately, in 1849. 

METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an act passed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine 
with 10 per cent, of its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic alcohol, is allowed to be made 
duty free for use in the arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gallons being made at 
one time. In 1861 an act was passed permitting the methylated spirits to be retailed by 
licence. 

METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or 6940 days, at the end of which the changes 
of the moon fall on the same days ; see Ccdi2Jpic Period. 

METRIC SYSTEM. Before the revolution there was no iiniformity in French weights 
and measures. On 8 May, 1790, the constitutional assembly charged the Academy of 
Sciences with the organisation of a better system. The committee named for the purpose by 
the academy included the names of Berthollet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange, Laplace, 
Mechain, and Prony. Delambre and M^chain were charged with tbe measurement of an 
arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their calculations the metre, 
which is equal to a ten-millionth part of the distance between the poles and the equator 
(3 -2808 English feet) was made the unit of length and the base of the system by law on 
7 April, 1795. The system was completed in 1799, and made by law the only legal one on 
2 Nov. 1 801. A decree on 12 Feb. accommodated the old measures to the new system ; 
but on 4 Julj-, 1837, it was decreed that after i Jan. 1840, the metric and decimal system in 
its primitive simplicity should be used in all business transactions. The example of France 
has been followed by the greater part of Europe, and Avill probably in time be adopted in 
the British empire. 



Unit of Surface, centiare=a. square mfetre = i'i96o 
English yard (a square decamfetre or are = ioo 
square mfetres). 

Unit of Volume or Solidity, siere = a, cubic mfetre. 

Unit of Capacity, litre^a, cubic decimfetre (or loth 
of a m6tre)=i'76o77 Enghsh pint. 

Unit of Weight, gramrAe=-weight of a cubic centi- 



metre (the 100th part of a mfetre) of distilled water 

=o'56438 English dram. 
Unit of SloNEY, the franc, a piece of silver weighing 

S grammes. 
The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek 

numerals (deca-, 10 ; hekato-, 100 ; HI0-, 1000 ; 

myria-, 10,000. The divisors are expressed by 

Latin numerals (deci-, 10 ; ce'nii-, 100 : milli-, 1000). 



* The admiral published his " Weather-Book" in 1863. 
brain ; and on 30 April, 1S65, he died by his own hand. 



His exertions are said to have overworked his 



MET 



482 



MEX 



METRIC SYSTEM, continued. 

Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 
parliament 25 Feb. 1824 

A commission of inquiry appointed at the in- 
stance of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. 
Spring Rice (since lord Monteagle) . .May, 1S3S 

Another commission was appointed (both con- 
sisted of eminent scientific men, and reported 
strongly in favour of the change) . 20 June, 1843 

A committee of the house of commons reported 
to the same effect . . . . i Aug. 1853 

Mr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of 
the system, thought its introduction pre- 
mature. 

The Decimal Association was formed for the 



purpose of obtaining the adoption of the sys- 
tem June, 1854 

Another commission for inquiry was appointed, 
consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, 
and Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a pre- 
liminary report (with evidence), taut expressed 

no opinion Nov. 1855 

An International Decimal Association formed in ,, 
The decimal currency adopted in Canada, i Jan. 1858 
The new weights and measures bill (an ap- 
proximation to the decimal system) was 

passed 1862 

An act passed " to render permissive the use of 
the metric system of weights and measures " 

29 July, 1864 

METRONOME, to regulate time in the performance of music, was patented in England 
hj John Malzel, 5 Dec. 1815. 

METROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in 1863) transferred the management of certain 
roads north of the Thames from the commissioners to the parishes, and abolished certain 
turnpikes and toUbars. 

METROPOLITAN (from the Greek metro'poUs), a title given at the council of Mce, 325, 
to certain bishops who had jurisdiction over others, in a province. The dignity is said to 
have arisen in the 2nd century, through the dissentient bishops in a district referring to one 
bishop of superior intellect. 

METROPOLITAN BOARD of WORKS, was established by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120 (1855), 
amended in 1862. It held its first meeting and elected ]\fr. (now sir) John Thwaites as 
chairman, 22 Dec. 1855. The office is in Spring-gardens. In 1858, its powers were 
extended in order to efi'ect the purification of the Thames by constructing a new main 
drainage for the metropolis. The board was authorised to raise a loan and levy 3c?. in the 
pound on the property in the metropolis. The works are now in progress (1868). It is also 
authorished to construct the Thames Embankment. In 1861 the board receiv^ed nearly a 
million pounds, and expended 900,000?. ; see Sewage, and Thames. 

METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, inagm-ated by the lord mayor and corporation 
on Wednesday, 13 July, 1855, in presence of the prince consort. It is situated in Copen- 
hagen-fields, an elevated site north of Loudon, occupying an area of about fifteen acres, 
larger by nine acres than Smithfield, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 6400 bullocks, 
1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre is a circular building, let to bankers and others 
having business connected with graziers and cattle-agents. Within and around the market 
are erected several large taverns. A place is set apart for slaughtering animals, with 
approved appliances for purposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage, &c. ; there is also a 
place for haystands. Sales commenced on Fridaj'-, 15 June, 1855. — An Act for establishing a 
meat and poultry market in Smithfield (vjMcJi see) was passed in i860. 

METROPOLITAN CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION, FIRE BRIGADE, and 
HOUSELESS POOR, ^ee Convalescent, Fire Brigade, and Houseless Poor, 

METROPOLITAN MUNICIPAL ASSOCIATION met 11 Dec. 1866. 

METROPOLITAN POOR ACTS, "for the establishment in the metropolis of asylums 
for the sick, insane, and other classes of the poor," was passed 29 March, 1867. 

METROPOLITAN RAILWAY {U7ider ground), between Paddington and Victoria-street, 
near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853 ; the construction began in the spring of i860; 
and it was opened for traffic, 10 Jan. 1863. Many serious difficulties were overcome with 
great skiU and energy by the contractors. Jay, Smith, and Knight. In the first six months 
of 1865, there were 7,462,823 passengers. 

METROPOLITAN STREETS ACT (30 & 31 Vict. c. 134) "for regulating the traffic in 
the metropolis, and for making provision for the greater security of persons passing through 
the streets," passed 20 Aug. 1867. A short act, modifying the clauses relating to coster- 
mongers and cabs, was passed 7 Dec. 1867. 

METTRAY, see Reformatory Schools. METZ, see Austrasia. 

MEXICO (N. America), said to have been subdued by the Aztecs early in the 13th cen- 
tury. It was discovered in 15 17, and conquered by Fernando Cortez, 15 19-21 ; explored by 
Alexander von Humboldt, 1799- 1804. It is stated that there have been 260 insurrections 
in Mexico since 1821. Population, 1865 (estimated), 8,218,080. 



MEX 



483 



MEX 



MEXICO, continued. 

Jlontezuma emperor 1503 

Cortes lands, 1519; captures the city of Mexico 1521 
Mexico constituted a kingdom ; Cortes governor 1522 
Mendoza first viceroy of New Spain, 1530 ; esta- 
blishes a mint 1535 

Unsuccessful insurrection of Miguel Hidalgo, 

1810; ofMorelos, 1815; of Mina . . . 1817 
Mexico declared independent by the treaty of 

Aquala 23 Aug. 1821 

Augustin Iturbide, president of a provisional 
junto ; Mexico formed into an empire ; the 
crown decUned by Spain ; Iturbide made 
emperor . . ... Feb. 1822 

Compelled to abdicate . . 26 March, 1823 

Mexican federal republic proclaimed . 4 Oct. ,, 
Iturbide went to England ; returns and en- 
deavours to recover his dignity ; shot, 

19 July, 1824 
Federal constitution established . . Oct. ,, 
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, April, 1825 
Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed . Mwch, 1829 
Spanish expedition against Mexico sui-rendered 

26 Sept. ,, 
Mexican revolution : the president Guerrero 

deposed 23 Dec. ,, 

Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, 

June, 1830; by Spain . . . 28 Dec. 1836 
Declaration of war against Prance . 30 Nov. 1838 
This war terminated ... 9 March, 1839 

War with the United States . . 4 June, 1845 
The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, and subse- 
quently at Matamoras ... 8 May, 1846 
Santa Fe captured, 22 Aug. ; and Monterey, 

24 Sept. ,, 
Battle of Bueno Vista ; the Mexicans defeated 
by General Taylor, with great loss, after two 

days' fighting 22 Peb. 1847 

The Americans, \inder general Scott, defeat the 

Mexicans at Cerro Gorda . . 18 April, ,, 
The Mexicans beaten in several actions ; Mexico 

taken by assault by general Scott . 15 Sept. ,, 
Treaty of peace ratified. . . 19 May, 184S 

Political convulsions Sept. 1852 

President Arista resigns, 6 Jan. ; and Santa 
Anna returns, Peb. ; becomes dictator. 

17 March, 1853 
He abdicates ; Carera elected president . Jan. 1855 
Who also abdicates ; succeeded first by Alvarez, 

and afterwards by general Comonfort Dec. ,, 
Property of the clergy sequestrated 31 March, 1856 
New constitution established . . 5 Feb. 1857 
Comonfort chosen president . . . July, ,, 
Coup d'etat ; constitution annulled by the 
church party; Comonfort compelled to re- 
tire, II Jan. ; general Zuloaga takes the 
government .... 21-26 Jan. 1858 
Benito Juarez declared constitutional president 

at Vera Cruz 11 Peb. ,. 

Civil war ; several engagements Aug. to Nov. ,, 
General Miguel Miramon nominated president 
at Mexico by the Junto ... 6 Jan. 1859 

Zuloaga abdicates 2 Feb. ,, 

In consequence of injury to British subjects, 

ships of war sent to Mexico . . . Feb. ,, 
Miramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, 
enters the capital, assumes his functions as 
governor, and governs without respect to the 
laws of life and property . . 10 April, ,, 
Juarez confiscates the church propertj"-, 13 July, ,, 
Miramon and the clerical party defeat the 

Uberals under CoUma . . . 21 Doc. ,, 
He besieges Vera Cruz, 5 March : bombards it ; 

compelled to raise the siege . . 21 March, i860 
General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes 

the presidency i May, ,, 

Miramon arrests Zuloaga, 9 May ; the diplo- 
matic bodies suspend official relations with 

the former 10 May, ,, 

Miramon defeated by DegoUado . . 10 Aug. ,, 
He governs Mexico with great tyranny ; seizes 
152,000;. belonging to English bondholders. 



Sept. ; the foreign ministers quit the city, 

Oct. i860 

He is compelled to retire ; Juarez enters Mexico, 
II Jan. ; rc-electod president . . 19 Jan. i86x 

Juarez made dictator by the congress, 30 June, ,, 

Tlie Mexican congress decides to suspend pay- 
ments to foreigners for two years . 17 July, ,, 

Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic rela- 
tions with England and France . 27 July, ,, 

In consequence of many gross outraijes on 
foreigners, the British, French, and Spanish 
governments, after much vain negotiation, 
claiming efficient protection of foreigner.';, and 
the payment of arrears due to fundholders, 
sign a convention engaging to combined hos- 
tile operations against Me.x.ico . . 31 Oct. ,, 

The Mexican congress dissolvi-s, after confer- 
ring full powers on the president . 15 Dec. „ 

Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, 8 Dec. ; it 
surrenders 17 Dec. „ 

A British naval and French military expedition 
arrives 7, 8 Jan. 1862 

The Mexicans determine on resistance, and 
invest Vera Cruz ; their taxes are raised 25 
per cent Jan. „ 

Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by 
the British Admiral .... Feb. „ 

Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy, for 
archduke MaximiUan of Austria, disapproved 
of by British and Spanish governments Peb. ,, 

Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and 
Mexicans ; convention between the commis- 
saries of the allies and the Mexican general 
Doblado, at Soledad ... 19 Feb. ,, 

The Mexican general Marquez takes up arms 
against Juarez ; and general Ahnonte joins 
the French general Lorencez; Juarez demauds 
a compulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state 
of siege March, „ 

Conference between plenipotentiaries of the 
allies at Orizaba ; the English and Spanish 
declare for peace, which is not agreed to by 
the French, 9 April ; who declare war against 
Juarez 16 April, „ 

The Spanish and British forces retire ; the 
French government sends reinforcements to 
Lorencez May, ,, 

The French, induced by Marquez, advance into 
the interior ; severely repulsed by Zaragoza, 
at Port Guadaloupe, near Puebla 5 May, ,, 

Juarez quits the capital . . .31 May, ,, 

The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de 
Borgo, near Orizaba . . -13, 14 June, „ 

The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of 
negotiation . • . . . Aug. ,, 

Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land, 

28 Aug. ,, 

Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez 
disclaiming any intention of imposing a 
government on Mexico ; announced Sept. „ 

Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans 

8 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Forcy deprives Almonte of the presidency 
at Vera Ci-uz, and appropriates the civil and 
military power to himself . . . Oct. ,, 

Ortega takes command of the Mexicans ig Oct. „ 

The Mexican congress assembles, and protests 
ag.ainst the French invasion . 27 Oct. ,, 

The French evacuate Tampioo . 13 Jan. 1S63 

Forey marches towards Mexico . 24 Feb. ,, 

Siege of Puebla ; bravely defended, 29 March ; 
severe assault, 31 March to 3 April ; it is sur- 
rendered at discretion by Ortega 18 -May, ,, 

Juarez and the repubUcan government remove 
to San Luis de Potosi . . .31 May, ,, 

Mexico occupied by tlie French, under Bazaine, 
5 June ; Forey and his army enter, 10 June; 
provisional government , 

Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on 
the establishment of a limited hereditary 
monarchy, with a Boman Catholic prince 

I r 2 



MEX 



484 



MIC 



MEXICO, continued. 

as emperor ; and offer the crown to the arch- 
duke Maximilian of Austria : a regency esta- 
blished loJuly, 1863 

The French re-occupy Tampico . 11 Aug. ,, 
Marshal Forey resigns his command toBazaine, 

and returns to France . . . i Oct. ,, 
The archduke Maximilian will accept the crown 

if it be the will of the people . 3 Oct. ,, 

The Mexican general Comonfort surprised and 

shot by partisans . . . .12 Nov. ,, 
Successful advance of the imperialists ; Juarez 

retires from San Luis de Potosi, 18 Dec. ; it 

is entered by the imperiahsts . 24 Dec. ,, 
The French occupy various places Jan. & Feb. 1864 
The ex-president, general Santa- Anna, lands at 

Vera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire, 

27 Feb. ; dismissed by Bazaine 12 March, ,, 
Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the 

seat of the republican government 3 April, ,, 
The archduke Maximilian definitively accepts 

the crown from the Mexican deputation at 

Miramar 10 April, ,, 

The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 

29 May ; enter the city of Mexico 12 June, „ 
The emperor visits the interior ; grants a free 

press Aug'. ,, 

The republicans defeat the imperialists at San 

Pedro 27 Dec. „ 

Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to 

maintain their independence . i Jan. 1865 
The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 

eagle ,, 

Surrender of Oaxaca to Marshal Bazaine 9 Feb. ,, 
A constitution promulgated . . 10 April ,, 
Ortega, at New York, enlists recruits for the 

repulDlican army, May ; discountenanced by 
. the U. S. government .... June, ,, 
Annivei'sary of Mexican independence ; de- 
scendants of Iturbide made princesses, <fec. 

16 Sept. „ 
The emperor proclaims the end of the war, and 

martial law against all armed bands of men ; 

much indignation excited . . 2 Oct. ,, 
Juarist generals taken prisoners ; shot 16 Oct. ,, 
The American government protests against the 

French occupation . . . Nov. -Dec. „ 
Presidency of Juarez expires ; he determines 

to continue to act, 30 Nov. ; he flies to Texas 

20 Dec. ,, 
Bagdad, on the Eio Grande, seized by Ameri- 
can Juarists, 4, 5 Jan. ; occupied by the 

American general Weitzel, 5 Jan. ; his con- 
duct disavowed ; and Bagdad re-occupied by 

imperialists 20 Jan. 1S66 

Ministerial changes . . March-Aprdl, 
Emperor Napoleon agrees to withdraw all his 

soldiers from Mexico between Nov. 1866 and 

Nov. 1867 April, 

Guerilla warfare going on, numerous conflicts, 

with varying success . . March-May, 
Matamoras captured by the liberals, under 

Escobedo . . . . 23, 24 June, 
The empress Charlotte departs for France, 13 

July ; conspiracy against the government 

suppressed . . . . 15-17 July, 

MEZZOTINTO, see Engraving. 

MHOW COURT-MARTIAL, see Trials, Nov. 1863. 

MICHAELMAS, 29 Sept., the feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman 
Catholic chiirch, under the title of ' ' St. Michael and AH Angels. " Instituted according to 
Butler, 487.* 

MICHAEL'S MOUlSrT, ST. (Cornwall), is considered by some to be the Iktis of Diodorus 
Siculus, and an ancient resort of the tin merchants, St. Michael was said to have appeared 



Convention between Maximilian and the 
French ; transfer of the receipts of the cus- 
toms to France .... 30 July, 1866 

Juarez and his party advance ; take Tampico 

I Aug. „ 

The Americans disallow MaximiUan's blockade 
of Matamoras .... 17 Aug. „ 

Dissension among the liberals ; three rival pre- 
sidents, Juarez, Ortega, and Santa Anna, 

Sept. -Oct. ,, 

The empress soUcits help from France, in vain, 
Sept. ; she falls ill ... . Oct. ,, 

Firm speech of the emperor . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Emperor leaves Mexico for Orizaba ; giving 
authority to Bazaine .... Oct. „ 

The French evacuate several places . Nov. ,, 

Imperial council at Orizaba determine to main- 
tain the empire .... 24 Nov. ,, 

Death of Augustin Iturbide . . u Dec. ,, 

Maximilian, at the head of the army, an-ives 
at Queretaro 19 Feb. 1867 

Departure of the French troops, 13 Jan., 5 Feb. 

14 March, ,, 

Contest for supremacy between Juarez, Diaz, 
and Ortega April, , , 

Queretaro, after many conflicts, captiared by 
treachery ; Mendez shot . . 15 May, „ 

Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia, after trial, 
shot 19 June, „ 

Mexico city taken after 67 days' siege ; repub- 
lic re-established . . . 21 June, ,, 

Surrender of Vera Cruz ... 25 June, ,, 

Santa Anna captured; detained a prisoner, 

Juiy> I. 

Juarez enters Mexico . . . 14 July, ,, 

Marquez and others said to be organising resis- 
tance to Juarez .... Aug. ,, 

Numerous executions ; reign of terror 

Aug. et seq. , , 

Porfirio Dias said to be nominated for the 
presidency Sept. ,, 

Santa Anna sentenced to eight years' banish- 
ment Oct. ,, 

Maximilian's body given up to the Austrian 
admiral TegethofE ... 26 Nov. , , 

Mexican congress opened ; Juarez acting as 
provisional president ; foreign consuls said to 
be leaving 8 Dec. ,, 

Juarez inaugurated as president about 25 Dec. ,, 

Maximilian's body buried at Vienna 18 Jan. 1868 

Rebellion against Juarez in Yucatan and other 
provinces .... Jan. -Feb. „ 



EMPEEOKS, 

1822. Aug. Augustin Iturbide, Feb. ; abdicated 
23 March, 1823 ; shot for endeavouring to 
recover his authority, 19 July, 1S24. 

1864. MaximiUan (brother to the emperor of Aus- 
tria), born 6 July, 1832 ; accepted the crown, 
10 April, 1864; married, 27 July, 1857, to 
princess Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., 
king of the Belgians ; adopted Augustin 
Iturbide as his heir, Sept. 1865 ; shot (after a 
trial), ig June, 1867. 



* The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been eri-oneously attributed to Queen Elizabeth's 
eating of the bird at dinner on 29 Sept. 1588, at the house of sir Neville Umfreyville, at the time she heard 
of the destruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of much older date, and is observed on the 
continent. Clavis Calendaria. 



MIC 485 MIL 

on the mouut, 495 or 710 ; and the place, thus reputed holy, became the seat of a body of 
monks, who received a charter from Edward the Confessor, 1044, and many privileges from 
pope Gregory VII., 1079. 

MICHIGAN, a north-west state of N". America, settled by the French, 1670 ; admitted 
into the union, 26 Jan. 1837. Capital, Lansing. 

MICROMETER, an astronomical instrument used to discover and measure any small 
distance and the minuter objects in the heavens, such as the apparent diameters of the 
l^lanets, &c., was invented by Wm. Gascoigne, who was killed at the battle of Marston-moor, 
2 July, 1644. It was improved by Huyghens about 1652. 

MICROSCOPES, said to have been invented by Fontana, in Italy, and by Drebbel, in 
Holland, about 1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of 
refraction was discovered, about 1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In 
England great improvements were made in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who invented 
and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by Henry Baker, F.R.S., about 1763, and still 
greater during the present century by WoUastou, Ross, Jackson, Varley, Powell, and others. 
I)iamond microsco2}es were made by Andrew Pritchard in 1824 ; and the properties of "test- 
objects " to prove the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and Goring in 1824-40. A 
binocular microscope (i.e., for two e)''es), was constructed by professor Riddell in 185 1, and 
Weuham's important improvements were made known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope 
by J. Quekett (1848), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter (1856), by Dr. Lionel Beale (1858-64), and 
Griffith and Henfrey's " Micrographic Dictionary" (1856) are valuable. The Microscopical 
Society of London was established in 1839. In 1865 Mr. H. Sorby exhibited his spectrum- 
microscoiw, by which the millionth of a grain of blood was detected. 

MIDDLE AGES, see Bark Ages. Henry Hallam's "Middle Ages " appeared in 1818. 

MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION and SCHOOLS, see Education (1858, and 1865-6). 

MIDDLE-LEVELS, see Levels. 

MIDIANITES, an eastern people, descendants of Midian, a son of Abraham. Having 
enticed the Israelites to idolatry the}'' were severely chastised, 1452 b.c. They invaded 
Canaan about 1249 B.C., and were thoroughly defeated by Gideon. 

MIDWIFERY. "Women were the only practitioners of this art among the Hebrews and 
Egyptians. Hippocrates, who pi'actised medicine in Greece, 460 b. c. , is styled by some the 
father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It advanced under Celeus, who flourished 
A.D. 37, and of Galen, who lived 131. In England midwifery became a science about the 
period of the institution of the College of Physicians, 10 Hen. VII., 1518.+ 

MILAN, Mediolanum, capital of the ancient Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to have 
been built by the Gauls, about 408 B.C. 

Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus B.C. 222 

Seat of government of the western empire a.d. 286 

Council of Milan 346 

St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan . . . . 375 

Milan plundered by Attila .... 452 

Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 4S9 ; in 
the Lombard kingdom 569 

Becomes an independent republic . . . iioi 

The emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and ap- 
points a podesta 1158 

It rebels ; is taken by Frederic and its fortifica- 
tions destroyed 1162 

Eebuilt and fortified 1 169 

The Milanese defeated bythe emp. Frederic II. 1237 

The Visconti become paramount in Milan. . 1277 

John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke. 1395 

Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the 
Visconti, subdues Milan and becomes duke . 1450 

Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 [ Treaty of peace between Austria and Sardinia, 

The French expelled by the Spaniards . . 1525 I 6 Aug. 



Milan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 
Great plague alleviated by the archbishop Bor- 

romeo 1576 

Milan ceded to Austria 1714 

Conquered by the French and Spaniards . . 1743 
I Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily 

being ceded to Spain 1748 

Seized by the French . . .30 June, 1796 

Retaken by the Austrians 1799 

Regained by the French ... 31 Jlay, 1800 
Made the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and 
Napoleon Bonaparte cro\^Tied with the iron 

crown here 26 May, 1805 

The Milan decree of Napoleon against all con- 
tinental intercourse with England 17 Dec. 1807 
Insvirrection against the Austrians ; flight of 

the viceroy . . . . 18 March, 1848 

Surrenders to the Austrians . . .5 Aug. „ 



* Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicino. She was taught by Hierophilus, 
her father, the art of midwifery, and, when employed, always discovered her sex to her patients. This 
brought her into so much practice, that the males of her i^rofessiou, who wore now out of employment, 
accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to the judges, and a law was 
made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. The whole story is doubtful. 

t The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and, after his example, 
the caUing in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc affirms that the epoch of the employment of 
men-midwives goes no further back than the first lying-in of madame de la Vallifere, mistress of Louis XIV. , 
1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with gx-eat secrecy to the 
house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labours of this lady, and he being very suc- 
cessful, men-midwives afterwards came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. 



MIL 



486 



Mm 



Victor-Emmanuel enters Milan as king, 8 Aug. i860 
Keactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery sup- 
pressed 29-30 April, 1S61 

The Victor-Emmanuel gallery opened by the 
king IS Sept. 1867 

See Italy. 



MILAN, continued. 

Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigor- 
ously punished . . . 6 Feb. et seq. 1853 

Milan visited by the emperor of Austria Nov. 1856 

Amnesty for political offences granted . Dec. 1857 

After the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 
4 June, Louis Napoleon and the king of Sar- 
dinia enter Milan ... 8 June, 1859 

Peace of Villafranca; a large part of Lombardy 
transferred to Sardinia . . 12 July, „ 

MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, founded about 1043 B.C. During the war 
with Persia it was taken, 494, hut restored, 449. Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge 
to the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.d. 60 {Ads xx.]. 

MILFORD HAVEN (Wales). Here the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., 
landed on his way to encounter Richard III. whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485. The 
packets from this port to Ireland, sailing to Waterford, were established in 1787. The dock- 
yard, established here in 1790, was removed to Pembroke in 1814. 

MILITARY or MARTIAL LAW is built on no settled principle, but is entirely 
arbitrary, and, in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather than allowed, as law. Sir 
Maithevj Hale. It has been several times proclaimed in these kingdoms, and in 1 798 was 
almost general in Ireland, where it was proclaimed in 1803. 

MILITARY ASYLUM, Royal, at Chelsea, "for the children of the soldiers of the 
regular army." The first stone was laid by the duke of York, 19 June, 1801. 

MILITARY KNIGHTS of WINDSOR, see Poor Knights of Windsor. 

MILITIA, the standing national force of these realms, ,is traced to king Alfred, who 
made all his subjects soldiers, 872 to 901. 

First commission of array to raise a militia . 1122 

Revived by Henry II 1176 

Again revived 1557 

Said to amount to 160,000 men . . . . 1623 
The present militia statutes established, 1661 to 1663 
Supplemental militia act passed . . . 1797 
Irish miUtia offered its services in England, 

28 March, 1804 



General miUtia act for England and Scotland, 
1802; for Ireland 1809 

Enactment authorising courts-martial to inflict 
imprisonment instead of flogging passed . 1814 

Acts to consolidate the miUtia laws . . i852*-s4 

Militia embodied on account of the Russian 
war, 1854 ; and on account of the Indian 
mutiny 1857 

Militia reserve act passed 1867 

MILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt 
her milk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or Hercules. Democritus (about 428 B.C.) 
taught that the via lactea consisted of stars, which GalUeo proved by the telescope. 

MILLENARIANS suppose that the world will, end at the expiration of the seven 
thousandth year from the creation ; and that during a thousand years (millenium) Christ 
and the saints will reign upon the earth ; see Rev. xx. The doctrine was very generally 
inculcated in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, by Papias, Justin Martyr, and others. 

MILLENARY PETITION, presented to king James on his accession, 1603, on behak 
of a thousand Puritan ministers against the " human rites and ceremonies " of the church 
of England. 

MILLS. Moses forbade mill-stones to be taken in pawn, because it would be like taking 
a man's life to pledge. Beut. xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was in use among the Britons pre- 
vioiisly to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. Cotton 
mills moved by water were erected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, Derbyshire. 
He died in 1 792. 

MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were repulsed by the Erench under 
Brune, 25-27 Dec. 1800; and by Eugene Beauharnais, 8 Feb. 1814, near Valeggio. 

MINDEN (Prussia), Battle of, i Aug. 1759, between the English, Hessians, and 
Hanoverians (under prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French, who were beaten and 
driven to the ramparts of Minden. Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord George 
Germaine) who commanded the British and Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience of 
orders was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dis- 
missed, 22 April, 1760. He was afterwards restored to favour, and became secretarj'- of 
state, 1776. 

* This militia act was consequent upon the then prevaihng opinion of the necessity of strengthening 
our national defences against the possibility of French invasion. The act empowered her majesty to raise 
a force not exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 were to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the 
quotas for each county or riding to bo fixed by an order in council. 



Mm 



487 



MIN 



MINERALOGY and MINES. Strabo and Tacitus emimerate gold and silver as among 
the products of England. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced 
occurs 47 Hen. III. 1262. It related to mines containing gold, together with copper, in 
Devonshire ; and in Edward I.'s reign, according to Mr. Euding, the mines in Ireland, 
which produced silver, were supposed to be so rich that the king directed a writ for working 
them to Robert de Uflord, lord justice, 1276. The lead mines of Cardiganshire, from which 
silver has ever since been extracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middleton in the reign of 
James I. ; see Coal, and the various metals. 

A British Jliucralogical Society established in . 1800 A Miners' Protection Association proposed by 

Hatty's " TraitiS de Miiie'ralogie " appeared iu . 1801 Mr. William Gurney and others in March, 1862 

The government School of Mines, &c., Jermyn- Value of the total mineral produce of the 

street, St. James's, opened in . .Nov. 1851 United Kingdom estimated at 29,155,701?. in 

An act for the regulation of mines passed in . 1S60 1854; 31,680,581?. in 1859. ; 40,310,931?. in . 1865 

MINlfi RIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about 1800). 
From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d'escadrou. His rifle was con- 
sidered to surpass all made previous to it, for accuracy of direction and extent of range, and 
was adopted by the French, and, with modifications, by the British army in 1852 ; see 
Fire, Arms. 

MINIMS (from minimi, the least), an order of monks, founded by St. Francisco de 
Paulo, in Calabria, received their name, as professing themselves inferior to the Minorites 
(from minor, less) ; see Fraiiciscans. St. Francisco died in France in 1507? where he had 
established houses of his order. 

MINISTER OF WAR, see War Minister. 

MINISTERS, see Administrations. 

MINNESINGERS, Ij'ric Germau poets, of tlie 12th and 13th centm-ies, who sang of love 
and war to entertain knights and barons of the time. The Meistersingers, their successors, 
an incorporated fraternity in the i4tli century, composed satirical ballads for the amusement 
of the citizens and the lower classes. Hans Sachs, a shoemaker (1494-1576), the poet of the 
reformation, was for a time their dean. His works were published at Nuremberg, 1560. 
" Owleglass" and " Reynard the Fox," are attributed to the Meistersingers. 

MINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, was organised as a territory, 3 March, 1849. 
and admitted into the union in 1857. On 17 Aug. 1862, the Sioux Indians commenced a 
series of outrages at Acton in Messier county, desolating the country and massacring above 
500 persons, of both sexes, and of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians in two battles 
and rescued many captives. Thirty-eight Indians were executed as assassins. 

MINORCA AND MAJORCA, the Balearic Isles {which see). Minorca was captured by 
lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in 1 708, and was ceded to the British by 
the treaty of Utrecht in 17 13. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in JiUy, 1756, 
and admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation for not relieving it ; see Bynrj. It was 
restored to the British at the peace in 1 763 ; besieged by the Spaniards, and taken 
5 Feb. 1782. It was again captured by the British under general Stuart, without the loss 
of a man, 15 Nov. 1798 ; but was given up at the peace of Amiens in 1802. 

MINORITIES. In the ncAV reform bUl, passed 15 Aug, 1S67, provision was made for 
the representation of minorities in constituencies with three members by limiting each 
elector to two votes. It was introduced as an amendment by lord Caii'ns in the lords 
30 July, and accepted by the commons, Aug. 1867. 

MINSTER, or Monasterium, a place occupied by monks ; see Westminster, and York. 

MINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to divert their copyholders 
while at work, owed their origin to the glee men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till 
about 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the 
reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at the houses 
of the nobUity ; but in Elizabeth's reign they sank into neglect, and were adjudged rogues 
and vagabonds (1597). 

MINT. Athelstan enacted regulations for the government of the mint about 928. 
There were several provincial mints under the control of that of London. Heniy II. is said 
to have instituted a mint at Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was kept by Italians, 
the English being ignorant of the art of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators were 
formed into a corporation by the charter of khig Edward III., in which condition it consisted 
of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-mastei-, workers, coiners, and subordinates. The 
first entry of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was 
coined by Charles II. 1684 ; and gim-metal and pewter by his successor James. Sir Isaac 
Newton was warden, 1699-1727, during which time the debased coin was called in, and new 



i845- Sir George Clerk. 

1846. Richard L. Sliiel. 

1850. SirJohnP.Hersclael.F.B.S. 

1855. Thomas Graham, F.R.S. 



MIN 488 MIT 

issued at the loss of the government. Between 1806 and 1810, gi-ants amounting to 262,000?. 
were made by parliament for the erection of the present mint, which was completed in 181 1 ; 
it was injured by fire, 31 Oct. 1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded on the 
report of the hon, Wellesley Pole, took effect in 1817. 

MASTERS OF THK MINT. I 1830. Lord Auckland. 

1817. Wellesley Pole. 1834. James Abercrombie. 

1823. Thomas Wallace. 1835. Alexander Baring. 

1827. George Tierney. „ Henry Labouchere. 

1828. J. C. Herries. I 1841. William E. Gladstone. 

MmUS, see PUs. MIRACLE PLAYS, see under Drama. 

MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal ; those of the Jewish women 
of brass. Mirrors in silver Avere introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B.C. Mirrors or looking- 
glasses were made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, at Lambeth, near London, in 
1673. The improvements in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of very large size, has 
cheapened looking-glasses very much. Yarious methods of coating glass by a solution of 
silver, thus avoiding the use of mercury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, have 
been made known; by M. Petitjean in 1851 ; by M. Cimeg in 1861, and by Liebig and 
others. 

MISSIONARY BISHOPS, see under Bishops. 

MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. Francis, 
St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have 
introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The Jesuits had missions to China (which see) 
and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this 
kind was a Danish mission, planned by Frederick lY. in 1706. The Society for the 
Propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts was established 1701, and the Moravian 
Brethren encouraged missions about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their 
iirst meeting, 4 Nov. 1794. Most Christian sects now support missions. 



Commander Allan Gardner, R.N., who left England 
in the Ocean Queen in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian 
mission, with Mr. Wilhams, surgeon, Mr. Maid- 
ment, catechist, and four others, died on Picton 
Island, at the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to 
the south of Tierra del Fuego, having been starved 



to death, all his companions having previously 
perished, 6 Sept. 1S51. 
M. SchofBer, a missionary to Cochin-China, was 
publicly executed at Son-Tay, by order of the 
grand mandarin, for preaching Christianity, such 
preaching being prohibited by the law of that 
country, 4 May, 1851. 

MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America, explored by De Soto about 1541. The 
Mississippi trade was begun in England, in Nov. 17 16. The celebrated Mississippi 
scheme or bubble in France, commenced about the same period, exploded in 1720 ; at 
which time the nominal capital is said to have amounted to ioo,ooo,oooZ. The ruin of 
thousands of dupes soon followed in both countries. See Laiv's Bubble. — The North 
American state, Mississippi, was settled in 1 7 16 ;• admitted as a state of the union, 
i8i7 ; seceded from it by ordinance, 8 Jan. 1861 ; submitted, 1865. Capital Jackson. 

MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, heroically and successfully defended against the 
Turks by Marco Botzaris 1822. It was taken in 1826 after a year's siege. Here Lord 
Byron died, 19 April, 1824. It was surrendered to the Greeks in 1829. 

MISSOURI, a south-western state in N. America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into 
the union, 10 Aug. 1821. It decided on neutrality in the conflict of i86r, but was invaded 
•by both the confederate and federal forces in June of that year, and became one of the seats 
of war. Capital, Jefferson city ; see United States, 1861, et seq. — For the Missouri 
CoMPEOMiSE, see Slavery in A merica. 

MITHRIDATE, a physical preparation in the form of an electuaiy, supposed to be 
an antidote to poison and the oldest compound known, is said to liave been invented 
by Mithridates, king of Pontus, about 70 B.C. 

MITHRIDATIC "WAR, caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, by Mithridates, king 
of Pontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, its many sanguinary battles, and the 
cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul Aquilius, made him 
ride on an ass through a great part of ,Asia, crying out as he rode, J" I am Aquilius, 
consul of the Romans." He is said to have killed him by causing melted gold to be poured 
down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 b. c. Mithridates was defeated by Pompey, 
66 B. c. ; and committed suicide, 63 b. c. 

MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had 
on it a golden plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lord." Exodus xxxix. 28. The most 
ancient mitre that has the nearest resemblance to the present one is that upon the seal of 
the bishop of Laon, in the loth century. FosbroJce. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, 
but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they were directed to wear hats. 



MNE 



489 



MOL 



MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was introduced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C. 
Arund. Marbles. " Mnemonica " was published by Jolm Willis in 1618 ; and the " Meraoria 
Technica" of Dr. Grey first ajweared in 1730. A system of mnemonics was announced in 
Germauy, iu 1806-7 ; and others since. 

MOCKERN (Prussia). Here the French army under Eugene Beauharnais were defeated 
by the Prussians under York, April, 1813 ; and here Bliicher defeated the French, 16 Oct. 
1813. 

MODELS. The first were figures of living persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is 
the reputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, being about to be separated from her 
lover, traced his profile by his shadow on the wall ; lier father filled up the outline with 
clay, which he afterwards baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of her aflection, 
giving rise to an art tiU then unknown, about 985 B.C. 



A beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, 
before the building began, was formed in wood. 

A model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of 
uncommon strength as well as elegance ; and of 



the mountains of Switzerland, by general Pfiffer 
(1766-85). 
M. Choffln's model of Paris also was remarkable for 
its precision. 



MODENA (formerly Mutina), capital of t])e late duchy in Central Italy ; was governed 
by the house of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last male of that house, the reigning 
duke Hercules III. was expelled by the French. Bj'^ the treaty of Campo Foi'mio, the 
Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797; and with the 
kingdom of Italy, 1805. The archduke Francis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of 
Austria, and of Mary, tlie heiress of the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena, in accord- 
ance with the voting by universal suffrage, was annexed to Sardinia on 18 March, i860. 
Population, iu 1857, 604,512. 

to Verona, establishing a regency, 11 June ; 
which was abolished 13 June ; Farini was 
appointed dictator, 27 July ; a constituent 
assemblj' was immediately elected, which 
offered the duchy to the king of Sardmia, 
15 Sept. He incorporated it with his 
dominions, 18 March, i860. 



GR.\ND DUKES. 

314. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by 
Murat was defeated, 11 April, 1815. He was 
expelled by his subjects in 1S31, but was 
restored by the Austrians. 

346. Francis V. (born i June, 18 19) succeeds 21 Jan. 
His subjects rose-against him soon after the 
Itahan war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled 



MODERADOS. A political party in Spain, long headed by Ramon Maria Narvaez, duke 
of Valencia (who died 23 April, 1868), and opposed to the Progresistas headed by Espartero, 
and supported bj' Prim. 

MCESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), was finally subdued by Augustus, 29 B.C. 
It was successfully invaded by the Goths, a.d. 250, who eventually settled here ; see Goths. 
MOGULS, see Tartary. 

MOHACZ (Lower Hungary). Here Louis king of Hungary, defeated by the Turks 
under Solyman II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by the fall of his horse 
in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the 
Turks, 12 Aug. 1687. 

MOHAMMERAH, a Persian town near the Euphrates, captured, after two hours' 
cannonading, by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, 26 JMarch, 1857. News of 
the peace arrived there on the 4th of April. 

MOHILOW (Russia). Here the Russian ami}-, under prince Bagration, was signally 
defeated by the French under marshal Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, 23 July, 1812. 

MOHOCKS, ruflians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring the 
men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were offered by royal 
proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them. Northouck. 

MOLDAVIA, see Damibian Principalities. 

MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. 
He maintained the reconcileability of the doctrines of predestination and free will, 1588. 

MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean (the chief island, Amboyna), dis- 
covered by the Portuguese, about 151 1, and held by them secretly until the arrival of 
the Spaniards, who claimed them, till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to John III. 
for a large sum of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them 
ever since, — except from 1810 to 1814, when they were subject to the English. 

MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., 
obtained a great victory over the Imperialists, 10 April (0. S. 30 March), 1741. 



MOL 490 MON 

MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, dis- 
covered molybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with graphite. Hjelm, in 1782, 
prepared the metal from molybdic acid ; and in 1825 Berzelius described most of its 
chemical characters. Gmelin. 

MONACHISM (from the Greek monos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet 
Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early examples. The first 
Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life 
was very austere, practising celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine (306-22) 
numbers of these ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monhs, and 
anchorets ;* of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the 
founder of the Stylitss (or pillar saints), died 451. He is said to have lived on a pillar thirty 
years. St. Benedict, the gi-eat reformer of western monachism, published his rules and 
established his monastery at Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c., 
are varieties of Benedictines. In 964, by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were to 
be replaced by monks. See A hheys, and Benedictines. 

MONACO, a prineipalitj', N. Italy, held by the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By 
treaty on 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of Eoquebrune and Mentone, 
the chief part of his dominions, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The present prince, 
Charles III., born 8 Dec. 1818, succeeded 20 June, 1856.+ Population about 1390. 

MONARCHY. Historians reckon various grand monarchies — the Chaldaean, Assyrian 
Babylonian, Median, Persian, Grecian, and Roman {which see). 

MONASTERIES, see Abbeys. 

MONCONTOUR (near Poitiers, France). Here the admiral Coligny and the French 
Protestants were defeated with great loss by the duke of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), 
3 Oct. 1569. > 

MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian army, commanded by Colli, was defeated 
by Napoleon Bonaparte, 22 April, 1796. 

MONEY is mentioned as a medium of commerce in Genesis xxiii. , i860 B.C., when 
Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The coinage of money is ascribed to 
the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Rt)mans, it having been 
coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of diiferent metals, and 
even of leather and other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of paste- 
board by the Hollanders so late as 1574; see Coin; Gold; Silver ; Copper ; Mint; Banks, 
&c. For Money Orders, see Post Office. 

MONEYERS are mentioned in Alfred's "Domesday-Book." They travelled with our 
early kings, and coined money as required ; see Mwit. 

MONGOLS, see Tariary. 

MONITEUR UNIVERSEL, the official journal of the French government since 1799, 
was established by C. J. Panckoucke in 1789. 

MONITORIAL SYSTEM (in education), in which pupils are employed as teachers, was 
used by Dr. Bell in the Orphan Asylum at Madras in 1795, and was also adopted by Joseph 
Lancaster, in London ; see Bducation. 

MONITOR SHIPS, see United States. The American monitor, Miantonomah, arrived at 
Plymouth in June 1866, and excited much attention. 

MONK, see Monachism. 

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, 9 
April, 1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy "Waters, was banished England for his 
connexion with the Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, 11 June, 1685 ; 
was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 June ; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near Bridgewater, 
6 July ; and beheaded on Tower-hill, 15 July. 

MONOLITH, Greek for single stone ; see Obelish 

MONOPHYSITES, see Eutychians. 

MONOPOLIES were formerly so numerous in England that parliament petitioned against 
them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I., 
1624. In 1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, salt, leather, and other common 
things, to supply a revenue without the help of parliament. It was decreed that none should 
be in future created by royal patent, 16 Chas. I., 1640. 

* The anchorites of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries must not he confounded with the auachorets 
and anchorets, or hermits. The former were confined to solitary cells ; the latter permitted to go where 
they pleased. 

t A commercial convention between the prince and France, signed 9 Nov. 1865, was much discussed 
as tending towards the abolition of the French navigation laws. 



MON 491 MOIST 

MONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed that Jesus Christ had but one will, were 
favoured by the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into the Eutychians {which see) . 

MONROE DOCTEINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James Monroe, 
president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European power to interfere in 
restraining the progress of liberty in North or South America. This doctrine was referred 
to in 1859, with the view of weakening the influence of Great Britain and Spain on the 
American continent, and, in 1865, in relation to the new Mexican empire. 

MONSTER, The, Renwick Williams, who prowled nightly through the streets of 
Loudon, secretly armed with a double-edged knife, with which he shockingly wounded many 
females. He was tried and convicted, 8 July, 1 790 ; see Mohocks. 

MONTALEMBERT'S trial, see France, 1858. 

MONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of Ardaba, in ilysia, about 171 ; who was reputed 
to have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the Comforter promised by Christ. 
He condemned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of marriage, 
forbade the avoiding martj'rdom, and ordered a severe fast of three lents; he hanged himself 
with Maximilla, one of his female scholars, before the close of the and centmry. Cave. The 
eloquent father, TertuUian, joined the sect, 204. 

MONT BLANC, in the Swiss Alps, is the highest mountain in Europe, being 15,781 
feet above the level of the sea. The summit was first reached by Saussure, aided by a guide 
named Balraa, on 2 Aug. 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. Hamel (when three of his 
guides perished) in 1820, and by many other persons before and since. Accounts of the 
ascents of Mr. John Aldjo, Charles Fellows (1827), and of professor Tyndall (1857-8) have 
been published ; ste, Alps. 

MONTEBELLO, in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians, 9 June, iSoo, and 
acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where (20 May, 1859), after a contest of six 
hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 1000 killed and 
wounded, and 200 prisoners. The French lost about 670 men, including general Beuret. 

MONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here Benedict formed his first monastery, 529. 
After affording a refuge for many eminent persons, its monastic character was abolished by the 
Italian government in 1866, care being taken for the xn'eservation of its historical and 
literary monuments. 

MONTEM, see Eton. 

MONTEi^EGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was conquered by 
Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled in the i8th century, and established a hereditary 
hierarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegosch, — permitted, but not recog- 
nised by the Porte. 

The nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter 1 Succeeded by his nephew Nicolas (married), 

II., declined to assume the ecclesiastical I 8 Nov. i860 

function, and declared himself a temporal j An insurrection in the Herzegovina, favoured 

prince, with the title of Daniel I., 1 851 ; and 
began war with Turkey 1852 

Jlontenegro put in a state of blockade, 14 Dec. ,, 

After indecisive encounters, tranquillity re- 
stored by the influence of the arms and ne- 
gotiations of Omar Pacha, the general of the 



by the Montenegrmes ; the blockade of Mon- 
tenegro 4 AprU, 1861 

Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army 
of 32,000 men in . . ." . . Aug. ,, 

Jluny conflicts with various success, but lat- 
terly in favour of the Turks ; peace made, 



Turkish army ; he left the province, 25 Feb. 1S53 j Turkish supremacy recognised 8-9 Sept. 1802 

Blockade raised .... 10 April, ,, 1 Hco Herzegovina. 

War again broke out ; the Turks defeated at ' princes. 

Grahovo, June ; peace lestored . .Nov. 1858 1851. Daniel, bom 25 May, 1826; assassinated. 

The country much disturbed through the 13 Aug. 1S60. 

tyrannical conduct of prince Daniel, who 11860. Nicolas (nephew), bom 1840. 

was assassinated (aged 35) . .13 Aug. i860 1 

MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, memorable as being the site of the first victory 
gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, 12 April, 1796. 

MONTEREAU (near Paris). On the bridge of ]\Iontereau, at his meeting with the 
dauphin, John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by Tanneguy de Chatel in 1419. 
This event led to our Henry V. subduing France, the young dulce Philip joining the English. 
Here the allied armies were defeated by the French, commanded by Napoleon, with great 
loss in killed and wounded ; but it was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814. 

MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict with the 
Mexicans, 2ir23 Sept. 1846. 

MONTE- VIDEO (S. America), was taken by storm by the British forces under sir Samuel 
Auchmuty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our brave troops, 3 Feb. 1807. It was 
evacuated 7 July, the same year, in consequence of the severe repidse the British met with at 



MON 492 MOK 

Buenos- Ayres ; see Buenos- Ay res. Monte-Video, a subject of dispute between Brazil and 
Buenos-Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, 1828. For recent war, see Brazil, and Uruguay. 

MONTFEKRAT (Lombardy), House of, celebrated in the history of the Crusades, 
began with Alderan, who was made marquess of Montferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad 
of Montferrat became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1 187 till 1 191, when he was assassinated. 
William IV. died in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus imprisoned nineteen months, 
1292. Violante, daughter of John XL, married Andronicus Palseologus, emperor of the East. 
Their descendants ruled in Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John George 
Palaeologus died without issue. His estates passed after much contention to Frederic II. 
Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536. 

MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United States, founded 181 7. Here the state 
convention passed the ordinance of secession from the union on 11 Jan. 1861 ; here the 
confederate congress met on 4 Feb. and elected Jefferson Davis president, and Alexander 
Stephens vice-president, of the confederate states of North America ; and here they were 
inaugurated on 18 Feb. On 21 May the congress adjourned to meet on 20 July at Richmond, 
in Virginia, that state having joined the confederates and become the seat of war. 

MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, were first 
established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462, et seq. The Fran- 
ciscans, in 1493, began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope, in 15 15. Monts 
de Piete were established in France 1777 ; were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored, 
1804; regulated by law, 1851-2 ; see Paw7il>roMng. 

MONTIEL (Spain), Battle of, 14 March, 1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of 
Castile, and his brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the French warrior, Bertram du 
Guesclin. Peter was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously slain. 

MONTLHERY (Seine-et-Oise, France), site of an indecisive battle between Louis XL 
and a party of his nobles, termed " The League of the Public Good," 16 July, 1465. 

MONTMIRAIL (Marne, France). Here Napoleon defeated the allies 11 Feb. 1814. 

MONTPELLIER (S. France), built in the 8th century, prospered as the neighbouring 
city Maguelonne decreased. It was acquired by marriage by the king of Aragon, 1204 ; by 
the king of Majorca, 1276 ; was ceded to France, 1349 ; was given to Charles the Bad, king 
of Navarre, in exchange for Mantes, &c., 1365 ; sequestered by France, 1678. It was seized 
by the Huguenots early in the reign of Henry III., and held by them till Sept. 1622, when 
it surrendered after a long siege, followed by a treaty of peace, 20 Oct. 

MONTREAL, the second city in Lower Canada, built by the French, about 1642. 

Surrendered to the English . . 8 Sept. 1760 
Taken by the Americans . . 12 Nov. 1775 

Retaken by the British . . .15 June, 1776 
The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many 

buildings burnt down . . .6 Jane, 1803 
Great military affray ... 29 Sept. 1833 

Bishopric founded 1836 

The self-styled "loyalists" of Montreal assault 

the governor-general, lord Elgin ; enter the 

parliament-house, drive out the members, 

MONTSERRAT, a W. India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the 
British in 1632. It has several times been taken by the French, but was secured to the 
British in 1783. 

MONUMENT of LONDON, built by sir Christopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is 
forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the distance of its base from 
the spot where the fire which it commemorates commenced. It is the loftiest isolated column 
in the world. Its erection cost about 14,500?. The staircase is of black marble, consisting 
of 345 steps.* Of the four original inscriptions, three were Latin, and the following in 
English, — cut in i68r, obliterated by James II. ; re-cut in the reign of William III. ; and 
finally erased by order of the common council, 26 Jan. i83i.t 

THTS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPETVAL REMEMBRANCE OF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OP THIS 
PROTESTANT CITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y^ TREACHERY AND MALICE OP Y' POPISH PACTION, IN 
Y« BEGINNING OF SEPTEM. IN Y= Y^EAR OP OUR LORD 1666, IN ORDER TO Y« CARRYING ON THEIR 
HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y^ PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND Y' 
INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 

* 'William Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, 25 June, 1750. A man named Thomas Craddook, 
a baker, precipitated himself from its summit, 7 July, 1780. Mr. Lyon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, 
of considerable respectability, threw himself from it, 18 Jan. 1810 ; as did more recently three other 
persons : in consequence of which a fence was placed round the raihngs of the gallery in 1839. 
t They produced Pope's indignant lines :— 

" Where London's column, pointing at the skies, 
Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." 



and set fire to the building . . 25 April, 1849 

A bishopric established „ 

A destructive fire 23 Aug. 1S50 

Another, destroying 1200 houses; the loss esti- 
mated at a million sterling . . 12 July, 1852 
At an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots 

ensued, and many lives were lost 10 June, 1853 
The cathedral destroyed by fire . . 10 Dec. 1856 
Victoria railway bridge {which see) formally 
opened by the prince of Wales . 25 Aug. i860 



MOO 



493 



MOR 



MOODKEE (India). Here, on i8 Dec. 1845, the Siklis attacked the advanced guard of 
the British, and were repulsed three rniles, losing many men and fifteen pieces of cannon. 
Sir Robert Sale was mortally wounded. Lady Sale signalised herself during the two meniorablo 
retreats from AfTghanistan. The battle followed that of Ferozeshah {which sec). 

MOOLTAN (N.W. India), an aucient city, was stormed by Runjeet Sing, 1818. Here 
his son, Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, treacherously murdered Mr. Vans Agnew and lieu- 
tenant Anderson, 21 April, 1848. Several conflicts took place between the British and 
the Sikhs, in which the latter were beaten, and Mooltan taken after a protracted siege, 2-22 
Jan. 1849. 

MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 
640 B.C. Hipparchus made observations on the moon at Rhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius ac- 
counted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 79 B.C. Diog. Laert. 



Maps of the moon constructed by Hevelius, 
1647 ; Cassini ....... 1680 

Beer and Madler's map published . . . 1834 

Professor John PhiUips invited the British 
Association to make arrangements to obtain 
a " systematic representation of the physical 
aspect of the moon " 

Photographs of the moon taken and exhibited 
by Mr. Warren De la Rue 



1862 



1S57 



Hansen's "Tables of the Moon," calculated at 
the expense of the British and Danish 
governments, published at the cost of the 
latter 1857 

The British Association "lunar committee" 
publish tv70 sections of a map of the moon, 
on a scale of 200 inches to her diameter July, 1867 
See Eclipse. 



MOORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania (which see), but afterwards the name given 
to the Numidians and others, and now applied to the natives of Morocco and the neighbour- 
hood. They assisted Genseric and the Vandals in their invasion of Africa, 429, and fre- 
quently rebelled against the Roman emperors. They resisted for a time the progress of the 
Arab Mahometans, but were overcome in 707, and in 1019 by them introduced into Spain, 
where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 they were defeated in Sicily by Roger Guis- 
card. The Moorish kingdom of Grenada was set u]) in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it 
fell before Ferdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal discord. The expulsion of the 
Moors from Spain was decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried into effect till 1609, when 
the bigotry of Philip III. inflicted this great injury to his country. About 1518 the Moors 
established tlie piratical states of Algiers and Tunis {which see). In the history of Spain, the 
Arabs and Moors must not be confounded. 

MORAL PHILOSOPHY, the science of ethics, defined as the knowledge of our duty, and 
the art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates (about 430 B.C.) is regarded as the father of 
ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) of modern moral philosophy ; see Philosophy. 

MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Burgundy was completely defeated by 
the Swiss, 22 June, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones of the vanquished, was 
destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone column in its place. 

MORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by the Slavonians about 548, and conquered 
by the Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charlemagne. About 1000 it was subdued 
by Boleslas of Poland, but recovered by Ulric of Bohemia in 1030. After various changes, 
Moravia and Bohemia were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 1526. Moravia was 
invaded by the Prussians in 1866, and they establislied their head quarters at Briinn, the 
capital, on 13 July. 

MORAVIANS, or United Brethren, said to have been part of the Hussites, who with- 
drew into Moravia in the 15th century ; but the Brethren assert that their sect was derived 
from the Greek church in the 9th century. In 1722 they formed a settlement (called Herrn- 
hui, the watch of the Lord), on the estate of count Zinzendorf. Their church consisted of 
500 persons in 1727. They were introduced into England by count Zinzendorf abotit 1738 ; 
he died at Chelsea in June, 1760. In 1851 they had thirty-two chapels in England. They 
are zealous missionaries, and founded the settlements in foreign parts, about 1732. 

MORAY FLOODS, see Inundations, 1829. 

MORDAUNT, see Administrations, 1689. 

MORDEN COLLEGE (Blackheath), alms-houses for decayed merchants, with pensions, 
established by sir John Morden, 1695; opened 1702. Low. 

MOREA, a name given to the Peloponnesus in the 13th century; see Greece. 

MORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The colony founded here in 1859 has since been 
named Qiceen''s-land {ivhichsee). 

MORGANATIC MARRIAGES. When the left hand is given instead of the right, be- 
tween a man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in which it is stipulated that the 
latter and her children shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the possessions of the former. The 
children are legitimate. Such marriages are frequently contracted in Germany by royalty 



MOR 



494 



MOR 



and the higher nobility. Our George I. was thus married ; and later, the king of Denmark 
to the countess of Banner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; and several Austrian princes, recently. 

MOEGARTEN (Switzerland), Battle of. Here 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, 
commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated, 15 Nov. 13 15, upon the 
heights of IMorgarten, overlooking the defile through which the enemy was to enter their 
territory from Zug. 

MORICE DANCE, an ancient dance peculiar to some of the country parts of England, 
and, it is said, also to Scotland : it was x^erformed before James I. in Herefordshire. 

MOEMONITES (calling themselves the Church of Jesiis Christ of Latter-day Saints). 
This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, called the prophet, who announced in 1823, 
at Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of the angel Moroni. In 1827 he said that 
he found the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in Egyptian characters. This book, 
there is good reason to believe, was written about 1812, by a clergyman named Solomon 
Spaulding, as a religious romance in imitation of the scripture style. It was translated and 
published in America in 1830, in England in 1841. It fell into the hands of Rigdon and 
Smith, who determined to palm it off as a new revelation. The Mormonites command the 
payment of tithes, permit polygamy, encourage labour, and believe in their leaders working 
miracles. Missionaries are propagating these doctrines in Europe with more success than 
would be expected (1868). 



i8s7 



The Mormonites organise a church at Kirkland, 

Ohio 1830 

They found Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri, 183 1-2 
"From 1833 to 1839 the sect endured much per- 
secution, and, driven from jplace to place, 

■was compelled to travel westwards ; till the 

city Nauvoo on the Mississippi was laid out, 

and a temple was built .... 1 840-1 
Joseph and his brother Hyram, when in prison 

on a charge of treason, shot by an infuriated 

mob, and Brigham Young chosen seer June, 1S44 
Much harassed by their neighbours, departure 

from Nauvoo determined on . . . . 1845 
The Great Salt Lake chosen "for an everlasting 

abode," and taken possession of . 24 July, 1847 
The valley surveyed by order of the United 

States government 1849 

The provisional government abolished and the 

Utah territory recognised by the United 

States ; Brigham Young appointed the first 

governor ; and the university of Deser^t was 

founded 1849-50 

The population, 11,354 . . ... 1851 

The crops at the Utah settlement said to be 

destroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1855 
The United States judge at Utah resigned from 

MOROCCO, an empire in North Africa, formerly Mauritania (•zf/ws/i see). In 105 1 it 
was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the Almoravides, who eventually extended their 
dominion into Spain. These were succeeded by the Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), 
and in 1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. 
The Moors have had frequent wars with the Spaniards and Portugiiese, due to piracy. 



inability to discharge his functions, in conse- 
quence of the violent and treasonable con- 
duct of the Mormons, and their leader, 
Brigham Young 

A conference of Mormon elders, &c., was held 
in London, ^t which most offensive speeches 
were naade and songs sung advocating poly- 
gamy I Sept. ,, 

The United States government sent an army to 
Utah : a compromise was entered into, and 
peace was established by governor Cummings 
in June, 1858 

A Mormonite meeting at Southampton, 18 Feb. 1861 

A French Mormonite priest preached at Paris 
in Oct. 1S62 

" Latter-day Saints' " meetings held in London 1865 

Utah settlement visited by Hepworth Dixon : 
he stated that it contamed zoo,ooo persons, 
and an army of 20,000 rifles. "New Ame- 
rica," pubhshed in 1867 1S66 

Reported schisms : through increasing oppo- 
sition to polygamy .... June, 1867 

Synod held in Store-street, London (London 
conference said to include 1172 members) 

5 April, 1868 



Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes 

with his army at the battle of Alcazar, 4 Aug. 1578 
Tangiers {which see) acquired by England, 1662 ; 

given up . 1683 

The Moors attack the French in Algeria at the 

instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the pi-ince de 

Joinville bombards Tangiers, 6 Aug., and 

Mogador 16 Aug. 1844 

Marshal Bugeaud defeats the Moors at the river 

Isly, and acquires the title of duke 14 Aug. ,, 
Peace between Fi-ance and Morocco . 10 Sept. ,, 
The Spaniards, who possess several places on 

the coast of Moi-occo (Ceuta, Penon de Valez, 

&c.), having suffered much annoyance by 

Moorish pirates, declare war . 22 Oct. 1859 

MORPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium by Sertiirner, in 1803. 

MORRILL TARIFF, see United States, 1861. 

MORTALITY TABLES have been frequently compiled. The Northampton tables (for 
1735-80), by Dr. Price; the Carlisle tables (for 1780-87), by Dr. Hailsham ; see Bills qf 
Mortality. 



Negotiations fruitless: the Spanish govern- 
ment increasing their demands as the sultan 
yielded ; the English government interfered 
in vain. For the war, see Spa in. . . 1859-60 

A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time 
of Charles II.) in London. (He gave 200?. to 
the lord mayor for the London charities) 

June- Aug. i860 

The British government gave a guarantee for a 
loan of 426,000^. to the sultan to meet his 
engagements with Spain . . 24 Oct. 1861 

SULTANS. 

1S22. Muley Abderrahman. 
1859. Sidi Mohammed, Sept. 



' MOR 495 MOS 

MORTAEA ABDUCTION, see Jeios, 1858. 

MORTARS, a short gun with large bore, and close chamber, for throwing bombs ; said to 
have been used at ISTaples in 1435, and first made in England in 1543. The mortar left b}- 
Soult in Spain was iixed in St. James's-park in Aug. 1816. On 19 Oct. 1857, a colossal 
mortar, constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was tried at Woolwich ; with a charge of 70 lbs. 
it threw a shell weighing 2550 lbs. li mile horizontally, and about f mile in height. 

MORTELLA TOWERS, see Martello Towers. 

MORTIMER'S CROSS (Herefordshire). Tlie earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians 
were here severely defeated by the young duke of York, afterwards Edward IV., 2 Feb. 
1461. He assumed the throne as Edward IV. in March following. 

MORTMAIN ACT [mort main, dead hand). When the survey of all the land in Eng- 
land was made by William I., 1085-6, the whole was found to amount to 62,215 knights' 
fees, of which the church then possessed 28,015, to which additions were afterwards made, 
till the 7th of Edward I., 1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, from a fear that 
the estates of the church might grow too bulky. By this act it was made unlawful to give 
any estates to the church ^Ndthout the king's leave ; and this act, by a supplemental pro- 
vision, was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corporations, in the 15 th of Richard II., 
1391. Mortmain being such a state of possession as makes property inalienable, it is said to 
be in a dead hand. Several statutes have been passed on this subject ; legacies b}^ mort- 
main were especially restricted by the lotli Geo. II., 1736. 

MOSAIC WORK (the Roman opus tessellatum), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably 
referred to in Esther, ch. v. 6, about 519 B.C. It had attained to great excellence in Greece, 
in the time of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of Pergamus, the most renowned 
Mosaic artist of antiquitj', flourished. He acquired great fame by his accurate representa- 
tion of an "unswept floor after a feast." The Romans also excelled in Mosaic work, as 
evidenced by the innumerable specimens jtreserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 
4th century after Christ. The art was revived in Italy by Tafi, Gaddi, Cimabue, and 
Giotto, who designed Mosaics, and introduced a higher st3'-le in the 13th century. 
In the i6th century Titian and Veronese also designed subjects for this art. The prac- 
tice of copying paintings in Mosaics came into vogue in the 1 7th century ; and there 
is now a workshop in the Vatican where chemical science is employed in the produc- 
tion of colours, and where 20,000 different tints are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice 
had established his manufacture of "Enamel-mosaics," and in July, 1864, he fixed a large 
enamel Mosaic picture in one of the spandrils under the dome of St. Paul's cathedral, Lon- 
don. He has since executed commissions for the queen and other persons. 

MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was founded it is said by Dolgorouki, about 
1 147. The occupation of the south of Russia by the Mongols, in 1235, led to Moscow 
becoming the capital, and beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes became the reigning 
dynasty. It is regarded as a holy city by the Russians. 

Cathedral of the Assumption built, 1326 ; of 
the Transfiguration 1328 

The ICremlin foiuided 1367 

Moscow plundered by Timour . . . 1382 

By the Tartars 14S1, 1477 

Massacre of Demetrius and his Polish ad- 
herents, the " Matins of Moscow " 27 May, 1606 

Moscow ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in . 161 1 

The university founded 1705 

MOSKIRCH (Baden). Here the Austrians were defeated by Moreau and the French, 
5 May, 1800. 

MOSKAVA or Borodixo, Battle of ; see Borodino. 

MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). The Indians inhabiting this coast were long 
under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a group of islands in the bay of 
Honduras. The jealousy of the United States long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, 
the two governments covenanted not " to occupy, or fortif}', or colonise, or assume, or exer- 
cise any dominion over any part of Central America." In 1855 the United States charged 
the British government with an infraction of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede 
the disputed territory to the republic of Honduras, with some reservation.* The matter 
was finally settled in 1859. 

MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in 
the mosses on the borders of Scotland. They were not extirpated till the i8th century. 

* St. Juan del Kovte (Grey town) was held by the British on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American 
adventurers, under col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sept. 1855. He joined Walker ; and on 10 Feb. 1856, 
their associate Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito territory to Nicaragua. 



Entered by Napoleon I. and the French, 14 
Sept. ; the governor, Rostopohin, ordered it 
to be set on fire (11,840 houses burnt, besides 
palaces and churches) . . 15 Sept. 1812 

The French evacuate Moscow . . . Oct. „ 
Railway to St. Petersburg opened . . . 1851 

Industrial exhibition . . . i6July, 1S65 



MOT 496 MUN 

MOTTOES, Royal. Dieu et mon Droit, first used by Eichard I., 1198. Ich dien, "I 
serve," adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Honi soit qui 
tnal y pense, the motto of the Garter, 1349. Je maintiendrai, "I will maintain," adopted 
by William III, to which he added, in 1688, "the liberties of England and the Protestant 
religion." Semper eadem, was assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by queen 
Anne, 1702. See ihevi severally. 

MOUNtAIN PARTY, see Cluhs, French. 

MOUNT EVEREST, 29,002 feet high, the highest point in the Himalayas and as yet 
known in the world, was named after the late sir George Everest, superintendent of the 
trigonometrical survey of India in Dec. 1843, by his successor col. Andrew Waugh. 

MOUNTS, see Et7ia, Hecla, Vesuvius, Bernard, Calvary, and Olivet. 

MOURNING FOE, THE Dead. The Israelites neither washed nor anointed themselves 
during the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted seven days ; upon extraordinary 
occasions a month. The Greeks and Romans fasted. White was used in mourning for the 
imperial family at Constantinople, 323. The ordinary colour for mourning in Europe is 
black ; in China, white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; it was white in Spain 
until 1498. Anne of Brittany, the queen of two successive kings of France, moiirned in 
black, instead of the then practice of wearing white, on the death of her first husband, 
Charles VIII. , 7 April, 1498. Menault. 

MOUSQUETAIRES or Musketeers, horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised 
by Louis XIII. , 1622. This corps was considered a military school for the French nobility. 
It was disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A second company was created in 1660, 
and formed cardinal Mazarine's gtiard. Henault. 

MOZAMBIQUE, on an island, chief of the Portuguese territories, E. Africa, was visited 
by Vasco de Gama, 1498 ; conquered by the Portuguese under Tristan da Cunha and 
AJbuquerque, 1506 ; a settlement was established 1508. 

MUCKER {hypocrites), a German sect ; see Ebelians. 

MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludowic Muggleton, a tailor, known about 1641, 
and prominent about 1656. He and John Reeve affirmed that God the Father, leaving the 
government of heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a human form. They 
asserted that they were the two last witnesses of God which should appear before the end of 
the world. Rev. xi. 3. A sect of this name still exists. 

MXJHLBERG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here the German protestants were defeated by the 
emperor Charles V., 24 April, 1547. 

MUHLDORF (Bavaria). Near this place Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and 
taken prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, 28 Sept. 1322. 

MULBERRY TREES. The alleged first planted in England are in the gardens of Sion- 
house. Shakspeare planted a mulberry- tree with' his own hands at Stratford-upon-Avon ; 
and Garrick, Mackliu, and others were entertained under it in 1742, Shakspeare's house 
was afterwards sold to a clergyman of the name of Gastrel, who cut down the mulberry-tree 
for fuel, 1 765 ; but a silversmith purchased the whole, and manufactured it into memorials. 

MULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779, by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, 
Lancashire, in 1753; named, from Cromp ton's residence, Sall-in-the-wood-wheel ; and muslin- 
wheel, from its giving birth to the British muslin and cambric manufacture ; and mule, from 
its combining the advantages of Hargreave's spinning jenny, and Arkwright's adaptation. 
It is stated that Crompton at the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not patent his 
invention, but gave it up in 1780. It produced yarn treble the fineness and very much 
softer than any ever before produced in England. Parliament voted him 5000Z. in 1812, 
now considered a most inadequate compensation. Mr. Roberts invented the self-actinrj mule 
in 1825. 

MULHOUSE or Mulhausen (N.E. France), an imperial city, rinder Rodolph of Haps- 
burg; joined the Swiss confederation in 1515 ; and annexed to France in 1798. 

MUMMIES (from the Arabic mum, wax) ; see Embalming. The mummies in the British 
Museum, with other Egyptian antiquities, were placed there about 1803. Mr. Alex. Gordon, 
in 1737, published an essay on three Egyptian mummies, one of which was brought to Eng- 
land in 1722 by capt.Wm. LethieuUier ; two others came in 1734, one of which Avas retained 
by Dr. Mead, the other was given to the College of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. T. J. Pettigrew 
published a " History of Egyptian Mummies." 

MUNCHENGRATZ (Bohemia) was taken by the Prussians under prince Frederick 
Charles, after a severe action, 28 June, 1866. The Austrians lost about 300 killed and looo 
prisoners, and the prince gained about 12 miles of country. 



MUN 497 MUS 

MUNDA (now Mouda, S. Spain). Here Julius Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey, 17 
March, 45 B.C., after a severe conflict. 

MUNDANE ERAS. That of Alexandria fixed the creation at 5502 B.C. This compu- 
tation continued till a.d, 284. Alex, era, 5786 ; but in a.d. 285 ten years were subtracted, 
and 5787 became 5777. This coincided with the Mundane era of Antioch (which dated the 
creation 5492 B.C.) Nicolas. 

MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, was founded, it is said, 962. It was taken by Gustavus 
Adoljihus of Sweden in 1632; by the Austrians, in 1704, 1741, and 1743 ; and by the French 
under Moreau, 2 July, 1800. It abounds in schools, institutions, and mauufactorics. The 
university was founded by king Louis in 1S26. 

MUNICIPAL CORPOKATIONS, &c. ; see Corporrdions. 

MUNSTER (W. Prussia). The bishopric, said to have been founded by Charlemagne, 
780, was secularised in 1802 ; seized by the French, 1806 ; part of the duchy of Berg, 1809 ; 
annexed to France, 1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. The Anabaptists, under John of Leyden, 
the king of Munster, held the city in 1534-5. Here was signed the treaty of Westphalia 
{ivhich sec) or Munster, 24 Oct. i648.' — Munster, the southern province of Ireland. In 
1568 a commission was issued for its government by a president and council, and new colo- 
nies Avere founded in 1588. 

MUEADAL, see Toloso. 

MURCIA, a province, N.E. Spain, was subdued by the Moors, 713 ; by Ferdinand of 
Castile, 1240; and divided between Castile and Arragon, 1305. 

MURDER, the highest offence against the law of God. (Genesis ix. 6, 2348 B.C.). A 
court of Ephetre was established by Demophobn of Athens for the trial of murder, 1 1 79 E. c. 
The Persians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the heptarchy, 
mm-der was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII. 's time the crime was compounded 
for in Wales. Murderers were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggi-avated murder, or 
IKtit treason (a distinction now abolished), happened in three ways ; by a servant killing his 
master, a Avife her husband, and an ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw._ III. 
1350. The enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful commission 
has been rarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act whereby the murderer should be exe- 
cuted on the day next but one after his conviction, was repealed, 1836 ; see Executions and 
Trials. 

MURET (S. France). Here the Albigenses, under the count of Thoulouse, were defeated 
by Simon de Montfort, and theii- ally Peter of Arragon killed, 12 Sept. 1213. 

MURFREESBO ROUGH (Tennessee, N. America) was the site of fierce conflicts between 
the federals under Rosencrans and the confederates under Bragg, from 31 Dec. 1862 to 3 Jan. 
1863, when Bragg retired with great loss. Thisstruggle is called also the battle of Stone River. 

MURIATIC ACID, see Alkali. 

MUSCAT (an Arab state on the gulf of Oman) was conquered by the Portuguese under 
Albuquerque in 1507, but recovered by the Arabs in 1648. Sultan Seid, an able sovereign, 
reigned from 1803 to 1856, wdien his dominions were divided between tw'o of his sons. 

]\IUSEUM, originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Prytaueum of Athens, 
where eminent learned men were maintained by the public. The fomnlation is attributed 
to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 284 B.C. Besides the British 
Museum, Soane's JMuseum, and the Museum of Geology {vMick sec), there are very many 
others in London. 

MUSIC* " Jubal, the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ " (3875 B.C., 
Gen. iii. 21). Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds. 
Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal Cain. Camelcon Pon- 
tique and others to the singing of birds ; and Zarlino to the sound of water dropping, &c. 
The flute, and harmonj^, or concord in music, are said to have been invented by Hyagnis, 
1506. B.C. Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 B.C. 
Bufresnoy ; see Organ, and other musical instruments. 

MUSIC IN England. Before the Reformation, there was but one kind of music in 
Europe Avorth notice, namely, the sacred chant, and the descant built upon it. This music, 
moreover, was applied to one language only, the Latin. Aslic. Prior to 1600, the chief music 
was masses, ballads, and madrigals, but dramatic music was much cultivated from that time. 

* Pythagoras (about 555 B.C.) ruaintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce 
delightful sounds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called "the music of the spheres."- St. Cecilia, 
a Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel was enticed from the celestial 
regions by the fascinating charms of her melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed suffi- 
cient authority to make her the i^atroness of music and musicians. She died in the third century. 

K K 



MUS 



498 



MUT 



About the end of James I. 's reign, a music professorship was founded in the university of 
Oxford by Ur. Wm. Hychin; and the year 1710 was distinguished bythe arrival in England 
of George Frederick Handel. Mozart came to England in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; and 
Carl Maria von Weber in 1825. 

instead of notes, was invented by Miss Glover, of 
Norwich, and improved by John Curwen, about 



Musical Notes, &c. The first six are said to have 
been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 
monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. The notes at 
present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint 
was brought to perfectionbyPalesti-inaabouti555. 
Gafforio of Lodi read lectures on musical compo- 
sition in the 15th centui-y, and they effected great 
improvement in the science. The Italian style of 
composition was introduced into these countries 
about 1 61 6. 

The Musical Pitch was settled in France in i860. 
The middle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. 
At a meeting on the subject, held at the Society of 
Arts, in 23 Nov. 1S60, the concert pitch of C was 
recommended to be 528 vibrations in a second. 
Mr. HuUah adopted 512 vibrations. 

Musical Festivals in England. Dr. Bysse, chan- 
cellor of Hereford, proposed to the members of the 
choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after 
morning service, when forty guineas were col- 
lected and appropriated to charitable pui-poses. 
It was then agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, 
Gloucester, and Worcester, in rotation annually. 
Until the year 1753, the festival lasted only two 
days ; it was then extended at Hereford to three 
evenings ; and at Gloucester, in 1757, to three 
mornings, for the purpose of introducing Handel's 
" Messiah," which was warmly received, and has 
been performed annually ever since. Musical fes- 
tivals on a great scale are now annually held at 
various cathedrals in England ; see Handel and 
Crystal Palace. 

Study of music greatly increased by the teaching 
of John HuUah since 1840. 

The Tonic sol-fa system, in which the letters d, r, m, 
f, S; I, t, (for do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, or si) are used 



Musical Institutions. The Ancient Academy of 
Music was instituted in 17 10. It originated with 
numerous eminent performers and gentlemen 
wishing to promote the study of vocal harmony. 

The Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and 
other musical societies followed. 

The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal 
nobility and gentry uniting to proniote the per- 
formance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. 

The Philharmonic concerts began in 1813. 

The Royal Academy of Music, established 1822, 
(v;hich see). 

Sacred Harmonic Society, Exeter hall, established 
1831. 500th pei-formance, 13 Dec. 1867. 

The Musical Society of Loudon established 1858. 

The "Popular Monday Concerts" at St. James's 
Hall commenced with a " Mendelssohn night " on 
14 Feb. 1859. 

The London Academy of Music founded in i860. 

The centenary of the " Noblemen's Catch Club " was 
kept in July, 1861. 

The Cecilian Society, London, founded about 1785 ; 
ceased in 1862. 

The "Musical Education Committee " of the Society 
of Arts, London, with the prince of "Wales as 
chairman, held its first meeting 22 May, 1865. Its 
fii-st report, dated 27 June, 1866, recommended the 
reconstitution of the Royal Academy. 

Musical Charities. Royal Society of Musicians, 
established 1738 ; incorporated 1790. 

Royal Society of Female Musicians, established 1839. 

Choir Benevolent Fund, 1851. 



EMINENT MODERN MUSICAL COMPO.SEBS. 





Born 


Died 




Sorn 


Died 


Born 


Tallis . 




1585 


C. Gluck . 


■ 17^4 


1787 


F. Mendelssohn- ') „ 
Bartholdy . r^°9 


Palestrina 


1529 


1594 


"W. A. Mozart . 


• 1756 


1791 


T. Morley . 




1604 


Joseph Haydn 


• 1732 


1809 


L. Spohr . . . 1783 


Orlando Gibbons 


1583 


1624 


C. Dibdin 


• 1748 


1814 


D. T. Auber . . 1784 


H. Lawes 


1600 


1662 


S. Webbe . 


• 1740 


1817 


J. Meyerbeer . . 1794 


LuUy 


1633 


1672 


J. W. Callcott . 


. 1766 


1821 


J. E. Halevy . . 1799 


Purcell 


1658 


1695 


C. Weber . 


. 1786 


1826 


J. Rossini . . . 1792 


J. Seb. Bach* . 


168s 


1754 


L. Beethoven . 


• 1770 


1827 


M. W. Balfe . . 1808 


G. F. Handel 


1684 


1759 


H. Bishop . 


• 1787 


1855 


W.Sterndale Bennett 1816 


T. A. Arne 


1710 


1778 


M. Cherubini . 


. 1760 


1842 





Died 



1862 



MUSICAL GLASSES, see under Harmonic. 

MUSKETS, see Fire-arms. The musketry school at Hythe was established under sir 
John Hay in 1854. He resigned in 1867, and issued a report testifj'ing to immense improve- 
ment in shooting at a target by the pupils. 

MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is said, as not being bare, but having a downy 
nap on its surface, resembling moss, which the French call motvsse. According to others, 
because it was first brought from Moussol, in India. Muslins were first worn in England 
in 1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule {which see), British have superseded India 
muslins. 

MUTA (Syria). Here Mahomet and his followers defeated the Christians in his first 
conflict with them, 629. 

MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, ■ 
either makes no answer, or answers foreign to 
to torture. 



when, being arraigned for treason or felony, he 
the purpose. Anciently, amute was subjected 



Walter Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., 
having murdered two of his children, and stabbed 
his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for 
his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was 
thereupon pressed to death in the castle, a large 



iron weight being placed upon his breast, 5 Aug. 
1605. Stow. 
Major Strange way suffered death in a similar manner 
at Newgate for the murder of his brother-in-law, 
Mr. Fussell, 1657. 



* He had eleven sons ; four of them distinguished musicians. 



MUT 



499 



MYS 



MUTE, continued. 

Judgment was awarded against mwtes, as if they 
were convicted or had confessed, by 12 Geo. III., 
1772. 

A man refusing to plead was condemned and execu- 
ted at the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, 



and another on a charge of burglary at Wells, 
1792. 
An act passed by which the court is directed to 
enter a plea of "not guilty" when the prisoner 
will not plead, 1827. 



MUTINA (now Modeua), N. Italy. Here Mark Antony, after defeating the consnl 
Pansa, was himself beaten with great loss by Hirtius the other consul, and compelled to fly 
to Ganl, 43 B.C. 

MUTIISriES, British. The mutiny throughout the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance 
of wages, April, 1797. It subsided on a promise from the Admiralty, which not being 
quickly fulfilled, occasioned a second mutiny on board the London man-of-war ; admiral 
Colpoys, and his captain, were put into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, whereby 
some lives were lost. The mutiny subsided 10 May, 1797, when an act was passed to raise 
the wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. 



Mutiny on board admiral Mitchell's fleet at Bantry 
Bay, Dec. 1801, and January following (see Bantry 
Bay). 

Mutiny at Malta, began 4 April, 1S07, and ended on 
the 12th, when the mutineers blew themselves up 
by setting fire to a large magazine, consisting of 
between 400 and 500 barrels of gunpowder. 
See Madras, 1806, and India, 1857. 



Mutiny of the Bounty, 28 April, 1789 ; see Bounty. 

Mutiny at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of 
the Thames, broke out on 27 Jlay, 1797, and sub- 
sided 13 June, 1797, when the principal mutineers 
were put in irons, and several executed (including 
the ringleader, nicknamed rear-admiral Richard 
Parker), 30 June, at Sheerness. 

Mutiny of the Banal- frigate ; the crew carried the 
ship into Brest harbour, 27 March, 1800. 

MUTINY ACT for the discipline, regi;lation, and payment of the army, &c., was passed 
in 1689, and has since been re-enacted annually. 

MYCALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), Battle of, fought between the Greeks (under 
Leotychides, the king of Sparta, and Xantippns the Athenian) and the Persians, 
22 Sept. 479 B. c. ; being the day on which Mardonius Avas defeated and slain at Platrea by 
Pausanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), who had just returned from the unsuccessful 
expedition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely defeated, thousands of them slaughtered, 
and their camp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos with an immense booty. 

MYCENjE, a division of the kingdom of the Argives, in the Peloponnesus. It stood 
about fifty stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidas. 



Perseus removes from Argos, and founds My- 

cena; B.C. 1431, 1313, or 1282 

Reign of Enrystheus . . 1289, 1274, or 1258 
[Towards the close of his reign is placed the 
story of the laboiurs sm-mounted by Her- 
cules.] 
jEgisthus assassinates Atreus .... 1201 
Agamemnon succeeds to the throne ; becomes 

king of Sicyon, Corinth, and perhaps of Argos ,, 
He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 
going to the Trojan war . . . about 1193 



iEgistbus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives 

in adultery with the queen Olytemnestra. On 

the return of the king they assassinate him ; 

and jEgisthus mounts the throne . . B.C. 11 83 

Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother 

and her paramour 1176 

Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent . . . 1106 

The A chaians are expelled , 

Invasion of the Heraclida;, and the conquerors 

divide the dominions 1103 

Mycenio destroyed by the Argives . . . 468 



MYLjE, a bay of Sicily, where the Romans under their consul Duilius, gained their first 
naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also 
Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 b. c. 

MYOGRAPHIOISr, an apparatus for determining -the velocity of the nervous current, 
was invented by H. Helmholtz in 1850, and has been impi'oved by Du Bois Raymond and 
others. 

MYSORE (S. India), was made a flourishing kingdom by Hyder Ali, who dethroned the 
reigning sovereign in 1761, and by his son, Tippoo Sahib, who considerably harassed the 
English. Tippoo was chastised by them in 1792, and on 4 May, 1799, his capital, Seringa- 
patani, was taken by assault, and liimself slain. The English establislied a prmce of the 
royal family as maharajah of part of Mysore in 1799 ; being without an heir he was per- 
mitted to adopt a child of four years of age, in Aug. 1867 ; and who succeeded him at his 
death, 27 March, 1868. 

MYSTERIES. "Mystery" is said to be derived from the Hebrew mistar, to hide. The 
Sacred mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of Christianitj^, the chief of which is the 
incarnation of Christ, called the "mystery of godliness," i Tim. iii. 16. The Profane 
mysteries were the secret ceremonies performed by a select few in honour of some deity. 
From the Egj-ptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus and Ceres among 
the Greeks. The Eleusinian m}'steries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B.C. — 
Mysteiiy Plays ; see Drama. 

K K 2 



MYT 500 NAP 

MYTHOLOGY (Greek mytlios, fable), the traditions respecting the gods of any people. 
Thoth is supposed to have introduced mji-thology among the Egyptians, 1521 B.C. ; and 
Cadmus, the worship of the Egyptian and Plioeuician deities among the Greeks, 1493 '^•^- 



N. 

NAAS (E. Ireland), an ancient town. Here a desperate engagement took place between 
a body of the king's forces and the insurgent Irish, 24 May, 1798, during the rebellion. The 
latter were defeated with the loss of 300 killed and many wounded. 

ISTABOJSTASSAE, Era of, received its name from the celebrated prince of Babylon, under 
whose reign asti'onomical studies were much advanced in Chaldsea. The years are vague, 
containing 365 days each, without intercalation. The first day of the era was Wednesday 
(said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in L'Artcle Verifier les Dates), 26 Eeb. 747 B.C. — 3967, 
Julian period. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the 
year, if before Christ, from 748 ; if after Christ, add to it 747. 

ISTACHOD (Bohemia). Here the Prussians, under their crown prince, defeated the 
Austrians, after a severe conflict, 27 June, 1866. The Prussian Uhlans vanquished the 
Austrian cavalry. 

NAFELS (Switzerland). Here an Austrian army was defeated by a small body of 
Swiss, 1388. 

ISTAG'S HEAD STOEY. Matthew Parker was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury at 
Lambeth, 17 Dec. 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, Scory, and Hodgkius. Many years 
after, the Eomisli writers asserted that Parker and others had been consecrated at the Nag's 
Head Tavern, Cheapside, by Scory. This fiction was refuted by Burnet. 

ISTAHUM, Festival of. Nahum, the seventh of the twelve minor prophets, about 
713 B.C. ; the festival is the 24th of December. 

NAJAEA or JSTavabete (N". Spain). At Logrono, near these places, Edward the Black 
Prince defeated Henry de Trastamere, and re-established Peter the Cruel on the throne of 
Castile, 3 April, 1367. 

NAMES. Adam and Eve named their sons. Gen. iv. 25, 26. The popes change their 
names on their exaltation to the pontificate, ' ' a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose 
name till then was Swine-snout," 687. Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 956 ; 
and gives as a reason that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter and Paul, who were first 
called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism. The 
two sons of Henry II. of France were christened Alexander and Hercules ; at their confirma- 
tion these names were changed to Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their entrance 
into monasteries, assume new names, to show that they are about to lead a new life ; see 
Surnames. 

NAMUE, in Belgium, was made a county in 932, was ceded to the house of Austria by 
the peace of Utrecht, and was garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town of the United 
Provinces in 1715. ISTamur was ceded to Austria, 1713 ; taken by the French in 1746, but 
was restored in 1748. In 1781, the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it 
was again taken by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it in 1793 ; regained, 1794 ; 
delivered up to the allies, 1814. It was a site of a severe conflict in June, 1815, betAveen the 
Prussians and the French under Grouchy, when retreating after the battle of Waterloo. 

NANCY (N.E. France), an ancient city, capital of Lorraine, in the 13th century. 
After taking Nancy, 29 Nov. 1475, and losing it, 5 Oct. 1476, Charles the Bold of Burgundy 
was defeated beneath its walls, and slain by the duke of Lorraine and the Swiss, 5 Jan. 
1477 ; see Lorraine. Nancy was embellished by Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, who resided 
and died here Feb. 1766. 

NANKIN, said to have been made the central capital of China, 420, It was the court 
of the Ming dynasty from 1369 till Yung-lo removed it to Peking in 1410. On 4 Aug. 1842, 
the British ships arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel Tae-pings took it on 
19, 20 March, 1853. It was recaptured by the Imperialists, 19 July, 1864, and found to be 
in a very desolate condition. 

NANTES (W. France), capital of the Namnetes. The edict in favour of the Protestants 
issued here by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598, was revoked by Louis XI Y. 22 Oct. 1685. Awful 
cruelties were committed here by the republican Carrier, Oct. -Nov. 1793 ; see Droivning. 

NAPHTHA, a clear combustible rock oil, known to the Greeks, called " Oil of Media," 
and thouglit to have been an ingredient in the Greek fire {which see). 



NAP 



50f 



NAP 



NAPIER'S BONES, see Logarithms. 

NAPLES, formerly the continental division and seat of government of the kingdom of 
the Two Sicilies, began with a Greek colony named Partlienope (about looo B.C.), which was 
afterwards divided into Palteopolis (the old) and Neapolia (the neiu city), from which latter 
the present name is derived. Tlie colony was con(|uered by the Romans in the Samnite war, 
326 B.C. Naples, after resisting the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, was 
subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guiscard, king of Sicily, a.d. 1131. Few countries 
have had so many political changes and cruel and despotic rulers, or suifered so much by 
convulsions of nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. In 1856, the population 
of the kingdom of Naples was 6,886,030, of Sicily, 2,231,020; total, 9,117,050. It now 
forms part of the revived kingdom of Italy. 



Naples conquered by Tlieodorio the Goth . . 493 

Retaken by Belisarius 536 

Taken again by Totila 543 

Betaken by Nai'ses 552 

Becomes a duchy nominally subject to the 

Eastern empire 568 or 572 

Duchy of Naples greatly extended . . . 593 
Robert Guiscard, the Norman, made duke of 

Apulia, founds the kingdom of Naples . . 1059 
Naples conquered, and the kmgdom of the two 

Sicihes founded by Roger Guiscard II. . . 1131 
The imperial house of Hohenstaufen (see Ger- 
m.any) obtains the kingdom by marriage, and 

rules 1194-1266 

The pope appoints Charles of Anjou, king, who 
defeats the regent Manfred(son of Frederic II. 
of Germany) at Benevento (Manfred slain) 

26 Feb. ,, 
Charles also defeats Conradin (the last of the 
Hohenstaufens), who had come to Naples by 
invitation of the Ghibellines, at Tagliacozzo, 
23 Aug. ; Conradin beheaded . . 29 Oct. 1268 
The massacre called the Sicihan vespers twliich 
see) ....... 30 March, 1282 

Andrew of Hungary, husband of Joanna I., 

murdered 18 Sept. 1345 

His brother Louis, king of Hungary, invades 

Naples 1349 

Queen Joanna put to death . . 22 May, 1382 
Alphonso V. of Arragun (called the Wise and 
Magnanimous), on the death of Joanna II., 

seizes Naples 1435 

Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . 1494 
And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 

Spain, who divide it . ' 1501 

Expulsion of the French 1504 

Naples and Sicily united to Spain . . • „ 

Insurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by the 
extortions of the Spanish viceroys. An im- 
post was claimed on a basket of figs, and 
refused by the owner, with whom the popu- 
lace took part, headed by Masaniello (Thomas 
AnieUo), a fisherman ; they obtained the 
command of Naples, many of the nobles 
were slain and their palaces burnt, aiad the 
viceroy was compelled to abohsh the taxes 
and to restore the privileges granted by 
Charles V. to the city . . . June, 1647 
Masaniello, intoxicated by his success, was 

slain by his own followers . . 16 July, ,, 

Another insurrection suppressed by don John 

of Austria Oct. ,, 

Henry II. duke of Guise lands and is proclaimed 
king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by 

the Spaniards April, 1648 

Naples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, 

for the emperor 1706 

Discovery of Herculaneum (ic7tic/t see) . . .1711 
The Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (26 
May) havingmade themselves masters of both 
kingdoms, Charles (of Bourbon), son of the 
king of Spain, ascends the throne, with the 
ancient title renewed, of the king of the Two 

Sicilies 1734 

Order of St. 3"anuarius instituted . . . . 1738 
Charles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the 
throne of the Two Sicilies in favour of his 
third son Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty . 1759 



Expulsion of the Jesuits . . .3 Nov. 1767 
Dreadful eartliquake in Calabria . . 5 Feb. 1783 
Enrolment of the Lazzaroni {which see) as pike- 
men or spontoneers 1753 

The king liies on the approach of the French 
republicans, who establish the Parthenopean 

repubUc 14 Jan. 1799 

Nelson appears ; Naples retaken ; the restored 

kmg rules tyrannically . . . June, ,, 
Prince Caracciolo tried and executed by order 

of Nelson 29 June, ,, 

The NeapoUtaus occupy Rome . . 30 Sept. ,, 
Dreadful earthquake ; thousands perish 26 July, 1805 
Ti-eaty of neutraUty between France and Naples 

ratified 9 Oct. „ 

Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to fly 
to Sicily, 23 Jan. ; the French enter Naples, 
and Joseph Bonajjarte made king . Feb. 1806 
The French defeated at Maida . . 4 July, ,, 
Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many re- 
forms, abdicates for the crowiiof Spain, June, 1808 
Joachim Murat made king (rules well), 15 July, „ 
His first quarrel with Napoleon . . . 1811 

His aUiance with Austria . . . Jan. 1814 
Death of queen Caroline of Austria . 7 Sept. ,, 
Joachim declares war against Austria, 15 March, 1815 
Defeated at Tolentino . . . .3 May, , , 
He retires to Prance, 22 May, and Corsica : he 
madly attempts the recovery of his throne 
by landing at Pizzo : seized, tried, and shot, 

13 Oct. „ 
Ferdinand, re-established, soon returns to 

tyrannical measures .... June, ,, 
A plague rages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to Jime . 1816 
Establishment of the society of the Carbonari . 1819 
Successfid insurrection of the Carbonari under 
genei-al Pepe ; the king compelled to swear 
solemnly to a new constitution . 13 July, 1820 
The Austrians invade the kingdom, at the king's 

instigation ; general Pep^ defeated 7 March, 1821 
Fall of the constitutional government, 23 March, , , 
Death of Ferdinand ; (reigned 66 years), 4 Jan. 1825 
[In 30 years, 100,000 Neapohtans perished by 

various kinds of death.] 
Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed Aug. 1828 
Accession of FerdmandII.,Bomba,(as faithless 

and tyrannical as his predecessors) 8 Nov. 1830 
Dispute with England respecting the sulphur 

trade, 1838 ; settled .... May, 1840 
Attilio and EmUio Bandiera, with eighteen 
others, attempting an insurrection in Cala- 
bria, are shot . . . . 17 Jan. 1844 
[The statement that lord Aberdeen had given 
notice of this attempt was contradicted by his 
lordship. ] 
Prospect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king 

grants a now constitution . . 29 Jan. 1848 
Great fighting in Naples ; the liberals and the 
national guard almost annihilated by the 
royal troojis, aided by the lazzaroni 15 May, ,, 
A martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of the 

liberal party arrested in . . . Dec. 1849 
Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after 
a mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to 
horrible dungeons for Kfe . . June, 1850 
After remonstrances with the king on his tyran- 
nical government (May), the English and 
French ambassadors are withdrawn 28 Oct. 1S56 



NAP 



502 



NAP 



NAPLES, continued. 

Attempted assassination of the king by Milano 

8 Dec. 

The Cagliari* seized .... June, 

Italian refugees, under count Pisacoane, laud 
in Calabria, are defeated, and their leader 
killed .... 27 June-2 July- 

Dreadful earthquake in the Apennines 16 Dec. 

Amnesty granted to political offenders 27 Dec. 

Poerio and sixty-six companions released and 
sent to N. America, Jan. ; on their way, they 
seize the vessel, sail to Cork, 7 March ; and 
proceed to London . . .18 March, 

Death of Ferdinand II., after dreadful suffer- 
ings 22 May, 

Diplomatic relations resumed with England 
and France .... June, 

A subscription for Poerio and his companions 
in England amounted to io,oooJ. . July, 

Insubordination among the Swiss troops at 

Naples, many shot, July 7 ; naajor Latour 

sent to Naples by the Swiss confederation 

16 July, 

Army increased ; defences strengthened Oct. 

Many political imprisonments ; the foreign am- 
bassadors collectively address a note to the 
king stating the necessity for reform in his 
states, 26 March ; the count of Syracuse re- 
commends reform and alliance with England 

April, 

Garibaldi lands in Sicily, 11 May; defeats the 
Neapolitan army at Calatafimi . 15 May, 

Francis II. proclaims an amnesty ; promises a 

liberal ministry ; adopts a tricolor flag, &c. 

26 June, 

Baron Brenier, French ambassador, wounded 
in his carriage by the mob . 27 June, 

A liberal ministry formed ; destruction of the 
commissariat of the police in 12 districts ; 
state of siege proclaimed at Naples ; the 
queen-mother flees to Gaeta . 28 June, 



1857 



1859 



Revolutionary committee at Naples, 15 June, : 

Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans at Melazzo, 20 
July ; enters Messina, 21 July ; the Neapo- 
litans agree to evacuate Sicily . 30 July, 

The king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with 
Francis II. for alliance .... July, 

Francis II. proclaims the re-estabUshment of 
the constitution of 1848, 2 Jiily ; the army 
proclaim count de Trani king . 10 July, 

Garibaldi lands at Mehto, 18 Aug.; takes Reggie 

21 Aug. 

Defection in army and navy ; Francis II. retires 
to Gaeta, 6 Sept. ; Garibaldi enters Naples 
without troops 7 Sept. 

Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, 8 Sept. ; 
and gives up the Neapohtan fleet to the Sar- 
dinian admiral Persano, 11 Sept. ; expels the 
Jesuits; establishes trial by jury; releases 
political prisoners .... Sept. 

He repi^dses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, 19 
Sept., and defeats them at the Voltxrrno i Oct. 

The king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of 
Naples, and takes command of his army, 
which combines with Gaiibaldi's 11 Oct. 

Naples unsettled throvigh intrigues . Oct. 

Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isemia, Oct. 
17; at Venafro .... 18 Oct. 

The plebiscite at Naples, &c. ; almost unani- 
mous vote for annexation to Piedmont 
(1,303,064 to 10,312) . . . 21 Oct. 

Garibaldi meets Victor-Emmanuel, and salutes 
him as king of Italy ... 26 Oct. 

The first Eaghsh Protestant church built on 

ground given by Garibaldi ; consecrated 

II March, 

Cholera raged at Naples . . autumn. 

Great eruption of Vesuvius began . 12 Nov. 

Land -slip at Naples; 20 persons engulfed, 

28 Jan. 
[History continued, under Italy. '\ 



1865 
1866 
1867 



SOVEREIGNS OF N.4.PLES AND SICILY. 



1131. Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130) Norman. 

1154. Wilhara I. the Bad; son. 

1 166. William II. the Good ; son. 

ii8g. Tailored, natural son of Roger. 

1194. William III. son, succeeded by Constance, 

married to Henry VI. of Germany. 
1197. Frederic II. of Germany (Hohenstaufen). 



1250. Conrad; son. 

1254. Conradin, son ; but his uncle, 

1258. Manfred, nat. son of Frederic II., seizes the 

government ; killed at Benevento, in 1266. 
1266. Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 

France. 
1282. Insurrection in Sicily. 



(Separation of the kingdoms in 1282.) 



1309. 
1343- 



. 1382. 

1385. 
1386. 
1414, 



NAPLES. 

Charles I. of Anjou. 

Charles II. ; son. 

Robert the Wise ; brother. 

Joanna (reigTis with her husband, Andrew of 

Hungary), 1343-45 ; with Louis of Tarento, 

1349-62 ; Joanna put to death (22 May, 1382) 

by 
Charles III. of Durazzo, grandson of Charles 

II. : he becomes king of Hungary; assassi- 
nated there, 1386. 
Louis II., son of Louis I. 
Ladislas of Hungary, son of Charles III. 
Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths 

her dominions to Regnier of Anjou. They 

are acquired by 

1435. Alphonso I. thus king of Naples and Sicily 
, (Se23aration of Naples and Sicily in 1458.) 



SICILY. 

1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) 

1285. James I. (II. of Arragon.) 

1295. Frederic II. 

1337. Peter II. 

1342. Louis. 

1355. Frederic III. 

1376. Maria and Martin (her husband). 

1402. Martin I. 

1409. Martin II. 

1410. Ferdinand I. 
1416. Alphonso I. 



* The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former 
port on 25 June, 1857, with thirty-three passengers, who, after a few hours' sail, took forcible possession 
of the vessel, and compelled the two English engineers (Watt and Park) to steer to Ponza. Here they 
landed, released some prisoners, took them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where they again landed, and 
restored the vessel to its commander and crew. The latter steered immediately for Naples ; ' but on the 
way the vessel was boarded by a Neapolitan cruiser, and all the crew were landed and consigned to 
dungeons, where they remained for nine months waiting for trial, suffering great privations and insults. 
This caused great excitement in England : and after much negotiation, the crew were released, and the 
vessel given up to the British government, 3000?. being give'n as a compensation to the sufferers. 



NAP 



503 



NAT 



NAPLES, continued. 

NAPLES. 

1458. Ferdinand I. 

1494. Alphonso II. abdicates. 

1495. Ferdinand II. 

1496. Frederic II. expelled by the French, 1501. 



SICILY. 

1458. John of Arragon. 

1479. Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. 



1503. Ferdinand III. (king of Spain). 
15 16. Charles I. (V. of Germany). 
1556. Philip I. (II. of Spain). 
1S9S. Philip II. (III. of Spain). 



NAPLES. 

1713. Chai-les III. of Austria. 



173s. Charles IV. (III. of Spain). 



THE CROWXS TJNITED. 

1621. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). 
1665. Charles II. (of Spain). 
1700. Philip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. 
1707. Chaiies III. of Austria. 
{Separation in 1713.) 

SICILY. 

1713. Victor Amadeus of Savoy (exchanged Sicily 
for Sardinia, 1720.) 

THE TWO SICILIES. 
{Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.) 

I 1759. Ferdinand IV. fled from Naples to Sicily, 1806. 
{Separation in i8o5.) 



NAPLES. 

1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
1S08. Joachim Murat, shot 13 Oct. 1S15. 



1806-15. Ferdinand IV. 



THE TWO SICILIES. 



1S15. Ferdinand I., foi'merly Ferdinand IV., of 

Naples and Sicily. 
1825. Francis I. 
1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8 (termed King Bomba). 



1859. Francis II., 22 May ; bom 16 Jan. 1836; last 

King of Naples. 
1 861. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as King op 

Italy; March. 



NAPOLEON, CODE, see Codes. 

NAPiBONNE (S. E. France), tlie Ptoman Narbo Martins, founded 118 B.C., made capital 
of a Visigothic kingdom, 462. Gaston de Foix, the last vicomte (killed at Kavenna, 1 1 
April, 1 5 12), resigned it to the king in exchange for the duchy of Nemours. 

NAECEINE AND NARCOTINE, alkaloids obtained from Opium {ivhich see). Narceine 
was discovered by Pelletier in 1832 ; and narcotine by Derosne in 1803. 

NARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by 
Charles XII. of Sweden, "the madman of the north," then in his nineteenth year, 30 Nov. 
1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted to 60,000, some Swedes affirm 100,000 
men, while the Swedes were about 20,000. Charles attacked the enemy in his intrench- 
ments, and slew 30,000 ; the remainder, exceeding that number, surrendered. He had 
several horses shot under him, and as he was mounting a fresh one he said, "These people 
seem disposed to give me exercise." Tlie place was taken by Peter in 1704. 

NASEBY (Northamptonshire), the site of a decisive battle between Charles I. and the 
parliament army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was com- 
manded by lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale the 
left, and the king hiinself headed the body of reserve. The victory was with the parliament, 
and the king fled, losing his cannon, baggage, and nearly 5000 prisoners, 14 June, 1645. 

NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America), was occupied by the confederates in 1S61, and 
taken by the federals, 23 Feb. 1862. Near here the confederates under Hood were defeated 
by the federals under Thomas, 14-16 Dec. 1864. 

NASSAU, a German duchy, was made a county by the emperor Frederic I. about 1180, 
for Woli'am, a descendant of Conrad I. of Germany ; from whom are descended the royal 
house of Orange now reigning in Holland (see Orange, and Holland), and the present duke of 
Nassau. Wiesbaden was made the capital in 1839. On 25 April, i860, the Nassau chamber 
strongly opposed the conclusion of a concordat with the piope, and claimed liberty of faith 
and conscience. The duke adopted the Austrian motion at the German diet, 14 June, and 
after the war the duchy was annexed to Prussia by decree, 20 Sept., and possession taken 
8 Oct. 1866. Population of the duchy in 1865, 468,311. 

1788. Count Frederic-William made duke in 1806. I 1S39. Adolphus-William-Charles, bom 24 July, 1817. 
1814. William-George, 20 Aug. | 

NATAL (Cape of Good Hope), Vasco de Gama landed here on 25 Dec. 1497, and hence 
named it Tei-ra Natalis. The Dutch attempted to colonize it about 1721. In 1823 lieut. 



NAT 



504 



NAT 



Farewell and a small baud of emigrants settled here. It was annexed to the British posses- 
sions in 1843 ; made a bishopric in 1853 (Dr. John "Wm. Coleuso bishop), and an independent 
colony in 1856 ; see Church of England, 1863-5. 

NATIONAL ANTHEM, see God save the King. 

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Upon the proposition of the Abb^ Sieyes, the states-general 
of France constituted themselves as the National Assembly, 17 June, 1789. On the 20th, 
the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king ; upon which the deputies of 
the Tiers Etat repaired to the Jcu de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until 
they had digested a constitution for France. On the 22nd they met at the church at St. 
Louis. This assembly abolished the state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided France 
into departments, sold the national domains, established a national bank, issued assiguats, 
and dissolved itself 21 Sept. 1792 ; see National Convention. In 1848 the legislature was 
again termed the National Assembly. It met 4 May, and a new constitution was proclaimed 
12 Nov. A new constitution was once more proclaimed by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, 
after triumphing over the National Assembly. 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. One was formed in 1584, headed by the earl of Leicester, 
to protect queen Elizabeth from assassination, in consequence of the discovery of various 
plots. Another for the defence of William III. against assassins was established in 1696, of 
which all persons holding office under government were required to be members ; see Artil- 
lery, Social Science, and Volunteers for other National associations. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION of France, constituted in the hall of the Tuileries 
17 Sept., and formally opened 21 Sept., 1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the 
National Assembly, announced that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then 
decreed, " That the citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, 
being met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare that the National 
Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a new constitution was organ- 
ised, and the Executive Directory was installed at the Little Luxembourg, i Nov. 1 795 ; see 
Bireetory. The Chartists {ivhich see) in England formed a National Convention in 1839. 

NATIONAL DEBT. The first mention of parliamentary security for a debt of the nation 
occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present national debt may be said to have commenced 
in the reign of William III. 1689. It amounted, in 1697, to about five millions sterling, 
and was then thought to be of alarming magnitude. The sole cause of the increase has been 
war. By an act passed 31 May, 1867, the conversion of 24,000,000?. of the debt into 
terminable annuities was provided for. 

Debt. I (31 March) Debt. 

1830. Total amount £840,184,022 1861. Funded debt £785,119,609 

1840. Ditto . . . 789,578,720 Unfunded . . 16,689,000 

1850. Ditto . . . 787,029,162 1S62. Funded debt . 784,252,338 

1854. Ditto . . . 775,041,272 Unfunded . . 16,517,900 
(31 March) 1863. Funded debt . 783,306,739 

1855. Ditto . . . 793,375,199 Unfunded. . 16,495,400 

1856. Ditto . . . 807,981,788 1864. Funded debt . 777,429,224 

1857. Funded debt . 780,119,722 Unfunded. . 13,136,000 
Unfunded . . 27,989,000 1865. Funded debt . 775,768,295 

1858. Funded debt . 779,225,495 Unfunded . . 10,742,500 
Unfunded . . 25,911,500 1866. Funded debt . 773,313,229 

1859. Funded debt . 786,801,154 Unfunded . . 8,187,700 
Unfunded . , 18,277,400 1867. Funded debt . 769,541,004 

i860. Funded debt . 785,962,000 Unfunded. . 7,956,800 

Unfunded . . 16,228,300 



Debt. 

£664,263 
16,394,702 
54,145.363 



138,865,430 



1689. WiU. III. . , 
1702. Anne . 
1714. George I. . 
1763. George III. (end 

of Seven years' 

war), nearly 
1786. After American 

war . . . 249,851,628 
1793. Beginning of 

French war . 244,440,306 
1802. Close of French 

war . . . 571,000,000 
English and Irish 

Exchequers con- 
solidated . . 848,282,477 



317. 



[Exclusive of terminable 
annuities.] 

The annual interest in 1850 was 23,862,257?. ; and the total interest, including annuities, amounted to 
27)699i 74°'- On i Jan. 1851, the total unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272, 562?., the 
charge on which for interest and management was 27,620,449?. The total charge on the debt in 1861 was 
26,090,260?. 

NATIONAL GALLERY, London (containing now about 750 pictures), began with the 
purchase, by the British government, of the Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 
57,oooZ., in 1824. The first exhibition of them took p^ace in Pall-mall, on 10 May, 
1824. Sir G. Beaumont (1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other gentlemen, as well 
as the British Institution, contributed many fine pictures ; and the collection has been since 
greatly augmented by gifts and purchases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square, designed 
by Mr. Wilkins, was completed and opened 9 April, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission 
appointed to consider the propriety of removing the pictures reported in favour of their re- 
maining in their present locality ; and in i860, 15,000?. were voted to be expended in 
adapting the central part of the building to exhibition purposes. On li May, 1861, the 
National Gallery was reopened after having been closed eight months, during which time 



NAT 505 NAT 

gi'eat improvements were made in the internal arrangements. On 19 June, 1865, the house 
of commons voted 2o,oooZ. to buy land to enlarge the building ; an act for this purpose was 
passed 15 July, 1S66. Visitors in 1866, 775,901 ; sum voted for year 1867-8, 15,895?. 

NATIONAL GUARD of France was instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris 
on 13 July, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the Bastile), to maintain order and 
defend the public liberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to which white was added, 
when its formation was approved by the king. Its action was soon paralysed by the revo- 
lution, and it ceased altogether rmder the consulate and empire. It was revived by Napo- 
leon in 1814, and maintained by Lotus XVIII. , but was broken up by Charles X., after a 
tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, and helped to place Louis Philippe 
on the tlu-one. In 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from 80,000 to 100,000 
men led to the frightful conflict of June, 1848. Its constitution was entirely changed 
in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the control of the government. Formerly 
the National Guard had many privileges, such as choosing their own officei's, _ &c. — 
National Guards have been established in Spain, Naples, and other countries, during the 
present century. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBITIONS, proposed by the earl of Derby, earl 
Granville, and others, at a meeting in London, 13 July, 1865. They were held in what 
had been the refreshment room of the exhibition of 1862, at South Kensington. The ist 
was opened 16 April ; closed, 18 Aug. 1866; 2ud, opened 3 May ; closed, 31 Aug. 1867: 
3rd, opened 13 April, 1868. 

NxVTIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY was determined on in Feb. 1857 in pursuance of 
votes from both houses of parliament. The sum of 2000Z. was appropriated for the pur- 
chase of portraits of persons eminent in British history. Donations were received under 
certain restrictions. The gallery, Gt. George- street, "Westminster, was opened 15 Jan. 1859. 
A valuable collection of National Portraits appeared at the Manchester Exhibition in 1857. 

NATIONAL SCHOOLS, see Education. 

NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed for) were presented to Rowland Hill (for his 
exertions in obtaining the penny postage), 17 June, 1846; and to Miss Florence Nighttagale 
(for her beneficent exertions for tlie sufferers during the Crimean war), 29 Nov. 1855. 

NATIONAL UNION CONVENTION, see United States, 1866. 

NATIONAL WORKSHOPS, see Ateliers Nationavx. 

NATIONALITY; a word much used since 1848. In Poland, Hungary, _ Italy, and 
Germany, the struggle for nationality has been long and severe. In 1866 agitation for this 
princiijle began in' Bohemia, Slavonia, and other parts of the Austrian empire. The nation- 
ality of Ireland is the alleged basis of the Fenian agitation. 

NATIVITY. There are three festivals in the Roman and Greek churches, under this 
name. The Nativity of Christ also observed by the Protestants on 25 Dec. (see Chriitmas) ; 
the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, not observed by the Protestants at all. Pope Sergius I., 
about 690, established the lattei-, but it was not generally received in France and Germany 
till about 1000; nor by the eastern Christians till the 12th century. The festival of the 
nativity of St. John the Baptist, 24 June, Midsummer- day, is said to have been instituted 
in 488. 

NATURAL HISTORY was studied by Solomon, 1014 B.C. (i Kings iv. 33), and by 
Aristotle (384-322 b.c.) ; see Botany, Zoology, &c. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, see Philosophy. NATURAL SELECTION, see Species. 

NATURALISATION is defined to be "the making a foreigner or alien a denizen or 
freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, both a subject and a native 
of a king or country, that by nature he did not belong to. " The first act of naturalisation 
passed in 1437 ; and various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns Irom that 
time ; several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the naturalisation pf 
the Jews passed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, on the petition of all the cities in 
England ; for the privileges since granted them, see Jews. The act for the naturalisation of 
prince Albert passed 3 Vict., Feb. 7, 1840. 

NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as plants, 
mosses, feathers, &c., into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it ^yere, to engrave 
themselves ; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing from. Kniphof of Erfurt, 
between 1728 and 1757, produced his Herhariuvi vivum by pressing the plants themselves 
(previously inked) on paper ;-the impressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In 1833, 
Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel rollers and lead plates. In 1842 Mr. Taylor, 
printed lace. In 1847 Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants ; and in the same 



NAU 



506 



NAV 



year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to the impressions. In 1849, 
professor Leydolt, of Vienna, by the able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, obtained im- 
pressions of agates and fossils. The first practical application of this process is in Vou 
Heufler's work on the Mosses of Arpasch, in Transylvania ; the second (the first in this 
country) in "The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland,) edited by Dr. Lindley, the illus- 
trations to which were prepared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry Bradbury in 
1855-56, who also in 1859-60 printed "The British Sea-weeds," edited by W. G. Johnstone 
and Alex. Croall. 

NATJVOO, see Mormonites, 

NAVAL AEGHITECTS' INSTITUTE was established in Jan. i860. The members 
give much attention to the consideration of the strength of iron ships. 

NAVAL ASYLUM, Eoyal, began at Paddington in 1801, and was transferred to Green- 
wich in 1807. The interior of the central portion was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen 
of James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta-Maria, whose arms still adorn the 
ceiling of the room in which her son Charles II. was born in 1630, 

NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon 
record, 1263 b.c. Dufresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is that between the Corinthiaus 
and Corcyreans, 664 b.o. Blair. The following are among the most celebrated naval 
engagements : for the details of which see separate articles. 



Battle of Salamis (Greek victory) 20 Oct. b.c. 480 
Battle of Em-ymedon (ditto) .... 466 
Battle of Cyzicus ; the Laaedemonian fleet 
takeu by Alcibiades, the Athenian . . 410 

Battle of ArginusiB 406 

Battle of iEgospotamos (Spartans victors) . 405 
The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the 
Spartan, at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian 
admiral, is killed ; and the maritime power 
of the Lacedtemonians destroyed . . . 394 
Battle of Mylaj .(Romans defeat Carthaginians) 260 
The Roman fleet, off Ti'epanum, destroyed by 

the Carthaginians 249 

The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul 

Lutatius 241 

Battle of Actium 31 

The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, 

and sinks 2000 of their ships . . . a.d. 269 
Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . 7 Oct. 1571 
Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spaniards (a 
bloody conflict and decisive victory, giving for 
a time the superiority to the Dutch) 25 April, 1607 
The Austrians defeat the Italians at Llssa (see 

. ' 20 July, 1866 



NA.VAL EKGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTOBT. 

Alfred with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of 
Danish pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire 
coast. Asser's Life of Alfred .... 897 

Edward III. defeats the French near Sluys 

24 June, 1340 

Off Winchelsea; Edward III. defeated the 
Spanish fleet of 40 large ships, and captured 26 

29 Aug. 1350 

The English and Flemings ; the latter signally 
defeated 1371 

Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 
sail, and captures So . . .24 March 1387 

Near Milf ord Haven ; the English take 8, and 
destroy 15 French ships 1405 

Off' Harfleur; the duke of Bedford takes or 
destroys nearly 500 French ships . 15 Aug. 1416 

In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet 
captured by the earl of "Warwick . 

Bay of Biscay ; English and French, indecisive 

10 Aug. 

Sir Edward Howard attacks the French under 
Prior John ; repulsed and killed . 25 April, 1513 

The Spanish Armada destroyed . 19 July, 1588 

Dover straits ; the Dutch admiral Van Tromp 
defeated by admiral Blake 20 Sept. The 
Dutch surprise the English in the Downs, 
80 sail engaging 40 English, several of whicli 



I4S9 



1512 



are taken or destroyed, 28 Nov. ; the Dutch 
admiral sails in triumph through the channel, 
with a broom at his mast-head, to denote 
that he had swept the English from the seas 

29 Nov. 1652 

The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet 
off Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 
men-of-war and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp 
was the Dutch, and Blake the English admii-al 

18-20 Feb. 1G53 

Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and ■ 
English fleets consisted of near 100 men- 
of-war each. Van Tromp commanded the 
Dutch; Blake, Monk, and Deane, the Eng- 
lish. Six Dutch ships taken ; 1 1 sunk, and 
the rest ran into Calais roads . 2 June, „ 

Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 
30 men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed 
(the seventh and last battle) . . Aug. ,, 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 
pieces of eight, were taken Ijy Blake . Sept. 1656 

Spanish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the 
harbour of Santa Cruz, by Blake . 20 April, 1657 

English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet 
destroyed by the duke of York (afterwards 
James II.)- ' 4 Dec. 1664 

The duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet off 
Harwich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown 
up, with all his crew; 18 capital ships taken, 
14 destroyed 3 June, 1665 

The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 
India ships 4 Sept. ,, 

A contest between the Dutch and English 
fleets for four days. The English lose 9, and 
the Dutch 15 ships .... 1-4 June i66b 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of the 
Thames, the English gain a glorious victory. 
The Dutch lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals 
killed, and 4000 seamen . . 25, 26 July, „ 

The Dutch admiral de Euyter sails up the 
Thames and destroys some ships . n June, 1667 

Twelve Algerine ships of war destroyed by sir 
Edward Spragg .... 10 May, 1671 

Battle of Southwold-bay (see Solebaj/) . 28 May, 1672 

Coast of Holland ; by Prince Bupert, 28 May, 
4 June, and 11 Aug. sir B. Spragg killed ; 
d'Etrees and Ruyter defeated . . . 1673 

Off Beaohy Head ; the English and Dutch de- 
feated by the French . . .30 June, 1690 

Victory near Cape La Hogue . . 19 May, 1692 

Off' St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squad- 
rons, under admiral Booke, defeated by the 
French 16 June, 1693 



NAV 



507 



NAV 



NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 

Off Carth.agena, between admiral Benbow* 
and the Fi-ench fleet, commanded by admiral 
Du Casse. Fought . . , ig Aug. 1702 

Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet -otf 
Vigo {ic/dch see) 12 Oct. „ 

Off Malaga ; bloody engagement between the 
French, under the count of Thoulouse, and 
the English, under sir George Rooke 13 Aug. 1704 

At Gibraltar; French lose 5 men-of-war 5 Nov. ,, 

In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 
French vessels, laden with provisions 22 May, 170S 

Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir 
George Byng, in the Faro of Messina 31 J uly, 1718 

Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Les- 
tock against the fleets of France and Spain. 
Here the brave captain Cornwall fell with 42 
men, including oflicers ; and the victory was 
lost by a misunderstanding between the 
English admirals .... 9 Feb. 1744 

Off Cape Finisterre, the French fleet of 38 sail 
taken by admiral Anson . . .3 May, 1747 

Off Finisterre, when admiral Hawke took 7 
men-of-war of the French . . .14 Oct. ,, 

Off Newfoundland, when admiral Boscawen 
took 2 men-of-war . . . .10 June, 1755 

Off Cape FranQoise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 Eng- 
lish 21 Oct. 1757 

Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet in the 
East Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again . 1759 

Admiral Boscawen defeats the French under 
Da la Clue, off Cape Lagos . . 18 Aug. ,, 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- 
manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and 
thus prevents a projected invasion of Eng- 
land {>iec Quibei-oti JBcii/) . . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of 
merchantmen 9 Oct. 1762 

On Lake Champlainthe provincial force totally 
destroyed by Admiral Howe . . 11 Oct. 1776 

Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel 
and d'Orvilliers . . . . 27 July, 1778 

In New England; the American fleet totally 
destroyed 30 July, 1779 

Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney de- 
feated a Spanish fleet under admiral Don 
Langara (see Modney) . . . .16 Jan. 1780 

At St. Jago ; Mons. Buffrehi defeated by com- 
modore Johnstone . . . .16 April, 17S1 

Dogger-bank, between adm. Parker and the 
Dutch adm. Zoutman : 400 killed on each side 

5 Aug. „ 

Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to 
attack Jamaica ; took 5 shijDS of the line, and 
sent the French admii'al, Comte de Grasse, 
■prisoner to England ... 12 April, 1782 

The British totally defeated the fleets of France 
and Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar . 13 Sept. ,, 

East Indies : a series of actions between sir 
Edward Hughes and Suffrein, viz. : 17 Feb. 
17S2, the French had 11 ships to g ; 12 April 
they had 18 ships to 11, "yet were completely 
beaten. Again, 6 July, off Trincomalee, they 
had 15 to 12, and were again beaten with loss 
of 1000 killed, 3 Sept. 1782 ; again, 20 June, 1783 

Lord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, 
took 6 ships of war, and sunk one i June, 1794 

Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail ; burnt 7, out of 
a fleet of 35 sail of transports . 8 March, 1795 



French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken 
by admiral Hotham. Fought 14 March, 

Admiral ComwaUis took 8 transports, convoyed 
by 3 French men-of-war. Fought 7 June, 

Eleven Dutch East Indiamen taken by the 
Sceptre, man-of-war, and some armed British 
Indiamen in company . . . 19 June, 

L'Orient; the French fleet defeated by lord 
Bridport, and 3 ships of the line taken ; see 
L'Orient 23 June, 

Dutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Saldanha 
Bay, sm-renders to sir George Keith Elphin- 
stone (see Saldanha Bay) . . 17 Aug. 

Cape St. Vincent (which see) . . - 14 Feb. 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral 
Nelson loses his right arm . . 24 July, 

Camperdown (ic/iic/i see) . . . 11 Oct. 

Nile (winch see) i Aug. 

Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail, 
fulloftroops, as succours to the Irish, engaged 
by sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken, 

12 Oct. 

The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen 
surrenders to admiral Mitchell . 28 Aug. 

Capture of the Cerhere (which see) . . 29 July, 

Copenhagen bombarded (see Cox>enharien) 

2 AprU, 

Gibraltar Bay ; engagement between the French 
and British fleets ; the Hannibal, of 74 guns, 
lost 6 July, 

Off Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains a vic- 
tory over the French and Spanish fleets ; i 
ship caj)tured. Fought . . . 12 July, 

Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships 
(both Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French 
and Spanish fleets, off Ferrol . 22 July, 

Off Trafalgar (which see) . . .21 Oct. 

Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 
4 French ships, off Cape Ortegal . 4 Nov. 

In the West Indies ; the French defeated by sir 
T. Duckworth; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 
driven on shore 6 Feb. 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French 
ships 13 March, 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the 
Dardanelles (see article Dardanelles] 19 Feb. 

Copenhagen fleet captured . . .8 Sept. 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, 
surrenders to the British . . 3 Sept. 

Aix or Basque Roads ; 4 sail of the line, (Sic, 
destroyed by lord Gambler . 11-12 Aisril, 

Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken 
or destroyed by sir J. Saumarez . . July, 

French ships of the hne driven on shore by 
lord CoUingwood (two of them burnt by the 
French next day) .... 25 Oct. 

Bay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour, by direction 
of captain Hallo well, takes or destroys 11 war 
and other vessels (see Rosas Bay). i Nov. 

Basseterre; La Loire and La Seine, French 
frigates, destroyed by sir A. Cochrane, 

18 Dec. 

The Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large 
French force in the bay of Naples 3 May, 

Action between the Tribune, captain Reynolds, 
and 4 Danish brigs. Fought . 12 May, 

Isle of Rhe ; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by 
the Armide and Cadmus . . .17 July, 



1796 
1797 



1798 



1799 
1800 



1S05 



1807 



* In the engagement the other ships of admiral Benbow's squadron falUng astern, left this brave 
commander alone to maintain the imequal battle. In this situation a chain-shot shattered his leg, yet he 
would not be removed from the quarter-deck, but continued fitfhting till the morning, when the French 
sheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, he 
received a letter from the French admiral, of which the following is a hteral translation : — 

" Ca.rthagena, 22 Aug. 1702. 

" Sib, — I had Uttle hopes, on Monday last, but to have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God to 
order it othervrtse. I am thankful for it. As for those cowardly captains who deserted you, hang them 
up, for by G— d they deserve it. " Du Casse." 

Captains Kirby and Wade were shot on their arrival at Plymouth, having been previously tried by a 
court-martial. 



NAV 



508 



NAV 



ISTAVAL BATTLES, continued. 

Captain Barrett, in the merchant vessel, Cum- 
berland, with 26 men, defeats four privateers 
and takes 170 prisoners . . 16 Jan. 

Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the 
Cerherics and Active . . . .22 Feb. 

Amazon French frigate destroyed off Cape Bar- 
fleur 25 March, 

Sagone Bay; 2 French store-ships burnt by 
captain Barrie's ships . . . i May, 

The British sloop Ziitle Belt, and American 
shij) P?'md«M<.- their rencontre . 16 May, 

Off Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under cap- 
tain Schomberg, engage 3 French largei'-sized, 
with troops on board, and capture 2, 20 May, 

The Thames and Cejifialus capture 36 French 
vessels July, 

The Naiad frigate attacked in presence of 
Bonaparte by 7 armed praams; they were 
gallantly repulsed . . . .21 Sept. 

French frigates Pauline and Pomone captured 
by the British frigates Alceste, Active, and 
Uniie 29 Nov. 

liivoli, 84 guns, taken by Victorious, 74, 21 Feb. 

L'Orient: 2 French frigates, &c., destroyed by 
the Northumberland, capt. Hotham 22 May, 

Guerriere, British frigate, 46 small guns, cap- 
tured by the American ship Constitution, 54 
guns (an unequal contest) . . 19 Aug. _ 

British brig Frolic, captured by the American 
sloop Was23 18 Oct. 

British frigate Macedonian taken by the Ame- 
rican ship United States, large class 25 Oct. 

British frigate Java, taken by the American 
ship Constitution, large class . . 29 Dec. 

British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed and 
95 wounded, engaging a French frigate, 

7 Feb. 

British sloop Peacock captured by the Ameri- 
can ship Hornet ; she was so disabled that 
she sunk with part of her crew 25 Feb. 

American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shan- 
non, captain Broke (see Chesapealce) i June, 

American ships Gi'owler and £a(/le taken by 
British gun- boats .... 3 June, 



American sloop Argus taken by the British 
sloop Pelican 14 Aug. 

French frigate la Trave, 44 guns, taken by the 
Andromache, of 38 guns . . 23 Oct. 

French frigate Ceres taken by the British ship 
Tagus 6 Jan. 

French frigates Alcmene and Iphigetda taken 
by the Venerable .... 16 Jan. 

French frigate Terpsichore takenhy the Majestic 

3 Feb. 

French ship Clorinde taken by the Dryad and 
Achates, after an action with the Earotat, 

25 Feb. 

French frigate L'Moile captured by the Hebrus, 

27 March, 

American frigate Essex captured by the Phmbe 
and Cherub 29 March, 

British sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop 
Wasp 8 Sept. 

Lake Champlain: the British squadron cap- 
tured by the American, after a severe conflict, 

11 Sept. 

American ship President captured by the Endy- 
mion ...... 15 Jan. 

Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth ; see 
Algiers 27 Aug. 

Navarino {which see) .... 20 Oct. 

Action between the British ships Volage and 
Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war-junks, which 
were defeated 3 Nov. 

Bombardment "and fall of Acre. The British 
squadron under admiral Stopford achieved 
this triumph with trifling loss, while the 
Egyptians lost 2000 kUled and wounded, and 
3000 prisoners (see Syria) . . .3 Nov. 

Lagos attacked and taken bycommodore Bruce, 
with a squadron consisting of the Penelope, 
Bloodhound, Sampson, and Teazer, war- 
steamers, and the Fhilom,el brig of war, 
26-27 Dec. 

[For naval actions which cannot be called 
regular battles, see China and Japan.'] 



1816 
1827 



1840 



1851 



SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTliOTED BY THE NAA'AL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN: — • 



In the French "War, en ding 1802. 


In the French "War, ending 1814. 


Force. 


a 


"S 




c 
00 




1 
H 


i 


Spanish. 
Danish. 


1 
3 


i 
1 

< 


1 

e 


Of the line 

Fifties . . ... 
Frigates .... 
Sloops, &c 


45 
2 

133 
161 


25 

I 

31 

32 


II 

20 

55 


2 


7 
16 


83 

3 
191 
264 


70 

7 

77 

188 


27 



36 

64 


23 

I 
24 
16 


4 

6 
7 




I 
5 
13 


124 

9 

148 
288 


Total .... 


341 


89 


86 


2S 


S4I 


342 


127 


64 


17 


19 


569 



NAVAL KNIGHTS of Windsor, see Poor Knights. 

NAVAL E.EVIEWS, SALUTE, and VOLUNTEERS, see under Nmy. 

NAVARINO (S. "W. Greece), Battle of, 20 Oct. 1827, between the combined fleets of 
England, France, and Russia, under command of admiral Codrington, and the Turkish navy, 
in which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, many of them 
four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, to prevent their 
falling into the hands of their enemies. This destruction of the Turkish naval power was 
characterised by the duke of Wellington as being an "untoward event." 

NAVARRE, now a province of Spain, formed a part of the Roman dominions, and was 
conquered from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. His descendants appointed governors, 
one of whom, Garcias Ximenes, took the title of king in 857. In 1076, king Sancho IV. was 
poisoned, and Sancho Ramorez of Arragon seized Navarre. In 1 134, Navarre became again 
independent under Garcias Ramorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Champagne, nephew 



ITAV 



>09 



NAV 



of Sanclio VII., became sovereign of Navarre ; and in 1284, by the marriage of the heiress 
Jane with Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre was united to France. 



SOVEREIGNS OF NAVAREE. 

1274. June I and (1284) Pliilip-le-Bel of France. 

1305. Louis X. Hutiu oi France. 

1316. Philip V. tho Long, of France. 

1322. Charles I. the Fair, IV. of France. 

1328. Jane IL (daughter of Jane I.), and her hus- 
band Philip d'Evreux. 

1349. Charles II., the Bad. 

1387. Charles HI., the Noble. 

1425. Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John 
of Arragon. 

1441. John II. , alone, who became king of Arragon, 
in 145S. He endeavonred to obtain the crown 
of Castile also. 



1479. Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. 

1479. Francis Phoebus de Foix, her son. 

1483. Catherine (his sister) and her husband John 
d'Albret. Ferdinand of Airagon conquers 
and annexes aU Navarre south of the Pyre- 
nees, 1512. 

LowTSR Navaeke (in France). 

1516. Henry d'Albret. 

1555. Jane d'Albret and her husband, Anthony de 
Bourbon, who died 1562. 

1572. Henry III. who became in 1589 king of 
France, to which Lower Navarre was for- 
mally united iu 1609. 



NAVIGATION" began with the Egyptians and Phoenicians. The first laws of navigation 
originated with the Khodians, 916 i.e. The first account we have of any considerable voyage 
is that of the Phoenicians sailing round Africa, 604 b. c. Blair. 



Plane charts and mariner's compass used about 

Variation of the comijass observed by Colum- 
bus 

That the oblique rhomb lines are spiral, disco- 
vered by Nonius 

First treatise on navigation .... 

The log first mentioned by Bourne . . . 

Mercator's chart 

Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for measuring 
angles, about 



1492 

IS37 
154s 
1577 
1599 

1600 ' 



Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by 

Gunter 1620 

Middle latitude sailing Introduced . . . 1623 
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood . . . 163 



Hadley's quadi-ant in 



Han-ison's time-keeper used 
Nautical almanac first published . . . . 
Barlow's theory of the deviation of the com- 
pass 

See Comimss, Latitude, Longitude, Steam, dx. 



1764 
1767 



NAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime laws is attributed to Eichard I. of England, 
said to have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, IJ94 (see Oleron), and further enactments 
were made by Eichard II. in 1381, — In Oct. 165 1, the parliament of Cromwell passed an act 
entitled " Goods from foreign parts, by whom to be imported," the principles of which were 
affirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, "an act for the Encouraging and Increasing of Shipping 
and Navigation" (1660). The latter act restricts the importation and exportation of goods 
from or to Asia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of which the masters and three-fourths 
of the mariners are to be English. This was followed by many acts of similar tenor ; which 
were consolidated by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 54 (1833). These acts were in the whole or in part 
repealed by the act "to amend the laws iu force for the encouragement of British shipping 
and navigation " (passed 12 &,i3^Vict. c. 29, 26 June, 1849, Rafter much opposition), and which 
came into operation iJan. 1850. The Steam Navigation act passed 14&15 Vict. c. 79, 1851, 
came into operation i Jan. 1852. The act regulating the navigation of the river Thames 
was passed in 1786. — In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended the modification of the French 
navigation laws. 

NAVIGATORS (or Navvies). These important helpers in the construction of railwajj-s 
derived their name (about 1830) from their formerly making the inland navigation in Lin- 
colnshire, &c., and are said to be descendants of the original Dutch canal labourers. 

NAVY OF England, "whereon, under the good providence of God, the wealth, safety, 
and strength of the kingdom chiefly depends," Act for the government of the Navy. 



The first fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes, 
built by Alfred 897 

The number of galleys gi-eatly increased imder 
Edgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean 
surrounding Britain, about . . . . 965 

A formidable fleet equipped by the contribu- 
tion of evei-y town in England, in the reign of 
Ethelred II. when it rendezvoused at Sand- 
wich, to be ready to oppose the Danes . . 1007 

A fleet collected by Edward the Confessor to 
resist the Norwegians, 1042 ; and by Harold 
to resist the Normans 1066 

Eichard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval 
laws about 1191 

[The Cinque ports and maritime towns fre- 
quently furnish fleets commanded by the 
king or his officers.] 

Edward III.'s fleet defeat the French at the 
battle of Slnys, 24 June, 1340; and the Spanish 
off Winchelsea .... 29 Aug. 1350 



Henry V. made great efforts to increase the 
navy 1415-1422 

Henry VII. built the Royal Harry ; considered 
to be the begiiming of the Royal Navy . . 1488 

The Ti-iuity house established and the Navy 
office appointed with commissioners (see 
Adiniralty) 1512 

[The navy then consisted of the Great Harry, 
1200 tons, two ships, of 800 tons, and six or 
seven smaller.] 

James L and Charles I. improve the navy. The 
Sovereirm of the Seas launched . . . . 1637 

Frigates said to have been first built . . . 1649 

James II. systematises sea-signals and im- 
proves the navy 1685-8 

Reign of George III. ; dimensions of ships in- 
creased ; copper sheathing adopted for ships 
of every class ; estabUshments of naval stores 
provided at all docky;u'ds and naval stations ; 
and various improvements made in shipbuild- 
ing 1760-1S20 



NAV 



510 



NAV 



NAVY, continued. 



Years. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men. 


Navy Estimates. 


Years. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men. 


Na\y Estimates. 


1546 


S8 


I2>45S 


8,546 


no account. 


1702 


272 


159,020 


40,000 


£1,056,915 


1558 


27 


7,110 


3,565 


no account. 


1760 


412 


321.134 


70,000 


,3,227,143 


1578 


24 


10.506 


6,700 


no account. 


1793 


408 


433.226 


45,000 


5,525,331 


1603 


42 


I7.°SS 


8,346 


no account. 


1800 


767 


668,744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


1658 


157 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


1808 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


16S8 


173 


101,892 


42,000 


no account. 


1 1814 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 



Great Britain had 901 .ships, of which 177 were 
of the line : and in 1830, she had 621 ships, 
some of 140 guns each, and down to survey- 
ing vessels of two guns only. Of these 148 
sail were employed on foreign and home ser- 
vice ......... 1814 

The screw propeller introduced in the Eoyal 

Navy 1840 

The total number of ships of all sizes in com- 
mission, 183 I Jan. 1 841 

The Navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam 

vessels 1:850 

Naval Coast Volunteers' act passed . Aug. 1853 
Of 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 

114 paddle steamers .... April 1854 
The queen reviews the Baltic fleet at Spithead, 

10 March, 1S54, and 23 April, 1856 
Of 271 sailing vessels, carrymg 9594 guns, and 
258 steam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; to- 
gether 573 vessels, carrying 16,176 guns ; also 
155 gun-boats, and iii vessels on harbour ser- 
vice July, ,, 

Proclamation for manning the navy 30 April, 1859 
Naval Reserve Force authorised . . Aug, ,, 
Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class sea- 
men except after a trial . . . Dec. ,, 
Great excitement respecting the French govern- 
ment building the plated frigate Gloire (see 

next page) i860 

The Warrior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, 
the largest vessel in the world except the 
Cfreat Mastern (see Steam], length, 380 ft. 
breadth, 58 ft. ; iron-plate, 4J inches thick ; 
6170 tons burthen; cost about 400,000!. ; 
launched [censured in 1864] . 29 Dec. ,, 

A royal commission recommends the abolition 
of the board of admiralty, and the appoint- 
ment of a minister of the navy department 

March, 1861 

Lord Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, 

states that England has 67 steam ships of the 

line; while France has 37, Bussia 9, Spain 3, 

and Italy i . , . . . . n April, „ 

New act for the government of the navy (the 

Naval Discipline act) passes . . 6 Aug. „ 
Four iron-plated vessels (400 ft. long ; 59J ft. . 
wide ; and cost about 6oo,oooi. each) build- 
ing Dec. ,, 

Cupola Ships. Capt. Cowper Coles' mode of 
constructing iron-plated vessels, with a cu- 
pola or turret for firing from, made known 
in 185s, and recommended to the admiralty 
in i86i ; adopted by Ericson in the Monitor, 
1862 ; proposed to be adopted by the British 
government ....... 1865 

Six different kinds of plated vessels said to be 
constructing ; E. J. Beed authorised to build 
the Enterprise as a specimen of an iron-plated 

sea-going vessel April, ,, 

Royal Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chat- 
ham 10 Sept. ,, 

Twin or double screws for vessels of light 

draught introduced 186; 

Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor in 

the Royal Navy Jan. ,, 

Navy consists of T014 vessels of all classes ; 85 
line of battle ships ; 69 frigates ; 30 screw cor- 
vettes Jan. ,, 

Steam ram Valiant launched . . 14 Oct. ,, 
iUijjotaiw iron-steamer launched . . 12 Dec. 



Royal School of Naval Architecture, South 

Kensington, established 1864 

The turrot-ship Sove-reign, constructed on Coles' 
principle, put out of commission, and placed 
among reserve ships ; this blamed by some, 

Oct. » 
Naval models from the time of Henry Till. 
collected early in the present century by sir 
Robert Seppings, removed to South Kensing- 
ton Museum Dec. ,, 

29 iron-clad vessels building "to be ready for 

sea this year " March 1865 

JSeUero2jkon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed : and 

the Lord Warden, iron-clad, launched May ,, 
A British fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, 
(fee, 15 Aug., &c. ; and a French fleet at Ports- 
mouth 29-31 Aug. „ 

Royal Navy "consists of 735 vessels and steam- 
ships of all classes" (30 iron-clads ready for 

sea) . ' July 1S66 

Difiicult launch of the Northumberland iron- 
clad, 17 March, et seq. ; effected . 17 April, „ 
Experimental cruise of the iron-clad fleet in 
stormy ■weather; general performance satis- 
factory (Times) .... Sept. -Nov. „ 
Act for protection of naval stores passed 

20 Aug. 1867 
150 wooden ships of all classes sold . 1859-67 

[Of these were 7 line of battle ships and 6 fri- 
gates, cost above 1,000,000^, sold for 87,543!.] 
Hercules, 12, armour-plated ship, 1200 horse 

power, floated at Chatham . . 10 Feb. 1868 
Annual Expendittjee on the British Navy. — 
1850, 6,942,397!. ; — 1854, 6,640,596!. ; — 1855 (to 
31 March, Russian war), 14,490,105!. ; — 1856, 
19,654,585!.; — 1859, 9,215,487!.; — 1861, 13,331,668!.; 
— 1862, 12,598,042!.; — 1863, 11,370,588!. ;— 1864, 
10,821,596!. ; — 1865, 10,898,253!. ; — 1866, 10,259,788!. 
— 1867, 10,676,101!.; — estimate, 1867-8, 10,976,253!.; — 
1868-9, 11,177.290!. 
New Naval Discipline act, passed . . Aug. 1866 
Naval Salute to the Beitish Flag began in 
Alfred's reign, and though sometimes disputed, 
may be said to have been continued ever since. 
The Dutch agreed to strike to the English colours 
in the British seas, in 1673. The honour of the 
flag salute at sea was also formerly assented to by 
Prance in 1704, although it had been long pre- 
viously exacted by England ; see Flag and Salutes 
at Sea. 
Naval Unifoems. The first notice of the establish- 
ment of a uniform in the British naval service, 
which we have met with, occurs in the Jacobite's 
Journal of 5 March, 1748, under the head of "Do- 
mestic News," in these terms :—" An order is 
said to be issued, requiring all his majesty's sea- 
ofiicers, from the admiral down to the midship- 
man, to wear a uniformity of clothing, for which 
purpose pattern coats for dress suits and frocks 
for each rank of oificers are lodged at the Navy- 
office, and at the several dock-yards for their in- 
spection." This is corroborated by the Gazette ot 
13 July, 1757, when the first alteration in the uni- 
form took place, and in which a reference is made 
to the order of 1748, alluded to in the journal 
above mentioned, and which in fact is the year 
when a naval uniform was first established. 
James I. had indeed granted, by warrant of 6 
April, i6og, to six of his principal masters of the 
navy, "liverie coats of fine red cloth." The war- 



ISTAV 511 NEG 

IvTAVY, continued. 

rant is stated to have been drawn verhafhn from A grand naval review (15 gi-eat wooden ships, 15 
one signed by queen Elizabeth, but which had not I iron-plated, 16 gun-vessels and boats,) was held 



been acted upon by reason of her death. This 
curious document is In the British Museum ; but 
king James's limited red livery is supposed to 
have been soon discontinued. Quarterly Review. 

Navy Pay Office, organised in 1644, was abolished 
in 1836, when the army and navy pay depai-tments 
were consolidated in the Paymaster General's office. 

Navy List was first officially compiled by John Fin- 
laison, the celebrated actuary, and pubUshod 
monthly in 1814. 

Naval Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet at 
Spithead, near Portsmouth, in March, 1854, before 
it sailed to the Baltic, at the commencement of 
the Russian war ; and again, at Portsmouth, on 
the conclusion of peace, in the presence of the 
parliament, &c., on 23 April, 1856. The fleet ex- 
tended in an unbroken line of 5 miles, and con- 
sisted of upwards of 300 men-of-war, with a ton- 
nage of 150,000, carrying 3800 guns, and manned 
by 40,000 seamen. There were about 100,000 spec- 
tators. 



at Spithead, (the queen, the sviltnn, and the vice- 
roy of Egypt present), 17 July, 1867. 
Naval Volunteers Cor Reaerve). By 16 <fe 17 Vict, 
c. 73 (1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise 
a body of seafaring men to be called the " Naval 
Coast Volunteers," not to exceed 10,000, for the 
defence of the coast, and for actual service if re- 
quired. On 13 Aug. 1859, an act was passed to 
enable the admiralty to raise a number of men, 
not exceeding 30,000, as a reserve force of seamen, 
to be called the " Royal Naval Volunteers." In 
November following, the admiralty issued a state- 
ment of the " qualifications, advantages, and obli- 
gations" of this reserve. The enrolment com- 
menced on I Jan. 1S60. The engagement is for 
five years, and the volunteers are entitled to a 
pension when incapacitated after the expiration 
of the term. At the prospect of war with the 
United States in Dec. 1861, a great number of sea- 
men at Hartlepool, Dundee, London, Aberdeen, 
&c. , offered their services. 



NAVY OF France. It is first mentioned in history, 728, when, like that of England at 
an early period, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the French defeated the Frisian fleet. It 
was cons^iderahly improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 
1697. The Freiich navy was, perhaps, in its highest splendour about 1781 ; but it became 
greatly reduced in the wars with England; see Naval Battles. It has been greatly increased 
by the present emperor, and in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and 
37 steamers^, and 398 other vessels, in all 449 ; including vessels building, converting, or 
ordei-ed to be built. The new French iron-plated frigate Gloire, latin ched in i860, has been 
subjected to much criticism, but appears to be generally considered as successful.* The 
Solferino and Magenta were launched in June, 1861. Other iron vessels are in course of 
construction. 

ISTAZARENE, a name given to Jesus Christ, and for a time to his disciples ; but after- 
wards to a sect who rejected the doctrine of Christ's divinity in the first century. A sect 
named ISTazarenes, resembling the society of Friends in Britain, became prominent in Hun- 
gary in the autumn of 1867. 

NEAPOLIS, see Naples. 

EEBEASKA, a N.W. territory of North America (part of Louisiana), was organised 30 
May, 1854. Capital, Omaha city. 

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, put forth by sir Wm. Herschel, in 181 1, supposes that the 
xmiverse was formed out of shapeless masses of nebulae or clusters of small stars. It has not 
been generally received. In Oct. i860, Mr. Lassell strictly scrutinised the dumb-bell nebula, 
and stated that the brightest parts did not appear to be stars. In 1865, Mr. Wm. Huggins 
reported that he had analysed certain nebulss by their spectra, and believed them to be 
entirely gaseous. 

NECTARINE, the Amygdalis Persica, originally came from Persia about 1562. Pre- 
viously, presents of nectarines were frequently sent to the court of England from the Nether- 
lands; and Catherine, queen of Henry VIII., distributed them among her friends. 

NEEDLES are said to have been first made in England in Cheapside, London, in the 
time of Mary I. by a negro from Spain. The invention was lost at his death, and not re- 
covered till 1566, when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English. Stow. 

NEEDLE-GUN (ZiindnadelgeweJir), a musket invented by J. N. Dreyse of Scemmerda, 
about 1827, and made a breech-loader in 1836, which was adopted by the Prussian general 
Manteufiel about 1846. It was found to be a most effective weapon in the war with 
Denmark in 1864, and in that with Austria in 1866. The ignition of the charge is produced 
by a fine steel rod or needle being pressed through the cartridge. The invention is claimed 
for other persons. 

NEERWINDEN, see Landen. NEGRO TRADE, see Slavery. 

* Mr. Scott Russell says :— " The Gloire has been built by M. Dupuis de Lome, after a most exact 
calculation of the effect of iron plates upon the weight and speed of a vessel. She is perfectly fit . to 
carry a broadside of guns of as heavy a calibre as any that can be carried and worked in our own wooden 
ships, and she is driven at at least as high a speed as any vessel of similar dimensions in our own service." 



NEL 512 NEXT 

NELSON'S VICTOEIES, &c., see separate articles. 



The Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth 
with his remains .... 4 Dec. 1805 

The body lay in state in the Painted Hall, at 
Greenwich, 5 Jan. ; removed to the Admi- 
ralty, 8 Jan. ; funeral took place . 9 Jan. i8o5 

The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), 
the duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV,), 
and other royal dukes ; almost all the peers 
of England, and the lord mayor and corpora- 
tion of London, with thousands of military 
and naval oflBcers and distinguished men, 
followed the funeral car to St. Paul's ; the 
military assembled on this occasion amounted 
to near 10,000 regulars, independent of volun- 
teers ; the regulars consisted chiefly of the 
regiments that had fought and conquered in 
Egypt. 

The Nelson Column, Trafalgar- square, London, 
was completed, and the statue placed on it, 

4 Nov. 1843 



Horatio Nelson, born at Burnham Thorpe, Nor- 
folk 29 Sept. 1758 

Sailed with captain Phipps to the North Pole 1773 

Distinguished himself in the West Indies _ . 1780 

Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica . 1794 

Captured Elba 9 Aug. 1796 

With Jervis, at the victory off St. Vincent, 14 

Fob. ; made admiral . . 20 Feb. 1797 

Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack 
on Santa Cruz . . . 25, 26 July, ,, 

Gained the battle of the Nile, x Aug. ; created 
Baron Nelson of the Nile . . 6 Oct. 1798 

Attacks Copenhagen, 2 April ; created viscount, 
22 May ; attacks Boulogne and destroys 
sevei-al ships 3 Aug. iSoi 

Appointed to chief command in the Mediter- 
ranean 20 May, 1803 

Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March 
to Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; re-ap- 
pears at Cadiz, and defeats the fleets in 
Trafalgar Bay, where he is killed . 21 Oct. 1805 

NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, in Achaia, said to have been instituted by the 
Argives, in honour of Arcfiemorus, who died by the bite of a serpent ; Hercules some time 
after renewed them, 1226 B.C. The conqueror was rewarded with a cown of Olives, after- 
wards of green parsley, in memory of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of 
that plant. They were celebrated every third yeai", or, according to others, on the first and 
third year of every 01ymi)iad, 1226 B.C. Herodotus. They were revived by the emperor 
Julian, A.D. 362, but ceased in 396. > 

NEO-PLATONISM or New Platonism, see Philosophy. 

NEPAUL (India). The East India company's war with the state of Nepaul commenced 
I Nov. 1814, and terminated 27 April, 1815. A treaty of peace was signed between the 
parties 2 Dec. 1815. War renewed bj"- an infraction of the treaty by the Nepaulese, Jan. 
1816 : and after several contests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former treaty was ratified, 
15 March, 1816. An extraordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen of Great 
Britain arrived in England, landing at Southampton, 25 May, and remained till Aug. 1850 ; 
it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung Bahadoor and his suite, to whom many honours 
were paid. He supported the English during the English mutiny in 1857. 

NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the Greeks, when they offered mead instead of 
wine to the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and to Yenus ; and burnt any wood 
but that of the vine, fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of drunkenness, 613 B.C. 

NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed oi"! 23 Sept. 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin, 
in consequence of a letter from M. Le Yerrier, who had conjectured from the anomalous 
movements of Uranus, that a distant planet might exist nearly in the position where Neptune 
is situated. Calculations to the same effect had been previously made by Mr. J. Couch 
Adams. A satellite of Neptune was discovered by Mr. Lassell on 10 Oct. following. Nep- 
tune is said to have been seen by Lalande, and thought to be a fixed star. 

NERYII, a warlike tribe in Belgic Gaul, were defeated in a severe battle by Julius 
Ceesar 57, and subdued 53 B.C. 

NERWINDEN, see Landen. NESBIT, see NisUt. 

. NESTORIANS, the followers of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is 
represented as a heretic for maintaining tliat though the Yirgin Mary was the mother of 
Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, since no human creature could 
impart to another what she had not herself ; he also held that God was united to Christ 
under one person, but remained as distinct in nature and essence as though he had never 
been united at all. He was opposed by Eutyches, and died 439 ; see Uutychians. Nestorian 
Christians in the Levant administer the sacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds, 
permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirmation nor auricular confession. Dio Pin. 
A Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, 1862. 

NETHERLANDS, see Flanders, Holland, and Belgium. 

NETLEY HOSPITAL, near Southampton, for invalid soldiers. The foundation was 
laid by the queen, 19 May, 1856. 

NEUFCHAtEL, a canton in Switzerland, formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. 
The first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, whose descendants ruled till 1373, 
after which by marriages it frequently changed governors. On the death of the duchess de 
Nemours, the last of the Longuevilles, in 1 707, there were many claimants ; among them 



NEU 513 NEW 

our William III. He and the allies however gave it to Fredericlc I. of Prussia with the title 
of prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his 
general Berthier, wlio held it till 1S14, when it fell to the disposal of the allies. They 
restored the king of Prussia the title of prince with certain rights and privileges ; but 
constituted it a part of the Swiss confederation.* 

NEUSTPJA or West France, a kingdom allotted to Clotaire by his father Clovis, at 
his death in 511. His descendant, Charlemagne, became sole king of France, in 771. 

NEUTRAL POWERS. By the treaty of Paris, signed by the representatives of Great 
Britain, France, Austiia, Russia, Prussia, Turkey, and Sardinia, on 16 April, 1856, it Avas 
determined that privateering should be abolished ; that neutrals might carry an enemy's 
goods not contraband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband were free even under an 
enemy's flag ; and that blockades to be binding must be effective. The president of the 
United States acceded to these provisions in 1861. 

NEVADA, a western territory of the United States of N. America, organised 2 March, 
1861 ; admitted a state 31 Oct. 1864. Capital, Carson city. 

NEVILLE'S CROSS or Durham, Battle of, between the Scots under king David 
Bruce, and the English under Philippa, consort of Edward III., and lord Percy, 12 or 17 Oct. 
1346. More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 

NEVIS (W. Indies), an island planted by the English in 1628 ; taken by the French, 
14 Feb. 1782 ; restored to the English in 1783. The capital is Charleston. 

NEWARK (Nottinghamshire). The church was erected by Henry IV. Here, in the 
midst of troubles, died king John, 9 Oct. 1216 ; here the royal army under prince Rupert 
repulsed the army of the parliament, besieging the town, 21 March, 1644 ; and here, 5 May, 
1646, Charles I., after his defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the Scotch army, 
who afterwards gave him up to his enemies. Newark was first incorporated by Edward VI. 
and afterwards by Charles II. 

NEW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova Scotia, and received its name as a separate 
colony in 1785. With it, it was united with Canada for legislative purposes by an act passed 
29 March, 1867. Population of New Brunswick in 1865, 272,780. 

NEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were fought two desperate battles— (i.) 20 Sept. 
1643 : between the army of Charles I. and that of the parliament iinder Essex ; it termi- 
nated somewhat favourably for the king. Among the slain was the amiable Lucius Cary, 
viscount Falkland, deeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubious result was fought 
between the royalists and the parliamentarians, 27 Oct. 1644. 

NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), discovered by Cook on 4 Sept. 1774, was seized by 
the French 20 Sept. 1853, and colonised. The French government in Dec. 1864, redressed 
the outrages committed upon the British missionaries at a station established here in 1854. 

NEWCASTLE upon Tyne (Northumberland), the Roman Pons iElia, the first coal port 
in the world, t and the commercial metropolis of the north of England. The coal-mines were 
discovered here about 1234. The first charter granted to the townsmen for digging coal was 
by Henry III. in 1239. 

High level bridge erected by Robert Steiilien- 

son : and grand central station built . 1846-50 
1538 persons die of cholera, 31 Aug. to 26 Oct. 1853 
Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead 

(which nee) $,6 Oct. 1854 

Great distress through failure of Northumber- 
land Joint-Stock Bank .... Nov. 1857 
Richard Grainger dies, aged 63 . .4 July, 1861 
Enthusiastic reception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

7-9 Oct. 1862 
Great fire at Brown's flour mills, &c. , near the 
new level biidge, which is injured, about 
70,000?. loss 24 June, 1866 



The castle built by Robert Courthose, son of 

William I. 1080 

The town fortified by William II ,, 

St. Nicholas church built, about 1091 ; burnt in 
1216 ; restored by Edward I., to whom John 
Bahol did homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt . . 1359 
Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch . 1640, 1646 
Who here gave up Charles I. to the parliament 1644 
Occupied by General Wade in .... 1745 
Literary and Philosophical Society founded 1793 ; 

liberally endowed by Robt. Stephenson . 1858-9 
T. Bewick, the wood engraver, dies. . . 1828 

The magnificent market erected by Richard 



Grainger, who greatly improved the town . 1835 1 The Central Exchange destroyed by fire, 11 Aug. 1867 



* After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabitants in 1848 repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, 
and proclaimed Neufchatel a free and independent member of the Swiss confederation. The king of 
Prussia protested against this ; and in 1852 a protocol was signed between England, France, and Austria, 
recognising his claims. In Sept. 1856, some of his adherents, headed by the count de Pourtalfes. broke out 
into insuiTcction against the republican authorities, who, however, quickly subdued and imprisoned them, 
with the intention of bringing them to trial. War was threatened by the king of Priissia, and great energy 
and determination manifested by the Swiss. On the intervention of the English and French governments, 
after many delays, a treaty was .signed on 11 June, 1857, by which the king of Prussia virtually renounced 
his claims, on receiving a pecuniary compensation, which he eventually gave up. He retains the title of 
prince of Neufchatel without any political rights. • The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released without 
trial, 18 .Jan. 1857. 

t In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, chiefly becau^ it 

L L 



'NEW 514 NEW 

NEWCASTLE upox Tyne, continued. 

Mr. Mawson, tlae slierifif, and Mr. Bryson, the I tempting to bury some nitro-glycerine in the 

town surveyor, and others, killed, while at- | town-moor, to get rid of it . . 17 Dec. 1867 

NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION, formed April, 1754 : resigned Nov. 1756; when 
the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the treasury. 



Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord 

of the treasury. 
Henry Bilson Legge, cliancMor of the excltequer. 
Earl of Holdernesseaud Sir Thomas Robinson (after- 



Lord Anson, first lord of the admiralty. 
Earl Granville, lord president. 

Lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough 
1755)1 lord privy seal. 



wards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The 1 Earl of Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

latter succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Gren- 

HoUand). | ville, ifcc. 

NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINISTRATION (see Chatham Administration), formed 
June, 1757. After various changes it resigned May, 1762 ; lord Bute coming into power. 

H. B. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 



Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord 

of tlie treas-ii.ry. 
William Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretary 

of state for the northern department, and. LeoAer of the 

Jiouse of commons. 
Earl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for the soitthem 

department. 
Earl Grenville, lord president. 
Earl Temple, prir^y seaX. 



Duke of Devonshire, Im-d chamberlain. 

Duke of Rutland, lord steward. 

Lord Anson, admiralty. 

Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by Lord Ligonier), 

ordnance. 
Sir Robert Henley, lord heeper of the great seal. 
Henry Pox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, 

lord Halifax, James Grenville, <fcc. 



NEW CHURCH, see Swedenhorgians. 

NEW COLLEGE (St. John's-wood, London), erected by the Independent dissenters for 
the education of their ministers, 1 850-1, was founded by the union of Homerton, Highbury, 
and Coward colleges ; see Oxford. 

NEW ENGLAND (N. America). The first attempt to form a settlement was made in 
1607, which was named New England by captain Smith, in 1614. A band of 102 Puritans, 
now termed the Pilgrim Fathers (28 women) arrived here in the Ala;/ Flotoer, and founded 
the settlement on Plymouth Rock, 25 Dec. 1620, which was named New Plymouth. This 
was the nucleus of Massachusetts, the mother state, from whence were gradually developed 
New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. In 1643 these settlements 
formed the first American confederation, a defensive union, with a constitution based on the 
Mosaic law, governed by a religious aristocracy, which lasted till 1693. Maine was made an 
independent state in 1820. 

NEW FOREST (Hampshire), was made ("afforested") by William the conqueror, 
1079-85. Many populous towns and villages, and indeed the whole countrj', for above 
thirty miles in compass, were laid waste, and no less than thirty-six churches were destroyed. 
William Rufus was killed in this forest by an arrow, 'shot by Walter Tyrrel, that accidentally 
glanced against a tree, 2 Aug. 1 100, the site of which is now pointed out by a triangidar 
stone. The New Forest Deer Removal act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, 7 Aug. 185 1. 

NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima 
Vista, 24 June, 1497. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 1583. In 
the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the English in the fishery. 
In 1577 there were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 150 from France, and 
only 15, but of larger size, from England. Hakluyt. But the English fishery in some j'ears 
afterwards (1625) had increased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150 
ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. The sovereignty of England was 
recognised in 1713. Nearly 1000 English families reside here all the year ; and in the fishing 
season (May to September) more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland (one of our 
finest nurseries for seamen). It obtained the privilege of a colonial legislature in 1845, ^^^ 
the bishopric was established in 1839. — Appalling tire at St. John's, a great portion of the 
town destroyed, the loss estimated at 1,000,000^. sterling, 9 June, 1846. On 14 Jan. 
1857, a convention was concluded between the English and French governments, confirming 
certain French privileges of fishery in exchange for others. The English colonists were 
dissatisfied with this convention. 

NEW FRANCE, see Canada. 

NEWGATE, London. The prison derives its name from the gate which once formed a 
part of it, and stood a little beyond the Sessions-house in the Old Bailey. It was used as 
a prison for persons of rank, as early as 1218 ; but was i-ebuilt about two centuries afterwards 
by the executors of sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat stood in the niche till 

injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of -which were then growing about the city ; but this 
interdiction did not long continue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this 
ijlace for more than 500 years. 



NEW 515 NEW 

the time of its demolition by the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then reconstructed 
in its late form ; but the old prison being an accumulation of misery and inconvenience, Avas 
pulled down and rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. During the riots in the latter year, the 
interior was destroyed by fire, but shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the interior was 
pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted to the reformatory system. The market 
established in 1681, was ordered to be abolished by an act passed in 186 1. A meat and 
poultry market is being erected in Smithfield (1868). 

NEW GRANADA (S. America), discovered by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by the 
Spaniards in 1536. It formed part of the new repi;biic of Bogota, established in 181 1 ; and, 
combined with Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia, 17 Dec. 1819 ; see Colombia. 

Arboleda, chief of the conservatives, assassi- 
nated (succeeded by Cassal) . . i Nov. 1862 

New cunstitution established . . 8 May, 1863 

Mosquera invites Venezuela and Equator to 
join the confederation .... Aug. ,, 

Equator declines — war ensues . . 20 Nov. ,, 

The troops of Equator defeated, 6 Dec. ; peace 
ensues, and Equator remains independent 

30 Dec. ,, 

Coup d'etat of Mosquera, who declares himself 
dictator 11 March, 1866 

Mosquera deposed by Santos Acosta, who be- 
comes provisional president . . 23 May, 1867 



President M. Ospina entered on office i April, 1857 
After several reunions and dissolutions, the re- 
public of New Granadamerged into the Grana- 

dine Confederation, which includes Bolivar, 

Antioquia, Panama, and other small states 

15 June, 1858 
Struggles between the conservatives, partisans 

of the old government, and the liberals Jan. 1861 
General Mosquera (liberal) deposes Ospina ; and 

seizes the government . . . 18 July. ,, 
A congress of the states detenmine on union, 

under the name of the United States of 

Colombia 20 Sept. ,, 

NEW GUINEA or Papua, a large island, Pacific Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese 
after their settlement of the Moluccas between 1512 and 1530. It was visited by Saavedra, 
a Spaniard, in 1528. Torres Straits, which divide New Guinea and Australia, were dis- 
covered by Torres, a Spaniard, in 1606. The Dutch established a colony and erected a 
fortress, named Dubus, on the S.W. coast, in 1828. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the original united states of N. America, was settled in 
1623, and separated from Massachusetts in 1679. Capital, Concord. 

NEW HARMONY, see Harmonists. 

NEW HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), discovered by Quires, who believing them to be a 
continent named them Tierra Australia del Esinritu Santo, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 
found them to be islands ; and in 1774 Cook gave them their present name. 

NEW HOLLAND, see Australia, New South Wales, &c. 

NEW JERSEY, one of the original united states of N. America, was settled by the Dutch 
from New York, 1620 ; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, Trenton. 

NEW LANARK (W. Scotland). Here Robert Owen endeavoured to establish socialism 
in 1801. 

NEWMARKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned for its horse-races. It is first mentioned iu 
1227 ; and probably derived its name from the market then recently established. James I. 
erected a hunting-seat here, called the king's house, to which Charles I. was taken as a 
prisoner in 1647, when the parliament army was quartered in the neighbouring village of 
Kennet. Charles II., who was fond of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the 
diversion, about 1667,* and from that period races have been annual to the present time ; 
and many extraordinary races have been run ; see Races. 

NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the United States in 1848, and organised as a 
territory, 9 Sept. 1850. Capital, Santa Fe. 

NEW ORLEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. America [which see), founded in 171 7, under 
the regency of the duke of Orleans. In 1788, seven-eighths of the city were destroyed by 
fire ; but it is now rebuilt. The British attacked New Orleans in Dec. 1814, and were 
repulsed with great loss, by the Americans under general Jackson, 8 Jan. 1815. New 
Orleans was surrendered to the Federals in April, 1862. The strong feeling of the inhabi- 
tants in favour of the Confederates and against the Federals induced general B. Butler to rule 
them with military rigour, occasionally degenerating into brutal tyranny, especially towards 
females. May to October, 1862. He was replaced by general Banks, 16 Dec. 1862. 
Sanguinary riots, due to agitators, begun 30 July, 1866, only suppressed by martial law ; 
about 40 persons, white and coloured, were killed, and about 160 wounded. 

* Duriug the races, on 22 March, 1683, Newmarket was nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which 
occasioned the hastv departure of the conipany then assembled, including the king, the queen, the duke 
of York, the royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this disaster historians have ascribed the 
failure of the Eye-house plot, the object of which was said to be the assassination of the king and his 
brother on the 1 oad from Newmai-ket to London, if the period of theii- journey had not been thus antici- 
pated ; see Rye-Huuse Plut. 

L L 2 



NEW 516 KEW 

NEW PLYMOUTH, see New England. 

NEWPORT (Monmoutlishire). Chartist riots here were suppressed, 4 Nov. 1839.* 

NEW PJVEE, for the supply of London with water, Avas begun 1609, and finished in 
1613, when the projector, Hugh Myddelton, was knighted by James L Strype. 
Tliis artificial river, which rises in Hertfordshire, and which, with its windings, is 
forty-two miles long, was brought to London, and opened 29 Sept. 1613. So little was the 
benefit of it understood, that for above thirty years the seventy-two shares, into which it 
was divided, netted only 5Z. apiece. Each of these shares was sold originally for lool. 
Within the last few years they have been sold for 9000Z. a share, and some lately for 
10,000?. 

NEW ROSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. Here generalJohnston totally defeated the rebels 
under Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, 4 June, 1798. 

NEWRY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous con- 
dition ; it was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken by lord Conway. After the 
Restoration the town was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick when flying from 
Schomberg and the English army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 1689. 

NEWS-LETTERS. News- writers in the reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee- 
houses information, which was printed weekly and sent into the country. The London 
Gazette, then the only authorised newspaper, contained little more than proclamations and 
advertisements. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, the principal colony of Australia {which see), on the eastern coast 
of New Holland, was explored and taken possession of and named by captain Cook in 1770. 
At his recommendation a convict colony was first formed here. Captain A Phillip, the first 
governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, 20 Jan. 1788 ; but he subsequently 
jjreferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible 
situation for the capital. A new constitution was granted in 1855 (18 & 19 Vic. c. 54) ; see 
Sydney. Population, in 1856, 269,722 ; in 1862, 367,495 ; in 1866, 411,388. The imports 
for 1859 amounted to 6,597,053?. ; the exports to 4,768,049?. Governor, sir John Young, 
i860; earl of Belmore, 1867. 

NEWSPAPERS. The Roman Acta Diurna were issued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modern 
times, a Gazetta, which derived its name from its price, a small coin, was published in Venice, 
(about 1536). The Gazette de France, now existing, first appeared in April, 1631, edited by 
Eenaudot, a physician. It was patronised by the king, Louis XIII., who wrote one article 
for it, and by Richelieu. The first real newspaper published in England f was established 
by sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued 
nearly three years, when it ceased, on the appearance of the Gazette. In the reign of 
James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant ; and in the year 1643 (the period of 
the civil war) were printed a variety of publications, certainly in no respect entitled to the 
name of newspapers, of which the following were the titles : — 



England's Menaorable Accidents. 
The kingdom's Intelligencer. 
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in 

Parliament. 
The Mercurius Aulicus. 



The Scotch Intelligencer. 
The Parliament's Scout. 
The Parliament's Scout's Dis- 
covery, or Certain Information. 



The Mercurius Civicus, or London's 

Intelligencer. 
The Country's Complaint, &c. 
The "Weekly Accounts. 
Mercurius Britannicus. 



* The chartists {which see), collected from the mines and collieries in the neighbourhood, to the number 
of 10,000, armed with guns, pikes, clubs, &c., arrived at Newport, 4 Nov., 1839. They divided them- 
selves into two bodies — one, under the command of Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down the 
principal street ; whilst the other, headed by his son, took the direction of Stow-hill. They met in front 
of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th regiment, 
and several special constables. The rioters commenced breaking the windows of the house, and fired on 
the inmates, by which the mayor, Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Phillips, and several other persons, were 
wounded. I'he soldiers returned the fire, and succeeded in dispersing the mob, which, with its leaders, 
fled from the town, leaving about 20 rioters dead, and many others dangerously wounded. A detachment 
of the loth royal Hussar.s having arrived fi-om Bristol, the town became tranquil. Frost was apprehended 
on the following day, together with his printer, and other influential persons among the chartists. He and 
several others were tried and convicted In Jan. 1840, and sentenced to death ; afterwards commuted to 
transportation. An amnesty was granted them on 3 May, 1856 ; and they returned to England in Sept. 
following. 

t Some copies of a publication are in existence called the Engli/h Mercury, professing to come out 
under the authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the Spanish Armada. The researches of 
Mr. T. Watts, of the British Museum, have proved these to be forgeries, executed about 1766. The full 
title of No. 50 is "The EnciLUh Merciirie, published by authoritie, for the prevention of false reports, 
imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer. No. 50." It describes the Spanish Armada, 
giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st ef this month, between her majestie's fleet and that of 
Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral, to the Lordes of council." 



KEW 



517 



NEW 



NEWSPAPERS, contimied. 

A paper called the London Gazette * was published 
22 Aug. 1642. The London Gazette of the existing 
series was pubhshed first at Oxford, the Court 
being there on account of the plague, 7 Nov. 1665, 
and afterwards at London, s Feb. 1666. 

Printing of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 
31 Chas. I. 16S0. Salmon's Chron. 

The regular newspapers commenced on the aboUtion 
of the censorship of the press, in 1695. 

Daily Courant said to have been fh'St published in 
1702. 

Newspapers first stamped in 1713. 

NUMBER or STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. 

1753 7.4ii>757 

1760 . . . . . . 9,404,790 

1774 12,300,000 

179° 14,035.639 

1800 ..... 16,084,905 

1810 ... ... 20,172,837 

1820 ..... 24,862,186 

1825 26,950,693 

1830 ..... 30,158,741 

1835 32,874,652 

184° 49.033.384 

1843 56,433.977 

In the year ending 5 Jan. 1S51, there were 159 Lon- 
don newspapers, in which appeared 891,650 adver- 
tisements ; 222 English provincial newspajjers, 
having 875,631 advei-tisements. 
In Scotland, same year, there were no newspapers, 

having 249,141 advertisements. 
In Ireland, there were 102 newespapers, having 

236,128 advertisements. 
In that year the number of stamps issued was — in 
England, 65,741,271 at id., and 11,684,423 supple- 
ment stamps at M. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps 
at id., and 241,264 at ^d. ; in Ireland, 6,302,728 
stamps at id , and 43,358 at ^d. 
Reduction of newspaper duty from 4c?. to id. took 

effect on 15 Sept. 1836. 
The distinctive die came into use i Jan. 1837. 
Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. 
By the act passed 15 June, 1855 (18 &. 19 Vict. c. 27), 
the stamp on newspapers, as such, was totally 
abohshed, and will be employed henceforth only 



for postal purposes. Many new papers were then 
started, which were but of short duration. 

In 1857, 71 milhon newspapers passed through the 
post-office. In Jan. i860, io6onewsj)apers ; in Jan. 
1862, 1165 newspapers : and in Jan. 1868, i404news- 
papers were published in the United Kingdom. 

On I Oct. 1861, when the paper duty came off, the 
Times, Daily News, and Morning Post reduced 
their price to 3d. each copy unstamped. 

IRISH NEWSPAPERS. 

The first was the Dublin New. ^-Letter, by Joseph Ray, 
1685 ; Pue's Occurrences, 1700 or 1703. Faulkner's 
Journal was established by George Faulkner, " a 
man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and 
the weakness of his head," 1728. The oldest of the 
existing Dubhn newspapers are Saunders' (then 
Ssdaile's) News-Letter, 1745; and Freeman's Journal, 
founded as the Public Register, by the patriot Dr. 
Lucas, about 1755. The Limerick Chronicle, the 
oldest of the provincial prints, 1768. 

PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS.. 

Norwich Postman, 1706. Worcester Postman, 1709. 
Newcastle-on-Tyne Courant, 1711. 

FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. 

Gazette de Venise, early in 17th century; Gazette de 
France (now publishing), 1631. 

The first newspaper set up in Germany, 1715. 

The first pubhshed in America, the Boston News- 
Letter, in 1704; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; 
and the first in Holland in 1732. 

" America, whose population is 23 milhons and a 
half, supports 800 newspapers (50 of these publish- 
ing daily), and their annual circulation is stated 
at 64,000,000. In Paris there exist 169 journals, 
literary, scientific, religious, and political." — West- 
minster Review, 1830. 



REGISTERED NEWSPAPERS. 

London newspapers, daily 
United Kingdom, daily 
London newspapers, weekly . 
English provincial newspapers . 
Irish newspapers .... 
Scotch newspapers .... 
British isles 



1850. 1865. 



58 


73 
166 


222 


750 


102 


132 


IIO 


140 


14 


14 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPEES. 

DAILY. 



Public Ledger {commercial) . 1759 1 Sun (liberal) 
Morning Chronicle (liberal), 

extinct .... 1770-1862 
3Iorning 'E.era,\d(conservative) 1780 
Jlorning Post (uhig) . . . 1781 
Times (independent) . . 1788 



• • 1792 
Morning Advertiser (liberal) . 1794 
Globe (whig; 1866 con.terv.) 

evening .... 1803 
Standard(co?iseri;.), even. 1857 

morn. ..... 1827 



Daily News (liberal) . . . 1846 

Daily Telegraph t ((itcraZ) .1855 

Morning Star (liberal) . . 1856 

International in'French . 1863 

Pall MaU Gazette (WjeraO- -1865 

Glowworm (liberal) . . „ 



St. James's Chronicle (con- 

serv.), united with "Press" 1761 

Observer (whig) . . . 1792 

Bell's Messenger (U6. conserv.) 1796 

Weekly Dispatch (liberal) . 1801 

Examiner (liberal) . . . 1808 
Literary Gazette (extinct) 1817-62 

John 'BuU.(consirvative) . . 1820 
Bell's Life in London (.«/)or<ij!gf) , , 

Sunday Times (lib. conserv.). 1822 

Lancet (met/tcai) . . . 1823 

Atlas (liberal) . . . . 1826 

Athenwum (literary <i> scien.) 1828 

Spectator (liberal) . . . ,, 

Hecord (Liberal conservative) . ,, 

Court J onrnal (neutral). . 1829 

United Service Gazette . . 1833 



PRINCIPAL WEEKLY. 

Mining Journal . . . 1835 
Watchman (lFe.s!cya?i) . . ,, 
Musical World . . . 1836 
Magnet (agricultural) . . 1837 
Railway T'imes . . . ,, 
Era (theatrical) . . . . ,, 
Ecclesiastical Gazette . . 183S 
Tablet (Roman Catholic) . . 1840 
Courrier de I'Europe . . ,, 
Gardeners' Chronicle . . 1841 
Nonconformist . . . ,, 
Punch . . . . . ,, 
Illus. London News (K'/erai) . 1842 
Lloyd's Weekly Paper (radcl. ) ,, 

Builder ,, 

Churchman (High Ch.) . . 1843 
News of the World ((iftcml) . ,, 



Economist (liberal) . 
Farmer (agricultural) . 
Jewish Chronicle (liberal) 
Guardian (High Church) . 
Educational Times . 
Notes .and Queries. 
Press (conservative) . 
Field (country gentlemen's) 
Clerical Journal (neutral) . 
Saturday Review (literary) 
Freeman (Baptist) . 
Illustrated Times (liberal) 
Engineer 
Court Circular . 
City Press (neiUral) 
Chemical News . 
Hermann (in German) . 



184s 
1846 
1847 
1849 
1853 



1855 



1856 

1857 
1859 



* On 22 May, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordin.ory was forged, with a view of afiecting the funds. 
t 144,000 copies sold on 16 Dec. 1861. The prince consort died on the 14th. 



NEW 



518 



NEW 



NEWSPAPERS, continued. 

i860 I Queen (ladies') , . . iS 
1861 Reader (lit. tfc sc.) stopt 1866 . ig 
„ I Owl (satirical) . . . i£ 



London Review (liberal) 
Beehive (liberal) . 
Fun (comic) 



I Index (confederate) extinct . 1865 
ChroDicle (Mom. Cath.) . . 1867 
Imperial Review (tory) . . ,, 



NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIII. , in order to rectify the errors of the current calendar, 
publislied a new one, in which ten days were omitted — 5 Oct. 1582, becoming 15 Oct. The 
new style was adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Holland, Flanders, Portugal, in 
1582, in Germany in 1584, In Switzerland in 1583 and 1584, in Hungary in 1587; and 
in Great Britain in 1751. In 1752 eleven days were left out of the calendar — 3 Sept. 
being reckoned as 14 Sept. The difference between the old and new style up to 1699 was 
10 days ; after 1700, ii days; after 1800, 12 days. In Russia, Greece, and throughout the 
East, the old style is still retained. The czar was born on the 17th April, 1818, old style, 
which is the 29th April new style ; see Calendar. 

NEW TESTAMENT, see Bible. 

NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doctrines respecting gi-avitation, &c., taught by sir 
Isaac Newton in his " Principia," published in 1687. He was born 25 Dec, 1642 ; became 
Master of the Mint, 1699 ; President of the Royal Society, 1703 ; and died 20 March, 1727. 
A statue of him in marble by Roubiliac was set up at Trinity College, Cambridge, 14 July, 
1755, and one in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, 21 Sept. 1858, when lord Brougham de- 
livered a discourse on the life and works of Newton. The Iatt-«r statue cost 1600I., a sum 
obtained by public subscription. 

NEWTOWNBARRY RIOT (S.E. Ireland). At a seizure of stock for tithes, a conflict en- 
sued here between the yeomanry and the people, when thirty-tive persons were killed or 
wounded, 18 June, 1831. The jury at the inquest were unable to agree on a verdict. 

NE WTOWN-B UTLER (N. Ireland). On 30 July, 1689, the EnniskiUeners under Gustavus 
Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of James II. commanded by general Maccarty, 
taking him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY, &c. The feast is said to have been instituted by Numa, and de- 
dicated to Janus (who presided over the new year), i Jan. 713 B.C.* 

NEW YORK, the " empire state" of the United States of N. America, is said to have 
been discovered by Verrazauo, a Florentine, in the French service, about 1524, and redis- 
covered by Hudson, an Englishman in the Dutch service, in 1609, and settled by the Dutch 
in 1614, the city being named Manhattan and New Amsterdam ; but the English imder 
colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the Swedes, 27 Aug. 1664, and changed its name. 
Population in i860, 805,651. 



The city confirmed to England by the peace of 
Breda 24 Aug. 

Taken by the Dutch, and named New Orange, 
1673 ; surrendered 

The city a prin8ipal point of the struggle for 
independence. It surrendered to the British 
forces under general Howe . . 15 Sept. 

The city was evacuated by the British ; 
" Evacuation day " made one of rejoicing 
ever since 25 Nov. 

Academy of the fine arts/ and a botanical 
garden, established in 

Eire here : 674 buildings destroyed, and pro- 
perty valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars, 

16 Dec. 

The Park theatre destroyed by fire . 16 Dec. 

Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, 
originating in a dispute between Mr. Mac- 
ready (English) and Mr. Forrest (American) 
actors 10 May, 

The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 



1667 
1674 

1776 



goods from all nations, was opened in the 
presence of the president of the United 
States and many other dignitaries, 14 July, 

New York suffered severely by large commer- 
cial failures, and "hunger demonstrations" 
took place during the panic . . . Nov. 

The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . 5 Oct. 

A magnificent cathedi'al erected in . 

Great fire ; about 50 lives lost . . 2 Feb. 

During the civil war of 1861 New York strongly 
supported the government of president Lin- 
coln (republican, or abolitionist) ; but during 
1862 a re-action gradually took place, and the 
opposition (democrat) candidates for con- 
gress were elected by large majorities, Nov. 

Pierce riots against conscription ; many per- 
sons kiUed and much property destroyed, 
13-17 Julj-, 

Barnum's museum burnt ; great loss, 13 July, 

1865; again 2 March, 

See under United States. 



i8s7 



On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine : 
and all the mechanics began something of their art of trade : the men of letters did the same, as to books, 
poenis, &c. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. 
Nonms Marcellus refers the origin of New-ybae's gifts among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the 
Sabines, who having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to 
Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorised the custom 
afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of Strenas, 747 b.c. 



NEW 



519 



NIA 



NEW ZEx\Lx\ND (in the Pacific Ocean), discovered by Tasman in 1642. From his time 
the country, except that part of the coast which was seen by him, remained i;nkuowii, and- 
was by many supposed to make part of a soutliern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- 
cumnavigated by captain Cook. In 1773, he planted several spots of ground on this island 
with European garden seeds; and in 1777, he found some fine potatoes, greatly ini]n'oved by 
change of soil. European population, in 1S60, 84,294; Dec. 1865, 190,607. Value of im- 
l)orts, in 1859, 1,551,030/.; exports, 551,484/. 



1052 
185s 



1857 



The right of Great Britain to Kew Zealand re- 
cognised at tlie peace in 1814 

No constitutional authority was placed over it 

until a resident subordinate to the govern- 
ment of New South \yales was sent out with 

limited powers 1S33 

New Zealand company established ; Welhngton 

founded 1839 

Capt. Hobson, the first governor, landed 29 

Jan. ; treaty of ^yaitangi signed, by which the 

chiefs cede a large amount of land 5 Feb. 1840 
Becomes an independent colony and made a 

bishop's see April, 1841 

Capt. (aft. admiral) Fitzroy, governor, Dec. __ _ ^ , ,^ ^ , . 

1843 to Nov. 1845 with loss of officers and men . 29 April, 1864 

Sir George Grey, governor 1846 

A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, 

creating powei'S municipal, legislative, and 

administrative 29 Dec. 1847 1 

This charter wa'3 not acted on ; a legislative j 

council opened by the governor . 20 Dec. -" " 
Foimdation of Auckland, 1840; Nelson and 

Taranaki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago, 

1848 ; Canterbury 

New Zealand company reUnquish charter 

New constitution granted 

Col. Wynyard, governor . Jan. 1854 to Sept. 

Governor Browne Oct. 

An earth quake ; not much damage done, 23 Jan. 

Constitution modified 

New bishoprics established: Christchurch, 1856; 

Nelson and AVellington, 1858 ; "Waiapu, 1859 ; 

Dunedin 

Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a 

chief named William King (Wirrimu Kingi), 

arising out of disputes respecting the sale of 

land ; the bishop rielvvyn and others consider 

the natives unjustly treated . . March, 
Indecisive actions between the militia and 

volunteers and the Maoris . 14-28 March, 
War breaks out at Taranaki; the British re- 
pulsed with loss .... 30 June, 
Great excitement in Australia ; troops sent to 

New Zealand, under gen. Pratt, laud, 3 Aug. 
Indecisive actions . 10, 19 Sept., 9, 12 Oct. 
Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetahi, 

and destroys their fortified places . 6 Nov. 
New Zealand colonists in England justify the 

conduct of the governor . . 22 Nov. 

The Maoris defeated, 29 Dec. i860; 23 Jan. 

24 Feb. 16-18 March, 

The war ends : surrender of natives, 19 March, 

Sir George Grey re-appointed governor, June, 

Gold discovered at Otago, &c. . . Juno, ,, ^ 

A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British George Grey; gazetted . . 19 Nov. 1867 

soldiers in the island .... July, 

NEY'S EXECUTION. Ney, duke of Elchingen, prince of the Jloskwa, and one of the 
most valiant of the marshals of France, was shot as a traitor, 7 Dec. 1815.* On 7 Dec. 1853, 
his statue was erected on the spot where he fell. 

NIAGAKA (N. America). At the head of this river, on the western shore, is Fort Erie,! 

* After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5th April, 1814, Ney took the oath of allegiance to the king, 
Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops de- 
serting, he regarded the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris, March, 1813. 
Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of tlie slain, his clothes 
pierced with bullet-holes, five horses having been shot under him ; night and defeat obliged him to flee. 
Though included in the decree of 24 July, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was 
sought out, and on 5 Aug. taken at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial before the 
Chamber of Peers, 4 Dec. The 12th article of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was 
quoted in his favour, yet he was sentenced to death and met his fate with fortitude, 7 Dec. 1815. 

t About eighteen miles below Fort Erie. are the remarkable falls. The river is here 740 yards wide ; 



Loyalty of the natives increasing. . May, 

The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of 
condolence to the queen on the death of 
the prince consort ; received . . Nov. 

Natives attack a miUtary escort and kill 8 per- 
sons 4 May, 

Waikato tribe driven from a fort. . 17 July, 

Vi'ar spreads ; natives construct rifle pits, Aug. 

Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands Sept. 

Gen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at 
Rangariri 20 Nov. 

Continued success of gen. Cameron ; capitula- 
tion of the Maori king . . . 9 Dec. 

British attack on Galepa (the gate pah) repulsed 
with loss of oiScers and men . 29 April, 

Loan of i,ooo,ooo(. to New Zealand ; guaranteed 
by parliament J'^ly> 

Several tribes submit .... Aug. 

Maori prisoners escape and form a nucleus of a 
new insurrection .... Sept. 

Sir George Grey issues proposals of peace, 25 
Oct. ; the Aborigines Protection Society send 
rehgious, moral, and political advice to the 
Maoris (considered injudicious). . Nov. 

Change of ministry and policy ; seat of govern- 
ment to be removed from Auckland to Wel- 
lington on Cook's Strait . . 24 Nov. 

Maoris' attack on Cameron severely defeated, 
25 Jan. ; again, 25 Feb. ; outbreak of the Pai 
Mariri or Hau-hau heresy, a compound of 
Judaism and paganism, amongst the Maoris ; 
the rev. C. S. Vollaier murdered and many 
outrages committed, 2 March ; proclamation 
of governor sir George Grey against it ; it is 
checked by the agency of a friendly native 
chief We-tako April, 

William Thompson, an eminent chief, sur- 
renders on behalf of the Maori king 25 May, 

New Zealand still unsettled . . . July, 

The Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; 
the governor proclaims peace, 2 Sept. ; British 
troops about to leave . . . 15 Sept. 

The Maoris treacherously kill the envoys of 
peace ; resignation of the Weld ministry ; one 
formed by Jlr. Stafford . . - Oct. 

Bishopric of Dunedin, Otago, founded 

General Chute subdues the Hau-haus . Jan. 

Progress of peace measures . . April, 

Murderers of Mr. Volkner executed 17 May, 

Governor announces cessation of the war, 

3 J'liy. 

Death of William Thompson, the Maori chief, 

28 Dec. 

Sir George F. Bowen appointed to succeed sir 

George Grey ; gazetted . . 19 Nov. 



NIC 520 NIC 

■which was taken bj^ the English, 24 July, 1759. It was ahandoned in the war with the 
United States, 27 May, 1813, but was retaken, 19 Dec. following. A suspension bridge of 
a single span of 820 feet over the Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada and New 
York, was opened in March, 1855. It is elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on 
the American side. 

NICJ5A, see Nice. 

NICAEAGUA, a state in Central America (icJiicJi see). Population about 300,000 ; 
president T. Martinez ; elected in 1859, and re-elected in 1863. The present constitution 
was established 19 Aug. 1858. At the commencement of 1855 it was greatly disturbed by 
two political parties : that of the president, Chamorro, who held Grenada, the capital, and 
that of the democratic chief, Castellon, who held Leon. The latter invited Walker, the 
filibuster, to his assistance, who in a short time became sole dictator of the state.* By the 
united efforts of the confederated states the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. On 
I Islay, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa Eica appealed to the great European powers for protec- 
tion. Nicaragua railway, a transit route iDetween the Pacific and Atlantic, proposed, and 
company formed Nov. 1866. President, Fernando Guzmen, elected i March, 1867. Poini- 
lation increased to about 400,000. 

NICE or NiciBA, a town in Bithynia, Asia Minor, N. "W. Antigonus gave it the name 
Antigoneia, which Lysimachus changed to Nicffia, the name of his wife. It became the 
residence of the kings of Bithynia about 208 B.C. At the battle of Nice, A.D. 194, the 
emperor Severus defeated his rival, Niger, who was again defeated at Issus, and soon after 
taken prisoner and put to death. The first general council was held here 19 June to 25 Aug. 
325, which adopted the Nicene Creed and condemned the Arians. It was attended by 318 
bishops from divers parts, who settled both the doctrine of the Trinitj^ and the time for 
observing Easter. The creed was altered, 381, and confirmed 431, when it was decreed un- 
lawful to make further additions. When the Crusaders took Constantinople, and established 
a Latin empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed to Nice and reigned there till 
1261, when they returned to Constantinople ; see Eastern Empire, p. 256. Nice was taken 
by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. 

NICE (N. Italy), was the seat of a colony from Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part 
of the Eoman empire. In the middle ages it was subject to Genoa, and suftered from the 
frequent wars, being taken and re-taken by the imperialists and French. It was taken by 
the Austrians uhder Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France 1792; restored to Sar- 
dinia in 1 814. Nice was again annexed to France in virtue of the treaty of 24 March, 
i860; the people having voted nearly unanimously for this change by universal suffrage. 
The French troops entered i April and definitive j)ossession was taken 14 June following. 
Garibaldi vehemently protested against this annexation. Population of the province, in 
1857, 256,593. 

NICIAS, Peace of, between Athens and Sparta, 421 b.c, negotiated by that unfortunate 

the half-mile immediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in which the water falls 58 feet ; it is then 
thrown, with astonishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 feef perpendiculai', in three 
distinct and collateral sheets ; and, in a rapid that extends to the distance of nine miles below, falls nearly 
as much more. The river then flows in a deep channel till it enters lake Ontario, at Fort Niagara. The 
falls were visited by the prince of Wales in Sept. 1S60. 

* William Walker was born at Tennessee, in the United States, where he became successively doctor, 
lawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in Calfornia, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by 
Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on condition of bringing with him a band of adventurers 
to sustain the revolutionary cause. Walker accepted the terms, and on 28 June landed at Realejo with 68 
men. He mcreased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked the town of Bivas, where he was repulsed 
with loss. He then joined col. Kinney, who had occupied and governed Grey Town, 6 Sejit. On 13 Oct. 
Walker captured Grenada by sm-prise when in a defenceless state, shot Mayorga, one of the ministers, and 
established a rule of terror. By intervention of the American consul he made peace with the general of 
the state army. Corral, but shot him on 7 Nov., on finding him corresponding with fugitives at Costa Rica. 
AValker at first was only general-in-chief : but on Bivas, whom he had made president, deserting him, he 
became sole dictator. On 14 May, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the president of the United States, 
whence also he obtained reinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Bica declared war against 
him, 28 Feb. 1856; the other states of central America soon followed the example, and a sanguinary 
struggle ensued, lasting till May, 1857. On 25 Nov. 1856, Walker totally burnt Grenada, being unable to 
defend it, and removed the seat of government to Bivas. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on i May, 
1857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of the St. Mary's, U.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men, were 
conveyed in that vessel to New Orleans, where they were received with great enthusiasm. On 25 Nov., 
1857, he again invaded Nicaragua, landing at Punta Ai-enas with 400 men ; but on 8 Dec. was compelled 
to surrender to capt. Paulding, U.S., and was conveyed to New York. He escaped punishment by nolle 
prosequi (2 June, 1858) : but capt. Paulding was tried for exceeding orders, and blamed— yet excused by 
president Buchanan. On 5 Aug. t86o, Walker landed near Truxillo, Honduras, and took the fort on the 
6th. On the 7th he proclaimed that he made war on the government, not on the people of Honduras. 
On being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. Salmon, B.N., of the Icarus, he refused, and fled. He 
was pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras government, tried, and shot (12 Sept.). His followers 
were dismissed. 



NIC 521 NIN 

Athenian general, who, with his colleague, Demosthenes, was put to death after the dis- 
astrous termination of the expedition against Syracuse, 413 B.C. 

NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic metal, employed in the manufactm-e of 
German silver. Cronstedt in 1751 discovered nickel in the mineral copper-nickel. 

NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev. ii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, 
one of the first seven deacons {Acts vi.), and to have maintained the legality of a community 
of wives, as well as other heresies, and to have denied the divinity of Christ. 

NICOMEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia Minor, N". W., founded by king Nico- 
medes I., 264 B.C., on the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an earthquake, a.d. 115 ; and 
restored by the emperor Adrian, 124. The Roman emperors frequently resided here during 
their eastern wars. Here Diocletian resigned the purple, 305 ; and Constantine died at his 
viUa in its neighbourhood, 337. It surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078; and to 
Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 

NICOPOLIS (now in Bulgaria), Battle of, 28 Sept. 1396, between the allied Christian 
powers under Sigismund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and the Turks under 
Bajazet ; said to have been the first battle between the Turks and Christians ; the latter 
were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as many wounded and prisoners. 

NIELLO-WORK, believed to have been produced by rubbing a mixture of silver, lead, 
copper, sulphur, and borax into engravings on silver, &c. , was an art known to the ancients 
and practised in the middle ages, and said to have given to Maso Finiguerra the idea of 
engraving upon copper, aboxit 1460. 

NIEMEN or Memel, a river flowing into the Baltic, and separating Prussia from Eussia. 
On a raft on tliis river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander of Eussia, 22 June, 1807, and 
made peace with him and Prussia. He crossed theNiemen to invade Russia, 24 June, 1812, 
and re-crossed with the remains of his army, 28 Dec. 

NIGER EXPEDITION, see Africa, 1841. 

NIGHTINGALE FUND. On 21 Oct. 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left England 
with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived ad Scutari, 5 Nov., and rendered invaluable 
services to the army ; she returned to London, 8 Sept. 1856. In honour of this, a meeting 
was held at Willis's Rooms on 29 Nov. 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution for 
the training of nurses and other hospital attendants. Madame Jenny Lind Goldschmidt 
sang at Exeter Hall on 11 March, 1856, and gave the proceeds (1872Z,) to the fund. The 
subscriptions closed, 24 April, 1857, amounting to 44,039^. The queen gave Miss Nightin- 
gale a valuable jewel. 

NIKA CONTESTS, see Circus. NIL DARPAN, see India, June, 1861. 

NIKOLSBURG (Moravia). Here were signed, 26 July, 1866, the XDreliminaries of a 
peace between Austria and Prussia. 

NILE (Egypt). This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, in about ten 
degrees of N. lat. and in a known course of 1250 miles receives no tributary streams. The 
travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. He set out from England 
in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of November, 1770, discovered the source of the Blue Nile, and 
returned home in 1773. This river overflows regularly every year, from about the 15th of 
Juue to the 17th of September, when, having given fertility to the land, it begins to decrease. 
It must rise 16 cubits to ensure that fertility. In 1829, the inundations of the Nile rose to 
26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned and immense property lost. Mr. 
Petherick set out early in 1861 to explore the country at the source of the Nile. For recent 
discoveries, see Africa 1863-5. 

NILE, Battle of the (or Aboukir), i Aug. 1798, near Rosetta, between the Toulon 
and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord (then sir Horatio) Nelson. Nine of the 
French line-of-battle ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped. The French ship, 
L' Orient, with admiral Brueys and 1000 men on board, blew up, and only 70 or So escaped. 
Nelson's exclamation upon commencing the battle was, " Victory or Westminster Abbey!" 

NIMEGUEN (Holland). Here Avas signed the treaty of peace between France and the 
United Provinces, 1678. The French were successful against the British under the duke of 
York, before Nimeguen, 28 Oct. 1794 ; but were defeated by them, 8 Nov. 

NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire (see Assyria), founded by Ashur about 
2245 B.C. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and named this city Nineveh, 2069 B.C. Abbe. Lcnglct. 
Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 862 B.C.), which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 
B.C. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the neighbourhood of Mosul, the supposed 
site of this ancient capital, since 1S39, have in a manner disinterred and re-peopled a city 
which for centuries has not only ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose ver^'- 



NIO 522 NOM 

locality had long been blotted out of the map of the earth.* In 1848 Mr. Layard published 
his "Nineveh and its Remains," and in 1853 an account of his second visit in 1849-50. 
Botta commenced his explorations at Khorsabad in 1843, ^^'^ published his great work 
" Monuments de Ninive," 1849-50. 

NIOBIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Hatchett in columbite, a black earth, and named 
columbium, 1801. It was pronounced to be identical with tantalum by WoUaston ; but 
was rediscovered by H. Rose in 1846, and named niobium. 

NISBET or Nesbit (Northumberland). Here a battle was fought between the English 
and Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in strength to the former. Several 
thousands of the Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, 7 May, 1402. 

NISMES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourishing Roman colony, Nemausus. Its noble 
amphitheatre was injured by the English in 141 7. The inhabitants embraced Protestantism, 
and suffered much persecution in consequence, and Nismes has frequently been the scene of 
religious and political contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of Nismes (14 July, 
1629) gave religious toleration for a time to the Huguenots. 

NITRE, see Saltpetre. 

NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and oxygen, formerly called aqua fortis, first 
obtained in a separate state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about 1287 ; but we are 
indebted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier for our present knowledge of its properties. 
H. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid in 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered 
byScheele about 1774. Nitrous gas was acidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous 
oxide gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley in 1776. 

NITROGEN or Azote (from the Greek a, no, and zoo, I live), an irrespirable elementary 
gas, and an important element in food. Before 1777, Scheele separated the oxygen of the 
air from the nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the atmos- 
phere is a mixture of these two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydrogen forms the volatile 
alkali ammonia, so freely given oif by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE (also called Nitroleum), an intensely explosive amber-like fluid, 
discovered by Sobrero in 1847, is produced by adding glycerine (in successive small quanti- 
ties) to a mixture of one part of nitric acid, and two parts of sulphuric acid. Alfred Nobel, 
a Swede, first attempted its application as an explosive agent, in 1864. It has caused several 
most disastrous accidents, with great loss of life. In attempting to bury some nitro-glycerine 
in the town-moor at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 17 Dec. 1867, an explosion took place, and seven 
persons lost their lives, including Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, town surveyor. 

NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes 
with titles of honour, to distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage 
seems to have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estate were first granted 
by Philip the Fair of France, 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford (son of John, marquess 
of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, on account 
of his utter want of property, 19 Edw. IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in 
June, 1 773 ; see Lords, and the various orders of the nobility. 

NOBILITY OF France preceded that of England. On 18 June, 1790, the National 
Assembly decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles 
of dukes, counts, marquesses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be 
abolished ; that all citizens take their family names ; liveries and armorial bearings also to 
be abolished. The records of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the 
statue of Louis XIV., 25 June, 1792. A new nobility was created by the emperor 
Napoleon I., 1808. The hereditary peerage was abolished 27 Dec. 183 1. 

NOBLE, an English gold coin (value 6s. Sd.), first struck in the reign of Edw^ III., 
1343 or 1344, said to have derived its name from the excellency of the metal of which it was 
composed. 

"NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLIiE MUTARI," see Bastards, and Merion. 

NOMINALISTS, a scholastic sect, opposed to the Realists, maintained that general ideas 
have no existence outside our minds, and only exist by the names we give them. The 
founder of the sect, Jean Roscellin, a canon of Compiegne, was condemned by a council at 

* The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants 
stand before us as distinct as those of a living people ; and by help of the sculptures and their cuneiform 
inscriptions, the researches of the learned have increased the knowledge of Assyrian history. Among the 
sculptures that enrich the British Museum, may be mentioned, the winged bull and lion, and numerous 
huntmg and battle pieces ; and the bas-reUef of the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a repre- 
sentation of the Assyrian god Nisroch (from Nisr, an eagle or hawk), whom Sennacherib was in the act of 
worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 b.c. 2 Kings xix. 37, 



NON . 523 NOE 

Soissons, 1092, but the controversy was revived in the 12th century; among the Nomina- 
lists are reckoned Abelard, Occam, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Dugald Stewart. 

NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conformists and 
non-conformists, or, churchmen and dissenters. The first place of meeting of the latter, in 
England, was established at Wandsworth, near London, 20 Nov. 1572. The name of non- 
conformists was taken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity came into operation on 
24 Aug. 1662 (termed "Black Bartholomew's day"), when 2000 ministers of the established 
religion resigned, not choosing to conform to the statute passed "for the uniformity of 
public prayers and administration of the sacraments ;" see Puritans, and Dissenters. The 
laws against them were relaxed in 1689. — The Nonconformist newspaper (edited by Mr. 
Edward Miall) first appeared 14 April, 1841. 

NONES, in the Eoman calendar, were the fifth day of each month, excepting March, 
May, July, and October, when the nones fell on the seventh day. 

NON-JURORS considered James IL to have been unjustly deposed, and refused to swear 
allegiance to William IIL in 1689. Among them were Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbuiy ; 
Ken, bishop of Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, and Peter- 
borough, and many of the clergy, who were deprived i Feb. 169 1. Non-.jurors were sub- 
jected to double taxation, and obliged to register their estates. May, 1723. They formed a 
separate communion, which existed till the beginning of the present century. 

NON NOBIS, DOMINE! ("Not imto us, Lord !" &c., Psalm cxv. i), a musical 
canon, sung as a grace at public feasts, was composed by W. Bird in 1618. 

NON-RESISTANCE OATH (containing a declaration that it is unlawful to take arms 
against the king upon any pretence whatever), enforced by the Corporation act, 1661, was 
repealed in 17 19. 

NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver's Island), discovered by captain Cook in 1778, and 
settled by the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed a 
settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards in 1789 captured 
two English vessels and took possession of the settlement. The British ministry demanded 
reparation, and the affair was amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce 
was confirmed to England in 1 790. 

"NO-POPERY " RIOTS, see Gordon. The cry was raised in 1829 against the Catholic 
emancipation bill. 

NORDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here tlie Swedes under count Horn were defeated by the 
Austrians, 27 Aug. 1634 ; and the Austrians and allies by Turenne in 1645. 

NORE MUTINY, see Mutinies. 

NORFOLK ISLAND (Pacific Ocean), discovered in 1774, by captain Cook, who found 
it uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was made by a detachment from Port 
Jackson under governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the south side of the island. 
This was at one time the severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island was abandoned 
in 1809, but re-occupied as a penal settlement in 1825. The descendants of tlie mutineers 
of the Bounty were removed to it in June, 1856, from Pitcairn's Island {ivhich see). 

NORICUM, see Austria. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS (from norma, a rule). One for the instruction of teachers, esta-_ 
Wished at Paris by a law, 30 Oct. 1794, and opened 20 Jan. 1795, under the direction of 
Laplace, La Harpe, Haiiy, and other eminent men, was soon closed. Another, established 
by Napoleon in 1808, was closed in 1822. The plan was revived in 1826, and has been 
developed in England and other countries. 

NORMANDY (N. France), part of Neustria, a kingdom founded by Clovisin 511 for 
his son Clotaire, which, after various changes, was united to France by Charles the Bald in 
837. From the beginning of the 9th century it was continually devastated by the Scandi- 
navians, termed Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles 
the Simple of France ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, 905. RoUo, the first duke, held 
it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his successors after him, until William, 
the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It remained a province of England with 
some intermissions till the reign of king John, 1204, when it was reunited to France. It 
was re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and held by England partially till 1450-. The English 
still possess the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. 



DUKES. 

gi2. "Rollo (or Raoul), baptized as Robei't. 
927. William I. Longswurd. 
943. Bichard I. the Fearless. 



996. Richard II. the Good. 

1027. Richard III. 

1028. Robert I. the Devil. 

1035. WiUiam II. (I. of England). 



NOR 



524 



NOR 



NORMANDY, continued. 

1087. Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a contest 

despoiled by his brother. 
1106. Henry I. (king of England). 
1135. Stephen (king of Eiigland). 



1144. Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
1151. Henry II. (king of England in 1154). 
1 189. Richard IV. (I. of England). 
1 199-1203. Arthur and John of England. 



NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by lord North, Jan. 1770, who resigned March, 
1 782. Lord North entered into a league with the Whigs ; this led to the short-lived 
Coalition ministry (1783). He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 1790, and died in 

1792 ; see Coalition. 



Frederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury, and 

chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Gower, lord president. 
Earl of Halifax, privy seal. 
Earl of Rochford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord 



Sandwich), and earl of Hillsborough, secretaries of 

state. 
Sir Edward Hawke, admiralty. 
Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
Sir Gilbert ElUot, lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster, 

lord Carteret, &c. 



NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near here was fought the ' ' battle of the Standard," 
where the English totally defeated the Scotch armies, 22 Aug. 1138. The archbishop 
of York brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage at the moment when they 
were hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by king David. 

NORTHAMPTON was burnt by the Danes in loio. Here Henry III. proposed to found 
a university in 1260, and held a parliament in 1269. On 10 July, 1460, a conflict took place 
between the duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in which the king was defeated, and 
made prisoner (the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place in the meadows 
below the town. Northampton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was seized and 
fortified by the parliamentary forces in 1642. A memorable fii-e nearly destroyed the town, 
3 Sept. 1675. 

NORTH BRITON, a newspaper, first published in May, 1762, supported by John 
"Wilkes, M. P. for Aylesbury, and a London alderman, and very bitter against the earl of 
Bute's administration, accusing him of unduly favouring the Scotch. 



In No. 45 (termed " Wilkes's number), the king 
was charged with uttering falsehood in his 
speech; published . . . . 23 April, 1763 

General warrant issued by lord Halifax against 
the authors, printers, &, publishers, 26 April, ,, 

Wilkes and others arrested and committed to 
the Tower, and his house searched 30 April, ,, 

Brought by writ of habeas corpus before chief- 
justice Pratt, and discharged, his arrest being 
regarded as illegal .... 6 May, ,, 

3oo(. damages granted to a printer for false 
imprisonment .... 6 July, ,, 

No. 45 declared to be "a scandalous and sedi- 



tious libel" by parliament, and ordered to 
be burnt by the hangman . . 15 Nov. 1763 
Riot at the burning in Cheapside . . 3 Dec. ,, 
General warrants declared illegal by cb. -justice 
Pratt ; loooi!. damages awarded to Wilkes for 
seizure of his papers ... 6 Dec. ,, 
4000^. damages obtained by Wilkes in an action 

against lord Halifax ... 10 Nov. 1769 

Wilkes elected lord mayor, 8 Oct. ; elected 5th 

time M. P. for Middlesex . . . .Oct. 1774 
Allowed to take his seat . . . Jan. 1775 

Elected chamberlain of London, 1779 ; died, 

26 Nov. 1797 



NORTH CAROLINA, NORTH GERMAN, see Carolina, German. 

NORTHMEN or Norsemen, see Scandinavia, and Normandy. 

NORTH-EAST and WEST PASSAGES. The attempt to discover a north-west passage 
was made by a Portuguese named Corte Real, about 1500. In 1585, a company was formed 
in London called the "Fellowship for the discovery of the North- West Passage." From 
1745 to 1818 parliament offered 20,oooZ. for this discovery. In 1818 the reward was 
modified by proposing that 5000Z. should be paid when either 110°, 120°, or 130'^ W. long, 
should be passed : one of which payments was made to sir E. Parry. Eor their labours in 
the voyages enumerated in the list below, Parry, Franklin, Ross, Back, and Richardson, were 
knighted. 



Sir Hugh WUloughby's expedition to find a 
north-east passage to China, sailed from the 
Thames 20 May, 1553 

Repoi-ted to have been entangled in the ice off 
Lapland, and thus perished . . . . 

Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a N.W. 
passage to China 1576 

Capt. Davis's expedition to find a N.W. pas- 
sage 

Barantz's Dutch expedition (by N.B.) 

Weymouth and Knight's expedition . . , 

Hudson's voyages (see Hudson's Bay) . 

Sir Thomas Button's 

Baffin's (see Baffin's Bay) 1616 

Foxe's expedition 1631 

[A number of enterprises, undertaken by va- 
rious countries, followed.] 



1558 



1585 
1594 
1602 
1610 

l6l2 



Middleton's expedition 1742 

Moore's and Smith's 1746 

Hearne's land expedition 1769 

Capt. Phipps, afterwards lord Mulgrave, his ex- 
pedition 1773 

Capt. Cook, in the Resolution & Discovery, 

July. 

Mackenzie's expedition .... 

Capt. Duncan's voyage .... 

The Discovery, capt. Vancouver, returned from 
a voyage of survey and discovery on the 
north-west coast of America . . Sept. 

Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition . . . Oct. 

Capt. Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's expedition 
in the Dorothea and Trent .... 1819-22 

Capt. Ross and lieut. Parry in the Isabella and 
Alexander - 1818 



1776 
1789 
1790 



1795 
181S 



NOR 



525 



NOR 



NORTH-EAST and WEST PASSAGES, continued. 



Lieuts. Parry and Liddon, in the Hecla and 
Griper 4 May, 

They return to Leith .... 3 Nov. 

Capts. Pariy and Lyon in Fwy & Hecla, 8 May, 

Parry's third expedition with the Hecla, 8 May, 

Capts. Franklin* and Lyon, after having at- 
tempted a land expedition, again sail from 
Liverpool 16 Feb. 

Capt. Parry,* again in the Hecla, sails from 
Deptford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from 
the North Pole, 22 June ; returns 6 Oct. 

Capt. Ross* an-ived at Hull, on his return from 
his Arctic expedition, after an absence of four 
years, and when all hope of his return had 
been neai"ly abandoned t . . .18 Oct. 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived at 
Liverpool from their perilous Arctic land 
expedition, after having visited the Great 
Fish River and examined its course to the 
Polar Seas 8 Sept. 

Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command 



1820 
1821 



1825 
1827 

1833 
1835 



of his majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring 
adventure to Wager River . . 21 June, 1836 

[The Geographical Society awarded the king's 
annual premium to capt. Back for his polar 
discoveriesandenterpri.se, Dec, 1835.] 

Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Fitz- 
james, in the ships Erebus and Terror, leave 
England 24 May, 1845 

Commanders CoUinson and M'Clure, in the 
Enterprise and Inveatigotor, sailed eastward in 
search of sir John Franklin . . 20 Jan. 1850 

North - west passage discovered by cajit. 
M'Clm-et 26 Oct. „ 

[Another expedition to the North Pole, under 
the command of capt. Sherard Osborne, was 
proposed to the Royal Geogi'aphical Society 
in the spring of 1865. J 

[For the other expeditions in search of Frank- 
lin, &c., &6e FranMin.'l 



NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, foitnded by Ida, 547 ; see Britain, p. 124. 

NORWAY, iintil the 7th century, was governed by petty rulers. About 630, Olaf 
Trtetelia, of the race of Odin, termed Ynglings or youths, expelled from Sweden, established 
a colony in Vermeland, the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his descendant, Halfdan III. 
the Black, a great warrior and legislator, whose memory was long revered. 

Olaf Trpetelia, 630 : slain by his subjects, 640. 
Halfdan I., 640; Ey stein I., 700; Halfdan II., 730; 
Gudrod, 784; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III., 



Halfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, 
whom he subdues, together with the neighbouring 
chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned, 863. 

The chiefs regain their power during the youth of 
his son, Harold Harfagei", or fair-haired, who vows 
neither to cut nor comb his hair tiU he recovers 
his dominion, 865. 

He defeats his enemies atHafursfiord, 885 ; dies, 934. 

Eric I. (the bloody axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled, 
and succeeded by 

Hako (the Good), 940 ; he endeavours in vain to 
establish Christianity ; dies, 963. 

Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds, 963 ; 
killed in battle with Harold of Denmark, 977. 

Hako Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; 
becomes king, 977 ; his licentiousness leads to his 
ruin ; deposed by Olaf I., Trygvaison ; and slain 
by his slave, 995. 

Olaf I. , 993 ; establishes Christianity by force and 
cruelty, ggS ; defeated and slain, during an expe- 
dition against Pomerania, by the kings of Den- 
mark and Sweden, who' divide Norway between 
them, 1000. 

Olat II., the Saint (his son), lauds in Norway, 1012 ; 
defeats his eneinies and becomes king, 1015 ; 
fiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity, 
1018-21. 

Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king, 



1028, 1029; Olaf expelled ; returns and is killed in 

battle, 1030. 
Sweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of 

Norway, but is expelled in favour of Magnus I. , 

bastard son of Olaf II., 1035 '■■ Magnus becomes 

king of Denmark, 1036 ; dies, 1047. 
Harold Hardrade, king of Norway, 1047; invades 

England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. at 

Stanford-bridge, 25 Sept. 1066. 
Olaf III. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, 25 Sept. 1066 ; 

Olaf alone (pacific), 1069-1093 ; Olaf III. founds 

Bergen, 1070. 
Magnus III. (Barefoot), son of Olaf, 1093 ; invades the 

Orkneys and Scotland, 1096; killed in Ireland, 

1 103. 
Sigurd I., Eystein TL, and Olaf IV. (sons), 1103 ; 

Sigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior pilgrim, 

1107-10; becomes sole king, 1122 ; dies, 1130. 
Magnus IV. (his son)and Harold IV., 1130; Magnus 

dethroned, 1134. 
Harold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigui-d 

II., &c. : civil war rages, 1136. 
Nicolas Breakspear (afterwards pope Adrian IV. ), the 

papal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, and 

founds the archbishopric of Trondheim, 1152. 
Numerous competitors for the crown : civil war ; 

Inge I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V., 

1136-62. 
Magnus V. alone, 1162 ; rise of Swerro, an able ad- 
venturer, who becomes king ; Magnus defeated ; 

drowned, 11 86. 
Swerro rules vigorously ; dies 1202. 



* Sir John Franklin died 11 Jtme, 1847 (see Franklin) ; sir E. Parry died 8 July, 1855, aged 65 ; and sir 
John Ross died 30 Aug. 1856, aged 80. 

t In 1830 he disco^ei-ed Boothia Felix : on 31 June, 1831, he came to a spot which he considered to be 
the true magnetic pole, in 70° 5' 17" N. lat., and 96° 46' 45" W. long. 

X Capt. JrCkn-e sailed in the Investigator in company with com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search 
of sir John Franklin, 20 Jan. 1850. On 6 Sept. he discovered high land, which he named Baring's land ; 
on the 9th, other land, which he named after prince Albert ; on the 30th, the ship was frozen in. Enter- 
taining a strong conviction tbat the waters in which the LiveHigator then lay communic ited with Barrow's 
straits, he set out on 21 Oct., with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. On 26 Oct. he reached Point 
Russell (73° 31' N. lat., 114° 14' W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw Parry or Melville 
Sound beneath them. The strait connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after the prince of 
Wales. The Investigator was the first ship which traversed the Polar sea from Behring straits to Behring 
island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought to England by com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart 
was published 14 Oct. 1853. Capt. M'Clure returned to England, Sept. 1854. In 1855, 5000^. were paid to 
capt. (afterwards sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000?. were distributed among the officers and crew. On 30 Jan. 
1855-, the Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given to all persons engaged in the expedi- 
tions from 1818 to 1855. 



NOR 



526 



NOT 



NORAVAY, continued. 

Hako, his son, king, 1202 ; Gutlirum, 1204 ; Inge II. 
1205. 

Hako IV., bastard son of Swerro, 1207; unsuccess- 
fully invades Scotland, where he dies, 1263. 

Magnus VI., his son, (the legislator), dies 1280. 

Eric II., the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- 
land ; their daughter, the Maid of Norway, be- 
comes heiress to the crown of Scotland, 1286. 

Hako v., his brother, king, 1299-1319. 

Decline of Norwegian prosperity. 

Magnus VII. (III. of Sweden), king, 1319-43. 

Hako VI., 1343-80. 

Olaf V. of Norway (II. of Denmark), 1380-87. 

Norway united with Denmark and Sweden under 
Margaret, 1389. 

At an assembly at Calmar the three . states are 
formally united, 1397. 

Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 
1448 ; re-united 1450. 



Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden, 1523. 

Christiania, the modern capital, built by Christian 
IV., 1624. 

Norway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; 
Pomerania and Rugen annexed to Denmark, Jan. 
14, 1814. 

The Norwegians declare their independence. May 17. 

The Swedish troops enter Norway, 16 July, 1814. 

Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of 
Norway ; abdicates, 10 Oct. 1814. 

Charles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the 
National Diet (Storthing) assembled at Christiania ; 
he accepted the constitution which declares Nor- 
way a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- 
able state, united to Sweden, 4 Nov. 1814. 

Nobility abolished, 1S21. 

The national order of St. Olaf instituted by king 
Oscar, 1847. 

See Denmark &nd Sioeden. 



NORWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in the Saxon Chronicle at the period when 
Sweyn, king of Denmark, destroyed it by tire, 1004. 



Artisans from the Low Countries establish here 
the manufacture of baizes, (fee, about . . 1132 

Cathedral first erected in 1088, by bishop Her- 
bert Losinga ; completed by bishop Middle- 
ton, about 1280 

A great plague 1348 

Church of the Black friars, now St. Andrew's- 
hall, erected . 1415 

Norwich nearly consumed by fire . . . 1505 



Public library instituted 17.84 

The Norwich new canal and harbour were 

opened 3 June, 1831 

Church congress met . . . -3-7 Oct. 1865 
The musical festival was attended by the 

prince of Wales .... 31 Oct. i865 
Norwich and ^ Norfolk Industrial exhibition 

opened in Si). Andrew's-hall . . Aug. 1867 
British Association to meet here . . Aug. 1868 



NORWICH, BiSHOPEic of, originally East Anglia : the first bishop was Felix, a Bur- 
gundian, sent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The see was divided into two distinct 
bishoprics — Elmham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk, about 673. Both sees suffered 
extremely from the Danish invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. Humbert, they 
lay vacant for a hundred years. At last the see of Elmham was rcA'ived, and Dunwich was 
united to it ; but Arfastus removed the seat to Thetford, where it continued till Herbert 
Losinga removed it to Norwich, 1094. This see ha.'! given to the church of Rome two saints ; 
and to the nation five lord chancellors. It was valued in the king's books at 899Z. i8s. ']\d. 
per annum. Present income, 4500Z. ; see Bishoprics. 



RECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. 

1790. George Home ; died 17 Jan. 1792. 

1792. Char-les Manners Sutton ; translated to Can- 
terbury, I Feb. 1805. 

1805. Herry Bathurst ; died 5 April, 1837. He was 
a strenuous supporter of catholic emancipa- 



tion, and for a long time the only liberal 

bishop in the hoiise of peers. 
1837.' Edward Stanley ; died 6 Sept. 1849. 
1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. 
1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May ; present bishop. 



NOTABLES. An assembly of the notables of France was convened by Calonne, the 
minister of Louis XVI., on 22 Feb. 1787, on account of the deranged state of the king's 
finances, and again in 1788, when Calonne opened his plan : but any reform militated too 
much against private interest to be adopted ; Calonne was dismissed, and soon after retired 
to England. Louis having lost his confidential minister, De Yergennes, by death, called 
De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. The notables were re-assembled on 6 Nov. 
1788. In the end, the states-general were convoked 5 Dec. ; and from this assembly sprang 
the national assembly [which see). The notables were dismissed by the king, 12 Dec. 1788. 
— The Sjjanish notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
him commanding their attendance), at Bayonne, 25 May, 1808. 

NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs in the ist century, 
Du Frcsnoy. This ofiice was afterwards changed to a legal employment, to attest deeds and 
writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any other country. A statute to regulate 
public notaries was passed in 1801, and some statutes on the subject have been enacted 
since. 

"NOTES AND QUERIES," a medium of intercommunication for literary men and 
general readers, was first published on 3 Nov. 1849. 

NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was founded in 1163. 

NOTTINGHAM. The castle here was defended by the Danes against king Alfred, and 
his brother Ethelred, who retook it, 868. It was rebuilt by William I. in 1068 ; and ulti- 
mately became a strong fortress. The riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke 



NOV 527 NUM 

frames, &c., commenced 14 !N"ov. 181 1, and continued to Jan. 1812. Great similar mischief 
was done in April, 1814. The Watcli and Ward act was enforced, 2 Dec. 1816. It was 
burnt by rioters during the Reform excitement, 10 Oct. 1831. Fierce election riots with 
"lambs" and others took place in Jul)^, 1865. The British Association met here, 
22 Aug. 1866. 

NOVARA (ISr.W. Italy). Near this town, the Austrian marshal Radetzky totally 
defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army, 23 March, 1849. The contest 
began at 10 A.M. and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians lost 396 killed, and had 
about 1850 Avounded ; the Sardinians lost between 3000 and 4000 men, 27 cannons, and 
3000 prisoners. The king soon after abdicated in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. 

NOVA SCOTIA (N. America), was discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Verrazzani, 
1524, and named Acadia ; settled in 1622, by the Scotch under sir William Alexander, in 
the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name of Nova Scotia. Since 
its first settlement it has more than once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to 
England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745 and 1758 ; but was again 
confirmed to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces in 1784, and 
was erected into a bishopric in August 1787. King's College, Windsor, was founded in 1788 ; 
see Baronets. Gold was found in Nova Scotia in 1861. By an act jxissed 29 March, 1867, 
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were united with Canada for legislative purposes. 

NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration to the church to those who had relapsed 
during persecution, began with Novatian, a Roman presbyter, in 250 ; see Ctdhari. 

NOVELS (Novelise), a part of Justinian's Code, published 535 ; see Romances. 

NOVEMBER {novem, nine), anciently the ninth month of the year. When Numa added 
January and February, in 713 B.C., it became the eleventh as now. The Roman senators 
wished to name this mouth in which Tiberius was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius 
CcCsar, and Augustus; but the emperor refused, saying, "What will you do, conscript 
fathers, if you have thirteen Cajsars ?" 

NOVEMBER METEORS, see under Meteorologtj. 

NOVGOROD (central Russia), made the seat of his government by Ruric, a Varangian 
chief, in 862, is held to be the foundation of the Russian empire. In memory of the event 
the czar inaugurated a national monument at Novgorod, on 20 Sept. 1862. 

NOVI (N. Italy), Battle of, in which the French arm}^, commanded by Joubert, was 
defeated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, 15 Aug. 1799. Among 10,000 
of the French slain was their leader. Joubert, and several other distinguished, officers. 

NOVUM ORGANON, the great work of lord Bacon, containing his system of philosophj^ 
was published 1620. 

NOYADES, see Browning. 

NUBIA, the ancient ^Ethiopia sujora ^gyptum, said to have been the seat of the king- 
dom of Meroe, received its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. The Christian 
kingdom, with Dongola, the capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it was broken up into 
Mahometan principalities. It is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been conr^uered 
by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. 

NUCLEUS THEORY in Chemistry, see Compound Radicles. 

NUISANCES REMOVAL ACT ; passed 1848 ; amended 1849 ; see Sanitanj Legislation. 

NUMANTINE WAR. The war between the Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who 
possessed the country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began, 143 B.C., on account of the latter 
having given refuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Romans. 
Numantia, an unprotected city, withstood a long siege, in which the army of Sci])io 
Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The 
Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and on their own dead, and at last drew lots to kill one 
another. At length they sjet fire to their houses, and destroyed themselves, so that not one 
remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. 

NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 
III B.C., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined 
Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia became a Roman pro- 
vince ; see Mauritania. 

NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the study of 
history. In this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton (1789), published 
works on medals. Pellerin's "Recueil des M^dailles," 9 vols. 4to, (1762). Ruding's 
Annals is the great work on British coinage (new edition, 1840). — The Numismatic Society 
in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes the iVii/uwmafe Chronicle. — 



NUN 



)28 



OAT 



Mr. Yonge Akei-nian's Numismatic Manual (1840) is a useful introduction to the science. 
Foreign works are numerous. 

NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Rome to catholic states. The pope deputed a 
nuncio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The anival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to 
an audience by James II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolution. 

NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. 
Anthony retired at the close of the 3rd century. The first founded in France, near Poictiers, 
by St. Marcelliua, sister to St. Martin, 360. Dio Fresnoy. The first in England was at 
Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, or Edbald, king of Kent, 630. DugdaWs Monasticitm 
Anglicanitm ; see Abbeys and Monachism. The nuns were expelled from their convents in 
Germany, in July, 1 785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan. 1 790. In 
Feb. 1861, monastic establishments were abolished in Naples, compensation being made to 
the inmates. For memorable instances of the fortitude of nuns, see Acre, and Coldingham. 

NUREMBERG, a free imperial German city in 12 19. In 1522, the diet here demanded 
ecclesiastical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 secured religious liberty to the 
Protestants. It was annexed to Bavaria in 1805. Albert Durer was born here in 147 1. 



0. 



OAK, styled the monarch of the woods, and an emblem of strength, virtue, constancy, 
and long life. That produced in England is considered to be the best calculated for ship- 
building. In June, 403, the ^^ Synod of the oak " was held at Chalcedon. The constellation 
Robur Caroli, the oak of Charles, was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of the oak 
in which Cliarles II. saved himself from his pursuers, after the battle of "Worcester, 3 Sept. 
1651 ; see Boscobel. 

The evergreen oak, Qinrcus Ilex, brought from 1 The Turkey Oak, Quercus Berris, from the 
the south of Europe before . . . . 1581 j south of Europe 173S 

The scarlet oak, Querc%is coccinea,' brought from j The agaric of the oak was known as a styptic 
North America before 1691 | in 17S0 

The chestnut-leaved oak, Quercus Pnmus, from 
North America before 1730 



Heme's oak, Windsor park, mentioned in 
Shakspeare's Merry Wives of Windsor, finally 
destroyed by the wind . . .31 Aug. 



OATES'S PLOT. Titus Gates, at one time chaplain of a ship of war, was dismissed for 
immoral condirct, and became a lecturer in London. In conjunction with Dr. Tongue, he 
invented a plot against the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had conspired to assassinate 
Charles II., and extirpate the Protestant religion. He made it known 12 Aug. 1678, and 
in consequence about eighteen Roman Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony con- 
victed and executed ; among them the aged viscotmt Stafi'oi'd, 29 Dec. 1680. Gates was 
afterwards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), and being found guilty, was fined, 
put in the pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to impiison- 
ment for life, May 1685. On the accession of William and Mary he was pardoned, and a 
pension of 3Z. a week granted to him, 1689. 

OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 (Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (B.C. 1491) 
Fxod. xxii. 1 1. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced by the 
Saxons into England, 600. JUapin. That administered to a judge was settled 1344. 



Op Supremacv, first administered to British 
subjects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. 
VIII. (Stoio's Chron.) 1533 

Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 
528 ; and the words " So help me God and all 
saints," concluded an oath until . . . 1550 

The ancient oath of allegiance, which contained 
a promise " to be true and faithful to the 
king and his heirs, and truth and faith to 
boar of life .and limb and terrene honour ; 
and not to know or hear of any ill or damage 
intended him without defending him there- 
from," was modified by James I., a declara- 
tion against the pope's authority being 
added 1603 

It was again altered . . • . . . 1689 

The affirmation of a Quaker was made equiva- 
lent to an oath, by statute, in 1696, et seq. 

Of ABJURATION, being an obligation to maintain 
the government of king, lords, and commons, 
the church of England, and toleration of Pro- 
testant dissenters, and .abjuring all Eoman 
Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. III. 1701 



The Test and Coj-poration oaths modified by 
stat. 9 Geo. IV. (see Te^U) .... 1828 

Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise 
departments, and in certain other cases, and 
substituting declarations in lieu thereof, i & 
2 Will. IV 1831 

Affirmation, instead of oath, was permitted'to 
Quakers and other dissenters by acta passed 
in 1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863 (see Affirmation). 

In 1S58 and i860, Jews elected M. P. were re- 
lieved from part of the oath of allegiance 
(see Jews). 

By 24 &, 25 Vict. c. 66, a solemn declaration 
may be substituted for an oath by persons 
conscientiously objecting to be sworn in cri- 
minal prosecutions 1861 

A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
Catholics (passed by the commons) was re- 
jected by the lords ... 26 June, 1865 

The oath to be taken by members of parlia- 
ment was modified and made uniform by an 
act passed 30 April, 1866 



OBE 529 ODE 

OBELISK. (Greek ohelos, a spit, monolWios, a sino;le stone). The first mentioned in 
history was that of Eameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 B.C. The Arabians called them 
Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian jirie.sts the finger of the sun. Several were erected at 
Rome ; one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the pavement 
of which was a horizontal dial that marked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks brought 
to Rome by the emjierors, several have been restored and set up by various popes, especially 
Sixtus V. In London are three obelisks : first in Fleet-street, at the top of Bridge-street, 
erected to John Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 (see North Briton) ; and immediately 
opposite to it at the south end of Farringdon-street, stands another of granite to the memory 
of Robert Waithman, lord mayor in 1824, erected 25 June, 1833 ; the third at the south end 
of the Blackfriai'S-road, marks the distance of one mile and a fraction from Fleet-street. An 
obelisk from Luxor was set up in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, in Oct. 1836. 

OBLIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of " free general pardon, indemnity, and 
oblivion for all treasons and state off"ences committed between i Jan. 1637, and 24 June, 
t66o." The regicides and certain Irish popish priests were excepted. A similar act was 
passed by "William III., 20 Ma}'^, 1690. 

OBSERVANCE, Fathers of the (or Observants), a name given to certain members 
of the Franciscan order, about 1363, who voluntarily undertook the observance of their rule 
in its pristine rigour. This reformation was after a time enforced by the pope. 

OBSERVATORIES. The first is said to have been erected on the top of the temple of 
Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandj^as, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a 
golden circle 200 feet in diameter ; that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The 
first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter. 
■ First modern meridional instrument by Coper- . At Bologna 171 



mens . . 1540 

First observatory at Cassel 1561 

Tycho Bi-ahe's, at Uranienburg .... 1576 

Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . 1657 



At St. Petersburg 1725 

At Pekin, about 1750 

Oxford, t>r. llndcliffe 1772 

Calton Hill, Edinburgh 1776 



Royal (French) 1667 , Dublin, Br. Andrncs 1783 

Royal observrttory at Greenwich (which see) . . 1675 [ Armagh, Primate Robinson 1793 

Observatory at Nuremburg .... 1678 i Cambridge, England 1824 

At Utrecht 1690 ; Cambridge, U.S 1840 

Berlin, erected imder Leibnitz's direction . 1711 | Washrngton, U.S 1842 

OCANA (central Spain), near which the Spaniards were defeated by the French, com- 
manded by Mortier and Soult, 19 Nov. 1809. 

OCCULT SCIENCES (from orxultus, concealed) ; see AstroJorjy, Alchemy, Magic, &c. 

OCEAN MONARCH, an American emigrant ship, left Liverpool, bound for Boston, 
24 Ang. 1848, having nearly 400 persons on board. When within six miles of Great Orms- 
head, Lancashire, she took fire, and in a few hours was burnt to the water's edge, and 178 
persons perished. * 

OCTARCH, the chief of the kings of the heptarchy, was called Rex genlis Anglorum. 
Hengist Avas the first octarch, 455, and Egbert the last, 800 ; see Britain. Some authors 
insist that the English heptarchy should have been called the octarchy. 

OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth 
in the year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its first name, although the senate 
ordered it to be calleil Faustinns, in honour of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the emperor ; and 
Commodus called it Invictus, and Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 

OCTROIS (from the low Latin auctorium, authority), a term applied to concessions from 
sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of towns in France on articles of food before 
entering the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were suppressed in 1791 ; re-established, 
1797, and re-organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the octrois of Paris produced 
above 54 million francs. The Belgian government became very popular in Jul}'', i860, by 
abolishing the Octrois. 

ODES are A'ery ancient ; amongst the Gi'eeks they were extempore compositions sung in 
honour of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 532 B.C. ; Pindar's 498 to 446 ; 
and Hoi'ace's from 24 to 13, all B.C. Anciently, odes were divided into strophe, antistrophe, 
and epode ; see Focts Laureate, and Lyric Poetry. 

ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by the empress Catherine of Russia, in 1784- 
1792, after the peace of Jassy. In 1817 it was made a free port, since when its prosperity 
has rapidly increased. It was partially bombarded by the British, 21 April, 1854, in conse- 

*' The Brazilian steam-frigate, AJfonzo, happened to be out on a trial trip at the time, with the prince 
and princess de Joinville and the duke and duchess d'Aumale on l)oavd, who witnessed the catastrophe, 
.and aided in rescuing and comforting the sufferers. The crews and passengers of the Al/onzo and the 
yacht Queen of the Ocean saved 156 persons, and 62 others escaped by various means. 

M JI 



ODO 



530 



OLD 



quence of the Russian batteries having fired on a flag of truce, 6 April. On 12 May, tlic 
English frigate Tiger stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain, 
Gitfard, and many of his crew were killed, and the rest made prisoners. 

ODOMETER (from the Greek odos, way, and mctron, measure), see Pedometer. 

ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, teeth), the science of the teeth, maybe said to 
have really begun with the researches of professor Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first 
definite announcement of the organic connection between the vascular and vital soft parts of 
the frame and the hard substance of a tooth. His comprehensive work, "Odontography" 
(illustrated with beautiful plates), was published 1840-5. 

ODRYSiE, a people of Thrace. Their king Teres retained his independence of the 
Persians, 508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, and, in 429, aided Arayntas 
against Perdiccas IL, of Macedon, with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces, killed in battle 
with the Triballi, 424, was succeeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously ; Cotys, 
another king (382-353), disputed the possession of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. 
After 9 or 10 years' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon reduced the Odrysfe to tributaries, and 
founded Philippopolis and other colonies, 343. The Romans, after their conquest of 
Macedon, favoured the Odrysae, and in 42 their king Sadales bequeathed his territories to 
the Romans. The Odrysaj were turbulent subjects, were often chastised, and were finally 
incorporated into the empire by Vespasian, about a.d. 70. 

ODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von Reichenbach to a so-called new 
"imponderable or influence," said to be developed by magnets, crystals, the human body, 
heat, electricity, chemical action, and the whole material universe. The odylic force is said 
to give rise to luminous phenomena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. The baron's. 
" Researches on Magnetism, &c., in relation to the Vital Force," translated by Dr. Gregory, 
were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg (died 1772) described similar phenomena. 

(ECUMEISMGAL BISHOP (from the Greek oilcoumene, the habitable, glohe understood), 
" universal bishop ; " a title assumed by John, bishop of Constantinople, 587. 

OiNOPHYTA (Boeotia, K Greece). Here Myronides and the Athenians severely 
defeated the Bceotians, 456 B.C. 

OFEF, see Buda. 

OFFA'S DYKE, the intrenchment from the "Wye to the Dee, made by OfFa, king of 
Mercia, to defend his country from the incursions of the "Welsh, 779. 

OGYGES, Deluge of (which laid Attica waste for more than two hundred years 
afterwards, and until the arrival of Cecrops), is stated to have occurred 1764 B.C. ; 
see Deluge. 

OGULlSriAlSr LA"W, carried by the tribunes Q. 'and On. Ogulnius, increased the number 
of the pontiffs and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to those offices, B. c. 300. 

OHIO, a western state of North America, was ceded to the British with Canaida, in 
1763 ; settled in 1788, and admitted into the Union, 29 Nov. 1802. Capital, Columbus. 

OHM'S LA"W, for determining the quantity of the electro-motive force of the Voltaic 
battery, was published in 1827. It is in conformity with the discovery that the earth may 
be employed as a conductor, thus saving the return wire in electric-telegraphy. 

OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 192 1 B.C. 
It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the 
priests and kings, PsaZm cxxxiii. 2; i Sam. x. i; xvi. 13. The fact that oil, if passed 
through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to 
chendsts ; and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor 
and Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale, 1 8 1 5 . — Oil Speing.s ; 
see Petroleum. 

OLBERS, the asteroid, discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802, now termed Pallas. 

OLD BAILEY SESSIONS-COURT is held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction 
comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as the city of London. It is held eight times 
in the year by the royal commission of oyer and terminer. The judges are, the lord mayor, 
those aldermen who have passed the chair, the recorder, and the common-serjeaut, who are 
attended by both the sheriffs, and one or more of the national judges. The court-house was 
built in 1773, and enlarged in 1808 ; see Central Criminal Court. 

During some trials in the old court, the lord This disease was fatal to several . . .1772 

inayor, one alderman, two judges, the greater Twenty-eight persons killed at the execution 

part of the jury, and numbers of spectators, of Mr. Steele's murderers at the Old Bailey, 

caught the gaol distemper, and died May, 1750 22 Feb. 1807 



OLD 



531 



OMN 



OLUENBUEG, a grand duchy in North Germany, was annexed to Denmark in 1448 ; 
in 1773, Christian VII. ceded the country to Russia in exchange for Holstein Gottorp, and 
soon after the present dignity was established. The duke joined the North German con- 
fedei-ation, 18 Aug. 1866, and obtained a slight increase of territory from Holstein, 
27 Sept. following. Population in 1864, 301,812. 



DUKES. 

1 773. Frederick Augustus. 

1785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by 

Napoleon, and annexed to his empire in 

1811 ; but restored in 1814. 



GBAND-DUKKS. 

1829. May 21. Augustus. 

1853. Feb. 27. Peter (bom 8 July, 1827), the 

PRESENT grand-duke. 
Heir : Prince Augustus (born 16 Nov. 1852). 



OLD MAN OF THE Mountain, see Assassins. OLD STYLE, see New Style. 

OLEFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen and carbon, which burns with much 
brilliancy. In 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means of alcohol. 

OLEEON, Laws of, relating to sea affairs, are said to have been enacted by Eichard I. 
of England, when at the island of Oleron of France, 1194 ; which is now doubted. 

OLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of Egypt and Greece ; and at Athens their 
cultivation was taught by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. They were first planted in Italy about 562 B. c. 
The olive has been cultivated in England since 1648 a.d. The Cape olive since 1730. 

OLMiJTZ, the ancient capital of Moravia. Here the emperor Ferdinand abdicated, on 
behalf of his ne]ihew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848 ; and here the latter promulgated a new 
constitution, 4 March, 1849. A conference was held here, 29 Nov. 1850, under the czar, 
Nicholas, when the difficulties between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs of Hesse- 
Cassel were arranged. 

OLTENITZA. A Turkish force having crossed the Danube, under Omar Pasha, esta- 
blished themselves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks of the Russians, who were 
repulsed with loss, 2 and 3 Nov. 1853. On the 4th a desperate attempt to dislodge the 
Turks by General Danneberg with 9000 men, was defeated Avith great loss. 

OLYMPEIUM (near Peloponnesus), the great temple of Jupiter, erected by Libon, of 
Elis, at the charge of the Eleans, after their conquest of the country, 572-472 B.C. For 
this temple Phidias made the colossal statue of the god, in gold and ivory, 437-433 B.C. 

OLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, dating from i July, 776 B.C., the year in which 
Coroebus was successful at the Olympic games. This era was reckoned by periods of four 
years, each period being called an Olympiad, and in marking a date the year and Olympiad 
were both mentioned. The computation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, a.d. 440. 

OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the Greeks, are said to have been instituted 
by the Idsei Dactyli, 1453 B.C., or by Pelops, 1307 B.C., revived by Iphitus, 884 e.g., in 
honour of Jupiter, and were held at the beginning of every fifth year, on the banks of the 
Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth in five 
Muds of combats. The conquerors in these games were highly honoured. The prize con- 
tended for was a crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. The festival 
was abolished by Theodosius, a.d. 394. In 1858, M. Zappas, a wealtliy Peloponnesian, 
gave funds to re-establish these games, under the auspices of the queen of Greece. — Olympic 
Theatre, London, opened 1806 ; see Theatres. 

OLYNTHUS, a city, N. Greece, subdued in war by Sparta in 382-379 B.C. It resisted 
Philip of Macedon, 350 b. c, by whom it was destroyed, 347. Demosthenes delivered three 
orations on its behalf, 349. 

OMENS, see Aiigury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prog- 
nostications from omens, 1497 B.C. Alexander the Great and Mithridates the Great are said 
to have studied omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., th?re were seen for seventy 
days together, two large comets, whose splendour eclipsed that of the noon-day sun, occu- 
pying so vast a space as the fourth part of the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed 
all the actions of Mithridates throughout his life. Justin. 

OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom 
fourteen reigned in Arabia, 661-750; and eighteen at Cordova, in Spain, 755-1031. Their 
favourite colour was green. 

OMNIBUS (from omnibus, Latin " for all "). The idea of such conveyances is ascribed 
to Pascal, about 1662, when similar carriages were started, but soou discontinued. They 
were revived in Paris about 11 April, 1828; and introduced into London by a coach 
proprietor named Shillibeer. The first omnibus started from Paddington to the Bank of 
England on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. The omnibus is usually licensed to carry from ten to 
twelve passengers inside, and from ten to fourteen outside, and is attended by a footman, 

M M 2 



ONE 532 OPO 

called a "conductor." Eegulations were made respecting omnibuses by i6 & 17 Vict, 
c. 33 (1853). See Cabriolets, and Hackney Coaches. The London Omnibus Company was 
established in Jan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. In Sept. 1865, it 
was stated that there were then running about 620 omnibuses belonging to the General 
Omnibus Company, and 450 belonging to private proprietors ; in 1867, about 1050 omni- 
buses, with 13,000 drivers and conductors. Sir S. Maync. 

ONE POUND NOTES were issued by the Bank of England, 4 March, 1797 ; withdrawn 
for England, 1823 ; re-issued for a short time, 16 Dec. 1852. 

0. P. (old prices) ElOT began on the opening of the new Covent Garden theatre, 
London, with increased prices of admission, 18 Sept.,* and lasted till 16 Dec. 1809, when 
the old charges were restored. 

OPERAS. Adam de la Hale, a Trouvere, suruamed " le Bossu d' Arras," born in 1240, 
is, as far as has yet been ascertained, the composer of the first comic opei-a, Li Gieus (Le Jeu) 
du Robin et de Marion. The Italian opera began with the II Satire of Cavaliere, and the Dafne 
of Einuccini, with music by Peri, about 1590. Their Eurydice was represented at Florence, 
1600, on the marriage of Marie de Medicis with Hen. IV. of France. LOrfeo, Favola in 
Musica, composed by Monteverde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to have been 
the first opera that was ever published. About 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from 
Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, was acted Pomona. Eossini's Bar- 
hiere, and Otello, appeared 1816 ; Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; Semiramide, 1823 ; Guillaume Tell, 
1829. Weber's Der Freischutz, 1821 ; Oberon, 1826. Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia, 1840. 
Meyerbeer's ^o6er< Ze Dm&fc, 1831 ; Huguenots, iS;^6 ; Prophete, 1849. 

OPEEAS IN England. Sir "William Davenant introduced a species of opera in London 
in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York, buildings in 1692. The first 
at Drurydanewasin 1705. Handel's opera, Kadamistus, was performed in 1720, and others 
by him were frequently performed a few years after. Gay's Beggars' Opera, first per- 
formed in 1727 at the Lincoln's Inn theatre. It ran for sixty-three successive nights, 
but so offended the persons in power, that the lord chamberlain refused a licence for the 
performance of a second part of it entitled " Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends 
to come forward on its publicationwith so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted 
to 1200Z., whereas the Beggars' Opera had gained him only 400L ; see Theatres. 

OPEEA-HOUSE, The Italian, or Queen's Theatre. The original building is generally 
supposed to have been constructed by sir John Vanbrugh, though Mr. Pennant attributes 
it to sir Christopher Wren. It was built according to this authority, in 1704, and opened 
9 April, 1705 ; and burnt down 17 June, 1789. The foundation of the new theatre was laid 
3 April, 1790 ; and the house was opened 22 Sept. 1791, on an improved plan ; the present 
exterior was erected in 1820, from designs by Mr. Nash. This theatre was totally 
destroyed by fire (cause unknown) on the night of' 6 Dec. 1867. The loss of the leessee, 
Mr. Mapleson, was about 12,000?., and that of Madlle. Titiens (valuable jewels and 
dresses), was valued at 2000Z. ; see Theatres. — The English Opeea (or Lyceum) was 
opened 15 June, 1816. It was entirely destroyed by fire 16 Feb. 1830. The new English 
Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs by Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in July, 
1834 ; see Theatres. 

OPHTHALMIC HOSPITALS, see Hospitals. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for inspecting the interior of the eye, invented by 
professor H. Helmholtz, and described by him in 185 1. 

OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was known to the ancients, its cultivation 
being mentioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippocrates. It is largely culti- 
vated in British India, and was introduced into China by our merchants, which led 
eventually to the war 0^1839, the importation being forbidden by the Chinese govern- 
ment. The revenue derived from opium by the Indian government in 1862 was about 
7,850,000?. Laudanum, a preparation of opium, was employed early in the 17th century, 
A number of alkaloids have been discovered in opium : narcetine by Derosne, and morphia 
by Sertiirner, in 1803. 

OPOETO (W. Portugal), the ancient Calle, one of the most impregnable cities in Europe, 
and the mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." A chartered company for the regula- 
tion of the port- wine trade was established in 1756. Tlie French, under marshal Soult, 
were surprised here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought 11 May, 1809. The 

* The play was Macbeth, and not one word from the stage was heard. The concurrence of all parts of 
the house in the desire for reduction, gave a furious and determined party in the pit courage to proceed, 
and great injury was done in pit, boxes, and galleries. For many successive nights the audience, too 
strong to be controlled, continued their demand, and renewed their depredations, while the managers 
seemed, on their part, resolved not to give way. 



OPT 



533 



ORA 



424 



300 



Miguelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with considerable loss, 
19 Sept. 1832. It has since been the scene of civil war; see Portugal. The Oporto 
wine company was abolished in 1834, but re-established by a royal decree, 7 April, 1838. 
An international exhibition was opened here by the king, 18 Sept. 1865. 

OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks ; and later by the Arabians about the 12th 
century. 

Double refraction explained by Bartholinus . 1669 

Cassegrainian reflector 1672 

Newton's discoveries in colours, &c. . . . 1674 
Telescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen, 

about 1690 
Polarisation of light and undulatory theory dis- 
covered by Huyghens, about . . . . 1692 
Structure of the eye explained by Petit, about 1700 
Aberration of light discovered by Bradley . 1727 
Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall 

(but not made public) in 1733 

Constructed by Dollond, most likely without 

any knowledge of Hall's telescope . . . 1757 
Herschel's great reflecting telescope erected at 

Slough 1789 

Dr. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, 

&c.) . . , 1800-3 

Camera lucida (Dr. WoUaston) . . . . 1807 
Malus (polarisation of light by reflection), about 1808 
Fresnel's researches on double refraction, &c. . 1817 
Large telescope constructed by Lord Rosse . 1845 
Arago (colours of polarised light, &c.) . 1811-53 
Sir D. Brewster, optical researches (see Photo- 
graphy) 1814-57 

The Spectroscope constructed and used by 

Kirchhoff and Bunsen 1861 

Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light, illustrated by 
Duboscq's electric lamiJ, at the Royal Insti- 
tution, London 1856 



See, Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscope, Pseudo- 
scope, Spectrum, Photograph;/, &c. 



Burning lenses known at Athens . .B.C. 

A treatise on optics doubtfully attributed to 
EucUd, about 

The niaguifyiug power of convex glasses and 
concave mirrors, and the prismatic colours 
produced by angular glass, mentioned by 
Seneca, about A.u. 50 

Treatise on optics by Ptolemy, about . . .120 

Two of the leading principles known to the 
Platonists 300 

Greatly improved by Alhazen, who died . . 1038 

Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by 
Roger Bacon, about 1280 

Spectacles said to have been invented by Sal- 
vinus Armatus, of Pisa, before . . . 1300 

Camera obscura said to have been invented by 
Baptista Porta 1560 

Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges, about 1571 

Kepler jjublishes his " Dioptrice " . . . 1611 

Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in- 
vented the microscope) about 1609, and inde- 
pendently, by Galileo, about . . . . 1630 

Microscope, according to Huyghens, invented 
by Drebbel, about 1621 

Law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about 1624 

Inflection of light discovered by Grimaldi, 
about 1665 

Reflecting telescope, Jas. Gregory, 1663 ; New- 
ton 1666 

Jlotion and velocity of light discovered by Roe- 
mer, and after him by Cassiui . . . 1667 

[Its velocity demonstrated to be igo millions of 
miles in sixteen minutes.] 

OPTIC NERVES are said to have been discovered by IsT.Varole, a surgeon and physician 
of Bologna, about 1538. Noiiv. Diet. 

OPTIMISM (from 02}timus, the best), the doctrine that everything which happens is for 
the best, in opposition to Pessimism (from 2>essimus, the worst). The germ of optimism is to 
be foimd in Plato, and in St. Augustin, and other fathers ; and has been especially pro- 
pounded by Malebranche and Leibnitz, and adopted by Pope, Bolingbroke, Rousseau, and 
others. 

ORACLES, a term applied to revelations made by God to man. Thej'' were given to the 
Jews at the Mercy-seat in the tabernacle ; see Exod. xxv. 18-22. The Holy Scriptures are 
the Christian " oracles," Bom. iii. 2 ; i Pet. iv. 11. King Ahaziah sent to consult the oracle 
of Baalzebub at Ekron about 896 b. c. The Greeks consulted especially the oracles of Jupiter 
and Apollo (see Dodona and Delphi) ; and the Italians those of Faunus, Fortune, and Mars. 

ORAN, Algeria (N. Africa), a Moorish city, several times captured by the Spaniards ; 
definitively occupied by the French in 1831. 

ORANGE, a principality in S.E. France, foi'merly a lordship in the 9th or loth century. 
It has been ruled by four houses successively : that of Giraud Adhemar (to 11 74) ; of Baux 
(1 182 to 1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530) ; and of Nassau (1530 to 1713) ; see Nassau. Philibert 
the Great, prince of Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having been wronged by 
Francis I. of France, entered the service of the emperor Charles V. to whom he rendered 
great services by his military talents. He was killed at the siege of Florence, 3 Aug. 1530. 
He was succeeded by his nephew-in-law, Renee of Nassau ; see j^^^ces of Orancie under 
Holland. The eldest son of the king of Holland is stylfed the prince of Orange, although the 
principality was ceded to France in 17 13 ; see Arausio. 

ORANGE RIVER, a free state in South Africa. The British government transferred 
(by sir George Clerk) their powers over this territory to a provisional government, 29 March, 
1854. A Volksraad (legislative council) and governor have been appointed. 

ORANGEMEN. The " Battle of the Diamond," 21 Sept. 1795 (see Diamond), and the 
treachery experienced b}- the Protestants on that occasion, convinced them they would become 
an easy prey to the Roman Catholics, from their small numbers, imless they associated for 
their defence, and the fir^ Orange lodge was formed in Armagh ; but the name of Orange- 



ORA 534 , ORD 

men already existed. An Orange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members published a • 
declaration of their principles (the maintenance of church and state) in Jan. 1798 After 
1813 Orangeisni declined, but revived again in 1827, when the duke of Cumberland became 
grand-master ; and it is stated that in 1836 there were 145,000 Orangemen in England, and 
125,000 in Ireland. After a parliamentary inquiry Orange clubs were broken up in con- 
formity with resolutions of the house of commons ; but were revived in 1845. In Oct. 1857, 
the lord chancellor of Ireland ordered that justices of the peace should not belong to Orange 
clubs. The Orangemen in Canada were greatly excited during the visit of the prince of 
Wales in Sept. i860. Orange demonstrations in Belfast have led to desperate riots ; see 
Belfast. 

ORANGES. The sweet, or China orange, was first brought into Europe from China by 
the Portuguese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical tree, whence all the European 
orange-trees of this sort were produced, is .stUl preserved at Lisbon, in the gardens of one of 
its nobility. Orange-trees were first brought to England, and planted, with little success in 
1595 ; they are said to have been planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. The 
duty on imported oranges was repealed in i860. 

ORATOR HENLEY. An English clergyman of some talents, and great eccentricity, 
obtained this name by opening what he called his " Oratory " in London, in 1726. He had 
a kind of chapel in Newport-market, where he gave lectures on theological topics on Sundays, 
and on other subjects on Wednesdays, every week. Novelty procured him a multitude of 
hearers ; but he was too imprudent to gain any permanent advantage from his project. 
After having long served as a butt, he removed his oratory to Clare-market, and sank into 
obscurity previously to his death, in 1756. 

ORATORIANS (from the Latin orare, to pray), a regular order of priests established by 
St. Philip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the oratory'of St. Jerome, at Rome, where 
they prayed. They had a foundation in France, commenced by father de BeruUe, after- 
wards cardinal, 1612. — The rev. Frederick Faber and others, as "Fathers of the Oratory," 
established themselves first in King WiUiam-street, Strand, in 1848, and afterwards at 
Brompton. 

ORATORIO, a kind of musical sacred drama, the subject of it being generally taken 
from the Scriptures. The origin of oratorios, so named from having been first performed in 
an oratory, is ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550.- The first oratorio in London was 
performed in Lincoln's-inn theatre in Portugal-street, in 1732. Handel's oratorio of " Israel 
in Egypt " was produced in 1738, and the ''Messiah" in 1741 ; Haydn's "Creation" in 
1798 ; Mendelssohn's " St. Paul " in 1837, and " Elijah " in 1846. 

ORCHOMENUS, a small Greek state in Boeotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 368 B.C. ; 
restored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354 ; and given up by him to Thebes, 346. 

ORDEAL was known among the Greeks and Jews (Num. v. 2). It was introduced into 
England by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty might choose whether he would 
put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God 
only. The trial by ordeal was abolished in 1218. 
ORDERS, see Knighthood. 

ORDERS IN Council were issued by the British government 7 Jan. and 11 Nov. 1807, 
prohibiting trade with the ports occupied by the French, being reprisals for Napoleon's 
Berlin decree {which see). They greatly checked the progress of manufactures in this country, 
and caused much distress till their removal in 18 14. 

ORDINATION of ministers in the Christian church began with Christ and his apostles ; 
see ilfar^ iii. 14, and ^cfo vi. and xiv. 23. In England in 1549 a new form of ordination 
of ministers was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six prelates and six divines. 
ORDINANCES, see Ordonnances, Self-Denying Ordinances. 

ORDNANCE-OFFICE. Before the invention of guns, this office was supplied by officers 
under the following names : the bowyer, the cross-bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of 
helmets, the armourer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. placed it under the 
management of a master-general, a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general was chosen 
from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign, The appointment was formerly 
for life ; but since the restoration, was held durante lane placito, and not unfrequently by a 
cabinet minister. Beatson. The letters patent for this office were revoked 25 May, 1855, 
and its duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. The last master-general was 
lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards lord Raglan. 

ORDNANCE SURVEY. The trigonometrical survey of England was commenced by 
gen. Roy, in 1783, continued by col. Colby, and completed by col. (now sir Henry) James in 
1856. The publication of the maps commenced in 1819, under the direction of col. Mudge, 



OED 535 ORL 

and was completed in 1862 ; the southern part on the scale of one inch to the mile, the 
noi'thern six inches to the mile : a large part of these maps have been coloured geologicallj''. 
The survey of Ireland has been completed and published ; that of Scotland is still going on. 

ORDONNANCES, the laws enacted by the Capetan kings of France previous to 1789. 
They began with "in the name of the king," and ended with " such is our good pleasure." 
The first in Trent is dated 1287 (Philip IV.) The publication of these " ordonnances," 
ordered by Louis XIV., 1706, is still in progress. The "ordonnances" of Charles X., 
promulgated 26 July, 1830, led to the revolution. 

OREGON TERRITORY (N. America). A dispute respecting boundaries arose in 1845 
between the British government and that of the United States, which was settled by treaty, 
12 June, 1846. Oregon was admitted as a state by the union in Feb. 1859. 

ORGANIC SYNTHESIS, see Chemistry. 

ORGANS. Their invention is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B.C. ; and to 
Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 B.C. The organ was brought to Europe from 
the Greek emjDire, and was first applied to religious devotions in churches, in A..D. 657. 
Bellarmiiie. Organs were used in the western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. 
Ammonms. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I. 815, 
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haarlem is one of the largest 
in Europe ; it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 1000 stops and 5300 
pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
Of the organs in England, that at St. George's Hall, Liverpool, by Mr. Willis, is the largest ; 
next in order that at York minster, and that in the music-hall, Birmingham. In London, 
the largest is, perhaps that of Spitalfields church ; and that in Christ Church is nearly as 
extensive. The erection of the famous Temple organ was competed for by Schmidt and 
Harris ; after long disputes, the qi;estion was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefferies, afterwards 
chief justice, gave the casting vote in favour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 1682. 
A monster organ was erected in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, in June, 1857. 

ORIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 1337, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, 
nnd almoner to king Edward II. This college derives its name from a tenement called 
r Oriole, on the site of which the building stands. 

ORIFLAMME, see Atiriflamma. 

ORIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions from the writings of Origen, who lived 
185-253. They maintained that Christ was the son of God no other way than by adoption 
and grace ; that souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, moon, stars, and the 
waters that are under the firmament, had all souls ; that the torments of the damned shall 
have an end, and that the fallen angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first condi- 
tion. They were condemned by councils, and the reading of Origen's works was forbidden. 
Burlce. These doctrines were condemned by the council of Constantinople in 553. 

ORION Steam-Ship. On 18 June, 1850, this splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to 
Glasgow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Portpatrick, within a stone's throw of land, 
and instantly fi.lled. Of two hundred passengers, more than fifty were drowned. 

ORISSA, a province N. W. Bengal, India, with an area of 74,413 square miles, with 
a population of 20,000,000, and was conquered by Clive in 1755, and nearly all acquired 
by the company in 1765. It suffered much by famine in 1770, and 1792-3, and more 
especially from the end of 1865 to Nov. 1866, when it is said about 750,000 persons 
perished. The government and oflficials were censured for neglect and want of forethought. 

ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES (North of Scotland), were conquered by Magiius IH. 
of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. 
The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades : united with Shetland, they now form one of the 
Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orknej^ founded by St. Servanus early in the 5th century, 
some affirm by St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689 : 
see Bisliops. 

ORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly Aureliammi ; gave title to a kingdom, 
491, and afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the royal family. Attila the Hun, 
besieging it, was defeated by Aetius and his allies, 451. It was besieged by the English 
xmder John Talbot, afterwards earl of Shrewsbury, 12 Oct. 1428, bravely defended by 
Gaucour (as its fall would have niined the cause of Charles VI. king of France), and 
relieved by the heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, 
29 April, 1429, and the siege was raised 18 May ; see Joan of Arc. Tlie 439th anni- 
versary was celebrated loth May, 1868 ; the emperor and empress being present. Diiring 
the siege of Orleans, Feb. 1563, the duke of Guise was assassinated. 



ORL 



536 



OST 



court in the French revohition ; takes the name 

Egalitd, ii Sept. 1792 ; voted for the death of Louis 

XVI. ; was guillotined, Nov. 6, 1793. 
Louis Philippe, son, born, 6 Nov. 1773 ; chosen king 

of the French, Aug. 9, 1830 ; abdicated, 24 Feb. 

1848 ; died, Aug. 26, 1850. His queen, Marie 

Amelie, died, 24 March, 1866 (see France). 
Ferdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, born, 

Sept. 3, 1810 ; died, through a fall, 13 July, 1842. 
Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, Aug. 24, 

1838, married Maria Isabella, daughter of the duke 

of Montpensier, 30 May, 1864. A daughter, Maria 

Amelia, born, 28 Sept. 1865. 



ORLEANS, continued. 

CUKES. 

Louis contended for the regency with John the 

Fearless, duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation 

he was assassinated in 1407. 
Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, 

1440 ; died, 1465. 
Louis, became Louis XII. of France in 1498, when 

the duchy merged in the crown. 
Bourho7i Branch. — Philip, youngest son of LouisXIIL, 

born, 1640; died, 1701. 
PhiliiJ II., son, born, 1673 ; regent, 1715 ; dies, 1723. 
Louis, son, born, 1703 ; died, 1752. 
Louis Philii3i3e, son, bom, 1725 ; died, 1785. ' 
Louis Philippe Joseph, son, boi-n, 1747 ; opposed the 

ORLEANS, NEW, see New Orleans. 

ORMULUM, a metrical version of the Gospels and Acts, in early English, made by 
Orm, an ecclesiastic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 1852, from a MS. in 
the Bodleian. 

ORNITHOLOGY, see Birds. 

ORNITHORHYNGHUS, the dnck-biUed platyjras, or water-mole, a singular compound 
of the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, was first described by Dr. Shaw, in 1819. 

ORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan first formed establishments for this purpose. 
Pliny relates in liis Panegyric that he had caused five thousand free-born children to be 
sought out and educated, about A. D. 105. Orphan-houses, properly so-called, are mentioned 
for the first time in the laws of the emperor Justinian. At the court of Byzantium, the office 
of inspector of orphans, orpJianotrophos, was so honourable that it was held by the brother 
of the emperor Michael IV. in the i ith century ; see Foundling Hospitals. 



The Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boys was esta- 
blished at Hoxton in 1758. It is now situated at 
Haverstock hill, and contains 350 boys and girls. 

Asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth, instituted in 
1758. 

London Orphan Asylum (in 1813; removed to 
Clapton in 1823; to Slough, Bucks, ojDened 25 
June, 1863) ; the Infant Orphan Asylum at Wan- 
stead (1827) : and the Asylum for Fatherless 



Children (in 1844 : settled at Reedham, Surrey), 
established mainly through the exertions of a con- 
gregational minister, the rev. Andrew Reed, D.D. 

Royal Albert Orphan Asylum, at Bagshot, esta- 
blished 1864 ; additional buildings founded by the 
queen, 29 June, 1S67. 

AlexandJra Orphanage for Infants ; formdation laid, 
6 July, 1867. 



ORPHEONISTS, see Crystal Palace, i860. 

ORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate and explain the motions of the heavenly 
bodies, appears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. Ptolemy devised the circles and 
eijicycles that distinguish his system about 130. The planetary clock of Finee, was begun 
1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The planetarium, now termed 
the Orrery, it is ^aid, was constructed by Rowley, after a pattern devised by the clock-maker, 
George Graham, at the expense of Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 1715. A " planeta- 
rium," constructed by the Rev. Wm. Pearson about 1803, for the Royal Institution, still 
exists there. 

ORSINI'S PLOT against the emperor Napoleon III. ; see France, Jan. 1S58. 

ORTHES or Orthez (S. France), once capital of the principality of Beam. Near it the 
British and Spanish armies, commanded by "Wellington, defeated the French, under Soult, 
27 Feb. 1814. The battle of Toulouse soon followed. 

OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was purchased by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt 
by Mr. Cubitt. 

OSMIUM, the heaviest known metal, discovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1803. 

OSNABURG (N. Germany), made the seat of a bishopric, by Cliarlemagne, near the end of 
the 8th century. After the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the bisliop was a Roman catholic 
and protestant alternatel}'-, the latter being chosen from the house of Brunswick. Frederick, 
duke of York, the last bishop, resigned in 1803, when the lands were annexed to Hanover. 
He died 5 Jan. 1827. 

OSSORY (S. E. Ireland), Bishopric of, was first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; trans- 
lated to Aghavoe, in Upper Ossory, in 1052 ; and to Kilkenny about the end of the reign of 
Henry II. It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1835. 

OSTEND (Belgium) is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spaniards, from 
July, 1 60 1, to Sept. 1604. when it honourably capitulated. On the death of Charles II. of 
Spain, the French seized Ostend ; but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken 
bjr the allies. It was again taken by the French in 174S, but restored in 1748. In 1756, 



OST 537 OUD 

the Freucli garrisoned tliis town foi" the empress queen llaria Theresa. In 1792, the French 
once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, but regained in 1794. The English 
destroyed the works of the Bruges canal ; but the wind shifting before they could re-embark, 
they surrendei'ed to the French, 19 May, 1798 ; see Cuba, note. 

OSTRACISM (from the Greek ostraTcon, a potsherd or shell), a mode of proscription at 
Athens, is said to have been first inti'oduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed 
to Cleisthenes, about 510 B.C. The people wrote the names of those whom they m6st 
suspected upon small shells ; these they put in an urn or box and presented to the senate. 
Upon a scrutinj^ he whose name was oitenest written Avas sentenced by the council to be 
banished from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were required. Aristides, noted for 
his justice, Militiades, for his victories, &c. , were ostracized. It was abolished by ironically 
proscribing Hyperbolus, a mean jjerson, about 338 B.C. 

OSTRICH (the struthios of the ancients), anative of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches 
were hatched and reared at San Donate, near Florence, 1859-60. 

OSTROGOTHS or Easterx Gotils, were distinguished from the Visigoths (Western 
Goths) about 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &c., their great leader, Theodoric, 
established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553 ; see Ilccli/. 

OSTROLENKA (Poland). Near here the French defeated the Prussians, 16 Feb. 
1807 ; in another battle here between the Poles and Russians, the slaughter was immense, 
but the Poles remained masters of the field, 26 May, 1S31. 

OTAGO, see Nno Zealand, 1848, 1861, 1866, 

OTAHEITE or Tahiti, an island in the S. Pacific Ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and 
visited in 1767 bj'^ captain Wallis, who called it George the Third Island. Captain Cook 
came hither in 1768 to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, 
and stayed three months ; it was visited twice afterwards by that celebrated navigator. See 
Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by Captain Cook, 
and carried back by him in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district 
of Matavai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was compelled to put herself 
under the protection of France, 9 Sept. 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the 
neighbouring islands were taken possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of 
the French king, Nov. 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Prichard, the English consul, 
5 March, 1S44, but the act was censured iu France. 

OTTAWA (formerly Bytown), on the river Ottawa, was appointed to be the capital of 
Canada by the queen in August, 1858. The executive council met here 22 Nov. 1865, and 
the Canadian parliament was, for the first time, opened here by the governor-general, 
lord Monck, on 8 June, 1866. Mr. Darcy McGee, M.P. fur Montreal (once an Irish 
agitator, but latterly exceedingly loyal), was assassinated on his return from parliament, 
7 April, 1868. Fenians were suspected, and the town was jiut in a state of siege. 
Population in 1 86 1, 14,669. 

OTTERBURN (Northumberland). In 1388 the Scots besieged Newcastle and were driven 
off by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland. Percy jmrsued them to 
Otterburu, where a battle was fought on 10 Aug., in which the earl of Douglas was killed 
and Percy taken prisoner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. 

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, see Turkeij. 

OUDE or OuDH (North India), formerly a vice-royalty held by the vizier of the gi-eat 
mogul. About 1760, it was seized bj'- the vizier Sujah-ud-Dowlah, ancestor of the late king. 

Battle of Buxar, where Svjali and his ally, Jteer | And grandson, Wajid Ali Shah, exceed all their 

Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British predecessors in profligacy .... 1847-56 

became virtually masters of Oude . 23 Oct. 1764 [ In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) 



Reign of Asoph-ud- Dowlah, who cedes Benares, 
&c., to the East India Company, who place 
ti'oops in Oude (see Ckunar) . . . 1775-81 

[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 
was 5oo,oooZ. ; in 1794, 760,000^. ; in iSoi, 
i>352>347'-] More territories ceded to the 
company 



Oude is annexed to the British territories, by 

decree, proclaimed .... 7 Feb. 1856 
The queen and prince of Oude, &c. , arrive iu 

Loudon to appeal ... 20 Aug ,, 

Oude joins the Indian mutiny : ex-king of Oude 

imprisoned (on suspicion) . . 14 June, 1857 
The queen dies at Paris, 24 Jan. ; and the prince 



Ghazee-ud-deen becomes ti)i<7, with the consent j at London 26 Feb. 1S58 



of the British 1819 

Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-deen 1827-37 
[At his death, the British resident, colonel Lowe, 

promptly suppresses an insurrection.] 
Mahomed Ali governs well . . . 1837-42 



[For the war, sec India, 1857-S,] 
Triumijhal entry of the governor-general into 
Lucknow ; the Talookdars (landholders) re- 
ceive a free grant of their estates . 22 Oct. 1859 
Gi'and durbar held at Lucknow by the viceroy, 



But his son Umjeed Ali Shah . . . 1842-71 sir John Lawrence . . . 12 Nov. 1867 

1 Oude is said to be prospei-ing under British nile. 



OUD 538 OXF 

OUDENAEDE (Belgium). Here the English and allies under the duke of Marlborough 
and prince Eugene thoroughly defeated the French besiegers, 1 1 July, 1 708. 

OULART (S.E. Ireland). Here 5000 Irish insurgents attacked the king's troops, in 
small number, 27 May, 1798. The North Cork militia, after great feats of bravery, were cut 
to pieces, five men only escaping. Musgrave. 

OUNCE (from uncia), the sixteenth part of the pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the 
])oimd troy. Its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who decreed that an English ounce 
should be 640 dry grains of wheat ; that twelve of these ounces should be a pound ; and that 
eight pounds should be a gallon of wine, 1233. 

OUEIQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count or duke of Portugal, is said to have en- 
countered five Saracen kings and a prodigious army of Moors, 25 July, 1139, and signally 
defeated them ; and to have been hailed king upon the spot. Lisbon, the capital, was 
taken, and he soon after was here crowned as the first king ; the Moorish dominion being 
overthrown. 

OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the law, and out of the sovereign's protection : 
a punishment for such as being called in law do contemptuously refuse to appear. In the 
reign of Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the sheriff only, having lawful 
warrant therefor, should put to death any man outlawed. Covml. 

OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, the case of the Ouzel Galley, a ship in the port of 
Dublin, excited great legal perplexity, and was referred to an arbitration of merchants, whose 
prompt decision was highly approved. This led to the present society, founded in 1705. 

OVATIOJSr, an inferior triumph which the Romans allowed those generals of their army 
whose victories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius Tubertus was the first who was 
decreed an ovation, 503 B.C. A sheep {ovis) was offered by the general instead of a bull. 

OVERLAND MAIL, see Waglwrn. 

OVERSEERS of the poor for parishes were appointed in 1601 ; see Poor Laws. 

OWHYHEE or Haw^aii, an island in the N. Pacific Ocean, discovered Dec. 1778, by 
capti Cook. On 14 Feb. 1779, he here fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. 
A boat having been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain went on shore to seize the 
king, and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people would not submit to 
this insult, and their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his 
companions were kiUed. Great progress has been recently made in civilisation here ; and 
an order of nobility and a representative assembly were instituted in i860. The population 
then was about 120,000 ; see Sandwich Isles. 

OXALIC ACID, which exists in several plants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly 
obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted upon by caustic potash or soda, according 
to Dr. Dale's process, patented in 1862. 

OXFORD, an ancient city, restored by king Alfred, who resided here and established a 
mint, &c., about 879. 



Canute held a national council here . . . 1018 

Stormed by William 1 1067 

Charter by Henry II., the city granted to the 

burgesses by John 1199 

Henry III. holds the " mad " parliament hez-e . 1258 
Bishops Ridley and Latimer burnt here 16 Oct. 

IS5S ; and archbishop Cranmer, 21 March . 1556 



Fatal (or Black) Oxford Assizes,— when the high 
sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly, 
of an infection caught from the prisoners . 1557 

Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parlia- 
ment here 1644 

Taken by the parliament . . . '. . 1646 

Charles II. held parliaments here . 1665 & 168 1 



OXFORD ADMINISTRATION, formed 29 May, 1711. 



Robert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), cliancellor 
of the exchequer. 

The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, re- 
ceiving the lord treasurer's staff on 30 July, 1714, 
three days before the death of queen Anne. From 
the reign of George I. the office of lord treasurer 
has been executed by commissioners. 



Robert, earl of Oxford (previously right hon. Robert 

Harley), lord treasurer. 
Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper. 
John, duke of Normanby and Buckingham, lord 

president. 
John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. 
Henry St. John (afterwards viscount Bolingbroke), 

and William, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. 

OXFORD BISHOPRIC, established by Henry VIII., formed out of Lincoln, first placed 
at Osney in 1542; removed to Oxford cathedral (formerly St. Frideswide, now Christ 
church), 1545. Present income, 5000?. 

1827. Charles Lloyd ; died, 31 May, 1829. 

Siohard Bagot ; translated to Bath, Nov. 1846. 



RECENT BISHOPS. 

1807. Charles Moss ; died, 16 Dec. iSii. 
i8i2. William Jackson ; died, 2 Dec. 1815. 
1815. Edward Legge ; died, 27 Jan. 1827. 



1845. Samuel Wilberforce (present) bishop. 
OXFORD DECLARATION, see Church of England, 1864. 



OXF 



539 



OYS 



OXFOED MARBLES, see Arundclian. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. An academy here is described as ancient bj'pope Martin II. 
in a deed, 802. Alfred founded "the schools " about 879. 



Charter granted by Henry in 1248 

Charter of Edward III 1355 

The university incorporated by Elizabeth . 1571 

Heceives the elective franchise (.to send two 

members to parliament) 1603 

Bodleian Library opened, 8 Nov. 1602 ; present 

building completed 1613 

The botanic garden, &c., established by the earl 

of Danby 1622 

Radcliffe Library opened, April 13, 1749; the 

Kadcliffe observatory completed . . . 1786 
A commission appointed (31 Aug. 1850) to in- 
quire into its "state, studies, discipUne, and 
revenues ;" reported ... 27 April, 1852 
Acts making alterations passed . . 1854, 1856 

University Museum opened . . . July, i860 
Examination statutes passed 1801, 1807, 1850, 1862 
Extension of the university proposed at a 
meeting held 16 Nov. 1865 

COLLEGES. 

University, said to have been foimded by king 
Alfred, 872 ; founded by William, archdeacon 
of D\n-ham, about 1232 

BalUol ; founded by John Balliol, knt. (fatherto 
Balliol, king of the Scots), and Deborah, his 
wife 1263 

Merton College, by Walter de Merton, bishop of 
Rochester 1264 

Hertford College (dissolved in 1818, and a Hert- 
ford scholarship appointed) .... 1312 

Exeter, by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter 1314 

Oriel College, by king Edward II. ; Adam de 
Brome, archdeacon of Stowe . . . . 1326 

Queen's College, by Bobert de Eglesfield, clerk, 
confessor to queen Phihppa, consort of Ed- 
ward III 1340 

New College, by William of Wykeham, bishop 
of Wmchester ; first called St. Mary of Win- 
chester ...."..... 1386 



All Souls' College, by Henry Chichely, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury 1437 

Magdalen, by WilUam of Waynflete, bishop of 
Winchester 14S6 

Lincoln College, by Eichard Fleming, 1427 ; 
finished by Rotherham, bishop of Lincoln . 1479 

Brazenose, by William Smyth, bishop of Lin- 
coln, and sir Richard Sutton .... 1509 

Corpus Christi, by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 
chester 1516 

Christ Church, by cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and 
afterwards by iienry VIII 1532 

Trinity, by sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a 
previous institution, called Durham College . 1554 

St. John's, by sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of 
London 1555 

Jesus College, by Dr. Hugh Price and queen 
Elizabeth 1571 

Wadham, by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, 
his wife 1613 

Pembroke, by Thomas Teesdale and Richard 
Wightwiok, clerk 1624 

Worcester, by sir Thomas Coke, of Bentley, in 
Worcestershire ; it was originally called Glou- 
cester College 1714 

Keble College (see KehU College) ; first stone laid 
by archbishop of Canterbury . 25 April, 1868 

HALLS (not incorporated). 

St. Edmund's 1269 

St. Mary's 1333 

New Inn Hall 1392 

St. Mary Magdalen 1487 

St. Alban's 1547 

[Oxford University Calendar.] 

First Professorships — Divinity (Margaret), 1502 ; 
Divinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 
1540, (fee. 



RECENT CHANCELLORS. 

1809. William, baron Grenville. I 1852. Edward, earl of Derby. 

1834. Arthur, duke of Wellington. | 

OXFORD'S ASSAULT on the Queen. Edward Oxford, a youth who had been a 
servant in a public-house, discharged two pistols at queen Victoria and prince Albert, as they 
were proceeding up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from Buckingham palace, 10 June, 
1840. He stood within a few yards of the carriage ; but neither her majesty nor the prince 
was injured. Oxford was tried at the Old Bailey (10 July), was adjudged to be insane, and 
sent to Bethlehem hospital. 

OXYGEN", a gas (named from the Greek oxus, sharp, as being generally found in acids), 
is the most abundant of all substances, constituting about one-third of the solid earth, and 
forming by weight nine-tenths of water and one-fourth of the atmosphere. It was lirst 
separated from red oxide of mercury by Priestley, i Aug. 1774, and by Scheele, who was 
ignorant of Priestley's discovery, in 1775. It is a supporter of animal life (in respiration), 
and of combustion. An ox^'gen gas company was announced in Dec. 1864 : its object is the 
cheap manufacture of oxygen for its application to the production of perfect combustion in 
lamps, stoves, furnaces, &c. ; see Ozone. 

OYER and Terminer, a commission directed to the judges of the courts, by virtue 
whereof they have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, &c., 1285. 

YES ! A corruption of the French oijez, hear ye ! The ancient term still used by a 
public crier and by the usher of courts of justice to enjoin silence and attention. 

OYSTER (the Latin Ostrea, edulis), is said to have its capital in Britain, for though 
found elsewhere on the coasts of Europe, in no part of them docs it attain such perfection as 
in our seas. British oysters are celebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal (Sat. iv. 140) 
about 100. The robbery of oyster-beds is prohibited by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (1827). About 
15,000 bushels of oysters are said to be produced from the Essex beds alone. In 1858 
M. Coste commenced rearing oysters in great numbers on the coast of Brittany, and his plan 



OZO 540 PAI 

has been found successful. An act for promoting the cultivation of 03'sters in the United 
Kingdom was passed Aug. 1866, and one for the preservation of oyster fisheries 3 May, 1867. 
OZONE (from the Greek ozcin, to yield an odour), a name given in 1840 by M. Schbnbein 
of Basel to the odour in the atmosphere developed during the electric discharge. It is con- 
sidered to be a modification of the oxygen {which see), and when occurring naturally, to have 
an effect on health. It is also produced by the action of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 
ozonometers had been constructed by Dr. Lankester and others. M. Schonbein announced 
his discovery of another modification of oxygen, which he termed antozo7ic (1859), hitherto 
found only in the compound state (in peroxides of sodium, potassium, &c.). On 4 Dec. 
1865, the French Academy of Sciences appointed a committee of eminent philosophers to 
incjuire into the nature and relations of ozone. 

P. 

PACIFICATION", Edicts of, the name usually given to the edicts of toleration granted 
by the French kings to the protestants ; see Ghent. 

First edict, by Charles IX. , permitting the [ [In Aug. 1572, the same monarch authorised the 

massacre of St. Bartholomew (see Bartholo- 
nii-w).] 

Edict of Pacification by Henry III., April ; re- 
voked, Dec. 1576 ; renewed for six years, Oct. 1577 

[Several edicts were published against the pro- 
testants after the six years expired.] 



exercise of the reformed religion near all the 
cities and towns in tlie realm . . Jan. 1562 

The reformed worship permitted in the houses 
of lords justiciaries, and certain other persons, 

March, 1563 

These edicts revoked, and all Protestant minis- 
ters ordered to quit Prance in fifteen days . 1568 j Edict of HenryilV., renewing that of Oct. 1577, 1591 

Edict, allowing lords and others to have service Edict of Nantes (which see), by Henry IV., 

in their hoiises, and granting public service 13 April, 1598 

in certain towns 1570 1 Pacification (which see) of Nismes . 14 July, 1629 

PACIFIC OCEAN, see Magellan ; Steam, 1851 ; Wrecks, 1856. 

PADLOCKS are said to have been invented by Beecher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are 
mentioned much earlier. 

PADUA, the Roman Patavium, in Yenetia, N. Italy, said to have been founded by 
Antenor, soon after the fall of Troy, 1183 B.C. It flourished under the Romans. Patavian 
Latin was considered very corrupt, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. After being 
an independent republic, and a member of the Lombard league, Padua was ruled by the 
Carrara family from 13 18 with a short interruption till 1405, when it was seized by the 
Venetians. The university was founded about 1220. 

PAGANS, the heathen idolaters, gentiles, worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set 
form or points of belief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout 
the Roman empire, 331 ; liis nephew, Julian, attempted their restoration, 361 ; biit Paganism 
was renounced by the Roman senate, in 388, and finally overthrown in the reign of 
Theodosius the younger, about 391. 

PAI MARIRE, a name given to the dogmas of the Hau-hau sect ; see New Zealand, 
1865. 

PAINS AND PENALTIES, see Queen Caroline. 

PAINTING. Osymandyas (in Egypt) caused his exploits to be represented in painting, 
2100 B.C. Usher. 

Polygnotus, said to be the first portrait and ; Excellent pictures brought from Corinth by 

historic painter, lived about . . .B.C. 450 Mummius B.C. 146 

Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the en- After the death of Augustus, not a single 

caustic, a method of burning the colours into painter of eminence appeared for several 

wood or ivoiy, about 360-330 ages ; Ludius, who was very celebrated, is 

Antiphilus, an Egyptian, is said to have been ' supposed to have been the last, about a.d. 14 

the inventor of the grotesque. Pliny . . 332 ' Painting on canvas seems to have been knovra 

Th e art was introduced at Eome from Etruria, [ at Borne in 66. JBede, the Saxon historian, 

by Quintus Pabius, styled Pictor. * Livy . 291 knew something of the art, who died . . 735 



* Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were contemporary painters. These artists once contended for 
pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces the birds came to peck 
the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and Zeuxis said, " Remove 
the curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was the painting, and Zeuxis acknow- 
ledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, " Zeuxis has deceived the birds ; but Parrhasius has deceived 
Zeuxis ! " Parrhasius dressed in a purple robe, and wore a crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 
415 B.C. Plutarch. 



PAI 



541 



PAL 



PAINTING, continued. 

It revived about the end of tbe i3tli century, 
and to Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is 
awarded the honour of its restoration ; died . 

John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother, 
Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the 
Flemish school of painting in oil . 

Uccello first studied persisective ; died . . 



141S 
1432 



Henry VIII. patronised Holbein, and invited 
Titian to his court, about .... 1523 

In A\ig. i860, the sale of lord Northwick's pictures 
occupied eighteen days. It produced 95,725^. A 
Carlo Dolci fetched 2010'., and a Murillo 1400^. 

The BickueU collection, sold in April, 1863, produced 
25,6ooi. 



EMINENT PAINTERS. 





School. 


Born. 


Died. 


Cimabue 


. . Florentine 


. 1240 


1300 


Giotto 


. Ditto . 


. 1276 


1336 


J. Van Eyck . 


. . Flemish . 


• 1366 


1441 


Giorgione . 


. Venetian 


• 1477 


1511 


Leonardo da Vine 


1 . . Florentine 


• 1452 


1519 


Raphael d'Urbino 


. Roman . 


• 1483 


1520 


Paolo Perugino 


. . Ditto . 


. 1446 


1524 


Albert Durer . 


. German . 


• 1470 


1528 


Quentin Matsys 


. . Flemish 


• 1430 


1529 


Correggio . 


. Lombardian 1494 


1534 


Parmegiano . 


. . Ditto 


• 1503 


1540 


Guilio Romano . 


. Roman 


1492 


1546 


Sebastian del Pioi 


nbo . . Venetian 


148s 


1547 


Hans Holbein . 


. German . 


1495 


1543 


Michael Angelo Bu 


onarotti Florentine. 


1474 


1564 


Titian 


. Venetian 


1477 


1576 


Paul Veronese 


. . . Ditto . 


1532 


1583 


Tintoretto . 


. Ditto 


ic;i2 


1594 


Annibal Caracci 


. . Lombardian ii^68 


1609 


Breughel . 


. Flemish . 


1565 


1625 


P. P. Rubens 


. . Ditto . 


1577 


1640 


Domenichino . 


. Bolognese 


1581 


164 1 


Vandyck 


. . Flemish . 


1599 


1641 


Guido 


. Lombardian 


1575 


1642 


Both . 


. . Dutch . 


1600 


1650 


P. Potter . 


. Ditto . 


1625 


1654 


Le Sueur 


. . French . 


1617 


1655 


Spagnoletto 


. Spanish 


1589 


1656 


Snyders 


. . Flemish . 


J:579 


1657 


Velasquez . 


. Spanish 


1599 


1660 


N. Poussin . 


. . French . 


1594 


1665 


Guercino . 


. Bolognese 


1590 


1666 


Hobbima 


. . Flemish . 


161 1 


1670 


A. Cuyp . 


. Dutch . 


1606 


1672 


A. Vander Velde . 


. . Ditto 


1638 


1672 


Salvator Rosa . 


. Neapolitan 


161S 


1673 


Rembrandt . 


. . Dutch . 


1606 


1674 


Gerard Douw . 


..Ditto . 


1613 


1680 


Sir Peter Lely 


. . German 


1617 


1680 


Mieris 


. Dutch . 


163s 


1681 


Ruysdael 


. . Ditto . 


1636 


1681 


Claude Lorraine 


. French . . 


1600 


1682 


Ostade . 


. . Dutch . 


1610 


1685 


Murillo 


. Spanish 


1613 


1685 


Berghem 


. . Dutch . 


1624 


1685 


Carlo Dolci 


. Florentine . 


1616 


1686 


Wouvermans 


. . Dutch . 


1620 


1688 







School. 


Born. 


Died. 


Le Brun .... French . 


. 1619 


1690 


Teniers, juni-. 


. . Flemish 


. 1610 


1694 


W. Vander Velde 


. Dutch . 


• 1633 


1707 


Watteau 


. . French 


. i6»4 


1721 


Sir Godfrey Kneller . 


. German . 


. 1648 


1723 


Sir J. Thornhill . 


. . English 


1676 


1732 


Huysum . 


. Dutch . 


. 1682 


1749 


Hogarth 




. . EngUsh . 


• 1697 


1764 


Canaletti . 




. Venetian 


• 1697 


1768 


J. Mortimer . 




. . English . 


1739 


1779 


R. WUsou . 




. Ditto . 


1714 


1782 


Gainsboi-ough 




. . Ditto 


■ 1727 


1788 


Vernet 




. French 


1714 


1789 


Sir J. Reynolds 




. . English . 


1723 


1792 


Romney . 




. Ditto . 


1734 


1802 


Moreland 




. . Ditto 


1764 


1804 


Barry 




. Ditto . 


1741 


1806 


Opie 




. . Ditto 


1 761 


1807 


Paul Sandby 




. Ditto . 


1725 


1809 


Bourgeois 




. . Ditto . 


1756 


1811 


Copley 




. Ditto . 


1738 


1815 


West 




. . Ditto 


1738 


1820 


H. Raeburn 




. Ditto . 


1786 


1823 


FuseU . 




. . Ditto 


1741 


1825 


David 




. French 


1748 


182s 


Lawrence 




. . English . 


1769 


1830 


Northcote . 




. Ditto . 


1746 


1831 


«hos. Stothard 




. . Ditto 


1755 


1834 


Beeohey 




. Ditto . 


1753 


1839 


Wm. Hilton 




. . Ditto 


1786 


1839 


Wilkie 




. Ditto . 


1785 


1841 


Haydon 




. . Ditto 


1786 


1846 


Collins 




. Ditto . 


1788 


1S47 


Etty . 




. . Ditto 


1787 


1849 


Turner 




. Ditto . 


177s 


1851 


Martin . 




. . Ditto 


1790 


1854 


Aug. Egg . 




. Ditto . 


i8i6 


1863 


Wm. Mulready 




. . Ditto . . 


1786 


1863 


H. Vernet . 




. French 




1863 


E. De la Croix 




. . Ditto . . 




1863 


Wm. Hunt 




. English 




1864 


D. Roberts . 


. . Ditto 


1796 


1864 


W. F. Withermgton . 


. Ditto . 


1786 


1865 


Clarkson Stansfield 


. . Ditto . . 


1798 


1867 


Sir E. Landseer 


. Ditto . 


1802 




E. W. Cooke . 


. . Ditto . . 


i8io 




D. MacUse 




.Ditto . 


i8ir 





PALACE COURT, see Marshalsea, and Green Cloth. 

PALACES, see Buckingham, St. James's, Parliament, Escurial, Tioilcries, St. Cloud, 
Versailles, &c. 

PALAEOGRAPHY, ancient wilting ; see Diplomatics. 

PAL.<EOLOGI, a family which reigned as emperors of the East from 1260 to 1453. 
George Palseologus raised Alexius Comnenus to the throne in loSi, and thei-eby founded his 
own family. Andrew, the last Palseologus, son of Thomas, ruler of tlie Morea, after the 
overthrow of his father, became a Mahometan at Constantinople about 1533. 

PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onia, beings), treats of the 
evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of geology {which see). 
Cuvier, Mautell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the present century, 
may be reckoned as fathers of this science. The Pahieontographical society, which publishes 
elaborate monographs of British organic remains, was founded in 1847. Professor Owen's 
" Palfeontology ■' was published in i860. " Nearly 40,000 species of animals and plants 
have been added to the Systema Naturse by palfeoutological research." Huxley. See Man. 



PAL 



542 



PAL 



PALiEOFOLIS, see Naples. 

PALATINATE of the Rhine, one of the seven ancient electorates of Germany. It 
was long united to Bavaria ; but was separated in 1294.— Frederic V., the elector palatine in 
1610, married in 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of England, and thus was an 
ancestor of queen Victoria ; see Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bohemia ; but 
lost all by his defeat by the Austrians at Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly ravaged 
by Tilly In 1622, and by the French in 1688.* The elector palatine, Charles Theodore, inherited 
Bavaria in 1778 ; since when the two electorates have been united ; see Bavaria. 

PALATINE. "William the conqueror made his nej)hew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count 
palatine of Chester with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward III. created the palatille of 
Lancaster, 1539 ; see Lancaster, duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely (963) and Durham were 
also made county palatines. The latter was vested in the crown in 1836. There is also 
mention made of the county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry VIII. c. 10, which then 
belonged to the archbishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth it was dissolved, and made 
part of the county of Northumberland. The palatinate jurisdiction of Durham was separated 
from the diocese, and vested in the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, 21 June, 1836. 

PAIjE, the name given to the part of Ireland colonised by the Eirglish — viz., parts 
of the counties of Louth, Dublin, Meath, and Kildare. Anglo-Irish rulers were termed 
lords of the pale. Their arbitrary exactions led to a royal commission of inquiry in 1537. 
The defection of the lords of the pale in 1641, was followed by a general insurrection, and 
the royal cause was ruined in 161 7. In 1652, Ireland was committed to the rule of four 
commissioners. 

PALERMO (N."W. Sicily), the ancient Panormus. It has been held by the Carthaginians, 
415 B.C. ; taken by the Romans, 254 B.C. ; by the Saracens, a.d. 832 ; and by the Normans, 
1072. Here Roger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. Palermo was the scene of the 
Sicilian Vespers {which see), 30 March, 1282. It suffered from earthquake in 1726 and 1740- 
The king Ferdinand resided at Palei'mo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples was ruled by Joseph 
Bonaparte and Joachim Murat. It revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II. 12 Jan. 
1848. It was attacked by general Filangieri, 29 March, 1849, and surrendered on 14 May. 
It was taken by Garibaldi, 6 June, i860. An insurrection against the abolition of the 
monastic establishments broke out in Palermo on 13 Sept. 1866, and was suppressed by the 
royal troops with much bloodshed ; order was restored by 22 Sept. 

PALESTINE, see Jews. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and re- 
taken from the 7th to the loth centuiy, and after being the scene of the wars of the 
Crusades (ichich see), and other conilicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman empire by 
Selim I. in 1516 ; see Bible (note). Holy Places, and Syria. 



Palestine was visited by the prince of Wales, 

March and April, 1862 

The Palestine exploration fund was founded 
by many eminent persons in 1865 ; at the 
first meeting the archbishop of York was in 
the chair . . . . .22 June, 1865 

By its means captain Wilson and a party 
left England for Palestine in Nov. 1865 ; they 
arrived at Damascus, Dec. 20 ; and in the 



following spring explored Jezreel, Nazareth, 
and many other parts of the Holy Land. 

The report was read, and further exploration 
recommended, 10, 11, July, 1867; which 
is going on under lieut. Warren 

Great exertions to support the undertaking 
were made by its friends, especially Mr. Geo. 
Grove, secretary of the Crystal Palace com- 
pany, in 



PALESTRO (N. Italy). Here the Sardinians defeated the Austrians, 30, 31 May, 1859. 

PALL, PALLIUM, in the Roman Church an ensign of dignity conferred by the pope 
upon archbishops. By a decretal of pope Gregory XL (about 1370), no archbishop could call 
a council, bless the chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or consecrate a bishop, till 
he had received his pall from the see of Rome. The pall was first worn by an Irish arch- 
bishop in 1 1 52, when Gelasius was recognised as primate of all Ireland. 

PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas, said to have fallen from heaven near the tent of 
Ilus, as he was building Ilium ; which the oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken 
so long as the Palladium was found within its walls. The Greeks are said to have 
obtained it by craft during the Trojan war, 11 84 B.C. ; but some writers assert, another 
statue was taken, and that the real Palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by 

* About 7000 of poor Protestants, from the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the 
French, arrived in England, and were encamped at Blackheath and CamberweU : a brief was granted to 
collect alms for them. Five hundred families went under the protection of the government to Ireland, 
and settled chiefly about Limerick, where parliament granted them 24,000?. for their support. Three 
thousand were sent to New York and Hudson's Bay ; but not having been received kindly, they went to 
Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of 
German and Swiss Protestants, who soon made this colony flourishing, 7 Anne, 1709. Anderson. 



PAL 



543 



PAL 



jEneas, 1183 B.C., and preserved by the Romans with the gi'eatest secresy in the temple of 
Yesta, and esteemed the destiny of Eonie. — Palladium is a rare metal, discovered in 
platinum ore by Dr. "Wollaston in 1803. 

PALLAS,* the planet, was discovered by Olbers, at Bremen, 28 March, i8o2.' 

PALLISER'S CHILLED SHOT, see Cannon. 

PALL MALL, a street near St. James's palace, London, is named from a French game 
at ball {jMillc-maille, being a wooden mallet), resembling the modern croquet, having i)een 
played there about 1621. Among eminent inhabitants were Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas 
Sydenham. 

PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION, t The resignation of the Aberdeen adminis- 
tration was announced i Feb. 1855, but Nearly all its members returned to office soon after 
under lord Palmerston, — lord Derby and lord John Russell having each in vain endeavoured 
to form an administration. On 22 Feb. Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. Sidney 
Herbert resigned on account of the Sebastopol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned 13 July. 
Lord Canning was appointed governor-general of India, 4 July, 1855. This cabinet resigned 
20 Feb. 1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon it for introducing the Foreign Con- 
spiracy bill, and was succeeded by the Derby administration (which see). 



First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmer- 
ston. 

Lord chancellor, lord Cranworth. 

President of the council, earl Granville. 

Lord 'privy seal, dxike of Argyll ; next earl of Har- 
rowby ; afterwards the marquess of Clanricarde. 

Secretaries — home, sir George Grey ; foreign, earl of 
Clarendon ; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned 
Feb. 22) ; afterwards lord J. R\issell (resigned 
July 13) ; sir William Molesworth (died 22 Oct. 
185s); next, Henry Labouchere ; war, lord Pan- 
mure. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, W. Gladstone (resigned 
22 Feb.) ; next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 



First lord of the admiralty, sir .James Graham (re- 
signed 22 Feb.) ; next sir Charles Wood. 

Board of control, sir Chaiies Wood ; next, R. Vernon 
Smith. 

Public works, sir Wm. Molesworth; next, sir B. Hall 
(appointed 22 July, 1855). 

Postmasti r-general, viscount Canning (appointed go- 
vernor-general of India, 4 July) ; next, duke of 
Argyll. 

President of the board of trade, lord Stanley of Al- 
derley. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, without office. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, earl of Harrowby ; 
next, M. T. Baines (appointed 24 Nov. 1855). 



PALMERSTON-RUSSELL ADMINISTRATION. The second Derby administration 
(which see) resigned 11 June, 1859. Earl Granville was requested by the queen to form an 
administration, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, but not of lord John Russell : 
the two last then agreed to form a cabinet, which came into office 18 June, 1859. On the 
decease of lord Palmerston, 18 Oct. 1865, earl Russell became premier ; see Russell. 



First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 

Lord high cha-dccllnr, John lord Campbell (died 23 
June, 1861) ; succeeded by sir Richard Bethell, 
made lord Westbury, who resigned 4 July, 1865 ; 
succeeded by lord Cranworth. 

Lord president of the council, earl Granville. 

Lord 'privy seal, duke of Argyll. 

Secretaries — foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards 
earl) Russell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; suc- 
ceeded by Edward Cardwell, 8 April, 1864 ; home, 
Kir G. Cornewall Lewis ; succseded by sii- George 
Grey ; zoar, Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert ; 
succeeded by sir G. C. Lewis (died 13 April, 1863), 
and by earl de Grey (r May) ; India, sir Charles 
Wood. 



Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 
First lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. 
President of the board of trade, Thos. Jlilner Gibson. 

[This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and de- 
clined by him] 
Sea-etary of state for Ireland, Edward Cardwell; suc- 
ceeded by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 
Chancellor of the ducky of Lancaster, sir George Grey, 

bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell ; and by 

earl Clarendon, 8 April, 1864. 
Postmaster-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to Chuia 

in April, i860) ; (succeeded by lord Stanley of Ai- 

derley, appointed Sept. i860. 
Poor-laio board, T. Milner Gibson ; succeeded by 

Charles P. Villiers (9 July, i860). 



PALM-SUNDAY. "When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, multitudes 
of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm-tree, 
and went forth to meet him, with acclamations and hosannas, 33. It is usual, in some 
countries, to caiTy palms on the Sundaj"- before Easter, hence called Palm-Sunday. 

PALMYRA (Syria). Rome was supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilderness 
built by Solomon, but was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of the history of Palmyra 
was under Odenatus and his queen Zenobia. At the death of Odenatus, Zenobia assumed 

* It is distant from the sun about 263 millions of miles, and completes its revolution in four years 
seven months and one-third of a month. Sohroeter, a German astronomer, estimated its diameter to be 
2099 mUes, and consequently nearly the size of our moon. It presents a ruddy aspect, and is sun-ounded 
with a nebulosity. It is distinguished from all the other planets by the very great inclination of its orbit 
to the plane of the ecliptic, which is no less than 34° 35'. 

t Henry John Temple was bom, 20 Oct. 1784; was edticated at Harrow, Edinbm-gh, and Cambridge; 
succeeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became M.P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1S07; 
was secretary-at-war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign affairs, Nov. 1830-34, April 1835 to Sept. 1841, and 
July 1846 to Dec. 1851 ; and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March 1855, when he became first lord of the 
treasury. He was created lord warden of the cinque ports, 31 JIarch, 1861 ; and master uf the corporation 
of the Trinity house, 16 June, 1S62. He sat for Tiverton, 1S35-65. He died 18 Oct., and was buried in 
Westminster abbey, 27 Oct. 1865. 



PAM 544 PAN 

the title of queen of the East, in 267. Aurelian defeated her at Emesa, in 272, and made 
her captive, 273, and killed Longinns, the philosopher, her friend. Palmyra is now in- 
habited by a few Arab families. The ruins were visited in 1751, by Mr. Wood, who pub- 
lished an account of them in 1753. Mr. Dawkins and Mr. Bruce also visited Palmyra. 

PAMPELUNA {N. E. Spain, taken by the French on their invasion of Spain), was 
invested by the British, between Avhom and the French obstinate conflicts took place, 27 and 
29 July, 1813. It surrendered to the British, 31 Oct. in that j'car. 

PAMPHLETS. Tlieir first appearance amongst us is generally thought to have been in 
opposition to the church of Kome. Those who were first convinced of the reasonableness of 
the "new learning," as it was then called, propagated their opinions in small pieces, cheaply 
printed, and (what was then of great importance) easily concealed. Political pamphlets 
began in Edward VI. 's time, and were very numwous in the 17th century. Large collec- 
tions are in the libraries of the British Museum and the Royal and London Institutions. 

PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two Americas ; see Barien. Across this a ship 
canal has been proposed (see Biohuer- Clayton treaty) : and a railway was opened in 1855. 
In that year a new state. New Granada, was divided into eight federal states, one of which 
is named Panama. A revolution took place in Panama, on 9 March, 1865 ; the govern- 
ment was deposed, and don Jil Colunje became president ; succeeded by Vincent Olarte, 
I Oct. 1866. 

PAN- ANGLICAN SYNOD, the popular name of a conference of 75 bishops, British, 
colonial, and American, who met at Lambeth-palace 24-27 Sept. 1867. They issued an 
address, published their resolutions, of a very general character, and formally closed their 
conference on 10 Dec. 

PANDECTS, a digest of the civil law, made by order of Justinian, 533. It is stated 
that a copy of these Pandects was discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 1137 ; removed from 
Pisa in 141 5, and preserved in the library of the Medici at Florence, as the Fa7idectce 
Florentince. 

PANDOSIA (Bruttium, S. Italy). Here Alexander, king of Epirus, was defeated and 
slain by the Bruttians, 326 B.C. Laevinus, the Roman consul, was defeated at Pandosia, 
in Lucania, by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 280 B. c, 

PANE AS or Panius (Syria). Here Antiochus the Great defeated Scopas, the Egyptian 
general, and his Greek allies, 198 B.C. 

PANICS, Commercial, generally the result of over-speculation ; see Bubbles, South Sea, 
Law's. 

Through French war : government issued Through railway mania . ... Oct. 1847 

5,000,000^ exchequer bills .... 1793 Through American failures . . . Nov. 1857 

Through Irish rebellion, &c. (3 per cents, at Through fear of European war . . April, 1S59 

44I) •' . 1797 Through over-speculation in limited liability 

Through bubble companies, 770 banks stopped companies May, 1866 

winter 1825-6 

PANNONIA, part of lUyria, now Hungary, was finally subdued by Tiberius, a.d. 8. 

PANOPTICON OF Science and Art, in Leicester-square, erected in 1852-3 for a char- 
tered company, by Mr. T. H. Lewis, the architect ; was opened in 1854 for lectures, musical 
performances, &c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery, &c. The spec^^lation did 
not succeed ; the building was sold in 1857, and in Feb. 1858, was opened for concerts and 
horsemanship, and called the Alhambra. 

PANORAMAS, invented by Robert Barker, are bird's-eye views painted round the wall 
of a circular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, the first 
picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in London, having adopted 
the neime ' ^ Panorama,'^ and was ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in 
Leicester-square for that purpose. He died in April, 1806. 

PANORMUS, see Palermo. 

PANTAGRAPH (from the Greek panta, aU things, and graphein, to write, and incor- 
rectly termed Pentagraph), an instrument for copying, reducing, or enlarging plans, &c., 
invented by Christopher Scheiuer, about 1603, and improved by professor "Wallace, and 
called "Eidograph," about 1821. 

PANTHEISM, the formula of which is "everything is God, and God is one," was 
especially taught by Xenophanes, who died 500 b. c. The doctrine is attributed to Spinoza, 
Kant, Fichte, and other modern philosophers. 

PANTHEON, at Rome, a circular temple built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, 27 
B. c. It had niches in the Avail, where the image or representation of a particular god was set up ; 
the gates brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver. Pope 



PAIT 545 PAP 

Bonifaco III. dedicated it to the Virgin Maiy and all tlie saints, by the name of S. Maria 
della Rotouda, or "ad Martyres," a.d. 608. — The Pantheon in London was erected by 
subscription, and opened 25 Jan. 1772 ; formed into an opera house ; burnt down 14 Jan. 
1792 ; rebuilt in 1795 and 1812 ; made a bazaar in 1834. The bazaar was closed in 1867, 
and the premises taken by Gilbey and Co. , wine-merchants, who lent the S. part for a tem- 
porary church. 

PANTOGEN, seeAtoinic Theory/. 

PANTOMlilES Avere representations by gestures and attitudes among the ancients, and 
were introduced on the Eoman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus, 22 B.C. Comic masques 
were introduced here from Italy about 1700. The first regular English pantomime is said to 
have been "Harlequin executed," produced by Eich at the Lincoln' s-iun-helds theatre, 
26 Dec. 1 71 7. 

"PAPAL AGGEESSIOK" In a consistory holdcn in Rome, 30 Sept. 1850, the pope 
(Pius IX.) named fourteen new car-dinals, of whom four only were Italians. Among the ten 
foreignei's was Dr. Wiseman, vicar-apostolic of the London district, who was at the same time 
nominated lord archbishop of Westminster. On 27 Oct. following, Dr. Ullathorne was enthroned 
as Eoman catholic bishop of Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral in that town. The same 
day a pastoral letter from Dr. Wiseman was read in all the Eoman catholic chapels of his 
see ; and on its becoming generally known that all England had been parcelled out into 
Romish diocest^s, the strongest indignation Avas expressed throughout the empire.* The 
answer of the bishop of Loudon (Dr. Blomfield) to a memorial from the protestant clergy of 
Westminster, against a Romish hierarchy in this country, was followed by the " Durham" 
letter from lord John Russell, then chief minister of the ci'own (4 ISTov. ), to the bishop of 
Durham, in which he severely censured not only the papal aggression, but also the proceed- 
ings of the tractarian clergy of the Church of England ; and immediately from every quarter 
of England addresses poured into her majesty the C[ue8n, calling upon her and the govern- 
ment to resist the usurpation. As many as 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted from 
nearly as many influential meetings up to 31 Dec. 1850. The Ecclesiastical Titles bill, 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 60 (Aug. 1851), prohibited the constitution of bishops of pretended pro- 
vinces under a penalty of 100/., which has not yet been acted upon ; a committee reported 
in favour of its repeal, 2 Aug. 1867. 

PAPAL STATES, see Borne, and Popes. 

PAPER, see Pcqnjrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China, 170 B.C. It was 
first made of cotton about A.D. 1000; and of rags about 1300.^ White coarse paper was 
made b)'' sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in England, 33 Eliz. 1590 ; and here the 
first paper mills were erected. Stoio. Paper for writing and printing manufactured in 
England, and an act passed to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690 ; before this time we paid for 
these articles to France and Holland ioo,oooZ. annually. The French refugees taught our 
people ; we had made coarse brown paper almost exclusively, until they came among us ; 
we made wliite paper first in 1690. Aoiderson. Paper-making by a machine was suggested by 
Louis Robert, who sold his model to Didot, the great printer, who brought it to England, and, 
conjointly with Fourdrinier, perfected the machinery. The latter obtained a patent for 
imper-making machinery in 1801 ; and for manufacturing paper of an indefinite length in 
1807. The machinery was improved by Bryan Donkin. A sheet of papei', 13,800 feet long, 
and 4 feet wide, was made at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830 ; and one 21,000 feet 
long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, Avas made at Colyton in Devon in i860. The paper duty, 
imposed in 1694 (producing, latterly, about 1,400,000^. annually), after having been the 
subject of agitation for several years, Avas repealed in 1S61. Esparto, a Spanish grass, first 
imported in 1857, has been largely employed in the paper manufacture since 1864. In 1866 
Avood was largely manufactured into paper at Philadelj^hia ; and at the Paris exhibition, 
1867, fine specimens of Avood-paper were shown ; see Parchment (note). 

PAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped paper for this purpose Avas first made in Spain and 
Holland about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for hanging apartments, about 1620. The 
manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this country during the present 

* Among other consecrations that followed, and continued the excitement, was that of Dr. Briggs, 
created Romun catholic bishop uf Beverley, and enthroned in St. George's chajDel at York, 13 Feb 1851 ; 
Dr. Browne creared i ishop of Clifton, and Dr. Burgess bishop of Shrewsbury: both consecrated ia St. 
George's cathoilral, Southwark, 27 July, 1851 ; and other priests were similarly raised to new Roman 
catholic prelacies. 

t Mi\ Joseph Hunter Cin the Arch anlogia, xxxvii.) states that the earliest paper which he h.id seen 
was a MS. acciunt-book, dated i3o'2, probably of Bordeaux manufacture. He gives engravings of manu- 
facturers' marV's, Frunch and English, the dates of which range Irom 1330 to 1431. He also gives an 
extract from a wui-k by Bartholns, a wi-iter of the middle of the 14th centuiy, in which mention is made 
of a paper manufactory in the Marches of Ancona. 

N N 



TAP 



546 



PAR 



century. — Pater Bricks liavelDeen made in America ; and paper tubing for water and gas, 
made by M. Jaloureau of Paris, was shown in i860. 

PAPER-MONEY, see Banks. 

PAPIEPi. MACHE. This manufacture (of paper-pulp comlDined with gum and sometimes 
china clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German snuff-box maker, is said to 
have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it was taken up by Baskerville, 
the printer at P)irmingham, and soon spread over that district. Papier mach^ is noAV largely- 
employed in ornamenting the interior of buildings, &c. 

PAPUA, see Ncio Guinea. 

PAPYPiUS, the reed from which was made the paper of Egypt and India, used for 
writings until the discovery of parchment, about 190 B.C. Ptolemy prohibited the exporta- 
tion of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a library equal to that of 
Alexandria, 263 B.C. Many Papyri were discovered at Herculaneum in 1754; and many 
were collected by the French in Egypt, 1798. A manuscript of the Antiquities of Josephus 
on papyrus, among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National 
Library at Paris, was restored in 18 15. 

PARABLE, see Fable. 

PARACHUTE, see Balloons, 1785, 1802. 

PARACLETE (Greek for comforter), a name given by Abelard to the convent wliich he 
founded in Cliampagne in 1122, of which Heloise became the first abbess. 

PARADISE LOST, the great English epic by John Milton, appeared first in ten books 
in 1667 ; in twelve books in 1674. 

PARAFFINE (from loarum affinis, having little affinity with anything), also called 
photogen, a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, prod\iced by distillation of coal, and 
first obtained by Reichenbach in 1830. It was procured from mineral oil by Mr. James 
Yoimg about 1847, and is also obtained from Irish peat. It makes excellent candles. 
Much litigation ensued through interference with Mr. Young's patent-right. 

PARAGUAY, a republic in S. America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526 ; and 
conquered by Alvarez Nunez in 1535, and civilised by the Jesuits, who in 1608 commenced 
their missions there and established an exclusive government, which they lield till their 
expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in iSii. In 1814 Dr. Francia 
was elected dictator ; he ruled well ; he was succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 
1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The president, C. A. Lopez, 
elected in 1844, was succeeded by his son, Francis S. Lopez, Sept. 1862. Paraguay was 
recognised as an independent state by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, and by Great 
Britain in 1853. Population in 1857, 1,337,431. 



Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil l3egan 
when a Brazilian steamer was captured as an 
intruder on the Paraguay . .11 Nov. 

Brazil invaded in December .... 

Lopez invaded the territories of the Argentine 
republic, which immediately made alliance 
with Brazil 14 April, 



The army of Lopez defeated . . . Sept. 1865 
The allies captured Uruguyana and an army of 

Paraguayans 18 Oct. „ 

Three Brazilian ironclads force the passage of ' 
Humaita, on the Paraguay, 17 Feb. ; a strong 
redoubt stormed . . . -19 Feb. 1868 
[For details of war, see Brazil, 1865-7.] 



PARASOLS were used by the ancient Egyptians. In their present form (said to have 
been devised by the duchess of Rutland) they came into general use about 1820. 

PARC AUX CERES, a deer-park at Yersailles, near Paris, made by Louis XII., and 
kept as such till 1694, when Louis XI Y. took the land for building. The name was given 
to a house erected on it by Madame Pompadour to form a seraglio for Louis XY. in 1755. 
It was closed by Madame Du Barry in 1771. 

PARCHMENT.* Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attains), of 
Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the 
Alexandrian, about 190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became those most used, and 
the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. It should 
be mentioned that the Persians and others are said to have written all their records on skins 
long before Eumenes' time. 

PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations : first by Edward III. in 

_ * Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented and patented in 1857, by Mr. W. E. 
Gaine, C. E., who discovered, that when pax^er is exposed to a mixture of two parts of concentrated sul- 
phuric acid and one part of water for no longer time than is required to draw it through the fluid, it is 
immediately converted into a strong tough skin-like material. It must be instantly washed with water. 
Its great strength points out many applications of this material, e.g., maps, school and account-books, and 
drawing-paper. In 1859 it appeared that a similar invention had been made in Paris by Figuier and Pou- 
marfede in 1S46. 



PAR 



547 



PAR 



1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege, siuc dignitatis; and no 
other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. I535' Blackstonc. 
A pardon cannot follow an impeachment of the house of commons : stat. WUl. III. 1700. 

PARGA, a city in European Turkey : retained its civic independence under the pro- 
tection of Venice till 1797, when that state was conquered by the French. Irresisted 
various attempts to capture it ; and in 1806 was garrisoned by Russians. It was given up to 
the French in 1807 ; taken by the English, 22 March, 1814 ; surrendered to the Turks, 
1817 ; and abandoned by above 3000 of its inhabitants, who retired to the Ionian Isles, 
May, 1 8 19. 

PARIAN" MARBLES (containing a chronology of ancient Greece, said to have been 
composed about 264 B.C.) were discovered in the island of Paros, 1610. They were brought 
to England in 1627, and were presented to the university of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, 
lord Arundel, whence they are called the Arundelian Marbles {toliich see). Their authen- 
ticity has been impugned, Tjut vindicated satisfactorily. 

PARIS (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the capital of France, situated on the river Seine, 
•which cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being towards the north, and in which 
are three isles, la ville (the eity), the Ue St. Loicis, and the Ue Louviers. In the time of Julius 
Cresar, Lutetia comprised the city only. It was greatly improved by the emperor Julian, 
who made it his residence while he governed Gaul, "355 to 361. It became successively 
the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, Soissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the 
kingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held at Paris. The representative of the house 
of Orleans, styled count of Paris, now resides in England. Population of Paris in 1856, 
1,178,262; in i860, 1,525,535 ; see France. 

francs were voted, 1833) commenced 15 Dec. 
1S40; completed .... March, 1846 

Revolution (see France) . . .22 Feb. 1S48 

Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (pro- 
bable cost 12,800,000?.) .... 1853-62 

Industrial exUiOUion opened by the emperor 
and empress, 15 May; visited by queen Vic- 
toria and prince Albert (the first visit of an 
English sovereign to Paris since 1422),^ 24 
Aug. ; exhibition closes . . .15 ^oy. 1855 

Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian 
PrmciiDaUties (wliich see) ; closes . . Aug. 1858 

Bois du Boulogne opened as a garden of accli- 
matisation 6 Oct. i860 

A buUding was erected for a permanent indus- 
trial exhibition bv a company . . Oct. 1862 

The scheme failed ' • Feb. 1864 

Boulevard-prince-Eugene opened by the em- 
peror 7 Dec. 1862 

Decree for an international exhibition of the 
products of agriculture, industry, and the 
fine arts, at Paris, in 1867 ; commissioners 
appointed 21 Feb. 1864 

Estimated population, 1,700,000 . - Sept. 1866 

The cathedral of Notre Dame and other build- 
ings restored in >> 

iNTERNATioiq-AL EXHIBITION ou the Champ de 
Mars (with a ne w park, comprising more than 
100 acres) ; the oblong building designed by 
Leplay (enclosing 35 acres), 1245 feet wide, 
1500 feet long, consisting of circles within 
circles ; the external coiTidor was a belt of 
iron, 85 feet high and 115 feet wide ; opened 
by the emperor and empress . . i April, 1867 

It was visited by the prince of Wales, the kings 
of Greece.'Belgium, Prussia, and Sweden, the 
czar of Russia, the viceroy of Egypt, the sul- 
tan of Turkey, the emperor of Austria, and 
other inferior potentates . . May-Nov. „ 

Attempted assassination of the czar by Bere- 
zowski, a Pole 6 June, „ 

The czar and the king of Prussia entertained 
by M. Hausraann, prefect of Paris (cost 
36,000?.) 8 June, ,, 

Departure of the czar, 11 June ; of the king of 
Prussia 14 June, „ 

Distribution of prizes to exhibitors by the em- 
peror in the presence of the prince of Wales, 

the Sultan, &c i July ,, 

N N 2 



Clovis makes Paris his residence, about . . 508 

St. Denis founded 613 

Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes), 84s, 

855, 861 ; suffered from famine . . . 845-940 
Gallantly defended against the Danes by the 
count Eudes and the bishop Goslin . . 885 

Rebuilt 1231 

University founded, about 1200 

Church of Notre Dame built . . . 1160-1270 
The parliament established .... 1302 
Suffers by the factions of the Armagnacs and 

Burguudians 1411-1418 

Taken by the English 1420 

Retaken by the French 1436 

Pont Notre Dame built 1499 

The Louvre commenced (see Louvre) . . . 1522 

Hotel de Ville founded 1533 

The Boulevards commenced 1536 

Fountain of the Innocents 1551 

The Tuileries begun (see Tuileries). . . . 1564 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew's . . 24 Aug. 1572 

The Pont Neuf begun 1578 

Vainly besieged by Henry IV. . . . 1589-90 

Entei'ed by him March, 1594 

Hospital of Invalids 1595 

Place Royale begun 1604 

The Hotel-Dieu founded 1606 

The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis . . . 1615 
The Palais-Royal b\iilt . . . . . 1629 

The Val-de-Grace 1645 

Conflicts of the Fronde .... 1648-53 
Royal palace at Versailles built ; the court re- 
moved there 1661-72 

The Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1666 
The Observatory established .... 1667 

Champs Elysees planted 1670 

Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 

Palais d'Elysee Bourbon buUt . . . . 1718 

The Palace of the Deputies 1722 

The Mihtary School 1751 

The Pantheon, St. Genevifeve, founded . . 1764 
The French revolution breaks out ; the Bastile 

taken 14 July, 1789 

Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 

Cemetery of Pfere la Chaise consecrated . . 1804 
Pont des Invalides, (fee, erected . . . . 1806 
Paris surrenders to the allies . 30 March, 1814 

Paris lit with gas 1819 

Revolution (see France) .... July, 1830 
Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of 



PAR 



548 



PAE 



PARIS, conUmLcd. 

Berezowski condemned to transportation for 

life IS July, 18 

Visit of the emperor of Austria . 23 Oct. -5 Nov. , 
Grand banquet to commissioners of interna- 
tional exhibition 26 Oct. , 



Exhibition finally closed (instead of on 31 Oct.) 

Sunday, 3 Nov. 1867 
AbbSMign^'sgreatprinting-offioebmnt i2Peb. 1868 
See France. 



LATE GREAT TREATIES OF PARIS. 



Between England, France, Spain, and Portu- 
gal ; cession of Canada to Great Britain by 
France, and Florida by Spain . . 10 Feb. 

Between France and Sardinia ; the latter ced- 
ing Savoy, &c 15 May, 

Between Prance and Sweden, whereby Swedish 
Pomerania and the island of Rugen were 
given up to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt 
the French prohibitory system against Great 
Britain 6 Jan. 

Capitulation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the 
sovereignty of France . . .11 April, 

Convention of Paris, between France and the 

allied powers ; the boundaries of France to 

be the same as on the ist of January, 1792, 

23 April, 

Peace of Paris ratified by France and all the 
allies 14 May, 

Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal Da- 
voust, and Wellington, and Blucher, for the 
surrender of Paris . . . . 3 July, 
[The allies entered it on the 6th.] 

Treaity of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, 



1763 
1796 



Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the 
prisoner of those powers, and confiding his 
safeguard to England . . . .2 Aug. 

Establishing the boundaries of Prance, and 
stipulating for the occupation of certain for- 
tresses by foreign troops for three years 

20 Nov. 

Treaty of Paris, confirmingthe treaties of Chau- 
mont and Vienna, same day . 20 Nov. 

Treaty of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Con- 
gress of Vienna . . . .10 June, 

Trt-aty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, 
England, France, and Sardinia . 30 March, 

Treaty of Paris between England and Persia, 

4 March, 

Treaty of Paris between the European powers, 
Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neuf- 
chatel 26 May 

Important commercial treaty between France 
and England 23 Jan. 

Convention between France and Italy for with- 
drawal of French troops from Rome 15 Sept. 



1815 



1857 



PARISHES. Their boundaries in England were first fixed by Honorius, arcbbisbop of 
Canterbury, 636. They were enlarged, and the number of parishes was consequently 
reduced in the 15th century, when there were 10,000. The parishes of England and Wales 
now amount to 11,077. Parish registers were commenced in 1538. By an act passed in 
1856 new parishes may be formed out of too extensive ones ; see Registers, and Benefices. 

PARKESIJSTE. A new substance, composed of gun-cotton, obtained from vaiious vege- 
table bodies, and oil. It can be formed with the properties of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, 
india-rubber, gutta-percha, &c. It is the invention of Mr. Alexander Parkes, of Birming- 
ham, and was shown by him at the Exhibition in 1862. In Dec. 1865, at the Society of 
Arts, Parkesine was proved to be an excellent electric insulator, and therefore likely to be 
suitable for telegraphic purposes. 

PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and 
Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first great park of which parti- 
cular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125. Queen Caroline, 
consort of George II., inquired, it is said, of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham), 
how much it would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, ' ' Three 
crowns, your majesty." The design was never afterwards entertained ; see Green, Hyde, 
James's, St., Regcnfs, Victoria, Battersea, Alexandra, SMdi People's Parks. 

PARK'S TRAVELS. Mungo Park set sail on his first voyage to Africa, under the 
patronage of the African Society, to trace the source of the river Niger, 22 IMay, 1 795 ; and 
returned 22 Dec. 1797, after having encountered great danger, without his journey through 
intertropical regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. He 
again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, 30 Jan. 1804, appointed to a new 
expedition by government ; but never returned. The accounts of his murder at Broussa on 
the Niger were a long time discredited ; but at length were too well authenticated. 

PARLIAMENT (from the French, parlement, discourse) derives its origin from the Saxon 
general assemblies, called Wittenageniot. The name was applied to the general assemblies of 
the state under Louis VII. of France, about the middle of the 12th century, but it is said 
not to have appeared in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edw. I. 
1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same efi"ect, when speaker 
(1592), that this name was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, J041. The 
first clear account we have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, 
was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve 
persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three parliaments, which, by the 
sixth statute, were to be held yearly. Burton's Annals. The general representation by 
knights, citizens, and burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. Dugdale's Swnmons to 
Parliament, edit. 1685 ; see Commons, and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- 
ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or 



PAR 



549 



PAR 



persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and imcontrollable authority in making and 
repealing laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done in 
the reigus of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the religion of the 
country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Sir 
Ediuard Coke* The fourth edition of JMay's "Practical Treatise on Parliament" wa.s 
published in 1859 ; see Triennial and SeiMnnial. 



First summous of barons, by writ directed to 
ttie bishof) of Salisbury, by John . . . 1205 

Parliament of Merton 1236 

The assembly of knights and burgesses. Bm-ton 1258 

First assemljly of tlie commons as a confirmed 
representation. DugdaXe . . .20 Jan. 1265 

First regular parliament according to many 
historians, 22 Edw. 1 1294 

First a deliberate assembly, they become a 
legislative power, whose assent is essential to 
constitute a law 1308 

The commons elect their first speaker, Peter De 
la Mere 1377 

Parhament of only one day, Richard II. deposed, 

29 Sept. 1399 

" Parliameii'.um Indoctum" at Coventiy (lawyers 
excluded) 1404 

Members were obliged to reside at the places 
they represented 1413 

Forty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights 1429 

'''' Parlio-iiimdam diiiboUciiiii" at Coventry: at- 
tamted the Yorkists 

The journals of tne lords commenced . . . 

Acts "//j«)'i'aiiie/it printed in 1501, and consecu- 
tively from 

Members protected from arrest (see Ferrars) . 

Journals of the commons begun 

Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford, Was 
the first peer's eldest son who sat in the house 
of commons 1549 

The eddied Paiiiament ; remonstrated with 
James I. respecting benevolences ; dissolved 
by him in anger 

The parliament in which were first formed the 
Court and Country parties, 1614, disputes with 
James I. June, 

Charles I dissolves parhament, which does not 
meet for eleven years 1629 

The Lony Farliament (which voted the house of 
lords as uselessj first assembled . 3 Nov. 1640 

The bishops excluded from voting on temporal 
matters ,, 

Tlic Rtiiiip Parliament ; it voted the trial of 
Charles I. Jan. 1649 

A peer elected and sat as a member of the house 
of commons , , 

Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parlia- 
ment . . . . . . .20 April, 1653 

A convention parliament (see Convention) . . 1660 

Roman cathohcs excluded from parliament . 1678 

The commons committed a secretary of state to 
tlie Tower ...... Nov. ,, 

The speaker of the.commons refused by the king 1679 

A coavention parliament (.see Conveniioii) . . 1688 

James II. convenes the Irish parliament at 
Diiohn, which attaints 3000 protestants . 1689 

Act for triennial parliament (see Triennial) . 1694 

First parhament of Great Britain met 23 Oct. 1707 



1459 
1509 

1509 
1542 
1547 



1614 



1620 



Members of the house of commons accepting 
any office of profit ordered to be re-elected, 
by statute 6 Anne. cap. 7 . . . . 

The Triennial act repealed, and Septennial act 
voted (see SeptenmaA Parliament) . 7 May, 

The journals ordered to be printed . 

Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the ser- 
vants of members relinquished by the com- 
mons 

The lord mayor of London (Ohver) and alder- 
man Ci'osby committed to the Tower by the 
commons in Wilkes' affair .... 

Reporting the debates permitted . . about 

Assembly of the first parliament of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 

2 Feb. 

Sir F. Burdett committed to the Tower, 

6 April, 

Murder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellingham, at 
the house of commons . . .11 May, 

Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Con- 
nell, the first Roroan catholic commoner 
elected since the Revolution . 5 July, 

The duke of Norfolk took his seat in the loids, 
the first Roman catholic peer under the Re- 
\ie{ hili (see Roman Catholics) . 28 April, 

The Reformed parliament meet . 7 Aug. 

E. Pease, the first Quaker admitted on his affir- 
mation 15 Feb. 

Houses of parliament destroyed by fire, 16 Oct. 

New houses of parliament commcncedt . . 

The members of the conimons' and lords' houses 
relinquish the privilege of franking letters 
{see Franking) ..... 10 Jan. 

Committal of Smith O'Brien by the commons 
for contempt (see Ireland) . . 20 July, 

The peers took possession of their house, that 
portion of the palace being ready 15 April, 

The commons assemble in their new house, 

4 Nov. 

The chairman of committees of the whole 
house appointed to act as a deputy-speaker 
of the house of commons . . Aug. 

The tv?o houses began to communicate by letter 

Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted, 

26 July, 

Court of referees to examine private bills es- 
tablished 

Heury Fawcett (blind), elected M.P. July, 

The parliamentary oaths modified and made 
uniform 30 April, 

Arthur M. Kavanagh (without arms and legs), 
elected Nov. 

Her Majesty authorised to proclaim proroga- 
tion of parliament during the recess by act 
passed 12 Aug. 

New Reform bill received royal assent 15 Aug. 

Great dissatisfaction in the commons at the 



1716 
1752 



1770 
1771 

1 801 
1810 

1812 



1829 
1832 

1833 
1834 
1840 



1847 

1852- 



1853 
i8ss 



186s 
1 865 

1867 



* When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the clerk says "Leroi le veut." If the bill be a 
private bill he says " Soitfaitcomme il est ddsirc." If the bill have subsidies for its objact, he says, " Le roi 
■remercie ses loyaux sujets, accepie leiir hdnevolence, et auisi le veut." If the king do not think proper to assent 
to the bill, the clerk says, "Leroi s'avisera," which is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is singular 
that, the sovereign of England should still make use of the French Language to declare her intentions to 
ner parhament. 

t Tcimeathe " Palace of Westminster. " The first contract for the emb,ankment of the river was taken 
in 1837, by Messrs. Lee ; this embankment, faced with granite, is 886 feet in length, and projected into the 
river in a line with the inner side of the third pier of old Westminster-bridge. Sir Charles Barry (bom 
1795, died i860) was the architect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised since 1840. The whole stands 
on a bed of concrete twelve feet thick ; to the east it has a front of about 1000 feet, and covers an area of 
nine statute acres. It contains 1 100 apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or comdors. 
The great Victoria tower at the south-west extremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of less magnitude 
crown other jjortions of the building. 



PAR 



550 



PAR 



PARLIAMENT, continued. 

smallness of building for the then house ; a 
committee's I'eport (proposing changes or a 
new house) printed .... Oct. 



Changes in mode of dealing with private biUs 
in court of referees . . . March, 

Vote by proxy in the house of lords abolished 
by standing order ... 31 March, 



NUMBER AND DUEATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM 27 EDW. I. I299, TO 28 VICT. 1865. 



Edward 1 8 pari 

Edward II. ... 15 , 

Edward III 37 , 

Richard II 26 , 

Henry IV 10 , 



m S yrs. reign. 
20 ,, 
so „ 
22 ,, 

14 J. 



Henry V 11 pari, in 9 yrs. reign. 

Henry VI 22 >> 39 >> 

Edward IV. . . .5 ,,22 ,, 

Richard III i ,, 2 ,, 

Henry VII. . . .8 ,,24 



lleign. 


Day of Meeting. 


W'lien Dissolved. 


lleign. 


Day of Meeting, 


■When Dissolved. 


Henev VIII. . 


21 Jan. . 


1510 


23 Feb. . 


iSio 


James II. 


19 May . 1685 


22 July . 1687 




4 Feb. . 


1511 


4 March 


1513 




22 Jan. . 1689 


6 Feb. . 1690 




5 Feb. . 


1514 


22 Dec. . 


1515 


William III. . 


20 March 1690 


II Oct. . 169s 




IS April . 


1523 


13 Aug. . 


1523 




22 Nov. . 169s 


7 July . 1698 




3 Nov. . 


1530 


4 April . 


1536 




9 Deo. . 1698 


19 July . 1700 




8 June . 


1536 


18 July . 






10 Feb. . 1701 


II Nov. . 1 701 




28 April . 


1539 


24 July . 


1540 


Anne. . . . 


30 Dec. . ,, 


2 July . 1702 




16 Jan. . 


1541 


29 March 


1544 




20 Oct. . 1702 


S April . 1 70s 




12 April. 










25 Oct. . 1705 


II April. 1708 




23 Nov. . 


154s 


28 Jan. . 


1547 




18 Nov. . 1708 


28 Sept. . 1710 


Edward VI. . 


4 Nov. . 


1547 


IS April . 


1552 




25 Nov. . 1710 


8 Aug. . 1713 




I March 


ISS3 


31 March 


1553 




II Nov. . 1713 


IS Jan. . 171S 


Mary 


5 Oct. . 




6 Dec. . 




George I. 


21 March 1715 


10 March 1722 




5 April . 


I5S4 


5 May . 


I5S4 


J 


9 Oct. . 1722 


7 Aug. . 1727 




12 Nov. . 




16 Jan. . 


1555 


George II. 


28 Jan. . 1728 


18 April . 1734 




21 Oct. . 


I5SS 


9 Dec. . 






14 Jan. . 1735 


28 April . 1741 




20 Jan. . 


1558 


17 Nov. . 


1558 




4 Dec. . 1741 


18 June . 1747 


Elizabeth 


25 Jan. . 


1559 


8 May . 


1559 




10 Nov. . 1747 


8 April . I7S4 




12 Jan. . 


1563 


2 Jan. . 


1567 




14 Nov. . 1754 


21 March 1761 




2 April . 


1S71 


29 May . 


1571 


George III. . 


3 Nov. . 1761 


12 March 1768 




8 May . 


1572 








10 May . 1768 


30 Sept. . 1774 








IS Sept. . 


1586 




29 Nov. . 1774 


I Sept. . 1780 




29 Oct. . 


1586 


23 March 


1587 




31 Oct. . 1780 


25 March 1784 




4 Feb. . 


1589 


29 March 


1589 




18 May . 1784 


12 June . 1790 




19 Feb. . 


1593 


10 April . 


1593 




26 Nov. . 1790 


20 May . 1796 




24 Oct. . 


1597 


9 Feb. . 


1598 




6 Oct. . 1796 


29 June . 1802 




27 Oct. . 


1601 


19 Dec. . 


1 601 




i5 Nov. . 1802 


24 Oct. . 1806 


James I. . . 


19 March 


1604 


19 Feb. . 


1610 




IS Dec. . 1806 


29 April . 1807 




5 April. 


1614 


6 June . 


1614 




24 June . 1807 


29 Sept. . 1812 




30 Jan. . 


1621 


6 Jan. . 


1622 




24 Nov. . 1812 


10 June . 18 18 




29 Feb. . 


1624 


27 March 


1625 




14 Jan. . 1819 


29 Feb. . 1820 


Charles I. 


18 June . 


1625 


12 Aug. . 


1625 


George IV. 


27 April . 1820 


2 June . 1826 




6 Feb. . 


1626 


II June . 


1626 




14 Nov. . 1826 


24 July . 1830 




17 JIarch 


1628 


10 March 


1629 




26 Oct. . 1830 


23 April. 1831 




13 April. 


1640 


S May . 


1640 


"William IV. . 


14 June . 1831 


3 Dec. . 1832 


Lnng Parliament 


3 Nov. . 


,, 


20 April . 


1653 




29 Jan. . 1833 


30 Dec. . 1834 


Commonwealth 


3 Sept. . 


1654 


22 Jan. . 


1655 




9 Feb. . 183s 


17 July . 1837 




17 Sept.. 


1656 


4 Feb. . 


1658 


Victoria . . 


IS Nov. . 1837 


23 June . 1841 




27 Jan. . 


1659 


22 April . 


1659 




ig Aug. . 1841 


23 July . 1847 




6 May . 




16 March 


1660 




18 Nov. . 1847 


I July . i8s2 


Charles II. . 


25 April . 


1660 


29 Dec. . 






4 Nov. . 1852 


21 March i8s7 


PensionaryParl. 


8 May . 


1661 


24 Jan. . 


1679 




30 April . i8s7 


23 April . i8s9 




6 March 


1679 


10 July . 






31 May . i8s9 


6 July . i86s 




21 March 


1681 


28 March 


168 1 




I Feb. . 1866 





PARLIAMENT of Ireland, began with conferences of the English settlers, it is said, 
on the hill of Tara, in 11 73. Writs for knights of the shire were issued, in 1295. The Irish 
parliament met last on 2 Aug. 1800 ; the bill for the union having passed. 

PARLIAMENT of Scotland consisted of barons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally 
of burgesses. A. great national council was held at Scone by John Balliol, 9 Feb. 1292 ; and 
by Robert Bruce at Cambuskenneth, in 1326. A house of commons was never formed in 
.Scotland. The parliament of Scotland sanctioned the act of union on 16 Jan. 1707, and met 
for the last time on 22 April, same year. 

PARIjIAMENT of Paris was made the chief court of justice in France by Philip IV. ; 
at his suggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boniface VIII., 1302. It was suppressed by 
Louis XV., 1771 ; restored by Louis XVI., 1774; deiiiandeda meeting of the States- General 
in 1787 ; and was suspended by the National Assembly, 3 Nov. 1789. 

PARMA (N. Italy), founded by the ancient Etrurians. It took part with the Lombard 
league in the wars with the German emperors. It was made a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. 



PAR 



5.51 



PAS 



Charles III. stabbed by an assassin, 26 JIarch, 
dies 27 March, 1854 

Robert I., a minor (bom 9 July, 1848); whose 
mother becomes regent. 

War in Italy ; the Parmesans establi.sh a pro- 
visional government ; the duchess-regent re- 
tires to Switzerland . . . i May, 1859 

Farina became dictator . . . 18 Aug. ,, 

Annexation to Sardinia voted . . 12 Sept. ,, 

Col. Auviti, a former obnoxious police minister, 
having rashly returned, cruelly murdered by 
the mob 5 Oct. „ 

Parma is now part of the i3ro\-ince of iEmilia in 
the kingdom of Italy, to which it was an- 
nexed by decree after a plebiscite t8 March, i860 

Duchess-regent died . . . . i Feb. 1864 



PARMA, continued. 

United to Spain by PhiHp V.'s marriage with 

Elizabeth Farnese 17 14 

Battle near Parma ; the confederates, England, 

France, and Spain, against the emperor ; both 

armies claimed the victory . . 29 June, 1734 
Battle near the Trebbia, the French, under 

Macdonald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the 

loss of 10,000 men and four generals ig June, 1799 
The duke of Parma made king of Etruria Feb. 1801 
Parma united to France : with Placentia and 

Guastalla conferred on Maria Louisa, ex- 

emiM-ess, by treaty of Fontainebleau 5 April, 1S14 
Parma occupied by the Austriana and Sardi- 
nians in the war of 1848 

The Sardinians retire after the battle of Novara, 

23 March, 1849 
The duke Charles II. abdicates in favour of his 

son, Charles III 14 March, „ 

PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in Athens or Rome, sncli a crime not being 
supposed possible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed his father, the Romans first 
scourged the parricide ; then sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live 
dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. Miss Blandy was executed 
at Oxford for the murder of her father, April, 1752. 

PARSEES or Guebees, the followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at 
the battle of Kadseah, their army Avas decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni- 
hilated at the battle of Naharaud in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors (and 
their descendants are termed Guebres), but otliers fled to India, and their descendants 
still reside at Bombay (where they are termed Parsees), and where they numbered 114,698 
in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant, was for several years professor of Guje- 
lati at University college, London. 

PARTHENON (from Greek imrtliciie, virgin), a temple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, 
erected about 442 b.c. In it Phidias placed his renowned statue of that goddess, 438 B.C. 
The roof was destroyed by the Venetians in 1687 ; see Elgin Marbles. 

PARTHENOPEAlSr REPUBLIC was established by the French at Naples (anciently 
called Parthenope), Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June same year. 

PARTHIA (Asia). The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, 
as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the 
foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over a lai'ge jDart of Asia, 250 B.C. ; 
the Partliians were never wholly subdued by the Romans. The last king, Artabanus V. , 
was killed a.d. 226 ; his territories Avere annexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded 
by Artaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. 

PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland for regulating 
the Spanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria next heir, and ceding provinces to 
Prance) was signed 19 Aug. 1698; and the second (between France, England, and Holland, 
declaring the archduke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdi- 
nand having died in 1699), 13 March, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland; the first 
Avas a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, 17 Feb. 1772 ; the second between the 
same poAvers and Austria., 5 Aug. same year ; the third Avas between Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia, 24 Oct. 1795. 

PARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it Avere amended in 1863 ; see Limited Liabiliti/. 

PASQUINADES.* Small satirical poems obtained this name about 1533. 

PASSAROWITZ TREATY, concluded2i July, 1718, between Germany, Venice, and the 
Turks, by Avhich the house of Austria ceded certain commercial rights, and obtained from 
Turkey the Temeswar, Belgrade, and piirt of Bosnia, Servia, and "Wallachia. 

PASSAU (Germany), Teeaty of, Avhereby religious freedom Avas established, was ratified 
between the emperor Charles V. and the protestaut princes of Germanj', 31 July, 1552. In 
1662 the cathedral and great part of Passau were consumed by fire. 

PASSENGERS— by public vehicles, are protected by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1S31), 
I & 2 Vict. c. 79 (1838), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33 (1S53). Mr. Cleghorn, under Avhom the 
front seat on the near side of one of the General Omnibus company's carriages had given 

* In the i6th century ; at the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of idle persons used 
to assemble to listen to his pleasant sallies, and to relate httle anecdotes in their tiu-n, and indulge them- 
selves in raillery at the exxJense of the passers-by. After the cobbler's death the statue of a gladiator was 
found near his stall, to Avhich the people gave his name, and on which the wits of the time, secretly at 
night, affixed their lampoons. 



PAS 552 PAT 

way, recovered 400Z. damages against the company, in a verdict by consent, in the Queen's 
Bench, 10 Dec. 1856. The Shi]is' Passenger act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 119, passed in 1855, was 
amended in 1863 ; see CamphdVs Act. 

PASSION- WEEK, the name given since the Reformation to the week preceding Easter, 
was formerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop Laud says the two weeks were so called 
"for a thousand years together," and refers to an epistle by Ignatius, in the ist century, in 
which the practice is said to have been " observed by all." 

PASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 B.C., in comme- 
moration of their coming out of Egypt ; because, the night before tlieir departure, the 
destroying angel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyptians, passed over the houses 
of the Hebrews without entering them ; the door posts being marked with the blood of 
the Paschal Lamb killed the evening before. The Passover was celebrated in the new 
temple, 18 April, 515 B.C. Uslier. 

PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another without 
the consent of the sovereign thereof In 1858 the system was somewhat changed in 
this country, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from 5s. to 6cl. Passports 
were abolished in Norway in 1859 ; in Sweden in i860 ; and (with regard to British 
subjects) in France, 16 Dec. i860 ; in Italy, 26 June, 1862 ; in Portugal, 23 Jan. 1863 ; 
and are falling into disuse in other countries. The passport system was established in the 
United States on 19 Aug. 1861. 

PASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a respectable family, 1422-83, gi\'ing a 
picture of social life in England, were edited by sir John Fenn, and published in five 
volumes, quarto, 1787- 1823. Their authenticity was questioned Sept. 1865, but was 
satisfactorily vindicated by a committee of the Society of Antiquaries in May, 1866. 
Part of the MS. was soon after purchased by the trustees of the British Museum. 

PATAY (France), where Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, was present, when the earl 
of Richemont signally defeated the English, 18 June, 1429. Talbot was taken prisoner, 
and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence, Charles VII. of France entered 
Rheims in triumph, and was crowned 17 July, following year, Joan of Arc assisting in the 
ceremony in full armour, and holding the sword of state ; see Joan of Arc. 

PATENTS. Licences and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for titles 
of nobility were first made 1344, by Edward III. They were first granted for the exclusive 
privilege of printing "books, in 1591. The property and right of inventors in arts and 
mamrfactures were secured by letters patent by an act passed in 1623. The later laws regu- 
lating patents are very numerous ; among them are 5 & 6 Will IV. c. 83 (1835), and 15 & 16 
Vict. c. 83(1852). — By the latter. Commissioners of Patents were appointed, viz., the 
lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attorney-general for England and Ireland, the 
lord advocate, and the solicitors-general for England, Scotland, and Ireland. Since 1852, a 
journal has been published under their authority, and indexes of patents, from March, 1617, 
to the 2:)resent time. Specifications of patents may be consulted by the public at the Free 
Library and Reading-Room, in Southampton-buildings, opened 5 March, 1854. A museum 
containing models, portraits, &c., was established in 1859 at South Kensington, mainly by 
the exertions of Mr. Bennet Woodcroft.* 

PATNA (N. India). Near here the English under major Carnac defeated the emperor 
Shah Alum on 15 Jan. 1761. The town was acquired by the British by their defeat of the 
sanguinary Meer Cassim, 23 Oct. 1764. 

PATRIARCHS (a name given to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and his sons). The dignity 
among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, 97. The ecclesiastical historian Socrates 
gives this title to the chiefs of Christian dioceses about 440. It was first conferred on the 
live grand sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin 
church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. The first founders or heads of religious 
orders are called patriarchs. f 

PATRICIANS, the senators of Rome ; their authority began with the city itself; see 
Rome. 

PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (Dublin), was erected in 1190 by archbishop Comyn, 
on the site of an old church. The cathedral was desecrated in 1546, and used as a law court ; 

*In 1864, the detected defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk in the patent office and an official of the 
house of lords, led to his retirement. He obtained a pension of 8ooi., which was taken from him by a vote 
of theTiouse of lords on 9 May, 1865. 

t Neotarius, bishop of Constantinople, as ex-nfflcio chief of the Eastern bishops, was nominated patri- 
arch of Constantinople at the second general council of Constantinople, g July, 381. This led the way to 
the schism between the Eastern and Western churches. 



PAT 



553 



PAU 



restored 1553. After renovation by the munificence of the late sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, 
it was reopened 24 Feb. 1865 ; see Dublin. 

PATKICK, ST., Knights of, an order instituted by king George III., 5 Feb. 1783; 
the statutes were signed 28 Feb. The number, originally fifteen, was increased in 1821, 
1831, and 1833, and is now twenty-two. The prince of Wales was installed as knight, 
18 April, 1868. — St. Patrick's Benevolent Society, London, instituted 1784. 

PATRIOTIC FUN"DS, established to encourage the army and navy in times of war. 



1. Founded by tlie subscribers to Lloyd's, "to ani- 

mate the eftbrts of our defenders by sea and 
land " by providing a fund for the relief of them- 
selves when wounded, and of their widows and 
orphans, and for granting pecuniary rewards 
and badges of distinction for valour and merit, 
20 July, 1S03: on 24 Aug. 1809, 424,832?. had been 
received, and 331,611?. expended. 
From 1S03 to 1826 the total sum received was 
629,823?. 14.S. id. 

2. A commission (headed by prince Albert) was ap- 

pointed to raise and distribute a fund bearing 
this name, for the relief of the families of those 
who might faU in the Eusso-Turkish war, Oct. 
1854. 



Large sums were collected from this country and 
the colonies, amounting to 1,171,270?. in July, 
185s ; to 1,296,282?. on 16 Nov. 1855 ; to 1,460,000?. 
in June, 1857. 

The overplus, 200,000?. was apprnpriated to found- 
ing an asylum fur 300 orphan girls (the Royal 
Victoria Patriotic Asylum) on Wandsworth com- 
mon, the first stone of which was laid by the 
qxieen, 11 July, 1857. 

The royal family and many of the aristocracy con- 
tributed drawings, some of which were sold for 
high prices, in May, 1855. 
3. A large fund contributed for the relief of the suf- 
ferers by the Indian mutiny, Aug. 1857. An act 
for its administration was passed, 12 Aug. 1867 ; 
see India, 1857. 

PAULIAlSriSTS or PATJi:-ixiANi5, followers of Paul, bishop of Samosata, afterwards 
patriarch of Antioch, 260, who are said to have denied Christ's divinity and the trinity ; he 
was excommunicated 269 by a council at Antioch. 

PAULlCIAiSrS, a sect of Cliristian reformers, arose about 652. Although they were 
severely persecuted, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th century, and finally settled at 
Montford, in Italy, where they were attacked by the bishop of Milan in 1028. Severe decrees 
against them were made in 1163, and they gradually dispersed ; very probably sowing the 
seeds of the great reformation of the i6th century. 

PAUL JONES, a Scotchman, born 1742 ; died at Paris, 1792. He commanded an 
American privateer during the American war, and was memorable for his daring depredations 
on Britisli commerce. He lauded and pillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
bright, and at Whitehaven burnt slii])ping in the harbour, April, 1778. The Dutch per- 
mitted Paul Jones to enter their jDorts with two of the king's ships of war which he had 
taken, and which the stadtholder xoeremptorily refused to deliver up, 1779. 

PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (Loudou). Sir Christopher Wren's opinion, that there 
had been a Christian church on this spot, in the time of the Romans, was confirmed when 
he explored the foundations for his own design. He exploded the notion of there having 
been a temple of Diana. 



The first church supposed to have been de- 
stroyed during the Diocletian persecution 
(302), rebuilt in the reign of Constautine, 323-337 
Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored 

by Sebert in 603 

Injured by fire in 962, and destroyed by the 
groat conflagration, after which Mauritius, 
then bishop ni London, commenced the mag- 
nificent ediflce which preceded the ijresent 

cathedral 1087 

A conrmission gi-anted to Laud, then bishop of 

London, to restore the cathedral 2 April, 163 1 

It was totally destroyed by the fire of Sept. 1666 
First stone of the present edifice laid, 21 June, 1675 
The choir opened for divine worship 2 Dec. 1697 

The whole edifice comi3leted(exoei3tsome deco- 
rations, not finished until 1723), under sir 

Christopher Wren 1710 

[The total cost (including 200 tons' weight of 
iron railing) was 1,511,202?.] 



Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cookerell . . 1822 
Money having been subscribed to adapt St. 
Paul's for the purpose, evening services be- 
gan, when above 4000 persons were present, 

Sunday 28 Nov. 1858 

A national guinea subscription for comxjleting 
the interior ornamentation, began Feb. 1864 

DIMENSIONS. 

Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to feet. 

east end . 510 

Breadth, north to south portico . . . . 282 
Exterior diameter of the dome .... 145 
Height from ground to top of cross . . . 404 
Campaniles, or bell towers, at each comer, 

height 208 

Breadth of western entrance 189 

Circumference of dome . . . , . 420 
Entire circumference of the building . . . 2292 
Diameter of ball 6 



PAUL'S CROSS, ST. (London), which stood before the cathedral, was a pulpit formed 
of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and covered with lead, from which the most eminent 
divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in tlie forenoon. To this place the court, 
the mayor, the aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort. It was in use as early as 
1259, aud'was appropriated not only to preaching, but to political and ecclesiastical dis- 
courses, &c. Jaue Shore, mistress of Edward IV., was brought before this cross in 1483, 
divested of all her .splendour. The cross was demolished in 1643 by order of the parlia- 
ment. 



PAU 



554 



PEA 



PAUL'S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed in 1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 
boys "of every nation, country, and class," in memory of the number of fishes taken by 
Peter. {John xxi. 11). The first schoolhouse Avas burnt in 1666 ; the second by Wren was 
taken down in 1S24, and the present buildiug erected by George Smith. William Lilly was 
the first master, and his grammar is still used by the school. Tivibs. 

PAUPERS, see Poor. 

PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns 
with stones. The Eomans, in the time of Augustus, had j)avement in many of their streets ;, 
the Appian way, a paved road, was constructed 312 B.o. In England there were few paved 
streets before Henry VII. 's reign. London was first paved about 1533. It was paved with 
flagstones between 1815 and 1825. Wood and asphalte paving were tried in 1839, and have 
been disused since 1847 ; see Wood Pavement. 

PAVIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticimcm or Papia. Its university, founded by Charle- 
mague, is the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built by the Gauls, who were driven out by the 
Romans, and these in their turn were expelled by the Goths. In 568 it was taken by the 
Lombards, and became the capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century it was erected 
into a republic, but soon after was subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On 24 Feb. 
1525, a battle was fought near here between the Erench and the Imperialists, when the former 
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valour, and killing seven 
men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender himself a prisoner. Francis wrote 
to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of the kingdom during his absence, saying, Tout est 
perdu, onadame, fors Vlionneur (All is lost, madam, except honour). 

PAWNBROKING. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges deposited with 
lenders is referred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The institutions were termed monti di 
pieta {luhich see). Soon afterwards, it is said that the bisbop of Winchester established a 
system of lending on pledges, but Avithout interest. The business of pawnbrokers was regu- 
lated in 1756, and licences issued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledges was fixed in 1800. 
In London there were, in 185 1, 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of London, 
1 127 ; the number is increasing in proportion to the population. In i860 an act was passed 
enabling pawnbrokers to charge a halfpenny for every ticket describing things pledged for a 
sum under 5s. The acts relating to pawnbrokers were amended in 1856, 1859, i860. 

PAX, a small tablet, generally silver, termed tabula pacis or oscidatoriurro, kissed by the 
Roman Catholic priests and laity ; substituted for the primeval kiss of peace in the early 
church. The Pax is said to have been introduced about the 12th century. 

PAYMASTER-GENERAL. In 1836 the army and navy pay departments were consoli- 
dated into the paymaster-general's office, sometimes held by a cabinet minister. 

PEABODY FUND, Mr. George Peabody, an American merchant, who had made his- 
fortune in London, gave on 12 March, 1862, 150,000?., and on 21 Jan. 1866, ioo,oooZ. to 
ameliorate the condition of the London poor. An autograph letter, promising her portrait 
in miniature, was sent him by the queen, 28 March, 1866. 



street, Spitalfields, was opened 29 Feb. 1864; and 
others since, in Islington, Sliadwell, Chelsea, and 
Bermondsey ; they have been found to be self- 
supporting. 



[Inscription on the miniature: — "V.R. Presented 

by the Queen to G. Peabody, Esq., the benefactor 

of the poor of London."] 
The first block of buildings for working-classes, 

termed " Peabody dwellings," in Commercial- 

PEACE. A temple was dedicated to peace by Vespasian, 75 ; see Fire-ioorhs, Treaties, 
Justices, &c. — "Peace of Religion " (between catholics and protestants) was signed at 
Augsburg, 15 Sept. 1555. — A Peace Society, founded 1816, for the j)romotion of universal 
peace, held its 52nd anniversary in May, 1868. A congress of the friends of peace, froni all 
parts of the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, 22 Aug. 1849. It met in London at 
Exeter hall, 30 Oct. following ; and at Frankfort, in St. Paul's church, 22 Aug. 1850 ; at 
Birmingham, 28 Nov. 1850; and at Exeter hall, 22 July, 1851. A meeting was held at 
Manchester, 27 Jan. 1853 ; and at Edinburgh, 12 Oct. 1S53. Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden 
were among the most conspicuous members of the society. A deputation from the Peace 
Society, consisting of Messrs. J. Sturge, Pease, and another Quaker friend, stated their views 
to the emperor of Russia at St. Petersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854. At 
the peace congress at Geneva, Garibaldi was present. It began 9 Sept. 1867 ; and after much 
contention and declamation closed 12 Sept. 

PEACHES are said to have been introduced into this country from Persia about 1562. 

PEARLS. The formation of pearls has embarrassed ancient and modern naturalists to- 
explain, and many fictions are current respecting them. M. Reaumur, in 171 7, alleged that 
pearls are formed like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 



PEA 



555 



PEE 



8o,oooZ. sterling. One which was brought in 1574, to Philip II., of the size of a pigeon's 
egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13,996^. A pearl named the Incomjjarable, 
spoken of by De Boote, weighed thirty carats, equal to live pennyweights, and was about 
the size of a muscadine jiear. The pearl mentioned by Tavernier, as being iu possession. 
of the emperor of Persia, was purchased of an Arab iu 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 
110,400?. 

PEASANTS' WAE, see Jacquerie. 

" PECULIAR PEOPLE," a small sect in Essex and other parts of England. Two mem- 
bers, Thos. and Maryanne Wagstaffe, were tried and acquitted of manslaughter, 29 Jan. 1868. 
They had neglected gettiug medical assistance for their sick child, and depended on the 
efficac}'' of their elders' prayers and anointing it Avith oil {James v. 14). The child died. 
Establishments for healing diseases by prayer exist in Germany. 

PEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of Platoea, went from thence to Delphi to 
bring the sacred fire. This he obtained, and returned with it the same day before sunset, 
having travelled 125 English miles. No sooner had he saluted his fellow-citizens, and 
delivered the fire, than he fell dead at their feet. After the battle of JMarathon, a soldier 
was sent from the field to announce the victory at Athens. Exhausted with fatigue, and 
bleeding from his wounds, he had only time to cry out, " Rejoice, we are conquerors !" and 
immediately expired. 

Foster Powel, the English pedestrian, performed 

many astonishing journeys on foot. His expedi- 
tion from London to York and back again, in 1788, 

is said to have been completed in 140 hours. 
Captain Bai-clay, for a wager (on which many 

thousands of pounds depended), walked 1000 

miles in 1000 successive hours, each mile in each 

hour, in forty-two days and nights (less 8 hours). 

His task was accomplished on 10 July, 1809. 
Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, imder- 

took (in imitation of captain Barclay) to walk 

1000 miles in 1000 hours : the place chosen was the 



Barrack-tavern cricket-ground, in Sheffield ; he 
commenced on Monday, 17 J\uie, 1850, and com- 
pleted the 1000 miles, 29 July following, winning 
a considerable sum. 

On 7 Oct. 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
Levett, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in 
37 niinutes 27 seconds ; Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, 
ran 12 miles in 65 minutes 5 seconds ; and Mills 
ran 10 miles in 54 minutes 10 seconds; other 
races followed. 

On II May, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by 'White, 
who ran 10 miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. 

PEDLARS, see HawTcers. 

PEDOMETER and ODOMETER, apparatus for measuring the distance traversed by a 
walker or carriage. 



Odometers, or road-measurers, are said to have 
been known in the 15th century ; and im- 
provements in them were made in England 
by Butterfield, about 1678; and by Meynier, 
in France about 



Wm. Grayson's odometer, or road-measurer, to 
be attached to carnages, was patented i Dec. 1851 

Ralph Gouts' ■pedometer for indicating the steps 
taken by a walker, was patented 4 Nov. 1799 

Wm. Payne's pedometer for the waistcoat 
pocket, patented .... 15 Feb. 1831 

PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.* The fikst succeeded the Melbourne administration, 
which was broken up on the retirement of lord Althorpe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 
in Nov. 1834. Sir R. Peel, then in Italy, was summoned home, the duke of Wellington 
holding the seals of ofiice in the interim. They resigned in April, 1835. In May, 1841, sir 
R. Peel carried a vote of want of confidence in the Melbourne cabinet, but did not take 
office ; and in Sept. of that year, he became again premier. He lost the support of the con- 
servative party by obtaining the repeal of the corn laws, and resigned 29 June, 1846. 



FIRST ADMINISTRATION (DcC. 1834). 

Sir Robei-t Peel, first lord of the treasury and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Earl 'of Rosslyn, lord president. 

Lord Wharncliffe, privy seal. 

Henry Goulbum, duke of Wellington, and earl of 
Aberdeen, home, foreig7i, and colonial secretaries of 
state. 

Earl De Grey, first lord of the admiralty. 

Lord Ellenborough, and Alexander Baring, hoard of 
control and trade. 



Su" Edward Knatchbull, payinas terofthe forces. 

J. C. Herries, secretary-at-war. 

Sir George Murray, master-general of the ordnance, dx. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1841). 

Sir Robert Feel, firtt minister. 

Duke of WeUington m the cabinet without office, 

aft. coiiimaiidcr-in-chief 
Lord Lyndliurst, lord chancellor. 
Lord WharncUffe, lord president. 
Duke of Buckingham, lord jjrivy-seal (succeeded by 

duke of Buccleuch). 



* Sir Robert Peel was bom s Feb. 178S ; entered parliament in iSog ; became under-secretary of the 
colonies in 1811, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812, M.P. for Oxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office), 
secretary for home department in 1822 ; resigned office and re-appointed in 1827 ; resigned again in 1830 ; 
became premier in 1834 and 1841 (see above). He was thrown from his hor.se 29 June, and died 2 July, 1850. 
He greatly relaxed the severity of our criminal code in 1S27, et seq. ; established tlie new police, and carried 
the catholic emancipation bill in 1829, and the repeal of the corn laws in 1846. Statues have been erected 
to him — at Salford, iu 1852 ; at Tamworth, Leeds, Bury, and Manchester, in 1853 ; and in London and 
Birmingham in 1855. 



PEE 556 PEL 



Lord Ellenborough, India hoard (succeeded by lord 

Fitzgerald ; succeeded by earl of Ripon). 
Sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatchbull, sir 
George Murray, (fee. 

[Terminated 29 June, 1846, by sir Robert's 
resignation.] 



PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS, continued. 

Sir James Graham, earl of Aberdeen, and lord 

Stanley, lumie, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Karl of Haddington, first lord of the adiniralti/. 
Earl of Ripon, Ooard of trade (succeeded by W. E. 

Gladstone). 

PEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, wWgs and tories, who adhered to sir Robert 
Peel, after his defeat by the conservative party, on account of his free-trade measures carried 
in 1S46. The principal were Henry Goulburn, W. E. Gladstone, Sidney (afterwards lord) 
Herbert, sir James Graham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Clerk, lord Lincoln (afterwards 
dulce of Newcastle), lords Canning and Elgin, and others. Several of them were members of 
the Aberdeen and Palmerston administrations. 

PEEL'S BILLS. Among the most important were the Bank Acts of 1819 and 1844, 
and the act repealing the corn laws in 1846. 

PEEP-0'DAY-BOYS were insurgents in Ireland, who visited the houses of their antago- 
nists at break of da}^ in search of arms. They first appeared 4 July, 1784, and for a long 
period were the terror of the country ; see Defenders. 

PEERS, see Lords. 

PEGU, a province of the Burmese empire, discovered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, 
the capital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 men, in June, 1852, without loss ; and 
afterwards abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese and strongly fortified, with a 
garrison of 4000 men. It was recaptured by general Godwin with 1200 men and two guns, 
in two hours, with the loss of six killed and thirty- two wounded. Tlie province was annexed 
to our Indian possessions, by proclamation, 20 Dec. 1852,, and has since prospered. In Feb. 
1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenasserira as British Burmah. 

PEIHO, see Ohina, 1859, i860. 

PEKIN, the capital of China, was built by Kachilai-Khan, grandson of Genghis- Khan, 
about 1267. Here was held the court of the Mongol or Yuen dynasty, 1280 to 1368. In 
1369, Hung-wu, of the Ming dynasty, removed to Nankin, which was the capital till Yung-lo 
removed his court to Pekin in 1410 ; and by him and his successors the city was enlarged, 
fortified, and beautified. It was visited by lord Macartney 1793 ; surrendered to the allied 
English and French armies, 12 Oct. i860 ; and evacuated by them 5 Nov., after peace had 
been signed. It was described as being in a very desolate state, and the inhabitants 
scattered and indigent. The population was in 1864 estimated at 1,600,000. English and 
French representatives were settled at Pekin, March, 1861. 

PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, appeared at Rome about 400. Their 
doctrines were condemned by councils at Jerusalem, Carthage, and other places, 415, 530. 
Thev maintained : — 



I. That Adam -was by nature mortal, and whether 
he had .-inned or not would certainly have died. 
2. That the consequences of Adam's sin were con- 
fined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants 
are in the same condition with Adam before the 



fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the king- 
dom of heaven, and was founded upon equal pro- 
mises with the Gospel. 5. That the general resur- 
rection of the dead does not follow in virtue of 
Our Saviour's resurrection. 



PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy, appear to belong to the Indo- 
Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 B.C., and in Italy about 1600 e.g. They 
have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, &c. From the Pelasgi came the 
Dorians, Jiolians, and lonians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 

PELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), discovered by the Spaniards in the 17th century. 
The East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wilson, was wrecked here in 1783. The 
king, Abba Thulle, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince Le Boo, his son, to England, 
where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after of the smallpox. The East India Company 
erected a monument over his grave in Rotherhithe churchyard. 

PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Henry Pelham replaced the earl of Wilmington 
as premier, Aug. 1743; see WilTnington. In Nov. 1744, the following ministry was formed 
(termed ' ' the broad bottom administration, " because it comprehended a grand coalition of 
the parties). It was dissolved by the death of Mr. Pelham, 6 March, 1754. 



Henry Pelham, Jirgt lord of the treasury and chan- 
cellor- of ihe exchtquer. 

Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Dorset, president of the council. 

Earl Gower, iord -privy seal. 

Duke of Newcastle and the earl of Harrington, 
SLcri furies of state. 

Duke of Montagu, master-general of the ordnance. 



Duke of Bedford, fii'st lord of the admiralty. 

Duke of Grafton, lord chamberlain. 

Duke of Richmond, master of the horse. 

Duke of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. 

Marquess of Tweeddale, secretary of state for Scotland. 

A.11 of the cabinet. 
The duke of Devonshire and diike of Bolton were 
not of the cabinet. 



PEL 557 PEN 

PELLS (from pellis, skin), receipts on parchment rolls deposited in the court of ex- 
chequer. By an act passed in 1834, the office of clerk of the pells was abolished, and a 
comptroller- general appointed. "Pell Kecords," or "Issues of the Exchequer," or paj'- 
ments made out of his revenue by James L, were published by the government in 1836. 

PELOPIUM, see Niobium. 

PELOPONNESUS (the island of Pelops). S. Greece, termed Morea in the 13th century, 
said to have been settled by Pelops about 1283 B.C. Peloponnesian War continued for 
twenty-seven years between the Athenians and the people of the Peloponnesus, with their 
respective allies, and is the most famous of the wars of Greece. It began by an attempt of 
the Bceotians to surprise Platrea, 43 1 B. c. , on 7 May, and ended 404 b. c. by the taking of 
Athens by the Lacedemonians. 

PELUSIUM (now Tineh), formerly the key of Egypt. Here, in 525 B.C., Psam- 
meticus III. was defeated by Cambyses, the Persian, who thereby obtained possession of the 
kingdom. It surrendered to Alexander, 333 ; was taken by the Persians, 309 ; by Antio- 
chus, 173 ; by Augustus, 31 B.C. ; and after a protracted resistance by Amrou, the Saracen, 
A.B. 618. 

PEMBROKE COLLEGE and HALL, see under Oxford, and Cambridge. 

PENAL LAWS, see Criminal Laivs and Roman Catholics. Penal servitude was substi- 
tuted for transportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, and amended in 1864. 

PENANCE, a sacrament in the Roman church, arose out of the practice of auricular 
confession {which sec). The council of Trent, in its 14th session (155 1), decreed that every 
one is accursed who shall affirm that this sacrament was not instituted by Christ. 

PENANG or Prince of Wales's Island, was given up to the East India Company 
in 1786, by captain F. Light, who received it as a marriage poi'tion with the daughter of the 
king of Keddah. After several changes it became one of the Straits Settlements (which see). 

PENDULUMS. The isochronous property is said to have been applied to clocks by 
Galileo about 1639, and by Richard Harris about 1641. George Graham invented the com- 
pensating pendulum 1715. Christian Huyghens contested the priority of this discovery, 
1656. Dufresnoy. See Clocks. Experiments were made to determine the density of the 
earth by pendulums by Mr. G. B. Aiiy (noAv astronomer royal), and others, in a mine in 
Cornwall, in 1826 and 1828 ; and at Harton colliery in 1854. In 1851, M. Foucault de- 
monstrated the rotation of the earth by the motion of a pendulum. 

PENINSULAR WAR, see under ,S);am, 1808-14. 

PENITENTS, see Magdalens. The Penitents of the name of Jesus were a congregation 
of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 1550. The penitents of 
Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 1662. The London Female Penitentiary, 
Pentonville-road, was established in 1807 ; and the British Penitent Female Refuge at 
Cambridge Heath, Hacknej'', in 1829. 

PENNSYLVANIA (N. America), the first state in the Union in regard to mineral 
wealth. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first adventurer who planted a colony on these shores, 
in the reign of Elizabeth. Pennsylvania was granted by Chaiies II. to the duke of York, 
1664; and it was sold to the Penn family, 1681. Pennsylvania was afterwards purchased 
from the Indians by the celebrated William Penn (son of admiral Penn), who went out 
from England with a number of colonists ; from which period the settlement gi-adualiy in- 
creased. Mr. Penn granted a charter in M:iy, 1701, but the emigrants from the Low 
Countries refused it, and separated themselves from the province of Pennsylvania. They 
afterwards had their own assembly, in which the governor of Pennsylvania presided. This 
state adopted an independent constitution in 1776, and established the present in 1790. It 
was strongly unionist during the civil war, 1861-5 ; see United States of America, and 
Petroleum. Population in i860, 2,906,370. 

PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the first silver coin struck in England, and the 
only one current among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until the reign of Edward I. was 
struck with a cross, so deeply indented that it might be easily parted into two for halfpence, 
and into four for farthings, and hence these names. Copper ]ienny and two-penny pieces 
were coined by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, Birmingham, in 1797, and were accounted the 
finest of our copper currenc}' ; see Coins, &c. — Pen'NY-Post ; i^et Post- Office. — The Penny 
Magazine began in 1832 ; the Penny Cyclopaedia in 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1858). 
The Penny Receipt stamp was appointed in 1853, and in 1850 a penny stamp was directed 
to be placed on bankers' cheques. — Penny Banks (in 1861 about 200) were established 
about 1850. 



PEN 



558 



PER 



and public, and also of those who "by their 
useful discoveries in science and attainments 
in literatm-e and the arts, have merited the 
gracious consideration of their sovereign and 
the gratitude of their country " . . . 1834 
The queen empowered to grant annually now 
pensions to the amount of 1200!. . . . 1837 



PENNY PiEADINGS, began about 1859 ; selections for the purpose -were jiublislied, 
1865-7. 

PENRUDDOCK'S REBELLION on behalf of Charles IL was suppressed, and colonel 
John Penruddock himself executed, in 1655. 

PENSIONS. The crown's power of granting them, often much abused, was materially 
checked by statute i Anne, c. i (1702). 

English pension list fixed at gs.oooL . . 1781 

Irish pension list said to amount to 489,000?. . 1793 
Provision made by parliament to reduce all the 

pension lists of the united kingdom from 

145,000?. to a maximura of 75,oooJ. . . 1830 

A committee appointed to define the proper 

persons to whom pensions should be granted : 

it reported in favour of servants of the crown 

PENTAGRAPH, see PantagrapJi. 

PENTAMETER VERSE (five feet), first used about the 7th century, B.C. ; see Megy. 

PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the solemn festival of the Jews, called also 
" the feast of weeks," because it was celebrated fifty days, or seven weeks after the feast of 
the Passover, 1491 B.C. {Lev. xxiii. 15 ; Exod. xxxiv. 22) ; see Whitsuntide. 

PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). Here the Scotch presbyterians, since called 
Cameronians {wliich see), who had risen against the government, on account of the establish- 
ment of episcopacj^, Avere defeated by the royal troops, 28 Nov. 1666. 

PEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Fox, at dinner in 1798, gave as a toast " the 
Majesty of the People," for wliich their names were struck off the list of privy councillors. 
A "People's petition" was presented to parliament by 'Mr. T. Duncombe, and rejected, 
2 May, 1842. " People's Paeks," principally through private liberality, have been 
opened since 1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Birmingham, Shefiield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, 
Bath, and Bolton {lohich see). 

PEPSIN, a peculiar organic substance found by Schwamm in the gastric juice, and 
named by him from juc^jsfs, digestion. It was experimented on by M. Blondlot in 1843, and 
has since been prescribed as a medicine. 

PERCEVAL ADMINISTRATION. It commenced on the dissolution of the duke of 
Portland's, through his death, 30 Oct. 1809. Mr. Perceval was assassinated in the lobby of 
the house of commons, by Bellingham, 11 May, 1812. The earl of Liverpool succeeded as 
premier. 



Spencer Perceval [born 1762; chancellor of exchequer, 
1807], first lord cf the treasury, chancellor of the 
exchequer, and chancellor of the duchy of 
Lancaster. 

Lord Eldon, lord, chancellor. 

Earl Camden, lord president. ■ 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord 'privy seal. 



Richard Ryder, marquess of Wellesley, and earl of 
Liverpool, ho7ne, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Lord. Mulgrave, admiralty. 

Mr. Dunias, and earl Bathurst, boards of control and 
trade. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

Viscount Palmerston, secretary-at-war, <&c. 



PERCUSSION-CAPS, see Fire-arms. 

PERCY FAMILY. 'William de Percy obtained lands in Yorkshire from "William the 
Conqiieror, and died at Antioch about 1096. 



Seymour, duke of Northumberland, married 
sir Hugh Smithson, created duke of North- 
umberland in 1766 

Their descendant, duke Algernon, diedwithout 
issue, 12 Feb. 1S65, and was succeeded by 
his cousin, George Percy, earl of Beverley. 

The Peect Society, for the publication of 
ancient ballads, &c., was established in 1840, 
pubUshed 94 little volumes, and was dissolved 1852 



The heiress of the last baron Percy married 

Joceline do Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke 

of Brabant, in the reign of Henry II. . 1154-8 
Henry de Percy, their descendant, created earl 

of Northumberland in .... 137 

Many of his descendants were slain during the 

civil wars. 
Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of JosceUne 

Percy, who died 1670, married Charles, duke 

of Somerset. 
Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of Algernon 

PERED (Hungary). Here the Hungarians under Gorgey Avere defeated by Wohlgemuth 
and the Russians, 21 June, 1849. 

PEREKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It 
was called by the Tartars Orkapou, "gate of the Isthmus," which the Russians changed to 
its present name, which signifies a barren ditch. The Tartar fortress was taken and destroyed 
by the Russian marshal Miinich in 1736, by assault, although it was defended by 1000 
Janissaries and 100,000 Tartars. It M'as again strongly fortified by the khan, but was again 
taken by the Russians in 1771, who have since retained it. 



PER 559 TER 

PERE LE CHAISE, see Cemeteries. 

PERFECTIOJST, see IlluminaU. 

PERFUMERY. In Exodus xxx. (1490 e.g.), directions are given for making the lioly 
incense. Pliilip AiTgustus of France granted a charter to the master perfumers in 1190. 
Perfumes became fashionable in England in the reign of Elizabeth. In i860 there wei'e 
about fort}' manufacturing perfumers in London ; in Paris about eighty. No such trade as 
a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. Creech. A stamp-tax Avas laid on various articles 
of perfumery in England, and the vendor was obliged to take out a licence in 1786. At the 
corner of Beaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided Lillj'-, the perfumer, mentioned in the 
SiKCkitor. Leigh. 

PERGAMOS, see Seven ChurcJies, 3. 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE, see Newspapers, Magazines, and Revieius. 

PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, see Lyceum. 

PERJURY. The early Romans threw the offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice; 
but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a supposition that the gods would vindicate 
their own honour by some remarkable judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark 
of infamy upon him. After the empire became Christian, any one who swore falsely upon 
the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined 
eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false swearer became liable to the punishment 
he charged upon the innocent. In England perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. 
Qj the Abolition of Oaths bill, persons making a false declaration are deemed guilty of a 
misdemeanor ; Act 5 & 6 "Will. IV. cc. 60 and 61, 9 Sept. 1835. Perhaps the greatest per- 
jurer in modern times was Titus Oates ; see Gates. A woman named Alice Grey was con- 
victed of many perjuries in 1856. 

PERKINS' METALLIC TRACTORS, see Animal Magnetism. 

PERMISSIVE BILL (which would give power to two-thirds of the ratepayers of a 
parish to refuse licences for the sale of intoxicating liquors), advocated by the United 
Kingdom Alliance party, was rejected by the house of commons, 8 June, 1864. 

PERONNE (N. France), Treaty of. Louis XL of France, having placed himself in the 
power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign this treaty, confirming those of Arras and 
Conilans, with several humiliating stipulations, 14 Oct. 1468. Louis XL had promised 
Champagne and Brie as appanages to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, not intending to 
keep his word, apprehending that those provinces, being so near Burgundy, would prove a 
fresh source of broils and disj^utes. Henctult. 

PERPETUAL EDICTS, see Edicts. 

PERSECUTIONS. Historians usually reckon ten genei'al persecutions of the Christians ; 
see Jews, Heretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Massacres, Bartliolomew, St., &c. 



I. Under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, 
threw the odium ujjon the Christians ; mul- 
titudes were massacred ; wrapt up in the 
skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured 

by dogs ; crucified, burnt alive, ifec. . . 64-68 

II. Under Domitian 95 

III. Under Trajan 106 

IV. Under Marcus Aurelius .... 166-177 

V. Under Septimus Severus . . . 199-204 



VI. Under Maximus 23S-8 

VII. Under Decius, more bloody than any pre- 
ceding 250-2 

VIII. Under Valerian 258-60 

IX. Under Aurelian 275 

X. Under Diocletian, who prohibited divine 
worship ; houses filled with Christians were 
set on fire, and droves of them were bound 
together with ropes and cast into the sea 303-13 



PERSEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander is accused of setting 
fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 B.C. Ruins of this city still exist. 

PERSIA or Iran", in the Bible called Elam, is said to have received its appellation from 
Perseus, the sou of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and established a petty 
sovereignty. The name is more probably of Indian origin. Persia was included in the iirst 
Assyrian monarchy, 900 B.C. ; when that empire was dismembered byArbaces, &c., it apper- 
tained to Media. Population of the present kingdom, about 10,000,000. 

Revolt of the Babylonians subdued 



Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the Magi. 

Justin, ....... B.C. 2115 

Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, generally 

confounded with the king of Bactria . . . 1082 

* * » « » 

Cyrus, king of Persia, 559 ; overthrows the 
Medo-Babylonian monarchy, about 557 ; con- 
quers Asia-Minor about 548 ; becomes master 
of the east, 536 ; killed in a war with the 
Massagetw 529 

Cambyses, king, 529 ; his son conquers Egypt 
{ichich see) ........ 525 

The false Smerdis killed; Darius Hystaspes 
king 521 



Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed 

Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army 
of 500,000 soldiers to invade the Peloponne- 
sus, which is defeated at Marathon (((7(jc/(. sec) 

Xerxes (king, 485) ; recovers Egyjjt, 484 ; enters 
Greece in the spring at the head of an im- 
mense force ; battle of Thermopylaa . . . 

Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 
of his troops, and is defeated in a naval en- 
gagement off Salamis 

Persians defeated at Mycale & Platasa, 22 Sept. 

Ciuion, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 ve.s- 
sels, takes several cities from the Persians, 



PER 



560 



PEE 



PERSIA, continued. 

and destroys their navy, consisting of 340 B.C. 

sail, near Cypn.is 470 

Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Artabanus . 465 
Artaxerxes Longimanus king .... 464 
Xerxes IV. king, slain by Sogdianus, 425 ; who 

is deposed by Darius II., Nothus . . . 424 
Artaxerxes II. Mnemon, king, 405 ; battle of 

Cunaxa, Cyrus the younger killed . . .401 
Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see Retreat) . . , , 

"War with Greece 399 

Peace of Antalcidas 387 

Artaxerxes III. (Ochus)kiLls all his relations at 

his accession 359 

He is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his son, 

Arses, made king 338 

Bagoas kills him and sets up Darius III., Codo- 

manus, by whom he himself is killed . . 336 
Alexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the 

Persians at the river Granicus, 334 ; near 

Issus, 333 ; at Arbela 321 

Darius killed by Bessus, who is torn in pieces . „ 
Persia partly re-conquered from the Greeks ; 

subjugated by the Parthians .... 250 
Artaxerxes I. founds the Sassanides dynasty ; 

restores kingdom of Persia . . a.d. 226 

Beligion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity 

persecuted . . . . . . . 227 

Artaxerxes murdered ; succeeded by Sapor I. ; 

Arnienia becomes independent under Chosroes 240 
Sapor conquers Mesopotamia . . . . 258 

Eepels the Romans and slays the emperor 

Valerian 260 

Sapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I. ; 

who favours the .Manichees . . . . 272 

Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the 

Christians 273 

Varanes II. defeated by the emperor Probus ; 

makes peace ....... 277 

Persia invaded by the emperor Carus, who con- 
quers Seleucia and Ctesiphon . . . 283 
Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses . . . . 294 

The emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, 

Assyria, &c. ....... 298 

Peace with Diocletian ,, 

Hormisdas II. king .... 301 or 303 

Ormuz built about ....:. 303 

Sapor H. king, 309 ; prosci-ibes Christianity, 

326 ; makes war successfully with Rome for 

the lost provinces 33T?fi° 

The emperor Julian invades Persia ; slain near 

the Tigris ; his successor Jovian purchases 

his retreat by surrendering provinces . . 363 
Sapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366 : 

makes peace with Rome . . . . . 372 
Artaxerxes II. king, 3S0 ; Sapor III. . . . 385 
Armenia and Iberia independent . . . 386 
Varanes IV., 390; Yezdejird I., 404; conquers 

Armenia 412 

Varanes V. , 420, persecutes Christians ; con- 
quers Arabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with 

the Eastern Empire for ico years . . . 422 
Armenia again united to Persia . . . . 428 
"Wars with Huns, Turks, &c. . . . 430-2 

Yezdejird II. king, 440 ; Hormisdas III. 457 ; 

civil war, 458-86 ; Feroze king, 458 ; Pallas, 

484; Kobad, 486 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again 497 
His son, Chosroes I. king ; long wars with 

Justinian and his successors, with various 

fortune S31-79 

Successful campaigns of Belisarius . . S41-2 

Hormisdas IV. continues the war ; degrades his 

general, Baharam, who deposes him ; but is 

eventually defeated 590 

Chosroes II. 591 ; renews the war with success, 

603 ; Egypt and Asia Minor subdued . 614-6 

Chosroes totally defeated by the emperor Her- 

aclius, who advances on Persia . . . . 627 
Chosroes put to death by his son, Siroes, 628 ; 

Artaxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, 
daughter of Chosroes, reigns 630 ; Shenen- 
deh, her lover, 631 ; Arzemdokt, her sister. 



631 ; Kesra, 631 ; Ferokhdad, 632 ; Yezdejird 
III 632 

Persia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flies, 
651 ; is betrayed to them and is put to death, 
and his army exterminated . . . . 652 
Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite 

Mahometans 65i 

The Taherite dynasty established, 813; the 

Sofferide, 872 ; the Samanide . . . . 902 
Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukian - 
Turks, 1038 ; who areexpelled, 1194; subdued 
by Genghis Khan and the Mongols . . 1223 

Bagdad made the capital 1345 

Persia invaded by Timour, 1380; ravaged by 

him 1399 

Conquered by the Turcomans . . . . 1468 
Who are expelled by the Shiites, or Fatimite 
Mahometans, who establish the Soiohi dy- 
nasty under Ismail 1 1501 

Ispahan made the capital 1590 

The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre . . 1638 

Georgia revolts to Russia 1783 

Teheran made the capital 1796 

"War with Russia 1826-9 

Rupture with England in consequence of the 
Persians taking Herat {which see), 25 Oct. ; 

war declared i Nov. 1856 

Persians defeated ; Bushire taken 8-10 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 

8 Feb. ; ant^ at Mohammerah . 26 March, 1857 
Peace ratified at Teheran . . .14 April, „ 
Commercial treaty with France, &c. June, „ 

Herat given up by the Persians . . July, ,, 
The shah decrees a re-organization of the 

government 9 Sept. 1858 

Railways in process of formation . . . . 1865 
Electric telegraph introduced .... 1S67 

B. C. KINGS. 

559. Cyrus. 

529. Cambyses. 

521. Darius I. Hystaspes. 

485. Xerxes I. 

465. Artabanus. 

464. Artaxerxes I. Longimanus. 

425. Xerxes II. Sogdianus. 

424. Darius II. Kothus. 

405. • Artaxerxes II. Mnemon. 

359. Artaxerxes III. Ochus. 

338. Arses. 

336. Darius III. Codomanus. 

A.D. 

1502. 

1523- 
1576. 

IS77- 
1582. 

1628. 
1641. 
1666. 
1694. 
1722. 
1725- 
1730. 



1736. 



1747- 
1751- 
1759- 
1779- 



SHAH3. 
Ismail or Ishmael : conquers Georgia, 1519. 
Tamasp or Thamas I. 
Ismail TI. Meerza. 
Mahommed Meerza. 
Abbas I. the Great ; made a treaty with the 

English, 1612 ; died in 1628. 
Shah Sophi. 
Abbas II. 
Shah Sophi II. 
Hussein ; deposed. 
Mahmond, chief of the Afghans. 
Ashraff, the Usurper ; slain in battle. 
Tamasp or Thamas II. ; i-ecovered the throne 

of his ancestors from the preceding. 
[Thamas-Kouli-Khan, his general, obtained 
great successes in this and the subsequent 
reigns.] 
Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, trader the 
regency of Kouli-Khan, who afterwards 
caused himself to be proclaimed king as 
Nadir Shah (the victorious king); conquers 
India, 1739; assassinated at Korassan by his 
nephew. 
Shak Rokh. 
[Interregnum.] 
Kureem Khan. 

Many competitors for the throne, and assassi- 
nations till — 



PERSIA, continued. 

1795. Aga-Maliommed Khan obtains the power, and 1848. Nasr-uSBgBi5ft_p^"'^|a^aJ6^t' j;ifeg >»^4 Sept. 
founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; born, i^lll llll'i iTliliiilllJ''" "^' ^ °^ Persia ; 

assassinated, 1797. said to be an able prince and friendly to 

1798. Futteh AU-Shah. Britain. 

1834. Mahommed-Shah, grandson of Futteh ; suc- 
ceeded by his son, 

PERSON, Offences against. The statute laws respecting these were consolidated and 
amended in 186 1. 

PERSPECTIVE in drawing was observed by the Van Eycks (1426-46) and treated 
scientifically by Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Albert Durer, early in the i6th 
century. Guido Ubaldo published a treatise in 1608; Dubreuil's treatise (the "Jesuits' 
perspective ") appeared in 1642, and the mathematical theory was demonstrated by Brook 
Taylor in 1 73 1 . 

PERTH (Scotland), said to have been founded by Agricola, about A.D. 70. It was 
besieged by the Regent Robert, 1339. On 20 Feb. 1437, James I. was murdered at the 
Black Friars' monastery here, by Robert Graham and the earl of Athol, for which their bodies 
were torn with red-hot pincers, burning crowns of iron pressed down upon their heads, and 
in the end their hearts taken out and thrown into a lire. — Gowrie's conspiracy occurred here, 
6 Aug. 1600. The "Articles of Perth" relating to religious ceremonies, were agreed to by 
the General Assembly of Scotland, 25 Aug. 1618. Perth was taken by Cromwell in 1651 ; 
and by the eail of Mar after the battle of Dumblane, in 1715. The statue of the prince 
consort was inaugurated in the presence of the queen, 30 Aug. 1864. 

PERU (S. America), governed by Incas, said to be descended from Manco Capac, who 
ruled in the nth century. Population, 1859, about 2,5oo,(X)o. 



Peru explored and conquered by Francisco 

Pizarro and Almagro .... 1524-33 
The last inon, Atahualpa, put to death, 29 Aug. 1533 
Pizarro assassinated at Lima . 26 June, 1541 

Fruitless insurrection of the Peruvians under 

Tapac Amaru, an inca 1780 

San Martin, protector, proclaims the indepen- 
dence of Peru .... 28 July, 1821 
War against Spain .... 14 Jan. 1824 
Bolivar made dictator .... Feb. ,, 
Mariano Prado president . . .28 Nov. ,, 
The Spaniards defeated at Ayacucho, and free- 

domi of Peni and Chili achieved . 9 Dec. ,, 
The new Peruvian constitution signed by the 

president of the repiiblic . 21 March, 1828 

The president tjeneral Ramon Castilla elected . 1855 
Population (witlio\it Indians) about 2^ millions 1859 
Marshal San Ramon president . 24 Oct. 1862 
General J. A. Pezet president . . 3 April, 1863 
The Spanish admiral Pizon took possession of 
the Chinchai.^les valuable for guano) belong- 
ing to Peru, staring that he would occuijy 
them till the claims of his government on Peru 
were satisfied .... 14 April, 1864 



American congress at Lima ; plenipotentiaries 
from Chili and other states meet to concert 
measures for defence against European 
powers Nov. 1864 

Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 
Jan. 28 ; Chincha islands restored . 3 Feb. 1865 

Revolt against president Pezet, 28 Feb. : several 
proviiaces soon lost .... May, ,, 

The insurgents declare war against Spain, Oct. „ 

They take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco be- 
comes president .... Nov. ,, 

Peru joins Chili, and declares war against Spain, 

Feb. 1S66 

The Spanish Admiral Nuiiez, in his attempt 
to bombard Callao, repulsed and wounded, 

2 May, ,, 

The Spaniards quit Pei-uvian waters . 10 May, ,, 

Riots at Lima against religious toleration, 

IS April, 1S67 

Invasion of ex-president Castilla, May ; dies of 
fever 30 May, „ 

Mariano-Ignace Prado resigns dictatorship ; 
made provisional president, 15 Feb. ; pi'o- 
claimed 31 Aug. „ 



PERUGIA, a city of central Italy ; as Perousia, anciently one of the Etruscan 
Confederation. It allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the 
Romans, 309 and 295 B.C. It was taken by Octavius Cfesar from the adherents of Antony ; 
many of whom were immolated on altars by their victor, a.d. 41. Leo X. took Perugia 
from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni, in 1520. An in.surrection here against the pope 
was put down by the Swiss with great cruelty, 20 June, 1859. It was taken by the 
Sardinian general Fanti, in Sept. i860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and 1600 men 
were made prisoners. 

PERUKE or Wig. The ancients used false hair, but the present peruke was first worn 
in France and Italy about 1620 ; and introduced into England about 1660.* 

PERUVIAN BARK, see Jesuits' Bark. 

PESCHIERA, a strong Austrian fortress, on an island in the Mincio, near the Lake de 
Garda, N. Italy. It has been frequently taken by .'-iege :— by the French, 1796 ; by the 
Austrians and Russians, 1799 ; by the French again, 1801 ; given up by them, 1814 ; taken 
by the Sardiuiau.s, 1848; retaken by Radetzky, 1849. The Sardinians were preparing to 
besiege it in Jtily, 1859, when peace was made. It -was given up to the Italians, 9 Oct. 
1866 ; see Quadrilateral. 

* It is said that bishop Blomfield (of London) obtained permission of William IV. for the bishops to 
discontinue wearing their wigs in parliament in 1830, of which they gradually availed themselves. 





PES 



562 



PET 



PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education was devised by John Henry Pestalozzi, 
born at Zurich in Switzerland, in 1746, died 1827. In 1775 he turned his farm into 
a school for educating poor children in reading, writing, and working ; but he did not 
succeed. In 1798 he established an orphan school, where he began with the mutual instruc- 
tion, or monitorial system, since adopted by Lancaster ; but his school was soon turned into 
an hospital for the Austrian army. In 1802, in conjunction with Fellenbei'g, he established 
his school at Hofw3'l, which at first was successful, but eventually declined through mis- 
management. Pestalozzi certainly aided the jirogress of education. 

PESTH (Hungary), built about 8S9, on the east bank of the Danube, opposite Buda, was 
repeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, particularly in the long contests 
witli the Turks. The great insurrection broke out here, and the minister, count Lamberg, 
was killed, 28 Sept. 1848. Biida-Pesth was taken by the imperialists, 5 Jan. 1849. The 
Hungarians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were obliged to evacuate it 18 April, 
'same year; see Hungary. 

PESTILENCE, see PlagiK. 

PETALISM (from the Greek petalon, a leaf), a mode of deciding upon the guilt of 
citizens of Syracuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism, the name being written on a leaf 
(generally of an olive) instead of a shell, about 460 B.C. If guilt were established the sen- 
tence was usually banishment. Cotgrave. 

PETARD, an instrument whose invention is ascribed to the Huguenots in 1579. 'Petards 
were of metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, and were employed to blow up gates or other 
barriers, and also in countermines to break through into the enemy's galleries. Cahors was 
taken by Henry IV. by means of petards, in 1580, when it is said they were first used. 

PETEE THE "Wild Boy, a savage creature found in the forest of Hertswold, electorate 
of Hanover, when George I . and his friends were hunting. He was found walking on his 
hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, Nov. 1725. 
At this time he was supposed to be thirteen years old. He died, Feb. 1785.* 

PETERBOEOUGH (Northamptonshire), founded 633 ;' anciently called Medeshamstede ; 
obtained its present name from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and dedicating it to 
St. Peter in 689. The church, destroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with great beautj''. The 
bishopric erected by Henry VIII., out of the lands of dissolved monasteries in the diocese of 
Lincoln. The first bishop was John Chambers, the last abbot of Peterborough, 1541. The 
see was valued in the king's books at 419Z. 19s. iid. Present income 4500Z. 



RECENT BISHOPS. 

1794. Spencer Madan ; died, 8 Oct. 1813. 
1813. John Parsons ; died, 12 March, 1819. 



1819. Herbert Marsh; died, i May, 1839. 
1839. George Davys ; died, 8 April, 1864. 
1864. Francis Jeune, May, (pbesent bishop). 



PETERLOO, see Manchester Reform Meeting, 16 Aug. 1819. 

PETEESBUEG, ST., the modern capital of Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 27 May, 
1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 17 10, the 
count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his own 
hands, laid the foundation of a house of the same material. The seat of empire was trans- 
ferred from Moscow to this place in 171 1. Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and 
in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses ; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. 
Agani in June, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. The 
Avinter palace was burnt to the ground, 29 Dec. 1837. The railway to Moscow was finished 
in 1851 ; to Berlin, opened 5 May, 1862. The university was closed in Oct. 1861, on 
account of the riotous conduct of the students. On 10 June, 1862, property to the 
amount of nearly a million sterling was destroyed by fire. — Petersburg, Virginia, see 
United States, 1864. 



Peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and 
Prussia, the former restoring all her con- 
quests to the latter, signed . . 5 May, 1762 

Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of 
Poland (see article, Partition Treaties), 5 Aug. 1772 

Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition 
against France .... 8 Sept. 1805 



Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, be- 
tween Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, 
and the emperor Alexander ; the former 
agreeing to join in the campaign against 
France, in return for which Sweden was to 
receive Norway ... 24 March, 1812 



PETER'S CHURCH, ST. (Rome), originally erected by Constantine, 306. About 1450, 
pope Nicholas V. commenced a new church. The present magnificent j)ile was designed by 
Bramante ; the first stone was laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. In 15 14, Leo X. employed 

* The king caused him to taste of all the dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, 
and the bark of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No efforts of the many philosophic persons 
about court could entirely vary his savage h abits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. 1 -ord Monboddo 
represented him to be a proof of the hypothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 



PET 563 PEW 

Eaphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed the work to 
Jlichael Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of which 30,000 Ki. of iron was 
used. The church was consecrated 18 Nov. 1626. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a 
height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height 
of 324 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of the most spacious halls ever 
constructed. The length of the exterior is 669 feet ; its greatest breadtli within is 442 feet; 
and the entire height from the ground 432 feet. 

PETER'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at Piome, 
for the endowment of an English college there, 725 ; so called because agreed to be paid on 
Peter Mass, i Aug. The tax was levied on all families possessed of thirty pence yearly 
rent in land, out of which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by Ofta, 777, and was 
afterwards claimed by the popes as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till 
suppressed by Henry VIII. Camden. A public collection (on behalf of the pope) was forbid- 
den in France in i860. 

PETERSWALDEN (Germany), Convention of, between Great Britain and Russia, bv 
which a firm and decisive alliance between those powers was made against France, and the 
course of action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned, signed 8 July, 1813. This alliance 
led to the overthrow of Bonaparte in the next year. 

PETERWARADEIN (in Austria) was taken by the Turks, July, 1526. Here prince 
Eugene of Savoy gained a great victory over the Turks, 5 Aug. 17 16. 

PETITIONS. The right of 2:)etitioning the cro^vn and parliament for redress of 
grievances is a fundamental principle of the constitution. Petitions are extant of the date 
of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed to the house of 
commons in considerable numbers. In 1837 there were presented to parliament 10,831 
petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons; in 1859, 24,386, signed by 2,290, 579; in 1867, 
12,744, signed by 1,145,216 ; see Fdghts, Petition of. 

PETRA, the ancient Sela, in mount Seir, near mount Hor, in the land of Edom. In the 
4th century b. c. it was held by the Nabathseans, who successfully resisted Antigonus. About 
A.D. 70 it was the residence of the Arab princes named Aretas. It was conquered by Cornelius 
Palma, and annexed to the empire under Trajan, 105, to which period its remarkable 
monuments are ascribed. It was an important station for commercial traffic with Rome, 
It has been described by Burckhardt and other travellers. 

PETRARCH AND Latjka ; celebrated for the refined passion of the former for the latter, 
begun ia 1327, and the chief subject of his sonnets. He was born 1304, crowned with 
laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, 8 April, 1341 ; and died at Arqua, near Padua, 
18 July, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 

PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts 
of the Avorld, especially at Rangoon. In 1 860-1 a number of oil-springs were discovered in 
the bituminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now termed " Petrolia," and others 
have been since discovered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. Numerous arte- 
sian wells were sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained. In 
consequence of the importation of this oil into this country, and many accidents having 
taken place through its inflammability at low temperature, an act for " the safe keeping of 
X^etroleum " was passed in July, 1862. 

PETROPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked by 
an English and French squadron, 30 Aug. 1854. They destroyed the batteries, but failed 
in taking some Russian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship taken by the President, and 
a schooner taken by the Piqtie. Admiral Price was killed, it is supposed by the accidental 
discharge of his own pistol. A party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault the place, 
but fell into an ambuscade; many were killed, including capt. Parker and M. Bourasset, 
English and French officers. The objects of the attack were not attained, it is thought from 
want of stores. After this the Russians greatly strengthened their defences, but on 30 May, 
1855, the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here found the place deserted. The forti- 
fications were destroyed, but the town was spared. The Russian ships escaped. 

PEVENSEY (Sussex). The castle is verj'^ ancient, and from the abundance of Roman 
bricks, it is supposed that there was a Roman fortress on the spot. Here William of 
Normandy landed, 28 or 29 Sept. 1066. The duke of York, in the reign of Henry IV., was 
for some time confined within the walls of this castle ; as was also queen Joan of Navarre, 
the last wife of Henry IV., who, with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a design to 
destroy the king. 

PEWS in churches. " In a London will we rend of scdile vocatum peiv" (a seat called 
pew), 1453. Pews were censured by Latimer and Bradford, 1553. Walcott. The church of 

o 2 



PFA 564 PHI 

Geddington St. ilarj^, Northamptonsliire, long contained a pew dated 1602. My informant, 
the rev. W. M. H. Church (vicar 1844-6) restored and re-seated the church, and preserved 
the panel with the date in the door of the surplice press. Another pew in the chancel was 
dated 1604. 

PFAFFENDOEF and Liegnitz (Silesia). Near these two places was fought a battle 
between the Imperialists and Prussians, 15 Aug. 1760. The Austrians were defeated by 
the king of Prussia, who thus prevented the junction of the Russian and Austrian armies. 

PHALANX, the Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields 
joined, and spears crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon, called 
the Macedonian phalanx, was formed by him about 360 b. c. 

PHARAOH'S SERPENTS, a dangerous chemical toy, composed of sulpho-cyanide of 
mercury, appeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. 

PHARISEES, a sect among the Jews ; so called from pJiarasli, a Hebrew word which sig- 
nifies separated, because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness than the rest of the 
Jews. L^tke xviii. 9-12. The Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 

PHARMACOPOEIA, a book of directions for the pi-eparation of medicine, published by 
colleges of physicians. In 1862 the General Medical Council were empowered to prepare and 
sell a new pharmacopoeia, to supersede those of the colleges of London, Edinbm'gh, and Dub- 
lin, which was published in June, 1864 ; succeeded by a new one in May, 1867. 

PHARMACY : the knowledge of the chemical and medical properties of drugs and other 
things employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, founded in 1841, 
inainly by Mr. Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843. It publishes a monthly journal. — 
15 & 16 Vict. c. 56 (1852), regulates the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists. 

PHAROS, of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Alexandria, was esteemed as one of the wonders 
of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, erected about 280 b. c. On the top 
fires were constantly kept to direct sailors in the bay. The building cost 800 talents, which 
are equivalent to above 165,100?. English, if Attic ; or, if Alexandrian, double that sum. 
There was this inscription upon it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit 
of sailors ; " but Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own 
name upon the stoues, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote the above 
inscription. "When the mortar had decayed, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the following 
inscription became visible : "Sostratus, the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the 
saviours, for the benefit of sailors." 

PHARSALIA, a strong city in Thessaly, N. Greece. Near it Julius Csesar defeated his 
rival Pompey, 9 Aug. 48 B. c. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by 
order of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and. his body left naked on the strand, till 
it was burnt by his faithful freedman, Philip. 
PHERiE (Thessaly, N. Greece), see Thessaly. 

PHIGALIAN MARBLES, in the British Museum, were purchased for it by the prince 
regent in 1815. They consist of portions of the frieze taken from the temple of Apollo 
Epicurus at Phigaleia in Arcadia, and are reputed to be works of the earlier school of Phi- 
dias, who died 432 B.C. The bas-reliefs represent the conflicts of the Greeks and Amazons, 
and of the Centaurs and Lapithse. 

PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor), see Seven CJmrches.—PmhAD-ELvmA, Pennsylvania, 
was planned by William Fenn in 1682. The first American congress assembled here in 1774, 
and promulgated the declaration of independence on 4 July, 1776. It was the capital of the 
Union till iBoo, when Washington was selected in its place. The National Union Conven- 
tion held its first meeting here 14 Aug. 1866 ; see United States. 

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETY, for the reformation of criminal boys, was established in 
1788, and incorporated in 1806. It supports a farm-school at Redhill, Reigate, Surrey ; see 
JReformatory Schools. 

PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY (London), was established in 1813. 

PHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, where the marquess of Montrose and the 
royalists were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch covenanters, 13 Sept. 1645. 

PHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by the great Philip. Here Octavius Caesar and Marc 
Antony, in two battles, defeated the republican forces of Cassius and Brutus, who both 
committed suicide, Oct. 42 B.C. Paul wrote an epistle to the Christians at Philippi, 
A.D. 64. 

PHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations of Demosthenes against Philip II. of 
Macedon, 352-341 B.C., and also to the orations of Cicero against Marc Antony (one of which, 
called divine by Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 44-43 b. c. 



PHI 



565 



PHQil 



PHILIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archipelago), discovered by Magellan, in March, 
1521, who here lost his lil'e in a skirmish. They were taken possession of iu 1565 by a fleet 
from Mexico, which first stopped at the island of Zeba, and snbdued it. In 1570 a settle- 
ment was etl'ected at the month of the Manilla river, and Manilla became the capital of the 
Spanish possessions in the Philippines ; see Manilla. 

PHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, conquered Israel, 1156 B.C., and ruled it forty 
years. They were defeated hy Samuel, 11 20; and by Saul and Jonathan, 1087. They 
again invaded Israel about 1063, when David slew their champion, Goliath. After David 
became king he thoroughly subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria their country 
was subjugated by the Romans, under Pompey, about 63. — In Germany, about A.D. 1830, 
Heine and the liberal party applied the term "Philistines" to the opponen ts of progress, 
the conservative party. 

PHII.OBIBLON SOCIETY, was instituted in 1853 by Mr. R. Monckton Milnes (now 
lord Houghton), M. Sylvain Van de Weyer, the Belgian minister, and others. It publishes 
volumes of ' ' Miscellanies, " &c. 

PHILOSOPHER'S STONE, see AlcJicmy. 

PHILOSOPHICAL LAMP, constructed by Johann Wolfgang Dbbereiner, who applied 
in it the property possessed by spongy platinum of causing the combination of oxygen and 
hydrogen, discovered by him in 1823. 

PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the knowledge of the reason of things (in opposition to 
history, which is only the knowledge of facts, or to mathematics, which is the knowledge of 
the quantity of things) — the hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are explained. 
Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men having been previously 
called sages) about 528 B.C. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and their schools sup- 
pressed, by Domitian, a.d. 83. Philosophy is now divided into : — i. Moral or Ethical ; 
2. Intellectual ; 3. Natural or Physical. 

MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Ancient Schools. — Pythagorean, about 500 B.C. ; 

Platonic (the Academj'), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatttic 

(the Lyceum), by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 

334; Cjjnic, by Diogenes, 330; J'^jicwreaw, by Epi- 
curus, 306; 'Stojc, by Zeno, 290; Middle Acudmiy, 

by Aroesilaus, 278 ; New Academy, by Carnende.s, 

160 ; New Platoniits (who attempted to combine 

Platonism with Christianity): Ammonius Saccas, 

died A.D. 243 ; Plotinus, died about 270 ; Porphyry, 

died about 305 ; Jamblichus, died about 333 ; 

Julian the emperor, died 363. 
JIoDEEN Systems. — Rational, Bacon, about 1624; 

CaHe-nan, Descartes, about 1650; I<efl,(Ctive or Per- 
ceptive, Locke, 1690 ; IdealiHic, Beikeley, 1710 ; 

Elective, Leibnitz, 1710 ; Common Sense, Beid, 

1750-70; Transcendental, Kant, Hamilton, &c., 

1770-1S60 ; Scientific, Fichte, 1800-14 > Absolute 

Ideidity, Schelling, 1800-20 ; Absolute Idealism, 

Hegel, 1810-30; UtiliiariaM, Bentham, 1790-1830; 

Positive, Comte, 1830. 



&c., iioo. Gerbert, Decimals, 959. Eoger Bacon, 
Opus Majus, 1266. 
Inductive Philosopliy : — 

Copernicus's system pubhshed , . . 1543 

Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 

Gilbert's researches in electricity and mag- 
netism ........ 1600 

Kepler's Laws 1609-18 

Bacon's Novum Organum .... 1620 

Galileo's Dialogues 1632 

Royal Society begins (which see) . . . 1645 
Otto Guericke — air-pump and electric ma- 
chine 

Huyghens on pendulums 
Newton — Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of Light, 
1669 ; Theory of Gi-avitation, 1684 ; Prin- 
cipia published, 1687 ; death . 
Bradley discovers abeiTation 
Euler on Perturbation of the Planets . 
Black on Heat . . . . • 

Laplace on Tides 1775 

hSLgrnnge Mccanique Analytique .... 1788 
Galvani and Volta's researches . . . . 1791 
Laplace, Mccanique Celeste ..... 1799 
Oersted discovers electro-magnetism . . . 1819 
Faraday, magneto-eleotrioity .... 1831 
[See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, Electricity, &c.] 



1654 
1658 



1727 



1748 
1762 



natural philosophy. 

Cfreek and Latin.— ThaXes, about 600 B.C. ; Pythagoras, 
590 ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Archi- 
medes, 287; Hipparchus, 150; Lucretius, about 
100; Julius Caesar, 50; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. 

Middle Ages. — Arabians : Ben Musa, 800 ; Alhazen, 

PHIPPS' EXPEDITION. The hon. captain Phipps (afterwards Lord Mulgrave) sailed 
from England in command of the Sea-IJorse and Carcase ships, to make discoveries, as near 
as possible, to the North Pole, 1773. In August of that year, he was for nine days environed 
■with barriers of ice, in the Frozen Ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 80° 48' N. lat. All 
progress was not only impossible, but retreat also, and all on board gave themselves up for 
lost; but a bri.sk wind in two or three days accomplished their deliverance. They returned 
to England withoiit having made any discoveries, 20 Sept. 1773. Nelson was coxswain to 
the second in command. 

PHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The Phocians seized Delphi 357 B.C., and com- 
menced the second Sacred War. They were opposed by Thebes and otlier states, and Avere 
utterly subdued by Philip II. of Macedon, in 346. 

PHffiNICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent navigators 
and traders of antiquity ; their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, 
Byblos, and Ptolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to ths 13th centuries before Christ, they 



PHGE 



566 



PHO 



established colonies on tlie shores or isles of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hip'po, Utica, 
Gades, Panormus, and are said to have visited the British Isles. Phcenicia was conquered 
by Cyrus, 537 B.C. : by Alexander, 332 ; by the Eomans, 47 ; and after partaking of the 
fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman empire, A.D. 1516. 

PHOENIX CLUBS, of a treasonable character, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They 
met at niglit to drill. Several persons were arrested and tried in March, 1859, at Tralee ; 
but the jury could not agree on their verdict. Eventually some of the prisoners pleaded 
guilty, and were discharged on being bound over to keep the peace. 

PHONOGRAPH, a machine which may be attached to pianofortes and other keyed 
instruments, by which any music that is played may be written down on blank paper, since 
it rules and prints the notes simultaneously. It was patented by Mr. Fenby, 13 June, 1863. 
The motive power is electro-magnetism. Machines with a similar object were projected by 
Mr. Greed in 1747 ; Mr. J. F. linger in 1774 ; and by Mr. Carreyre in 1827. 

PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek ^^ome, sound). The Phonetic society, whose object 
is to render our mode of writing and printing more consonant to sound, was established, 
I March, 1843 '> sir W. C. Trevelyan, president, and Mr. Isaac Pitman, secretary, the latter 
being the inventor of the system which was made known in 1837; Among other works 
published by the promoters of the system, was the " Phonetic News," in 1849 ; see Visible 
Speech. 

PHONOSCOPE, an apparatus for testing the quality of musical strings, invented hj 
M. Koenig, and exhibited at the International Exhibition in 1862. 

PHOSPHORUS was discovered in 1667, by Brandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from 
urine. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckel, a Saxon chemist, about 1670, and 
by the lion. R. Boyle about the same time. Nouv. Diet. Phosphoric acid is first mentioned 
in 1743, but is said to have been known earlier. Gahn pointed out its existence in bones in 
1769, and Scheele devised a process for extracting it. Canton's phosphorus is so called from 
its discoverer, 1768. Photophosphuretted hydrogen was discovered by sir Humphry Davy 
in 1812. The consumption of phosphorus has immensely increased since the manufacture 
of lucifer matches. Li 1845, Schrotter, of Vienna, discovered what is termed allotropic or 
amorphous phosphorus, which ignites more slowly and is less unwholesome in working than 
ordinary phosphorus. 

PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of light on chloride of silver was known as early as the- 
i6th century. The phenomenon was studied by Scheele (1777), Senebier (1790), Ritter 
and Wollaston (1801). From the results of these investigations, experiments were made by 
Thos. "Wedgwood and Humphry Davy, in the Royal Institution, London, which were pub- 
lished in its Journal, 1802. Wedgwood maybe regarded a.s the &vst photographer. His 
paper was entitled ' ' An account of a method of copying paintings upon glass, and of making- 
profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of silver. " 

Further discoveries were made by NiSpce in 1814, 

and sir J. Plerschel in 1819. 
Louis J. M.-Daguerre commenced his experiments in 

1824; nnd in 1826 joined Joseph Nic^phoreNiepce, 

and worked with him till the death of the latter in 

1833. The production of Daguerreotype plates was 

announced in Jan. 1839 ; and the French chamber 

of deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to 

Niepce's son Isidore. 
In 1839 Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his 

mode of multiplying photographic impressions, 

by producing a negative photograph {i.e. with the 

light and shades reversed) from which any number 

of positive copies may be obtained. His patent 

for producing the Talbotype or Calotype (on paper) 

is dated Feb. 1841. 
In 1 85 1, Collodion (lohich see] was applied to photo- 
graphy by Mr. F. Archer. 
The Photographic Society of London was established 

in 1853. It publishes a journal. On 22 Dec. 1852, 

774 specimens of photography were exhibited at 

tlie rooms of the Society of Arts, Adelphi. 
Celestial Photography began with professor Bond, the 

astronomer, of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a 

photogi-aph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. 

Warren De la Rue, of London, has produced ex- 
cellent photographs of the moon, and other 

heavenly bodies, and on 18 July, i860, photo- 
graphed the solar eclipse. 
Photoheliograph, an apparatus for registering the 

position of the sun's spots by means of "Clockwork 



and photography ; erected at the suggestion of sir 
John Herschel at Kew observatory about 1857. It 
was used by Mr. Warren De la Rue to photograph 
the disc of the sun during the eclipse of 18 July, 
i860. 

Caries de Visite portraits (which see) taken by M. 
Ferrier at Nice, 1857. 

In 1861 Mr. Thompson, of Weymouth, photographed 
the bottom of the sea. 

Photography was successfully apphed to the trans- 
fer of works of art to wood blocks by Mr. John 
Leighton, in his illustrated edition of Lyra Ger- 
manica, 1861. 

In 1 861 professor O. M. Rood suggested the apphca- 
tion of photography to the microscope. 

The tannin process introduced by major Russell 
about 1861. 

The cop!/right of photographs is secured by an act 
passed in 1862. 

Dr. Henry Wright photographed objects of surgical 
interest in Jan. 1863. 

The Wothlytype process, in which nitrate of silver 
and albumen are discarded and a double salt of 
uranium and collodion substituted, was announced 
in the autumn of 1864. 

The light of ignited magnesium was employed for 
photographs by Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, in 
the spring of 1864. 

Photooalvanography, the art of producing engrav- 
ings by the action of Hght and electricity. The 



PHO 



567 



PHY 



PHOTOGRAPHY, continued. 

earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore 
Ni^pce, and presented by him in 1827 to the great 
botanist Robert Brown. Great advances have 
since been made in this art by MM. Ni^pce de 
St. Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), 
Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 
1852, Paiil Pretsch jjatented a process which he 
called " Photogalvanography." 

Photoglyphic Engraving (a process by which the 
light actually etches a picture on a plate that may 
be and has been printed from) was patented by 
Mr. Fox Talbot in 1S58, and is described and e.x- 

PHOTOMETER (light measurer) ; one was constructed by Dr. W. Ritchie in 1825. 
improvements have been made recently in connection with photography. 

PHOTOSPHERE, see Sun, note. PHRENOLOGY, see Craniologij. 

PHRYGIA (now Kerman), a province in Asia Minor, in which Troy was situated ; 
became part of the Persian empire in 537 B.C., and partook of its changes. It became a 
Roman province in 47 B.C., and a Turkish one, a.d. 1392. 

PHYSIC appears to have been iirst practised by the Egyptian priests. Pythagoras 
endeavoured to explain the iihilosophy of disease and the action of medicine, about 529 B.C. 
Hippocrates, the father of medicine, flourished about 422 B.C., and Galen, born a.d. 131, 
was the oracle of medical science. About 980 Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of medi- 
cine. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely 
new system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. On 28 Sept., 1865, Miss 
Garrett, at Apothecaries' Hall, London, received the licence to practise medicine. 



emplified in the Photographic Xews, 9 and 16 Sept. 
1859, a specimen being given in the latter number. 

PiroTOZiNcooRAPHY (a process by which photographs 
are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed 
from) was devised by sir Henry James, chief of 
the Ordnance Survey, and made known in i860. 
By it, maps, charts, and engravings may be printed 
at a small cost. 

Photo-Sculptdke : M. Villfeme's employment of 
photographs in the formation of sculptm-e was 
announced in 1863. 

Many 



sicians and two surgeons the regulation of his diet, 
and the administration of such medicines and 
remedies as might be sufficient for his cure, with- 
01; t any allusion to the isrevious existence or per- 
manency of the office which they were authorised 
for a time to fill, or to a remuneration for their 
services. — Life oj Linacre. 



Bom 


Died 




Som 


Died 


Malpighi . . .1628 


1694 


John Hunter 


. 1728 


1793 


Hermann Boerhaave 1668 


1738 


R. T. Laennec . 


. 1781 


1826 


R. Mead . . . 1673 


1754 


John Abemethy . 


. 1764 


1831 


William Hunter . 1718 


1783 


Astley Cooper . 


. 1768 


1841 



Phvsictan to the Kino. — The earliest mandate or 
warrant for the attendance of a physician at court 
is dated 1454, the 33 Henry VI., a reign fertile in 
the patronage which was affiirded to practitioners 
in medicine ; but in that reign no appointment 
existed which can Justly be called physician to the 
royal person. By this warrant the king, with the 
consent of his privy council, deisuted to three phy- 

Bom Died 

Thos. Linacre . . 1460 1524 

Paracelsus . . . 1493 1541 

William Harvey . 1578 1657 

Thomas Sydenham . 1624 1689 

PHYSIC GARDENS. The first cultivated in England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
London, in 1567 ; that at Oxford was endowed by the earl of Danby, in 1652 ; that at Cam- 
bridge was commenced about the middle of the last century ; and that at Chelsea, originated 
by sir Hans Sloane, was given to the Apothecaries' Company in 1721 ; this last was very 
much admired by the illustrioiis Linnseus. 

PHYSICIANS, Royal College of, of London (of England since 1858), was projected 
by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., who, through his interest with cardinal Wolsey, 
obtained letters patent, constituting a corporate body of regular physicians in London, with 
peculiar privileges, 23 Sept. 15 18. Linacre was elected the first president of the college. 
Dr. W. Harvey was a great benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built a library and 
public hall, which he granted for ever to the college, with his books and instruments. The 
college was afterwards held in a building in Warwick-lane, erected by sir C. Wren, where it 
continued till 1825, when the present elegant stone edifice in Trafalgai'-square was erected 
from designs by sir R. Smirke. — The College of Physicians, Dublin, was founded by charter 
of Charles II. 1667, and was re-incorporated in 1692. The Royal College of Physicians, 
Edinburgh, 29 Nov. 1681. 

PHYSICS, see under Philosophy. 

PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms that the dispositions of mankind may be 
discovered from the features of the face. The origin of the term is referred to Aristotle ; 
Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study from the beginning of the 
1 6th century ; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern 
system. Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck with the 
singular countenance of a soldier who passed rinder a windoAV at which he and Zimmerman. 
Avere standing ; his " Fragment " on this subject appeared in 1776. 

PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which treats of the inner constitution of animals 
and plants, and the several functions and operations of all their organs and tissues. The 



PIA 



568 



PIL 



works of Miiller, Milne-Edwards, and Carpenter are mucli celebrated, and Todd's "Cyclo- 
paedia of Physiology" (1836-59) is a library in itself. 

PIACENZA, see Placentia. 

PIANO-FOPiTE, invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he presented a model 
of his invention to the court of Saxony, and, some time after, G. Silverman, a musical 
instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes with considerable success. The 
invention has also been ascribed to an instrument-maker at Florence. The square piano- 
forte was first made by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes 
were made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since greatly improved 
by Broadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Erard, and others. 



A " stone piann-f arte," torm.e&oi a series of flints 
and other stones of various sizes, collected in 



France and arranged by M. Baudre, was 
played on by him at the Royal Institution on 

16 March, 1866 



PICAEDY (K France), was conquered by the English in 1346, and by the duke of 
Burgundy in 1417, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras 21 Sept. 1435, ^^^ annexed 
to France by Louis XI. 1463. 

PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by the Eomans, and their capital, Asculum, 
taken, 268 B.C. They began the Social War in 90, and were conquered in 89 B.C. 

PICHEGEU'S CONSPIPtACY, see Georges, &c. 

PICKETING, see Trials, Aug. 1867. 

PIOQUET, a game upon the cards, invented, it is said, by Joquemin, for the amusement 
of Charles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. Mezeray. 

PICTS (from Picti, painted), Scythians, who landed in Scotland much about the time 
that the Scots began to seize upon the Hebrides, or Western Isles (Hebudes). They after- 
wards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands and isles, and the Picts in 
that part now called the lowlands. Between 838 and 842, the Scots under Kenneth II. 
totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom. Their incursions in England led to 
the Saxon invasion ; see Roman Wall. 

PICTURES, see Painting. 

PIEDMONT {Pedemontium, Latin, foot of the mountains), a region in N. Italy, the seat 
of government of the latter kingdom of Sardinia, tuMch sec, and Savoy. 

PIE-POUDRE COURT, the Court of Dusty Foot, whose jurisdiction was established for 
cases arising at fairs and markets, to do justice to the buyer and seller immediately upon 
the spot. By stat. 17 Edw. IV. 147, it had cognizance of all disputes in the precincts of the 
market to which it might belong, 1477. 

PIER AND HARBOUR ACT, to facilitate the formation, management, and maintenance 
of piers and harbours in Great Britain and Ireland, was passed in 1862. 

PIETISTS, a Lutheran sect, instituted in Leipsic by Philip James Spener, a professor of 
theology, about 1689, with the view of reforming the popular religion. He established 
"colleges of pietists," with preachers resembling those of the society of friends and the 
methodists in Britain, about 1760. A body resembling the Pietists, named Chasidim, 
arose among the Jews in the Ukraine, and spread through Poland and European Turkey. 

PIGEONS were employed as carriers by the ancients.* 

PILGRIMAGE of GRACE, a name assumed by religious insurgents in the North of 
England, who opposed the dissolution of the monasteries. The movement, which com- 
menced in Lincolnshire in Sept. 1536, was suppressed in Oct. ; but soon after revived in 
Yorkshire ; and an expedition, bearing the foregoing name, having banners on which were 
depicted the five wounds of Christ, was headed by Aske, and other gentlemen, and joined by 
priests and 40,000 men of York, Durham, Lancaster, and other coxrnties. They took Hull 
and York, with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk marched against them, and by making 
terms dispersed them. Early in 1537 they again took arms but were promptly suppressed, 
and the leaders, several abbots, and many others, were executed. 

PILGRIMAGES began with the pilgrimage of the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. 

* When they took a long journey, they carried tame pigeons with them. When they thought proper 
to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with letters fastened to its neck : the bird once 
released, would never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced 
to his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at ^Egina a pigeon stained with purple. 
Ovid Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, 
the most noled were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. Thirty- 
two pigeons sent to Antwerp were liberated from London at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same 
day at noon one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived ; the 
remainder on the following day, 23 Nov. 1819. Philips. 



PIL 569 PIS 

They became frequent at the close of the loth century. Robert II. of France made several 
pilgrimages ; among others one to Pome about the year 1016, perhaj^s in 1020, when he 
refused the imperial dignity and the kingdom of Italy. Henaidt. 

PILGRIM FATHERS is the name given in North America to a party of 74 English 
Puritans and 28 women, who sailed in the May Flower to North America ; and landed on 
Plymouth Kock, where they founded a colony, 25 Dec. 1620. 

"PILGRIM'S PROGRESS from this world to that w^hich is to come," wTitten 
by John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was imprisoned twelve years, 1660-72. The 
first part was published in 1678. A Hebrew version ajipeared in 1851. 

PILLAR SAINTS, see Monachism. 

PILLORY, a scnffold for persons to stand on, to render them publicly infamous. This 
punishment was awarded against persons convicted of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In 
some cases the head was put through a hole, tlie hands through two others, the nose slit, the 
face branded with one or more letters, and one or both ears were cut off. There is a statute 
of the pillory, 41 Hen. III. 1256. Many persons died in the pillory by being struck with 
stones b}'' the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and putrid otlal. It was abolished as a 
punishment in all cases except perjury, 1815, and totally abolished in 1837. The last who 
suffered at the Old Bailey was Peter Jas. Bossy, for perjurj^, 24 June, 1830. 

PILNITZ (near Dresden, Saxony). The convention of Pilnitz took place between the 
emperor Leopold and the king of Prussia, 20 July, 1791. On Aug. 27 the treaty of Pilnitz, 
or, as some style it, tire Partition Treaty, was finally agreed upon at Pavia by the courts in 
concert. It was to the effect "that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. had 
conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and uniting these provinces to the Netherlands, 
give them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to be added to the palatinate ; Bavaria 
to be added to the Austrian possessions, " &c. 

PILOT. The act relating to pilots, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 129 (1853), with other acts, is em- 
bodied in the Merchant Shipping act, 1854 ; see Trinity- House. 

PINE-TREES- The stone pine {Pinus Pinea), brought to these countries before 1548. 
The cluster pine (Pinus Pinaster), brought from the south of Europe before 1596. The 
"Weymouth pine (Pimcs Strobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense pine (Pinus 
Tceda), from North America, before 1713. There are other varieties. 

PINKEY (near Edinburgh), where the Engli.sh under the earl of Hertford, protector, 
totally defeated the Scots, 10 Sept. 1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above 
10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. Hume. 

PINS are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass yjinswere brought from France in 1540, 
and first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, queen of Henry VIII. Pins 
were made in England in 1543. Stoio. They were first manufactured by machinery in 
England in 1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wright, of the United States. 

PIRACY was severely repressed by the Romans. Pompey destroyed the Cilician pirates. 
67 B.C. ; see Btcccaneers. Many acts of parliament have been passed for the suppression of 
piracy ; the latest in 1837. 

PlRiEUS, the port of Athens, was united to the city by two long walls, one erected by 
Themistocles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., v/hich were destroj'ed by Lysander, 404 
B.C. It was fortified by Conon, 393 B.C. The Pirteus was able to contain 400 Greek vessels. 
It was occupied by the French during the Russian war in 1854. 

PIRMASENS (Bavaria). Here Moreau and the French were defeated by the duke of 
Brunswick and the Prns.sians, 14 Sept. 1793. 

PISA, an ancient city in Tuscanj', was founded about six centuries before Christ, and 
was favoured by the early Roman emperors as a flourishing republic. The citizens took an 
active part in the Italian wars of the middle ages, but became subject to Florence, after a 
long siege, 1405-6. In 1494, Pisa became independent under the protection of Charles VIII. 
of France, but was retaken by the Florentines in 1509. The university was founded in 1343, 
and revived by the Medici in 1472, and 1542. The celebrated Campanile or leaning tower 
was built about 1154,* and the Campo Santo about the same time. The rival popes, Bene- 
dict XIII. and Gregory XII., were deposed at a council held at Pisa in 1409, and Alexander 
V. elected in their room. 

* This tower was erected to contain bells, and stands in a square close to the cathedral. It is built 
entirely of white marble, and is a cj-linder of eight stories, each adorned with a round of columns, rising 
one above another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet 
from the top, which is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Some think this was done 
purposely by the architect ; others attribute it to an accidental subsidence of the foundation. From this 
tower Galileo made his observation on gravitation (about 1635). 



PIS 



570 



PLA 



PISCICULTURE, see Fisheries. 

PISTOLS, the smallest fire-arms, were first used by the cavalry of England about 1544. 
Of late years they have been made with a revolving cylindrical breech, in which are formed 
several chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing them in succession into a line with 
the barrel ready for firing. The earliest model of this hind of arm is to be found in the 
museum of the United Service Institution, and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles 
I. The manufacture of pistols by machinery Avas first introduced into England from the 
United States, America, in the year 1853, by col. Colt, who invented the Colt pistol, 185 1. 
The perfection and economy of this system of n)anufacture induced the British government 
to establish the Enfield armoury, in the year 1855 ; see Fire- Arms. 

PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small island in the Pacific Ocean, said to have been dis- 
covered by Pitcairn in 1768, and seen by Cook in 1773, and since noted for being colonised 
by ten mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789 ;* see Bounty. 

PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first administration was formed on the dismissal of 
the coalition ministry (which see), Dec. 1783, and terminated by resignation in 1801. The 
second was formed 12 May, 1804 ; and terminated (after various changes) by Mr. Pitt's death, 
23 Jan. 1806. A public funeral was decreed to him, and 40,000^. to pay his debts. 



ADMINISTRATION OF 1804. 

William Pitt, j'irsi lord of the treasury. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidmouth (late 

Mr. Addiiigton), lord presiderU. 
Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
Lord Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by 

lord Mulgrave), and earl Camden (succeeded by 

viscount Caf^tlereagU), home, foreign, and colonial 

secretaries. 
Viscount Melville (succeeded by lord Barham), 

admira Ity. 
Duke of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. 



ADMINISTRATtON Or 1783. 

William Pitt, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 
of the exchequer. 

Earl Gower, lord president. 

Duke of Rutland, privy seal. 

Marquess of Carmarthen, and earl Temple (immedi- 
ately succeeded by lord Sydney), secretaries. 

Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

Viscount Howe, admiralty, 

Duke of Eicbmond, ordnance. 

William Wyndham Granville, Henry Dundas, (fee. 

[Mr. Pitt continued minister until 1801. Many 
changes in his ministry occurred in the long period 
of seventeen years.] 

PITTSBURG LANDINCJ (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday, 6 April, 1862, a great 
battle was fought between the American federals under Grant and Prentiss, and the con- 
federates under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter began the attack and 
were victorious, but lost their able general Johnston. The federals were reinforced the next 
day and renewed the attack ; the confederates maintained their ground ; but soon after 
retired in good order to Corinth. This engagement is also named the battle of Shiloh. 

PIUS lY., Cbeed of, see Confessions. 

PLACENTIA (now Piacenza), N. Italy, founded by the Romans about 220 B.C. It 
suffered in all the convulsions attending the fall of 'the empire, and the wars of the middle 
ages. In 1254 it fell under the rule of the family of the Scotti. In 1302 Alberto Scotto 
was overcome, and Placentia was united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. On their ex- 
tinction in 1447, Placentia revolted, but was taken by Sforza duke of Milan, and treated 
very cruelly. In 15 13 it was given to pope Leo X. In 1545, Paul III. gave it with Parma 
as a duchy to his son Peter Louis Farnese. The French and Spaniards were defeated by the 
Austrians and Sardinians near Placentia, 16 June, 1746 ; see Parma. 

PLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt (1491 B.C.) are described in Exodusix,, &c. The first re- 
corded general plague in all parts of the world occurred 767 B.C. Petavius. At Carthage 
a plague was so terrible that people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 B.C. 
Baronixis. At Rome a desolating plagiie prevailed, 453 B.C. The devastating plague at 
Athens, which spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, 430 B.C., is admirably described by Thucy- 
dides. Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, destroyed 2000 persons 
every day, 188 b.c. Pliny ; see Cattle. 

* They remained \mknown to England until discovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the island 
was hailed by a swarthy youth in the English language, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon after 
settling there, had married some black women from a neighbouring island, and had become a singularly 
well-conducted community under the fostering care of Adams, the principal mutineer. He died in 1829, 
■when an Englishman named Nobbs, who arrived a few years before, became chief. In Aug. 1S52 admiral 
Moresby spent a few days on the island. By his means Nobbs was sent to England and obtained ordina- 
tion. As their numbers increased, the island proved incapable of their support. The English govern- 
ment removed them, with all their property, in the ship Morayshire, on 3 May, 1856, and landed them, 
after a boisterous passage, on Norfolk Island, prepared previously for their reception, 8 June. The 
government stocked Norfolk Island with 2000 sheep, 450 head of cattle, and twenty horses, and gave them 
stores to last twelve months ; their numbers were 96 males and 102 females. 

t William Pitt, the second son of the great earl of Chatham, was born 28 March, 1759 ; became M.P. 
23 Jan. 1782 ; moved for reform in parliament, 7 May, 1782 ; and became chancellor of the exchequer, 
July, 1782 ; died 23 Jan. 1806. 



PLA 



571 



PLA 



PLAGUE, continued. 

At Rome, a most awful plague; 10,000 persons 

perished daily, a.d. 80. 
Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, i6g, 189. 
Another in the Roman empire. For some time 5000 

persons died daily at Rome, and many towns were 

entirely depopulated, 250-265. 
In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes 

that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the 

dead, 430. 
A long-continued dreadful one began in Europe in 

558, extended all over Asia and Africa. 
At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabitants 

perished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 

746-749. 
In London, 962. 
At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease 

carried off 34,000 persons, 772. Will. Malms. 
In Scotland 40,000 persons perished, 954. 
In London, great mortality, 1094 ; and Ireland, 1095. 
Again, in London ; it extended to cattle, fowls, and 

other domestic animals, mi. HoliiiKhed. 
In Ireland ; after Christmas this year, Henry II. 

was forced to quit the country, 11 72. 
Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious number 

perished, 1204. 
The '• Black Death" in Italy, 1340. 
A plague raged throughout Europe, causing exten 

sive mortality. Britain and Ireland suffered 

gi-ievously. In London alone 200 persons were 

buried daily in the Chartei-house yard, 1348-9. (That 

at Florence described by Boccaccio.) 
In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed 

in 1361-2, 1367, 1369, and in Ireland in 1370. 
A great pestilence in Ireland called the Fourth, 

destroyed a great number of the people, 1383. 
30,000 persons pei'ished of a dreadful pestilence in 

London, 1407. 
Again, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine ; great 

numbers died, 1466 ; and Dublin was wasted by a 

plague, 1470. 
An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and throughout 

England, a plague which destroyed more people 

than the continual wars for the fifteen preceding 

years, 1478. Rapin ; Salmon. 
The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very 

fatal in London, 1485. Delaune. 
The plague in London so dreadful that Henry VII. 

and his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500. Stow. 
The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in 

London, 1506 ; and in 1517. In most of the capi- 
tal towns in Englaad half the inhabitants died, 

and Oxford was depopulated, 9 Hen. VIII. Sloio. 



Limerick was visited by a plagi^ie, when many 
thousands perished, 1522. 

The sweating sickness again in England, 1528 : and 
in North Germany in 1529 ; and for the fifth time 
in England, in 155 1. 

30,578 persons perished of the plague in London 
alone, 1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantiuople, 
in 161 1. 

In London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 
persons perished, 1625. 

In France, a general mortality ; at Lyons, 6o,oco 
persons died, 1632. 

The plague brought from Sardinia to Naples (being 
introduced by a transport with soldiers on board), 
raged with such violence as to carry oft' 400,000 of 
the inhabitants in six mouths, 1656. 

The Grkat Plague of London, in 1664-5, which 
carried off 68,596 persons; some say 100,000.* 
Fires were kept up night and day to purity the 
air for three days ; and it is thought the infection 
was not totally destroyed till the great conflagi-a- 
tion of 1666. 

60,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles 
and neighbourhood, brought in a ship from the 
Levant, 1720. 

One of the most awful plagues that ever raged, pre- 
vailed in Syria, 1760. Abbil ilardi. 

In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 
of the inhabitants of Bassora, 1773. 

In Egypt, above 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792. 

In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 247,000 
perished, 1799. 

In Spain and at Gibraltar, immense numbers were 
carried off by a pestilent disease iu 1804 and 1S05. 

Again at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much resem- 
bling the plague, caused great mortality, 1828. 

The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) made its first ap- 
pearance in England, at Sunderland, 26 Oct. 1831 ; 
in Scotland, at Haddington, 23 Dec. same year ; 
and In Ireland, at Belfast, 14 March, 1832. 

The cholera again visited England, &c. 1848 and 
1849 (s^s Cholera). 

The cholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, 
and appeared in Paris, Marseilles, Naples ; July- 
Dec. 1865. 

A great cattle plague {which see) in England, resem- 
bling typhus, near London, begins June, 1865. 

A new, and hitherto an incurable disease, named 
blaxk death, on account of purple blotches coming 
out on the skin, appeared in Dublin ; many per- 
sona, of all ranks, died a few hours after the 
seizaire. March et seq. 1866. 

PLANETS. Jupiter was known as a planet to the. Chinese and the Chaldeans, and in- 
serted in a chart of the heavens, made about 600 B.C., and in which 1460 stars are accurately 
described ; this chart is said to be in the imperial library at Paris. Tlie satellites of Jupiter 

* The following passage is taken from De Foe's History of the Plague (a work of imagination) : — "It 
commenced in December, 1664. In May, June, and July, it had continued with great severity ; but in 
August and September it quickened into dreadful activity, sweeping away 8000 persons in a week. Then 
it was that the whole British nation wept for the sufferings of the metropolis. Jn some houses carcases 
lay waiting for burial ; and in others, persons were seen doubled up in their last agonies. In one room 
were heard dying groans : and in the next the ravings of deUrium, mingled with the wailings of relatives 
and friends, and the apprehensive shrieks of childi-en. Infants passed at once from the womb to the gi'ave. 
The yet healthy child hung upon the putrid breast of a dead mother ; and the nuptial bed was changed 
into a sepulchre. Some of the affected ran about staggering hko drunken men, and fell and expired in the 
streets ; while others calmly laid themselves down, never to rise but at the call of the last trumpet. At 
length, in the middle of September, more than 12,000 perished in one wceii ; in one night 4000 died; and 
in the whole, not 68,000, as has been stated, but 100,000 perished of this plague. The hearses were but 
dead-carts which continually traversed the streets, while the appalling cry, ' Jiring out your dead,' thrilled 
through every soul. Then it was that parents, husbands, wives, and children saw aU those that were dear 
to them thrown with a pitchfork into a cart, like the offal of a slaughter-house, to be conveyed without the 
walls, and flung into one promiscuous heap, without the rites of sepulture, without a coffin, and without 
a shroud ! Some gi-aves were dug so large as to hold a thousand bodies each ; and into those huge holes, 
the living, wrapt in blankets and rags, threw themselves among the dead, in their agonies and delirium. 
They were often found in this state hugging the flesh of their kindred that had not quite perished. People 
in the intolerable torment of their swelUngs, ran wild and mad, laying violent hands upon themselves ; 
and even mothers, in their lunacy, murdered their own children. When the carts were insufficient for their 
office, the houses and streets were rendered tenfold more pestilential by the unburied dead." De Foe. 



PLA 



572 



PLA 



discovered by Galileo, 7 Jan. 1610. We now know nine primary planets, termed major ; 
Memory, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Vulcan ; and 
ninety-seven secondary or minor, situated between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. * 

Uranus, formerly called Georgium Sidus and 44. 

JSerschel ; discovered by W. Herschel (see 45. 

Gcorgium Sidiis) 13 March, 1781 46. 

Neptune, discovered by Galle (in consequence of 47. 

the calculations of Le Verrier and Adams) 48. 

(see Neptune) 23 Sept. 1846 49. 

Vukan (between Mercury and the Sun), dls- 50. 

covered by M. Lescarbault, a physician 51. 

26 March, 1859 52. 

Minor Planets {according to Mr. G. F. Chambers). 53. 

1. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the 54. 

naked eye) i Jan. 1801 55. 

2. Pallas, discovered at Bremen by Olbers 56. 

(see Pallas) . . . . 28 March, 1802 57. 

3. Juno, discovered by Harding . i Sept. 1804 58. 

4. Fesia, discovered by Olbers . 29 March, 1807 59. 

5. Astraia, by K. C. Hencke . . .8 Dec. 1845 60. 

6. Hebe, by the same . . . i July, 1847 61. 

7. Iris, by J. R. Hind ... 13 Aug. „ 62. 

8. Flora, by the same ... 18 Oct. „ 63. 
g. Metis, by A. Graham . . 25 April, 1848 64. 

10. Hygeia, by A. de Gasparis . . 12 April, 1849 65. 

11. Parthenope, by the same . . 11 May, 1850 

12. Victoria, by J. R. Hind . . 13 Sept. ,, 66. 

13. Egeria, lay A. de Gasparis . . 2 Nov. ,, 67. 

14. Irene, by J. B. Hind . . . ig May, 1851 68. 
75. ^Mwomia, by A. de Gajsparis . 29 July, ,, 6g. 

16. Psyche, by the same . . .17 March, 1852 70. 

17. Thetis, by R. Luther . . 17 April, ,, 71. 

18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hind . . 24 June ,, 72. 
ig. Fortuna, by the same . . 22 Aug. ,, 73. 

20. Massilia, by A. de Gasparis . 19 Sept. ,, 74. 

21. Zwtetia, by H. Goldschmidt . 15 Nov. ,, 75. 

22. Calliope, by J. R. Hind . . 16 Nov. ,, 76. 

23. Thalia, hy the s&Tae . . . 15 Dec. ,, 77. 

24. Themis, by A. de Gasparis . . 5 April, 1853 78. 

25. Phocea, by M. Chacornac . . 6 April, , , 79. 

26. Proserpine, by R. Luther . . 5 May ,, 80. 

27. Euterpe, by J. B. Hind . . .8 Nov. ,, 81. 

28. Bellona, by R. Luther . . i March, 1854 82. 

29. Amphitrite, by Mr. Marth . i March, „ 83. 

30. Urama, by J. R. Hind . . 22 July, ,, 84. 

31. Euphrosyne, by James Ferguson . i Sept. ,, 85. 

32. Pomona, by H. Goldschmidt . 26 Oct. „ 86. 

33. Polyhymnia,, by M. Chacornac . 28 Oct. ,, 87. 

34. Circe, by the same . . . 6 April, 1855 88. 

35. Leucothea, by R. Luther . . 19 April, ,, 89. 

36. Atalania, by H. Goldschmidt . ig April, ,, 90. 

37. Fides, by R. Luther . . .5 Oct. „ gi. 

38. Leda, by M. Chacornac . . 12 Jan. 1856 92. 
3g. Lcetitia, by the same . . .8 Feb. ,, 93. 

40. Harmonia, by R. Luther . . 31 March, „ 94. 

41. Daphne, by H. Goldschmidt . 22 May, ,, 95. 

42. Isis, by Norman Pogson . . 23 May, ,, 96. 

43. Ariadne, by the same . . 15 April, 1857 97. 

PLAISTETARIUM, see Orrery. 

PLANIXG-MACHINE. One for wood was constructed by Bramah, about 1802 ; and one 
for iron by Joseph Clement in 1825. 

PLANTAGENET,! House of, to which belonged fourteen English kings, from Henry II, 
1154, to Eichard III. killed at the battle of Bosworth, 1485 ; see England, p. 27.5. 

PLANTATIONS, see Trade. 

PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a battle fought between the British under Clive, 
and the Hindoos under Surajah Dowlah, 23 June, 1757. The nabob, although at the head 

* The numerical order differs in the lists of English and French astronomers. 

t It was believed at first to be Daphne, No. 41; and hence was called "Pseudo-Daphne," when E. 
Schubert proved it to be a new planet. It was not re-discovered by M. Goldschmidt till i Sept. 1862, 
when it received its present name, that of the Muse of Meditation. 

J Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, havmg contrived the death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order 
to succeed to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atonement for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended 
by only two servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip 
and whip him there, like a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in Latin genista, being the only 
tough, pliant shrub in Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with it, and from this instru- 
ment of his chastisement, he was called Planta-genista, or Plautagenet. Skinner and Mhiray. 



Nysa, by H. Goldschmidt . 


27 May, 


i8S7 


Eugenia, by the same 


28 June, 


,, 


He.itia, by N. Pogson . 


16 Aug. 


,, 


iMelete, by H. Goldschmidt . 


. 9 Sept. 


,, 


Aglaia, by R. Luther . 


15 Sept. 


„ 


Doris, by H. Goldschmidt 


1 9 Sept. 


,, 


Pales, by the same 


19 Sept. 


„ 


Virginia, by James Ferguson . 


. 4 Oct. 


,, 


Nemausa, by M. Laurent . 


22 Jan. 


1858 


Eurojm, by H. Goldschmidt . 


. 6 Feb. 


» 


Calypso, by R. Luther . 


4 April, 




Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt 


10 Sept. 


J, 


Pandora, by Mr. Searle 


10 Sept. 


,j 


Mnemosyne, by R. Luther 


22 Sept. 


1859 


Concordia, by the same 


24 March, 


i860 


Danae. by H. Goldschmidt 


. 9 Sept. 


,, 


Olympia, by M. Chacornac . 


12 Sept. 


,, 


J'?-ato,byMM. Porster and Lessing, 14 Sept. 


„ 


Echo (orig. Titania 1, by J. Ferguson, 14 Sept. 


,, 


Ausonia, by A. de Gasparis . 


. 10 Feb. 


1 861 


Angelina, by M. Tempel . 


4 March, 


,, 


Cybele (orig. Maximiliana), by M 


Tempel, 
8 March, 




Maia, by H. P. Tuttle 


9 April, 


,, 


Asia, by N. Pogson 


17 April, 


,, 


Leto, by R. Luther 


29 April, 


„ 


Hesperia, by M. Schiaparelli . 


29 April, 


,, 


Panopea, by>H. Goldschmidt . 


■ 5 May 


,, 


Feronia, by Mr. Safford 


. 29 May, 


,, 


Mobe, by B. Luther . 


13 Aug. 


„ 


Clytie, by H. P. Tuttle . 


. 7 April, 


1862 


Galatea, by M. Tempel 


30 Aug. 


,, 


Eurydice, by C. H. Peters . 


22 ^ept. 


,, 


Freia, byM. D' Arrest 


. 21 Oct. 


,, 


Frigga, by C. H. Peters 


IS Nov. 


,, 


Diana,, by R. Luther 


IS March, 


1863 


Eurynovie, by Jas. C. Watson 


. 14 Sept. 


,, 


Sappho, by N. Pogson 


. 2 May, 


1864 


Terpsichore, by M. Tempel . 


30 Sept. 


„ 


Alcmene, by B. Luther 


27 Nov. 


„ 


Beatrice, by A. de Gasparis . 


. 26 April, 


1865 


Clio, by B. Luther . 


25 Aug. 


,, 


lo, by C. H. Peters 


19 Sept. 


,, 


Semele, by P. Tietjen 


. 4 Jan. 


1866 


Sylvia, by N. Pogson . 


17 May, 


,, 


Thisbe, by C. H. Peters . 


IS June, 


,, 


Julia, by M. Stephan . 


6 Aug. 


,, 


Antiope, by B. Luther . 


. I Oct. 


,, 


JEgina, by M. Borelly 


4 Nov. 


,, 


Ondina, by C. P. Peters 


. 8 July, 


1867 


, by C. Watson . 


24 Aug. 


,, 


■ , by the same 


. 6 Sept. 


,, 


Arethusa, by R. Luther 


23 Nov. 


,, 


Mgle, by M. Coggia 


. 17 Feb. 


1868 


Clotho, by M. Tempel 


17 Feb. 


,, 



PLA 573 PLE 

of about 68,000 men, was vanquished by 1000 British, and about 2000 sei^oys. The victory 
laid the foundation of our empire in India ; see India. 

PLASTER OF Paris. Gypsum, sulphate of lime, used for moidds, statuary, &c., first 
found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, whence it obtained its name. The metliod of 
taking likenesses by its use was lirst discovered by Andrea del Verrochio, about 1466. 

PLATA, LA, see Argentine Ee^mblic. 

PLATiEA (Boeotia, K Greece), site of the battle between Mardonius, commander of the 
army of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commanding the Lacedeemonians and Atlienians, 
22 Sept. 479 B.C. ; the same day as the battle of JMycale. Of 300,000 Persians scarce 3000 
escaped with their lives. The Grecian array, about 110,000, lost but few men. The Greeks 
obtained immense plunder, and were henceforth delivered from tlae fear of Persian invasions. 
Platiea was destroyed by the Thebans, 372 ; and rebuilt by Philip II. after his victory at 
Chseronea, 338. 

PLATE. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in public- 
houses by statute 8 Will. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate act passed in Ma}', 1756. This 
act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate passed in 1784; see 
Goldsmiths' Comjyany. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed to be manu- 
factured at a lower standard ; but a later act excepted marriage rings. — The art of covering 
baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for use or for ornament (plating), said to have 
been invented by a Birmingham spur-maker, who began with making the branches of a pair 
of spurs hollow, and filling the hollow with a slender rod of steel. He continued to make 
the hollow larger and the iron thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spur with silver ; 
see Electrotype. 

PLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals, except Osmium. The name originated 
•with the Spaniards on account of its silvery colour, from the word Plata, signifying 
silver. It was found in the auriferous sand of the river Pinto, in South America, and 
was unknown in Europe until 1741, when don Antonio Ulloa announced its existence in 
the narrative of his voyage to Peru. Greig. In its ore have been found the metals 
Palladium, Ehodium, Osmium, Iridium, and Ruthenium (which see). In 1859, M. H. 
Ste-t!laire Deville made known a new method of obtaining platinum from its ore, in great 
abundance and purity, and at the international exhibition of 1862 was shown a mass 
worth 3840?., weighing 266^ lb., of a metal hitherto considered infusible, obtained by his 
process, employing the oxy-hydrogen flame ; see Philosophical Lamp. 

PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY,'the most popular of all systems (see Philosophy). Plato's 
dialogues have been termed " Philosophy backed by example." He was a disciple of Socrates, 
409 B.C., and died 347. The leading feature of his mind was comprehensiveness. 

PLATONIC YEAR, the period of time which the equinoxes take to finish their revo- 
lution, at the end of which the stars and constellations have the same place with regard to the 
equinoxes that they had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or period requires 25,816 
common years to complete it ; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920 ; and Cassini at 24,800 ; at 
the end of which time some imagined that there would be a total and natural renovation of 
the whole creation. 

PLATTSBURG. A British expedition against this place, a town of New York, on Lake 
Cham plain, was designed under generHl sir George Prevost, but was abandoned after the 
naval force of England had sufiered a defeat in an engagement with the"Ameiicans, xi Sept. 
1814, wJren the British squadron in Lake Champlain was captured ; see United States. 

PLAY-GROUNDS. In 1858 a society was established by the earl of Shaftesbury and 
other benevolent persons to provide play-grounds for the recreation of adults and the children 
of the humble classes. Ground was liberally offered by the government, and by the marquess 
of Westminster and others ; and in 1859 an act of parliament was passed to facilitate grants 
of lands for this purpose, for which part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The scheme was 
not successful. 

PLAYS, see Drama, aud Theatres. 

PLEADINGS. Clothaire held a kind of moveable parliament called placita, whence 
came the word pleas, A.D. 616. Renault. In the early courts of judicature in England, 
pleadings were made in the Saxon language in 786 ; and in Norman-French from the period 
of the conquest in 1066 iintil 1362. Cromwell ordered all law yjroceedings to be taken in 
English in 1650. In English law the pleadings are the mutual statements of the plaiutilf 's 
cause of action, and the defendant's ground of defence. 

PLEBEIANS, Plebes, the citizens of Rome, as distinguished from the Patricians ; see 
Rome, 494-366 B.C. 



PLE 574 POD 

PLEBISCITUM, a term given to a law passed by the comitia tribuia, an assemblj' 
of the Eoman people in their tribes, first established in 491 B.C. The term has been 
recently revived in France and Italy, and applied to Universal Suffrage (which see). 

PLOTS, see Conspiracies, and Rebellions. 

PLOUGH. " Thou shalt not plough with an ox and an ass together." Bent. xxii. 
10 (1451 B.C.). The Eoman plough is minutely described by Virgil, about 31 B.C. 
Engines to plough grounds, whether inland or upland, were patented by David Kamsay 
and Thomas Wildgoose, in 16 18 ; and many improvements in ploughs have been patented 
since. The application of steam power to ploughing was patented by John Upton in 
1837, and by others since, more especially by lord Willoughby D'Eresby, the marquess 
of Tweeddale, and the earl of Caithness ; see Steam-Plough. 

PLOUGH MONDAY, in January, the first Monday after the Epiphany : in 1867, Jan. 14 ; 
in 1868, Jan. 13. It received the appellation from its having been fixed iipon by our 
forefathers as the day upon which they returned to the duties of agriculture after enjoy- 
ing the festivities of Christmas. Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, the ploughmen of the 
north country used to draw a plough from door to door and beg plough money to drink. 
Bailey. 

PLUM. We have two native plums ; our finer kinds came from Italy and Flanders about 
1522. The Biospyros Lotus, the date plum, was brought from Barbary, before 1596. The 
Pishamin plum, Biospyros virginiana, from America, before 1629. Formerly damsons, 
apricots, and peaches went by this name, as raisins do to this day. 

PLURALITIES. Clergymen have been restrained from holding more than one benefice 
by several statutes ; the first being 21 Henry VIII. 1529. In 1838 an act was passed 
prohibiting the holding of more than two benefices except they were at a distance less 
than ten miles ; and the law on this subject was still further amended in 1850 and 1855, 
provisions being made for the amalgamation of neighbouring benefices. 

PLURAL NUMBER, see We. 

PLUS ( + ) AND Minus (— ). Professor de Morgan attributes these signs to either 
Christopher Rudolf, who published a book on algebra about 1522, or Michael Stifelius, 
about 1544. 

PLYMOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devonshire. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of the 
English fieet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, &c., which pursued the Spanish armada. 
The fine hotel and assembly-rooms were burnt 6 Jan. 1863 ; loss about 50,000^. ; see Break- 
water, and Backyards. 

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, a body of Christians calling themselves "the Brethren," 
first appeared at Plymouth about 1830. In 1851 they had 132 places of worship in England 
and Wales. They object to national churches as too latitudinarian, and to other dissenters 
as too sectarian. They receive into commimion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy 
Ghost as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical protestant churches, 
but they recognise no order of ministers. 

PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY, to convey letters and parcels through tubes by 
means of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The company's act was passed 13 Aug. 1859, 
and tubes were laid down in Threadneedle-street on 12 Sept. i860 ; and on 20 Aug. 1861, 
successful experiments were performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from 
the Euston railway station to the N.W. post-ofiice in Camden-town, and on 21 Feb. 1863, 
the conveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. 1865, tubes had been laid down between 
Euston railway and Holborn ; and on 7 Nov. several persons travelled in them. Engineer, 
Mr. Rammell. 

PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed air is the motive power, invented by Mr. 
Harrison, was exhibited in London in Dec. 1864. A company has been formed to bring it 
into general use. 

PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of the mechanical properties of air and gases ; 
see Air, and Atmospheric Railways. 

PODESTA (from potestas, power), an Italian governor, afterwards a judge ; one with 
supreme authority was appointed at Milan by the emperor Frederick I., when he took the 
city in 1158. 

PODOLL (Bohemia), the site of a severe conflict between the Austrians and apart of the 
army of prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, 26 June, 1866. The Prussians had the 
advantage. 



POE 



575 



POI 



Rev. Laurence Eusden, died .... 1730 

Colley Gibber, died 1757 

William Whitehead, died 1785 

Rev. Dr. Thomas Wartou, died . . . . 1790 

Henry James Pye, died 1813 

Dr. Robert Southey, died . .21 March, 1843 
William Vi^ordsworth, died . . .23 April, 1850 
Alfred Tennyson (born 1809) . . installed ,, 



POET-LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office.* Chaucer, 
on his return from abroad, assumed the title of poet-laureat ; and in the twelfth year of 
Richard II. 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I. in 1615, 
granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was 
augmented by letters patent of Charles I. to lool. per annum, with an additional grant of 
one tierce of Canary Spanish wine to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearl)''. We 
believe that on Southey's appointment the tierce of Canary wine was commuted for 27Z. 

POETS-LAUREAT. t 

Edmund Spenser, died 1599 

Samuel Daniel, died 1619 

Ben Jonson, died 1637 

Sir William Davenant, died 1668 

John Dryden : deposed at the revolution . . 16SS 

Thomas Shadwell, died 1692 

Nahum Tate, died 1715 

Nicholas Rowe, died 1718 

POETRY, the oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species of 
refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest perpetuation of 
thought. It existed before music in melody, and before painting in description. Hazlitt. 
The song of Moses on the deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red 
Sea, 149 1 B.C. {Exodus xv.), is the most ancient poetry extant. Orpheus of Thrace is deemed 
the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world) about 1249 B.C. ; see Epics, 
Odes, Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, Ballads, Hymns, and Verse. 

POICTIERS (W. France), near which was fought the battle between Edward the Black 
Prince and John, king of France, in which the English arms triumphed, 19 Sept. 1356. The 
standard of France was overthrown, many of her nobility slain, and her king was taken 
Ijrisonei-, and brought to London ; see Tours. 

POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their 
husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave denounced 1 70 of them 
to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly executed, 33 1 B. c. It was said that 
this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome. J Poisoning was made 
pettj' treason in England, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there are some 
remarkable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 153 1 ; see Boiling to Death. The frequency of cases 
of poisoning by means of arsenic, in England, caused the British legislature to pass a law 
rendering the sale of arsenic (which, until then could be obtained without check by any 
person from druggists' and apothecaries' shops) a matter of difficulty. This act regulated the 
sale of arsenic, and was passed 14 Vict. c. 13, 6 June, i85i.§ Recent remarkable cases 
of poisoning are those for which W. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith tried 
in 1857 ; see Trials. Catherine Wilson, a noted poisoner, was executed on 20 Oct. 1862. 
Edward William Pritchard, M.D., was executed at Glasgow, 28 July, 1865, for the slow 
murder of his wife and her mother, by antimony. A committee of the commons on the 
subject of the sale of poisons was appointed in 1857, but no legislation has yet ensued. — The 
Poisoned Gh-ain Prohibition Act was passed 28 July, 1863. 

* Warton, in his History of English Poetry, states that in the reign of Henry III. there was a Vcrsificator 
Regis, to whom an annual stipend was first paid of one hundred shillings. The first mention of a Poet 
Laureat occurs, we believe, in the reign of Edward IV., when John Kay was laureat ; Andrew Bernard was 
laureat, temp. Henry VII. ; and John Skelton, temp. Henry VIII. Edmund Spenser, as above, was poet- 
laureat in the reign of Elizabeth. Whitehead was created on the refusal of Grey, Warton on the refusal of 
Mason, and Southey on the refusal of Scott. Laurence Eusden commenced a series of Birth-Day and New 
Tear's Odes, which continued tiU. the death of Pye, in 1813. 

t " At the accession of George I. Rowe was made poet-laureat, I am afraid by the ejection of poor 
Nahum Tate, who died in the Mint, where he was forced to seel^ shelter from extreme poverty." Dr. 
Johnson. On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended by Gibbon, whose elegant compliment 
on the occasion stiU more forcibly applied on Wordsworth's death, in 1S50. — " This is the best time for not 
filling up the office, when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just departed was a man of genius." 
Decline and Fall, etc., chap. Ixx. 

t A deadly poison freely administered by Italians in the seventeenth century, was called aijna tnfana, 
from the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small fiat vials. She carried on this traffic 
for half a century, and eluded the pohce ; but, on being taken, confessed that she had been a party in 
poisoning 600 people. Numerous persons were implicated by her, and many of them were publicly exe- 
cuted. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some i^ersons of distinction, on conviction, 
were strangled in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of 
their husbands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden, and therefore not 
suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists have not agi-eed about its real composition. A pro- 
clamation of the pope described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a solution 
of ci-ystalhsed arsenic. Between 1666 and 1676 the marchioness de BrmvilUers poisoned her father and 
two brothers and many others. She was executed 16 July, 1676. 

§ No\». 1858, 17 persons died at Bradford through eating sweatmeats in which arsenic had been mixed 
by mistake. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for homicide, but was acquitted— though guilty of cul- 
I)able negligence. 



POI 



576 



POL 



POITOU, an ancient province, W. France, part of the dowry of Eleanor, queen of 
Henry II. of England. It partook of the fortunes of Aquitaine (which see). 

POLA (Illyria), a very ancient city, where Augustus founded the colony Pietas Julia, 
and which flourished during the empire. Off Pola, the Genoese fleet, under Doria, defeated 
the Venetians under Pisani, 5 or 6 May, 1379, with great loss. 

POLAND (N.E. Europe), part of ancient Sarmatia. It is said to have become a duchy 
under Lechus or Lesko I. 550 ; and a kingdom under Boleslaus, about 992. The natives 
belong to the great Sclavonic family. The word Pole is not older than the loth century. 
Population of the kingdom of Poland in 1857 was 4,789,379. 



Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal 

dignity, about 

[Piastus is said to have lived to the age of 120, 

and his reign to have been so prosperous 

that every succeeding native sovereign was 

called a Piast. ] 
Introduction of Christianity, about . . . 
Boleslaus II. murders St. Stanislas, the bishop 

of Cracow, with his own hands, 1079 ; his 

kingdom laid under an interdict by the pope, 

and his subjects absolved of their allegiance, 1080 
He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused 

it by order of Gregory VII. , and he at length 

kills himself or dies in a monastery 

Tartar invasion 

Premislas assassinated 

Louis of Hungary elected king . . . . 
Ladislas VI. defeated and slain, by the Turks . 
War against the Teutonic knights, 1410 . 
The Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 

and sell them to the Turks as slaves . . . 149b 

The Wallachians defeated 1531 

Splendid reign of Sigismund II 1548 

Lithuania incorporated with Poland . . . 1569 
Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, 

on whom he bestows the Ukraine . . . 
Poland conquered by the Swedes 

Recovered 

Abdication of John Casimir .... 
Victories of John Sohieski over the Turks at 

Vienna 

Many protestants killed after an affray at Thorn 1 724 
Stanislaus abolishes torture .... 1770 
An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . ,, 
Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell 

an easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia 1772 
The first partition treaty . . 17 Feb. ,, 

The public partition treaty, 5 Aug. ; acted on, 

18 Sept. ,, 
A new constitution granted by the king, 3 May, 1791 
The Russians, &c., on various pretexts enter 

Poland . 1792 

Insurrection under Kosciusko . March, 1794 

After many successes he is defeated by the 

Russians at Maciejovice and taken prisoner, 

10 Oct. „ 
Praga sacked by Suwarrow . . 4 Nov. ,, 
Courland is annexed to Russia 
Stanislaus resigns his crown at Grodno ; final 

partition of his kingdom . . 25 Nov. ,, 

Kosciusko set at liberty . . 25 Dec. 1796 

He arrives in London . . -30 May, 1797 

The Poles enter the French army and greatly 

help to gain their victories . . . lygj et seq. 
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg . 12 Feb. 1798 



992 



1081 
1241 
1296 
1370 
1444 
^447 



1575 
1655 
1660 



1683 



1795 



Napoleon I. enters Warsaw ; his army wintered 

in Poland 1806-7 

The Poles neglected by the treaty of Tilsit 

{which see) 7 July, 1807 

General diet at Warsaw .... June, 1812 

The central provinces (the duchy at Warsaw, 
between 1807 and 1813) made the kingdom of 
Poland under Alexander of Russia 30 April, 1815 
New constitution granted and Cracow declared 

to be a free republic . . . 27 Nov. „ 
Polish diet opened .... Sept. 1820 

A revolution at Warsaw ; the army declare in 

favour of the people . . •29 Nov. 1830 

The diet declares the throne vacant 25 Jan. 1831 
Battle of Grochow, near Pi-aga ; the Russians 
lose 7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 
2000 ...... 19, 20 Feb. 

Battle of Wawz (which see) . 31 March, 

Insurrection ip Wilna and Volhynia 3 April, 
Russians defeated at Zelicho, 6 April ; Seidlece, 
10 April ; at Ostrolenka . . 26 May, 

The Russian general Diebitsch dies 10 June, 
Battle of Wilna ; Poles defeated 19 June, 

Grandduke Constantino dies . . 27 June, 
Battle of Minsk . " . . . 14 July, 
Warsaw taken by Russians . . 8 Sept. 

The insurrection suppressed . . .5 Oct. 
Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decree- 
ing that the kingdom of Poland shall hence- 
forth form an integral part of the Russian 
empire ...... 26 Feb. 1832 

Attempted revolution in Austrian Poland,* 

22 Feb. 1846 
The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
revoke the treaty of 1815 which constituted 
Cracow a free republic, and it is declared 
Austrian territory . . 16 Nov. ,, 
[This annexation was protested wgains t by Eng- 
land, France, Sweden, and Turkey.] 
The kingdom of Poland declared a Russian pro- 
vince May, 1847 

Great popular demonstration in commemoia- 

tion of the battle of Grochow . 25 Feb. 1861 
Six members of the Royal Agricultural Society 

killed by the military . . -27 Fob. „ 
Great excitement at their funeral ; many citi- 
zens put on mourning; an address to the 
emperor Alexander signed by 6o,r,oo persons ; 
mild conduct of prince Gortschakoff, the 

governor 1-7 March, „ 

Mukhanoff, curator of Poland, who had written 

a circular exciting the peasantry against their 

lords, quits Warsaw, which is ilhiminated in 

consequence .... 17 March, ,, 

i The government promises reforms and the re- 



* On 22 Feb. 1846, an Austrian force under general Collin, which had entered Cracow on the approach 
of armed baud.s of peasantry, was attacked and driven out of the town. A provisional government was 
then proclaimed by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they crossed the Vist\ila, expecting to be 
joined by the peasantry of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and clergy to strike a blow in the 
cause of liberty. The Austrian government, in order to prevent this junction, excited in the peasantry 
a suspicion of the motives of the nobles, and offered a re\. ard for every noble delivered up, alive or dead : 
a general massacre of the nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed : the insurgents from Cracow 
were defeated at Gdow, whence they retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow; here they were attacked 
by general Collin, and driven into Cracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three powers then 
began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people in the town opened negotiations with the Austrians about a 
surrender, and while these were going on, a Russian corps entered the town without resistance, and soon 
afterwards the revolution was at an end. 



POL 



577 



POL 



POLAND, continued. 

establishment of Poland as a separate king- 
dom ; yet abolishes the Agricultural Society, 

7 April, : 

Great meeting in consequence ; which is dis- 
pursed by the nailitary (now 32,000 strong); 
above 100 are killed and wounded 8 April, 

Great agitation iu the rural districts ; the Rus- 
sian officials quit Lublin ; general ChrulefF 
marches hither April, 

80,000 soldiers in Poland ; reign of terror in 
Warsaw May, 

Death of prince Gortschakoff, licut. -general "of 
Poland 30 May, 

New administrative council appointed June, 

Death of prince Ad;im Czartoryski at Paris, 
aged 91 15 July, 

Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress 

Fresh disturbances ,' Warsaw put in a state of 
siege Oct. 

Military arrests in churches in Wai'saw, they 
are closed by the priests . . 17 Oct. 

The governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, 

23 Oct. 

General Gerstenzweig, the military governor, 
assassinated .... 25 Oct. 

Bialobzeski, catholic archbishop of Warsaw, 
arrested, 19 Nov. ; tried and condemned to 
deatb as a rebel for closing the churches [he 
died shurth- after] .... 18 Dec. 

The new archbishop Feliuski exhorts the Poles 
to submission 15 Feb. 

Rigour of the government relaxed ; amnesty 

gi'anted to 89 convicted political prisoners, 

29 April, 

Attempted assassination of Wielopolski, a liberal 
Pole, president of the council . 7 Aug. 

The granddiike Constantine appointed gover- 
nor, 28 May ; begins with lenient policy, but 
his life is attempted by Jaroszynsky, 3 July, 
who is executed . . . .21 Aug. 

Count Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled 
for presenting to the government the report 
of a meeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which 
he had been asked .... Sept. 

Telkner, the chief of the secret police, found 
murdex-ed 9 Nov. 

Severe military conscription without notice, 

14 Jan. 

Insun-ection iu the night ; at Warsaw 22 Jan. 

Many Russians murdered; Poland jiut in a 
state of siege ..... 24 Jan. 

The PoUsh provisional government issues its 
first iwoclamation . . . .2 Feb. 

Louis Mieroslawski announces h!ms?lf as head 
of the Poles, ig Feb. ; his band defeated and 
dispersed 23 Feb. 

Marian Langiewicz declared dictator of PoLmd, 

10 March ; after several defeats he enters tbe 

Austrian territory, is detected and imprisoned 

ig March, 

The insurrection becomes general, and is sup- 
ported by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; suc- 
cessful guerilla warfare March and April, 

The secret central committee assumes the su- 
pi'eme command .... March, 

The czar's ofifer of an amnesty to all who lay 
down arms before 13 May ; rejected, 12 April, 

European intervention on behalf of Poland, 

17 April, ifec. ; firmly replied to by the czar, 

26 April. &c. 

The secret committee (as a provisional govern- 
ment) levies taxes, 3 May, and forbids pay- 
ment of taxes to Russia ... 9 May, 

So.ooo^ taken frora the Russian treasury at 
Warsaw for the provisional government, 



12 June ; the Poles claim the Poland of 1772, 

26 June, 1S63 

Fruitless intervention of European power.s ; 
sanguinarj' rule of Mouravieff atWilna, June, ,, 

General Berg roijlaces the Marquis de Wie- 
polski, as lieut. -general, and governs with 
great rigour 7 July, ,, 

Unsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles, 
under Wysocki and Horodycki, i July ; 
Felinski, the R. C. archbishop of Warsaw, 
banished, July ; frequent conflicts with, 
varying results ; many captured priests and 
nobles executed . ... . . Aug. ,, 

Lelewel, a bi'ave Pole, after several victories, 
killed in battle 6 Sept. ,, 

Earl Rus.sell decides against armed interven- 
tion, Aug : negotiation ceases . . Sept. ,, 

Gen. Berg fired at from the Zanioyski hotel, 
Warsaw. 19 Sept. ; the hotel destroyed Sept. ,, 

Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Wm. 
Alger, an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for 
making grenades ; the hotel de ville fired 

9 Oct. „ 

Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles 
at Warsaw, 27 Oct. ; 41 ladies arrested at 
night 3 Nov. „ 

The Times correspondent expelled from War- 
saw . 27 Nov. ,, 

The abbe Maohiewicz, awarlike priest, venerated 
as a martyr, hanged . . . .28 Dec. ,, 

Mouravieff rules Lithuania with gi-eat rigour 

Dec. „ 

Numerous skirmishes, and many executions of 
prisoners captured by the Russians ; the in- 
surrection gradually dying out Jan. to April, 1864 

The pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical 
letter to the Polish church . 30 July, ,, 

Romuald Traugott, once a Russian colonel, 
head of the Polish provisional government, 
since Oct. 1863, and five others, hanged 5 Aug. ,, 

Decree for reorganising education at Warsaw, 
founding a university, kc. . 11 Sept. ,, 

The secret provisional government, after statmg 
that 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 
exiled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to 
begin a " national war " . . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Many Roman Catholic convents closed for par- 
ticipating in the insurrection . . Nov. ,, 

Further measures for denationalising Poland 
adopted Dec. ,, 

The ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the 
Austrians and sent to Switzerland . Feb. 1865 

The abbe Stanislas Bizoski and his lieutenant, 
captured and executed ... 23 May, „ 

Estates of suspected sympathisers with rebels 
ordered to be sold ... 22 Dec. ,, 

Church property appropriated by the govei-n- 
ment ; the clergy to be paid by the state 

9 Jan. 1866 

Military government ceases, and state of siege 
partially raised . . . -17 Feb. ,, 

Insurrection of Polish exiles in Siberia, soon 
suppressed, July ; many executed . Nov. „ 

Count Goluchowski, a Pole, made governor of 
GaUioia Oct. „ 

Decree abolishing all pohtical distinctions of 
Poland as a kingdom . . . 19 Dec. ,, 

Promuli^ated 5 Jan. 1S67 

Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed 

31 *!»■>'. .. 
Poland designated the " Vistula province" iu 

a ukase Jan. 186S 

Its separate internal government abolished, 
and complete union with the empire effected 

29 Feb. ,, 
See Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia. 



842. Piastus, duhe. 

861. Ziemovitus, his son. 

892. Lesko or Lescus IV. 



DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 

1913. Ziemomi.slas, son of Lesko. 
964. Mieci.'slas I. becomes Christian. 
992. Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted; ob- 
V P 



POL 



678 



POL 



1506. Sigismund I., brother of Alexander ; obtained 

the siirname of the Great. 
1548. Sigismund II., Augustus, son of the last king, 

(last of the Jagellon dynasty); a splendid 

reign : added Livonia to his kingdom : died 

1572. Interregnum. 



1573- 



IS7S- 



POLAND, continued. 

tained the title of King from the emperor 

Otho III. 
1025. Mieoislas II. 
1034. Eichense or Eichsa, his consort, regent ; driven 

from the government. 
1037. [Anarchy.] 
1041. Casimir I., her son, sumamed the Pacific ; he 

had retired to a monastery, but was invited 

to the throne. 
1058. Boleslas II., styled the Intrepid. 
1081. Ladislas, called the Careless. 
1102. Boleslas III., sumamed Wry -mouth. 
1138. Ladislas II., son of the preceding. 
1146. Boleslas IV., the Curled. 
1173. Miecislas 111, the Old ; deposed. 
1177. Casimir II., sumamed the Just. 
1 194. Lesko v., the White : abdicated. 
1200. Miecislas III. : restored. 
1202. Ladislas III. : retired. 
1206. Lesko V. ; restored ; assassinated : succeeded 

by his son, an infant. 
1227. Boleslas v., surnamed the Chaste. 
1279. Lesko VI., sumamed the Black. 
1289. [Horrid anarchy.] 

1295. Pi-emislas, styled king of Poland, governs 

wisely : assassinated. 

1296. Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short : deposed. 
1300. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 
1304. Ladislas IV., the Short. 
1333. Casimir III., the Great, one of the best princes 

of Poland : encourages the arts, and amends 

the law : killed by a fall from his horse. 
1370. Louis, king of Hungary. 
1382. Maria ; and 1384 Hedwige (daughters of Louis), 

and her consort, JageLlo, duke of Lithuania, 

by the style of Ladislas V. 
1399. Ladislas II. (V.), alone : annexed Lithuania. 
1434. Ladislas III. (VI.), his son; succeeded as king 

of Hungary, 1440. 
1445. [Interregnum.] 

,, Casimir IV. 
1492. John (Albert) I., his son. 
1501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, brother of the 

preceding. 

POLAE CLOCK. An optical apparatus invented by professor Wheatstoue (about 1849), 
whereby the hour of the day is found by means of the polarisation of light. 

POLAPJSATION OF LIGHT, see Optics. 

POLAE EEGIONS, s&b North-West Passage, said South Pole. 

POLE STAE or Polae Stae, a star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of 
the constellation called the Little Bear ; its nearness to the North Pole causes it never to set 
to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. Two 
stars in the constellation JJrsa Major, or Great Bear, are called ^pointers to the Polar star. 
The discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the Chiuese to their emperor, Hong-ti, the 
grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned and flourished 1970 B.C. Univ. Hist. 

POLICE. The London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. Its 
jurisdiction was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. 1640 ; and the system improved by 
various acts m subsequent reigns. The magistracy at Bow street has long been established ; 
see Magistrates. 



ELECTED MONARCHS. 

Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to 
the king of France ; he afterwards succeeded 
to the French throne. 

Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania : 
established the Cossacks as a militia. 

1586. [Interregnum.] 

1587. Sigismund III., son of the king of Sweden, to 

the exclusion of MaximiUan of Austria, 

elected by the nobles. 
1632, Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa, son of Sigismund 

III. ; succeeded by his brother, 
1648. John II., or Casimir V. : abdicated 1668, and 

retired to France, where he died a monk, 

in 1672. 

1668. [Interregnum.] 

1669. Miohael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this reign 

the Cossacks join the Turks, and ravage 
Poland. 
1674. John III., Sobieski ; the last independent 
king : illustrious for victories over the 
Cossacks, Turks, and Tartars. 
1697. [Interregnum.] 
„ Frederick- Augustus I., son of John-George, 
elector of Saxony ; and elector in 1694 ; 
deprived of his crown. 
Stanislas I. (Lezinski) : forced to retire from 

his kingdom in 1709, 
Frederick-Augustus again. 
1733. Frederick-Augustus II., son of the preceding 
sovereign. 

1763. [Interregnum.] 

1764. Stanislaus II. Augustus Poniatowski, resigned 

his sovereignty, Nov. 25, 1795 ; died at St. 
Petersburg, a state prisoner, 12 Feb. 1798. 



1704. 
1709. 



Police offices : — The jurisdiction of twenty-one 
magistrates, three to preside in each of the 
seven divisional offices, commenced . i Aug. 17 

The Thames police was established in . .17 

The London poUce, remodelled by Mr. (after- 
wards sir Robert) Peel, by 10 Geo. IV. 19 June, 
commenced duty .... 29 Sept. 18 

The Loudon police improvement acts passed 3 
Vict. 1839, 4 Vict. 1840, which were amended 
by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 2 . . . . . iS 

In 1857 the total expenditure was 445,212^. for 
the metropoUtanpolice, consisting of i7super- 
intendents, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants, and 
5296 constables. 



The total efficient police force in England and 
Wales, exclusive of the metropolis, in Sept. 
1859, was 11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661 (see 
Constabidary). 

Division X was established to attend the Inter- 
national Exhibition in 1862 

The whole police and constabulary in England 
and Wales amounted to 23,032 men ; metro- 
politan police, 6590 ; city of London police, 
743 ; dockyard police, <&c.; 743, on 29 Sept. 1863 

Metropolitan police, 7493, i Jan. 1866 ; 7548, 
I Jan. 1867 ; great increase proposed in Dec. 1867 

Sir Richard Mayne, commissioner of metro- 
politan police, appointed .... 1S29 



POLICIES OF ASSUEANCE ACT, passed 20 Aug. 1S67 ; see Insurance. 



POL 



579 



POL 



POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science which has for its object the improvement of the 
condition of mankind, and the promotion of civilisation, wealth, and happiness. Its history 
in this country may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's ' ' Wealth of Nations, " 
1776. The works of Mill and M'Culloch are justly celebrated. A professorship of Political 
Economy was established at Oxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, M.P., 1825 ; and at Cam- 
bridge, tirst by Mr. G. Pryme, in 1828 ; but regularly established by the university in 1863, 
Heniy Fawcett (blind) being the first professor. 

POLITICAL UNIONS were formed in England in 183 1 to carry the Reform Bill ; the 
most important was that of Birmingham. 

POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or the well 
regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cunning man. A man of artifice; 
one of deep contrivance. Soiith. The term was first used in France aboirt 1569. A new 
faction appeared, known by the name of Politicians, headed by the due d'Aleii9on and the 
Montmorencies, and strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots in 1574. The duke 
was arrested and the Montmorencies sent to the Bastile. 

POLL- ACT passed in Ireland by the Junto of the Pale, putting a price upon the heads 
of certain Irish ; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 5 Edward IV. 1465. This act 
long endured, see note to article Ireland, p. 394. 

POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site of a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial 
general, over Alaric the Goth, 29 March, 403. 

POLL-TAX or Capitation Tax, existed among the ancient Eomans. It was first levied 
in England in 1379 ; and occasioned the rebellion of Wat Tyler (see Tyler), 1381. It was 
again levied in 15 13. By the i8tli Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz., 
a duke lOoZ., a marquis 80Z., a baronet 30?., a knight 2.0I., an esquire lol., and every single 
private person i-zd., 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by William III. at the period 
of the revolution. 

POLOTSK (Eussia). The French under marshal Oudinot were here defeated by the 
Russians under general Wittgenstein, 30 and 31 July, 1812 ; the next day, the Russians 
were defeated. After several smaller actions with various results, Polotsk was stormed by 
the Russians, and retaken Oct. 181 2. 

POLTOAYA, see Pultowa. 

POLYGAMY, &c., was permitted among the early nations, and now by Mahometans. 
In Media, it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven wives. Among the Romans, 
Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who took two wives. The practice was forbidden by 
Arcadius, 393. The emperor Charles Y. punished polygamy with death. In England, by 
Stat. I James I. 1603, it was made felony, with benefit of clergy. It was formerly punished 
with transportation, but now by imprisonment or penal servitude ; see Marriages. — Poly- 
andry (where one woman has several husbands) is permitted in some eastern countries, the 
children having equal rights. 

POLYGLOT, from two Greek words denoting "many languages," is chiefly applied to 
editions of the Bible in several languages. 



. The Complutensian Polyglot, in six vols. foUo, 
was printed at Alcala (Complutensis), in Spain, 
1502-14; the first edition published in 1522, at the 
expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, cost- 
ing 250,000 ducats. Six hundred copies of it were 
printed ; three on vellum. Count Mac Carthy, of 
Toulouse, paid 483?. for one of these copies at the 
Pinelli sale. 

:. The Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 



8 vols. foUo, in 1559-69, at the expense of Philip II. 
of Spain. 

3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, m 10 vols, folio, 
1628-45. 

4. Edited by Brj^an Walton, in 6 vols. foUo, 1654-7. 
Copies of all four are in the hbrary of the British 

and Foreign Bible Society. 

5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. Bag- 
ster, I vol. foUo, 1831. 



POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean. 

POLYPES {many-footed animals), also named Hydrse, on account of their property of re- 
producing themselves when cut in pieces, every part soon becoming a perfect animal ; first 
discovered by Leeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Philosophical Trans. 1703. The 
polypes are of the order Zoophytes, and partake of the animal and vegetable nature. 

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, Royal, Regent-street, London, was erected by 
Thompson in 1838, and enlarged in 1848. It contains a hall of manufactures with machines 
worked by steam-power, lecture theatres, &c., diving-bell, electric machine, &c. Timbs. 
The institution did not prosper commercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall of a 
staircase on 3 Jan. 1859, when one j)ersou was killed and man}'- injured. The institution 
was closed in May, 1859, but was re- opened by a new company on 12 Nov. i860 ; see Ecolc 
Poly technique. 

P P 2 



POM 580 PON 

POMEGRANATE TREE (Punica Granatum) was brought to England from Spain ITefore 
1584. It originally came from Spanish America. 

POMERANIA, a Prussian jtrovince, IST. Germany, was held by the Poles, 980, and by 
Denmark, 1210 ; made an independent duchy, 1479; and divided between Sweden and 
Brandenburg, 1648. The Swedish part, awarded to Denmark in 1814, was given up to Prussia 
for Lauenburg 1815 ; see Denmark. 

POMFRET or Pontefeact (S. York.). At the castle (built 1069), Richard II. was con- 
fined and murdered, 10 Feb. 1399. Henry IV. , by whom he M'as deposed, Avishing for his death, 
an assassin, attended by eight followers, rushed into the king's apartment. He wrested a 
pole-axe from one of the murderers, and soon laid four of their number dead at his feet, but 
was at length overpoAvered and slain. Some writers assert that Richard escaped and died in 
Scotland. In this castle also, the earl Rivers, lord Gray, sir Thomas Vaughan, and sir 
Richard Haut or Hause, were put to death by order of the duke of Gloucester, then protector 
of England (afterwards Richard III.), 13-26 June, 1483. 

POMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of Campania, was partly demolished by an earth- 
quake in A.D. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was overwhelmed by an eruption of Vesu- 
vius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the night of 24 Aug. 79. The principal citizens 
were then assembled at a theatre where public spectacles were exhibited. The ashes buried 
the whole city and covered the surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a 
countryman, as he was turning up the ground, found a bronze figure ; and this discovery led 
to further search, which brought numerous other objects to light, and at length the city was 
imcovered. The part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, 1750. The kings of 
jSTaples have greatlj'- aided in exploring PomjDeii, and the present Italian government resumed 
the work in 1863. 

POMPEY'S PILLAR stands about three-quarters of a mile from Alexandria, between 
the city and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is fluted, and the capital ornamented with palm- 
leaves ; the whole, which is highly polished, composed of three pieces, and of the Corinthian 
order. The column measures, according to some, 94 feet ; and others 141, and even 160 feet; 
but of its origin, name, use, and age, nothing is certain.* 

PONDICHERRY (S.E. India), the capital of French India, and first settled by the 
French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, restored 1697 ; besieged by 
the English, 1748; taken by them, Jan. 1761 ; restored, 1763; again taken Oct. 1778; 
restored in 1783 ; taken 23 Aug. 1793, and in 1803 ; restored 1815. 

PONT-A-CHIN, see Espicrrcs. 

PONTIFFS (Latin Pontifices), the highest Roman sacerdotal order, established by Numa. 
The college first consisted of 4 patricians, with a chief (Pontifex Maximus), to these 4 
plebeians were added, by the Ogulnian law, 300 B.C. Sylla increased the number to 15 (8 
majores, 7 minores), (81), and Julius Cffisar to 16.' T. Coruncanius, a plebeian, obtained 
this oflice, 254 B.C. 

PONTUS, in Asia Minor, seems to have been a portion of Cappadocia, and received its 
name from its vicinity to the Ponlus Euxinus. Artabazus was made king of Pontus by 
Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 487. His successors were mere satraps of the kings of Persia. 

Reign of Mitliridates I. ... B.C. 383 

Ariobarzanes invades Pontus 363 

Mithridates II. recovers it 336 

Mithridates III. reigns 301 

Ariobarzanes II. reigns 266 

Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capital by the 
Gauls, &c 252 

Mithridates attacks Sinope, and is obliged to raise 
the siege by the Rhodians .... 219 

Reign of Pharnaces, 190 ; he takes Sinope, and 
makes it the capital of his kingdom . . . 183 

Reign of Mithridates V 157 

He is murdered in ihe midst of his court . .123 

Mithridates VI. surnamed the Great, or Eupator, 
receives the diadem at 12 years of age . . ,, 

Marries Laodice, his own sister . . . . 115 

She attempts to poison him; he puts her and 
accomplices to death 112 

Mithridates conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- 
chis, and other countries iii 



He enters Cappadocia .... B.C. 97 

His war with Rome 89 

Tigranes ravages Cappadocia 86 

Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes himself 

master of many Roman provinces, and puts 

80,000 Romans to death . . . . ' . ,, 
Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chssronea ; 

100,000 Cappadooians slain ,, 

Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to 

this time ........ 74 

The fleet of Mithridates defeats that under Lu- 

cullus in two battles 73 

Mithridates defeated by Lucullus . . .69 

Mithridates defeats Fa bins 68 

But is defeated by Pompey 66 

Mithridates stabs himself, and dies . . . 63 

Reign of Pharnaces ,, 

Battle of Zela (see Zda) ; Pharnaces defeated by 

Csesar 47 

Darius reigns 39 



* It is generally believed that the column has no reference to Pompey, to whom a uaark of honour was, 
nevertheless, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, 
another, to Severus ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscription on the base, considered that Adrian 
is the person honoured ; while many assert, from the same inscription, tbat it is dedicated "to Diocletian 
Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of Alexandria." 



POK 



581 



POP 



PONTUS, continued. 

Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns . . . b. c. 36 

I'olemon II. succeeds his lather . . . a.d. 33 

Mithridates VII. reigns 40 

I'outus afterwards became a Koman province. 



Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the 
Greeks at Trebisond, in this countrj^, 1204, 
which continued till the Turks destroyed it 
in 1459. 



POOR KNIGHTS of Windsor, or Alms-Knights. Soon after his institution of 
the order of the Garter, Edward III. founded tliis charitj^ for the provision of 24 (after- 
wards 26) poor persons eminent for military services. Edward IV. discharged the college 
from the support of the alms-knights, but Elizabeth re-established the charity for 13 
knights, 1559. King William IV. changed the name to the "Military Knights of Windsor," 
in consequence of their all having held commissions in the army, Sept. 1833. — The " Naval 
Knights of Windsor " are maintained on a distinct foundation, under the bequest of Samuel 
Travers. An act making lieutenants and widowers eligible was passed in 1867. 

POOR. The poor of England, till the time of Henry VIII., subsisted as the poor of 
Ireland until 1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute 23 Edw. III. 1349) it 
was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. By tlie common law, the 
poor were to be su.stained by "parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that none 
.should die for default of sustenance ;" and by 15 Rich. II. impropriators were obliged to 
distribute a yearly sum to the poor ; but no compulsory law was enacted till the 27tli 
Hen. VIII. 1535. The origin of the present pooe, law is referred to the 43rd of Elizabeth, 
1 60 1, by which overseers were appointed for parishes. 



Additional workhouses ordered to be erected, i8ig, 

1834. 
Poor Law Amendment bill passed 1834 ; forming 

" Unions" (fee., amended in 1836, 1838, 1846 and 

1847. 
Poor Law (Ireland) act passed 1838 ; amended 1839. 
A Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. 
Poor Law (Ireland) Eate in aid act passed in 1849. 
In Scotland, in the year ending May 1851, the num- 
ber relieved was 141,870, at an avei-age cost of 

2'. 2.S. s'l. and the expenditure was 535,943!. 
In Ireland, the poor's rate for the year endmg Sept. 

1851, was 1,101,878^. 
An agitation for the equalisation of poor's rates 

throughout the kingdom, began in 1857. 
The Times draws attention to the condition of the 

hovMLess poor in London, which led to measures 

for their relief, Dec. 1858. 
Laws respecting removal of the poor amended in 1S61. 
Union retief act passed to enable certain unions to 

obtain temjporary aid (on account of the distress 



in Lancashire through suspension of cotton manu- 
factures), 1862. 

Melropolltan houseJesn poor act (authorising guar- 
dians to receive destitute persons into work- 
houses, and the metropolitan board to reimburse 
them) passed, 29 July, 1S64. 

Annual report of Poor Law board for 1S64, shows 
great decrease of pauperism — issued Sept. 1S65. 

40 refuges for houseless xrnor established iu London 
1864-5. 

" Casual wards " in London workhouses receive 1000 
per night, Jan. 1865. 

Union chargeability act passed, 1865. 

Field-lane Refuge : new building formally opened 
by earl of Shattesbury, 6 June, 1866. 

Metropolitan Poor act passed for establishment of 
asylums for the sick, insane, &c., 29 March, 1867. 

Poor Law Amendment act makes Poor Law board 
permanent ; jpassed, 20 Aug. 1867. 

Much excitement respecting the bad condition of 
London workhouse infirmaries, June, 1866 ; of 
Farnham workhouse, Oct. 1867. 



ENGLAND AND WALES. 


Expended. Poor Rates. 


Expended. 


Poor Rates. 


TiX [tended. 


Poor rates. 


In 1815 . . . £5,418,845 


In 1853 . 


. £5,522,412 


In 1580 . 


£188,811 


1820 .... 7,329-594 


March 1857 to 


jMarch 


1680 . 


565,562 


1830 . . . 8,111,422 


1S58, about . 


. . 3,082,600 


1698 . 


819,000 


1835 .... 6,356,345 


1859-60, about 


• 3.795.S°o 


1760 . 


1,556,804 


1S40 . . . 5,468,699 


6 months to Mar. 


25,1861 2,073,394 


1785 . 


2,184,950 


1845 .... 5,543.650 


,, „ , 


1862 2,181,124 


1802 . 


4,952,421 


1850, year to 25 Mar. 3,816,909 


.. >> , 


1864 2,250,971 
1866 2,219,039 




TAUPERf 


i RECEIVING RELIEF (NOT TAG 


rants). 








1849. 1853. 


1858. 


1862. 


England and Wa 


les, I Jan. 


934,419 . . 798,822 . 


968,186 . 


932,400 


Scotland . 


. 14 May 


82,357 . . 75.437 ■ • 


69,217 [1857]. 


78,433 [i8di] 


Ireland 


. . I Jan. 


. 620,747 • • 141)822 . 


50,582 . 
,007,985 . . I 


59,541 


Total . 


• 1)637,523 • . 1,016,081 . 


.070,374 



POPE (from the Greek Pappas and Pa2M, a father or grandfather), considered by 
Romanists to be the visible chief of the church, the vicar of Jesus Christ, and the successor 
of St. Peter. He stjdes himself "Servant of the servants of God." The title pope was 
formerly given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hyginus, 139 ; and pope Boniface III. 
induced Phocas, emperor of the East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the 
connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian Church was established ; 
see Itahj, Reformation, and Rome, Modern. Population of the present Papal States, about 
3,124,668, in 1853. 

708 



Custom of kissing the pope's toe introduced . 
Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his 
name 780 



Sergins II. the first pope who changed his 
name on his election, 844 ; some contend that 
it was Sergius I. 687, and others John XII. . 



956 



POP 



582 



POP 



POPE, continued. 

John XVIII. a layman, made pope . . . 1024 
The first pope who kept an army, Leo IX. . . 1054 
Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) obliges Henry IV. 
emperor of Germany, to stand three days, in 
the depth of winter, barefooted at the gate of 
the castle of Canossa, to implore his pardon . 1077 
The pope's authority fixed in England . . . 1079 
Appeals from English tribunals to the pope 

introduced (Ki«ecX 19 Stephen . . . 1154 
Henry II. of England holds the stirrup for pope 

Alexander III. to mount his horse* . . 1161 
Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. 's 
crown off his head while kneeling, to show 
his prerogative of making and unmaking 

kings t 1191 

The pope collected the tenths of the whole 
kingdom of England 1226 



The papal seat was removed for seventy years 

to Avignon in Prance 1308 

The pope's demands on England refused by 

parliament 1363 

Appeals to Eome from England abolished 

(Finer) 1533 

The words "Lord Pope" struck out of aU 

English books 1541 

Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies 

abolished by Clement XIV 1773 

The pope's political infl.uence destroyed by the 

French Revolution .... 1789-1814 
His diplomatic relations with Great Britain 

authorised by parliament .... 1848 
He offends the British nation by creating 

bishops (see Papal Aggression) . 30 Sept. 1850 
His powers in France checked . . 1S60-1865 



BISHOPS AKD POPES OF KOME {the names in italics were aniipojjes) : 



* » 

66. 

78. 

91. 
100. 
109. 
119. 
127. 
139- 

142. 

157- 
168. 
177. 

193- 
202. 
219. 
222. 
223. 
230. 

23.';- 
236. 
250. 
251. 
252. 



2S3- 
ZS7- 



St. Peter : (said by very doubtful tradition to 
have been the first bishop of Rome, and to 
have been crucified, head downward.s, in66.) 

St. Clement (Clemens Eomanus) ; according to 
Tertullian. 

St. Linus :J martyred? 

St. Cletus, or Anacletus : martyred? 

St. Clement : abdicated ? 

St. Evaristus : martyred ; multipUed churches. 

St. Alexander : martyred 

St. Sixtus : martyred ? 

St. Telesphorus : martyred. 

St. Hyginus : condemns Gnostics ; called him- 
self pcyje. 

St. Pius : martyred, 

St. Anicetus. 

St. Soterus: martyred under Marcus Antoninus. 

St. Eleutherius : opposed the Valentinians. 

St. Victor I. : martyred under Severus. 

St. Zeph3rrinus : claimed to be Peter's successor. 

St. Calixtus : martyred. 

[The chair vacant.] 

St. Urban I. : beheaded. 

St. Pontianus : banished by the emperor 
Maximin. 

St. Anterus : martyred. 

St. Fabian : martyi-ed under Decius, 250. 

[The chair vacant.] 

St. Cornelius : died. 

St. Lucius : martyred the year following. 
Novatianus : antipope (denied restoration to 
the repentant lapsed). 

St. Stephen I. : martyred in the persecution of 
Valerian. 

St. Sixtus II. (his coadjtitor): martjrred three 
days before his disciple St. Laurence, in the 
persecution of Valerian, 258. 

[The chair vacant.] 

St. Dionysius : opposed the heresy of SabeUius. 



352- 
355- 



269. St. FeUx I. died in prison. 

275. St. Eutychianus. 

283. St. Caius : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. 

296. St. Marcellinus : said to have lapsed under a 

severe persecution ? ; canonised. 
304. [The chair vacant.] 
308. St. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the 

em]peror Maxentius. 

310. St. Eusebius : died the same year. 

311. St. Milchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 

314. St. Silvester : commencement of temporal power 
by gifts of Constantine. 

336. St. Marcus : died the next year. 

337. St. Julius I. : of great piety and learning ; 

maintained the cause of St. Athauasius. 

Liberius : banished. 

Feiix II., antipope: placed in the chair by 
Constans, during the exile of Liberius, on 
whose return he was driven from it with 
ignominy. 

[The emperor would have the two popes reign 
together; but the people cried out, "One 
God, one Christ, and one bishop ! "] 

358. Liberius again : abdicated. 
, , Felix became pope^ 

359. Liberius again : martyred 365. 

366. St. Damasus : opposed the Arians : St. Jerome, 

his secretary, corrected Latin bible. 

367. •Ursimis : expelled by Valentinian. 
384. Siricius : combated heretics. 

398. St. Anastasius : proscribed works of Origen. 
402. St. Innocent I. : condemned Pelagians. 
St. Zozimus : ditto. 
St. Boniface I. : maintained by the emperor 

Honorius, against Eidalius. 
St. Celestine I. : sent missions to Ireland. 
Sixtus III. : opposed Nestorius and Eutyches. 
440. St. Leo I. the Great : zealous head of the church; 
restrained Alaric ; an able writer. 



417. 
418. 



422. 
432- 



* "When Louis, king of Prance, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle of 
Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the reins of his 
bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into the castle." Hume. 

t In the nth century the power of the pontiff of Rome seems to have reached its utmost height. 
Gregory VII. assumed the exclusive title of Pope, which till then had been common to other bishops ; and 
his successors carried their pretensions so far as to hold themselves out as lords of the universe, arbiters 
of the fate of empires, and supreme rulers of the kings and princes of the earth. In this cbaracter they 
proceeded to dispose of kingdoms, and to loose subjects from their allegiance, as is remarkably instanced 
in the history of John, king of England. At length they affirmed the whole earth to be their property, as 
well where Christianity had been propagated, as where it had not ; and therefore, on the discovery of the 
East and West Indies and America, Alexander VI., in 1493, granted to the Portuguese a right to all the 
countries lying to the eastward, and to the Spaniards all those westward of Cape Non, in Africa, which 
they might respectively be able to conquer. They finally pretended to be lords of the future world also ; 
and by licences, pardons, dispensations, and indulgences, which they sold to the best bidders, to have a 
power of restraining, and in some instances of subverting, even the Divine justice itself. Aspin : Lives of 
the Popes. 

X St. Limis is set down in nearly aU accounts of popes as the immediate successor of St. Peter ; but 
Tertullian, who was undoubtedly well informed, maintains that St. Clement succeeded the apostle. In 
the flr.st century of the Christian Church, neither the dates of succession nor the succession of bishops are 
reconcileable by even the best authorities. Some assert that there were two or three bishops of Rome at 
the same time. 



POP 



583 



POP 



POPE, continued. 

461. St. Hilary : ricli, liberal. 

468. St. Simplicius : wise, prudent. 

483. St. Felix III. : opposed emperor Zeno respecting 

the Heuoticon. 
492. St. Gelasius : opposed heresy ; fixed the canon 

of S.8. 
496. St. Anastasius II.: congratulated Clovis. 
498. Symmachus : zealous against the Henoticon. 

„ Laurentius : antipope. 
514. Hormisdas : opposed Eutychians. 
523. Johu I. : sent to Constantinople by Theodoric ; 

tolerant. 
526. Fehx IV. : introduced extreme unction as a 

sacrament. 
530. Boniface II. — Dioscorus. 
533. John II. : called Mercurius. 

535. Agapetus : converted Justinian. 

536. St. Silvcrius : son of pope Hormisdas, who had 

been married. The emjDress Theodosia pro- 
cured his banishment into Lycia, where he 
died of hunger, and made Vigilius pope. 

537. Vigilius : banished, but restored. 

555. Pelagius I. : an ecclesiastical reformer. 

560. John III, : the great ornamenter of churches. 

573. [The see vacant.] 

574. Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 
578. Pelagius II. ; died of the plague. 

590. St. Gregory the Great, of illustrious birth : sent 
Augustin to convert the Anglo-Saxons. 

604, Sabinianus : said to have introduced church 
bells. 

606 or 607. Boniface III. : died in a few months. 

607 or 608. Boniface IV. 
614 or 615. St. Deusdedit. 
617 or 618. Boniface V. 

625. Honorius I. : interested in British^churchea. 

639. [The see vacant.] 

640. Sevorinus : ^ 

642. Theodorail. ; [condemned MonotheUtes. 

649. Martin I. ) 

654. Eugeuius I. : liberal. 

657. VitaUanus : favoured education in England. 

672. Adeodatiis, the " Gift of God." 

676. Domnus I. ; ornamented churches. 

678. St. Agathon : tribute to the emperor ceased. 

682. St. Leo II.: instituted holy water; favoured 

music. 

683. [The see vacant.] 
6S4. Benedict It. 

685. John V. : learned and moderate. 

686. Conon. — Theodore and Pascal. 

687. Sei-gius: "governed wisely." 

701. John VI. : redeemed captives ; firm and wise. 

705. John VII. : moderate. 

70S. Sisinnius : died 20 days after election. 
,, Constantino: wise and gentle; visited Con- 
stantinople. 

715. St. Gregory II. : sent Boniface to convert Ger- 
mans. 

731. Gregory III. : independent ; first sent nuncios 
to foreign powers. 

741. St. Zacharias, a Greek. 

752. Stephen II. elected: died before con.secration. 
„ Stephen II. or III. : temporal power of the 
church of Rome commenced. 

757. Paul I. : moderate and pious. 

767. CoHstantineTheopkylactus: killed by Lombards. 

768. Stephen III. or IV. : literary. 
772. Adrian I. : sanctioned images. 

795. Leo III. : crowned Charlemagne, 800. 

S16. Stephen IV. or V. 

817. Pascal I. : ascetic ; and built churches. 

824. Eugenius II.: "father of the afflicted." — Zo- 

zimus. 
827. Valentinus. 

,, Gregory IV. : pious and learned. 
844. Sergius II. 

847. Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. 
855. Pope Joan's election fabulous {which see). 

,, Benedict III. — AnasCasiiis. 



858. 

867 
872. 
882. 
S84. 
885. 
S91. 
896. 
897. 



goo. 
903- 



904, 
911. 
913. 
914, 
928. 
929, 
931' 



939' 
942. 
946, 
956. 

963. 
964, 



965- 

972. 

974- 
984. 



999, 

1003, 

1009. 

1012. 

1024. 
1033- 



1046. 



1047. 
1048. 



1054. 
IOS5- 
IOS7- 
1058. 

1061. 



. Nicholas I., the Great : conversion of Bulga- 
rians. 

Adrian II. : eminent for sanctity. 

John VIII. : crowned 3 emperors. 

Marmus or Martin I [. : condemned Photius. 

Adrian III. : ditto. 

Stephen V. or VI. : very charitable. 

Formosus : political. — Sergius. 

Boniface VI. : deposed. 

Stephen VI. or VII.: vicious; dishonoured the 
coiijse of pope Formosus ; strangled by the 
people. 

Romauus. — Sergius. 

Theodorus II. : governed 22 days. 

John IX. 

Benedict IV.: "a great pope." 

Leo. V. : expelled ; died in prison. 

Christopher. 
[Several popes made by the infamous Marozia.] 

Sergius III. : disgraced by his vices. 

Anastasius III. 

Landonius, or Lando. 

John X. : stifled by Guy, duke of Tuscany. 

Leo VI. : considered an intruder. 

Stephen VII. or VIII. 

John XL: son of Marozia; imprisoned in the 
castle of St. Angelo, where be died. 

Leo VII. : great in zeal and piety. 

Stephen VIII. or IX. : "of ferocious character." 

Marinus II., or Martin III. : charitable. 

Agapetus II. : of holy life ; moderate. 

John XII., the infamous: deposed for adultery 
and cruelty ; and murdered. 

Zeo VIII. : an honour to the chair. 

Benedict V.: chosen on the death of John XII., 
but opposed by Leo VIII. , who was sup- 
ported by the emperor Otho : died at Ham- 
burg. 

John XIII., elected by the authority of the 
emperor against the popular will. 

Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 

Domnus II. — Boniface VII. 

John XIV. : imprisoned by Boniface FIT. j 

John XV. : died before consecration. 

John XVI. : loved gain. 

Gregory V. — /o/m XVII. : expelled by the em- 
peror, and barbarously used. 

SUvester II. (Gcrbert) : learned and scientific ; 
said to have introduced the Arabic nume- 
rals, and invented clocks. 

John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 

John VIII. abdicated. 

Sergius IV. (original name " Bocca di Porco," 
Pig's snout.) 

Benedict VIII. : supported by the emperor 
against — Gregory. 

John XIX. : elevated by bribery. 

Benedict IX. : became pope, by piu-chase, at 
12 years of age ; expelled for vices. 

Sylvester III. : 3 months. 

Gregory VI. : deposed. — Sylvester : and John 
XX. [The emperor very influential.] 

Clement II (Clemens Komanus the first Cle- 
ment) : died the next year. 

Benedict again : again deposed. 

Damasus II. : died soon after. 

St. Leo IX. : a reformer of simony and incon- 
tinence. 

[The throne vacant one year.] 

Victor II. : a reformer. 

Stephen IX. or X. 

Benedict X. ; expelled. 

Nicholas II. : increased the temporal power. 

Alexander II. : raised the papal power.— 
Honorius II. 

St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) : vigorous re- 
former ; opposed the emperor Henry IV. 
respecting investitures ; and excommuni- 
cated him, 1076 ; restored him at Canossa, 
1077 ; died, 10S5. 

Clement III. (Guibert). 



POP 



584 



POP 



POPE, continued. 



1086. 
10S8. 

logg. 

1118. 

1 1 19. 

1 130. 



1143- 
1 1 44. 

II4S- 
IIS3- 
IIS4- 



"S9' 



1216. 
1227. 

1241. 
1243- 
I2S4' 
1261. 
1265, 

1268. 
1271. 

1276. 



1277. 
1281. 



1292. 
1294. 



1304. 
I30S' 



I3I4. 
1316 
1334 
1342 



[The throne vacant one year.] 

Victor III. (Didier) : learned 

Urban II. : crusades commenced. 

Pascal II. (Ranieri) : Tuscany given to the 
papacy by thS countess Matilda. 

Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery. — Gregory 
VIII. 

Calixtus II. : settled investiture question. 

Honorius II. 

Innocent II. : condemned heresies ; held 2nd 
Lateral! council. — Anaclelus II. 

Victor III. 

Celestine II. : ruled s months. 

Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular 
commotion. 

Eugenius III. : ascetic. 

Anastasius IV. 

Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only 
Englishman elected pope : born at Abbot's 
Laiigley, near St. Alban's ; Frederick I. 
prostrated himself before him, kissed his 
foot, held his stirrup, and led the white 
palfrey on which he rode. 

Alexander III. : learned; canonised Thomas 5, 
Becket; resisted Frederick I. ; 1159, Victor 
IV. : 1164, Pascal III. ; 1168, Calistus III. ; 
1 1 78, Innocent III. 

Lucius III. — The cardinals acquire power. 

Urban III. : opposed Frederick I. 

Gregory VIII. : ruled only 2 months. 

Clement III. : proclaimed 3rd crusade. 

Celestine III. 

Innocent III. (Lothario Conti): endeavoured 
to free Home from foreign influence ; ex- 
communicated John of England ; preached 
crusade against the Albigenses, 1204. 

Honorius III. : learned and pious. 

Gregory IX. : preached a new crusade ; col- 
lected decretals. 

Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. 

[The throne vacant i year and 7 months.] 

Innocent IV. : opposed Frederick II. ; gave the 
red hat to cardinals. 

Alexander IV. : established inquisition in 
France. 

Urban IV. : instituted feast of " Corpus 
Christi." 

Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman, pre- 
vioui^ly legate to England : discouraged the 
crusades. 

[The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] 

Gregory X. : held a council at Lyons to recon- 
cile the churches of the east and we.=t. 

Innocent V. : died shortly after. 

Adrian V. : legate to England in 1254 ; died 36 
days after election. 

Vicedominus : died the next day. 

John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 

Nicholas III. : died in 1280. 

Martin IV., French: supported Charles of 
Anjou. 

Honorius IV. : svipported the French. 

Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up a new 
crusade. 

[The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] 

St. Celestine V. : ascetic ; resigned. 

Boniface VIII. : proclaimed that " God had 
set him over kings and kingdoms : " im- 
prisoned his predecessor ; quarrelled with 
Philip of France ; laid France and Denmark 
under mterdict. 

Benedict XI. : a pious and liberal pontiff : 
said to have been poisoned. 

[The throne vacant 11 months] 

Clement V. (Bertrand the Goth) : governed by 
Philip of France ; removed the papal seat 
from Home to Avignon, 1309. 

[The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] 

John XXII. 

Benedict XII. (Nicliolas V. at Rome.] 

Clement VI. : learned. 



1352. Innocent VI. : favoured liienzi. 

1362. Urban V. : chai'itable ; a patron of learning. 

1370. Gregory XI. : protector of learning ; restored 

the papal chair to Rome ; proscribed Wick- 

liffe's doctrines. 

Schism— 1378-1447. 
1378. Urban VI : so severe and cruel that the car- 
dinals chose Robert of Geneva, as 
,, Clement VII. 
1389. Boniface IX. 

1394. Benedict (called XIII.) at Avignon. 
1404. Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 
1406. Gregory XII. Angelo Corario. 

1409. Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 

1410. John XXIII. : deposed. 
1417. Martin V. Otho Colonua. 
1424. Clemeiit VIII. : resigned 1429. 

1431. Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : deposed 
by the council of Basil ; and Amadeus of 
Savoy chosen as FeLix V., in 1439, who re- 
signed 1449. 

1447. Nicholas V. : learned ; proposed crusade 
against Turks. 

1455. Calixtus III. Alfonso Borgia : courageous. 

1458. Pius II. ^neas Silvius Piccolomini : learned. 

1464. Paul II. Pietro Barbo : preached a crusade. 

1471. Sixtus IV. : tried to rouse Europe against the 
Turks. 

1484. Innocent VIII. 

1492. Alexander VI. Roderic Borgia : poisoned at a 
feast by drinking of a bowl he had prepared 
for another. 

1503. Pius III. Francisco Piccolomini : 21 days pope. 
,, Julius II. Julian della Rovere : martial; began 
St. Peter's. 

1513. Leo X. Giovanni de' Medici: this pope's grant 
of indulgences for crime led to the Reforma- 
tion ; patron of learning and art. 

1522. Adrian VI. : just, leai-ned, frugal. 

1523. Clement VII. Giulio de' Medici : refused to 

divorce Catherine of Aragon, and denounced 
the marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne 
Boleyn. 

1534. Paul HI. Alexander Farnese : approved the 
Jesuits. 

1550. Julius HI. Giovanni M. Giocchi. 

1555. Marcellus II. : died soon after his election. 
,, Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. When queen 
Elizabeth sent him an ambassador to an- 
nounce her accession, he haughtil}' answered 
"that to the holy see, and not to her, 
belonged the throne, to which she had no 
right as being a bastard." 

1559. Pius IV. Cardinal de' Medici : founded Vatican 
press. 

1566. St. Pius V. Michael Ghisteri : pious; energetic. 

1572. Gregory XIII. Buoiaoampagno : great civilian 
and canonist : refoiToed the calendar. 

1585. Sixtus V. Felix Peretti : an able governor; 
excom. Henry III. and Henry IV. of France. 

iSgo. Urban VII. : died 12 days after election. 
,, Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfondrate. 

1591. Innocent IX. : died in two months. 

1592. Clement VIII. Hippolito Aldobrandini : learned 

and just ; published the Vulgate. 
1605. Leo XL : died same month. 
,, Paul V. Camille Borghose ; quarrelled with 

Venice. 
1621. Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio : founded 

the Propaganda. 
1623. Urban VIII. Maflei Barberini : condemned 

Jansenism. 
1644. Innocent X. John Baptist Panfili : ditto. 
1655. Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi : favoured litera- 

tvtre. 
1667. Clement IX. Giulio Rispoghoso : governed 

wisely. 
1670. Clement X. Emilio Altieri. 
1676. Innocent XI. Odescalchi : condemned Galli- 

canism and Quietism. 



POP 



585 



POP 



1691. 



1700. 



1721. 



1724 
1730. 



B23. 



POPE, continued. 

9. Alexander VIII. Ottoboni : helped Leopold 
against Turks. 
Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli : condemned 

Penelon. 
Clement XII. John Francis Albani : issued the 

bull Unigenitus. 
Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti: the 
eighth of his family ; pensioned Jas. Ed. 
Stuart. 
Benedict XIII. Orsini : favoured J. E. Stuart. 
Clement XII. Orsini : restored San Marino 
(republic). 
1740. Benedict XIV. Lambertini : learned, amiable. 
1758. Clement XIII. Chas. Rezzonioo : Avignon lost. 
1769. Clement XIV. Ganganelli: suppressed the 

Jesuits. 
1775. Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15 : dethroned 
by Bonaparte ; expeUed from Rome, and 

POPE JO AN. It is falsely asserted that, in the 9th century, a female named Joan 
conceived a passion for Felda, a young monk, and in order to be admitted into his monastery, 
assumed the male habit. On the death of her lover .she entered upon the duties of profe.ssor, 
and, being very learned, was elected pope, when Leo IV. died, in 855. Other scandalous 
particulars follow ; "yet, until the reformation, the tale was repeated and believed without 
offence. " Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOTS, see Gunpoioder Plot, and Oatcs's Plot. 

POPLAR TPvEES. The Tacamahac poplar (Populus Balsamifera) was brought hither 
from North America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar from Italy about 1758. 

POPULATION. The population of the world was estimated in 1863 at 1,288,000,000, 
For tlie Population of Countries, see the table (after the Preface) facing page i. 



deposed in Feb. 1798 ; and died at Valence, 
29 Aug. 1799. 
>oo. Pius Vil. Barnabo Chiaramonte : elected 13 
March ; a,grees to a concordat with France, 
15 July, iSoi ; crowns Napoleon, 2 Dec. 1804 ; 
excommunicates him, 10 June, 1809 ; im- 
prisoned, 6 July, 1809 ; restored in 1814 ; 
died, 20 Aug. 1823. (He restored the Jesuits, 
1874.) 
Leo XI r. Annibale della Ganga, 28 Sept. 
Pius XVIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, 31 
March. 
1S31. Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, 2 Feb. : died, 

I June, 1846. 
1846. Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti : the 
259th pope ; elected, 16 Juno (born 13 May, 
1792). The PRESENT (1868) pope. 
See Home. 



Europe 
Asia 


. 275,806,741 Africa .... 200,000,000 Australia 
• • 755,000,000 America . . . 67,896,041 Polynesia 


1,445,000 
. . 1,500,000 




POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 






Estimated in 


1377 . 2,092,978 1 In 1483 . . . 4,689.000 1 In 1696 




. . 5,250,000 


17CKJ 
1710 . 
1720 
1730 . 


Population. Population. Population. 
. 5,475,000 1740 . . 6,064,000 1770 . . . 7,428,000 
. 5,240,000 1750 . . . 6,467,000 1780 . . 7,953,000 

• 5,565,000 [ 1760 . . 6,736,000 1790 . . . 8,675,000 

• 5,796,000 1 


1801 
i8sr . 
1861 


Population- 

. 8,872,980 

• • 17,987,609 

. 20,061,172 



POPULATION OF GKE-IT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS. 



Division. 


1801. 


18U. 


1821. 


1831. 


1S41. 


1831. 


J861. 


j England* . . . 

Wales . . . 

1 Scotland f . . 

i Army, Navy, &c. 

Total . . . 
Ireland t . . . 
Islands in Bri- 1 

tish seas . J 


8,331,434 
541,546 

1,599,068 
470,598 

10,942,646 


9,551,888 
611,788 

1,805,688 
640,500 


11,261,437 

717,438 

2,093,456 

319,300 


13,089,338 

805,236 

2,365,807 

277,017 


14,995,138 

916,619 

2,620,184 

312,493 


16,854,142 

1,060,626 

2,870,784 

142,916 


18,949,130 

1,111,795 

3,061,251 

162,021 


12,609,864 
5,937,8.^6 


14,391,631 
8,175,124 


16,537,398 
7,784,934 


18,844,434 
8,175,124 


20,936,468 

6,515,794 

143,126 


23,284,197 

5,764,543 

143,779 






27,595,388 


29,192,419 



* Estimated population of Englakd by Kegistrar-General in June 1865, 29,772,294; in June 1866, 

29,935,020. 

t Estimated population of Scotland in 1751, 1,255,663 : in June 1866, 3,153,413- 

t Estimated population of Ireland in 1652, 850,000; in 1712, 2,099,094; in 1754, 2,372,634; in 1805, 

5,395,456; in 1S66, 5,571,404. 



186L 


Mules. 


Females. 


Inhabited Houses. 


England and Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 


9.758,852 
1,446,982 
2,804,961 


10,302,873 
1,614,269 
2,959,582 


3,745.463 
393,289 
103,357 

1 



POP 



586 



POR 



POPULATION, continued. 

POPTJLATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWXS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



Towns. 


1801. 


1811. 


1821. 


1831. 


1811. 


1851.' 


1861 + 


Loudon nnd suburbs * 


864,84s 


1,009,546 


1,225,694 


1,474,069 


1,873,676 


2,362,236 


2,803,034 


Manchester, <&c. 




94,876 


115,874 


161,635 


237,832 


242,583 


404,465 


357,604 


Glasgow, (fee. 




77,38s 


100,749 


147.043 


202,426 


274.533 


340,653 


394,857 


Liverpool 




79,722 


100,240 


131,801 


189,244 


286,487 


375,955 


443,874 


Edinburgh, &c. 




82,560 


102,987 


138.23s 


162,403 


168,182 


193,929 


168,098 


Birmingham 




73,670 


85.753 


106,721 


142,251 


182,922 


232,841 


295,955 


Leeds, &c. 




* * * 


* * * 


83,796 


123,393 


152,054 


172,270 


207,153 


Bristol, &c. 




63.64s 


76,433 


87,779 


103,886 


122,296 


137,328 


154,093 


Sheffield . 






« * * 


» * * 


69.479 


91,692 


111,091 


135.310 


185,157 


Plymouth 






43.194 


56,060 


61,212 


75,5.34 


80,059 


io2'38o 


62,823 


Portsmouth 






43>46i 


52.769 


56,620 


63,026 


63,032 


72,096 


94,546 


Norwich 






36,832 


37.256 


50,288 


61,116 


72,344 


68, 19s 


74,414 


Aberdeen 






27,608 


35,370 


44.796 


58,019 


63,288 


71,945 


73,794 


Newcastle 






36,963 


36,369 


46,948 


57.937 


70, 860 


87,784 


109,291 


Paisley . 






31,179 


36,722 


47.003 


57.466 


60,487 


69,951 


47,419 


Nottingham 






28,861 


34,253 


40,415 


50,680 


71,844 


57.407 


74,531 


Hull 






34.964 


32,467 


41,874 


49,461 


71,629 


84,690 


98,994 


Dundee 






26,084 


29,616 


30,57s 


45.355 


62,794 


77,829 


90,425 


Brighton 






7.339 


12,012 


24,429 


40,634 


46,661 


65.573 


87,311 


Bath 






30.113 


32,214 


36,811 


38.063 


38,304 


54,240 


52,528 


York 






23,692 


26,422 


29,527 


34.461 


38.321 


40,359 


45,326 


Preston 






11,887 


17.06s 


24,57s 


33,112 


50,131 


69,542 


82,961 


Cambridge 






13.360 


13,802 


14,142 


20,917 


24.453 


27,815 


26,351 


Oxford .... 


15,124 


15,337 


16, 364 


20,432 


23,834 


27,843 


27.561 



* In 1851, 1 106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. 



t 1861 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs only. 



POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD. 

From latest returns in " Almanach de Gotha," 1868. 



Cities. Inlidbitants. 

Alexandria, Egypt, 1S62, 

about . . . . 170,000 

Amsterdam, 1867 . . 264,498 

Antwerp, 1866 . . . 123,498 
Athens and Piraeus, 

i860 . . . . 47,727 

Barcelona, 1864 . . 252,015 

Basle, i860 . . . 37,918 

Berlin, 1865 . . . 632,749 

Berne, 1S60 . . . 29,016 

Bombay, 1S64, above . 600,000 

Bordeaux, 1864 . . 194,241 

Bremen, 1864 . . 70,692 

Breslau, 1865 . . . 163,179 

Brussels, 1866 . . 189,337 

Cadiz, 1864 . . . 71,914 

Cairo, 1862, estimated . 265,000 

Calcutta, 1864, about . 600,000 

Christiania. 1S66 . . 57,381 

Cologne, 1865 . . 122,162 
Constantinople, esti- 
mated 
Copenhagen, i860 
Dresden, 1864 . . . 
Dublin, 1867, estimated 



Edinburgh, 

mated 
Florence, 1862 . 
Frankfort, 1864 
Geneva, i860 



867, esti 



1,075,000 
155,143 
145,728 
319,210 



176,081 
114,363 
78,177 

41,415 



Cities. 
Genoa, 1862 . 
Ghent, 1866 
Glasgow, 1867, esti 

mated 
Hague, 1867 
Hamburg, 1866 
Jeddo, reputed 
Konigsberg, 1865 
Leipsic, 1864 



Lisbon, 1863 

Lisle, 1864 

Liverpool, 1867, esti' 

mated 
London, 1867, esti 

mated 
Lubeck, 1862 . 
Lyons, 1866 . 
Madras, 1864, about 
Madrid, 1864 
Marseilles, 1864 
Messina, 1862 
Mexico, 1858, estimated 
Milan, 1S62 . 
Montreal, 1864 
Moscow, 1863 
Munich, 1864 . 
Nankin, estimated 
Nantes, 1866 
Naples, 1862 . 



Inhabitants. 
127,986 
126,333 

440,979 
87,801 

223,443 

1,800,000 

104,507 

85,394 
104,905 
224,063 
154,749 



492,439 

3,082,372 
31,898 

323,954 
450,000 

475,785 
300,131 
62,024 
200,000 
196,109 
120,000 
356,627 
167,054 
1,000,000 
III. 956 
418,968 



Cities. Inhabitants. 


New Orleans, i860 . 


168,67s 


New York, i860 . 


805,651 


Odessa, 1863 


118,970 


Oporto, 1863 . 


89,321 


Palermo, 1862 . 


167,625 


Paris, &c., 1866 . 


1,825,274 


Pekin, reputed 


4,000,000 


Pesth, 1857 . 


131. 70s 


Philadelphia, i860 . 


562,529 


Prague, 1857 . 


142,588 


Quebec, 1861 


51,109 


Eio Janeiro, 1855 . 


296,136 


Rome, 1867 . 


215,573 


Rotterdam, 1867 . 


115,277 


Rouen, 1866 


. 100,671 


Seville, 1864 . 


152,000 


Smyrna, 1863, estimate 


d 150,000 


Stockholm, 1866 


. 138,189 


St. Petersburg, 1865 


. 546,000 


Stutgardt, 1864 . 


69,084 


Teheran, estimated 


80,000 


Toulouse, 1866 . 


. 126,936 


Tunis, estimated . 


. 200,000 


Turin, 1862 


180,520 


Upsal, 1866 . 


• 97,889 


Utrecht, 1867 . 


58,607 


Venice, 1857 . 


118,172 


Vienna, 1864, about . 


. 560,000 


Warsaw, 1865 . 


. 243,512 


alkland Islands. Cc 


mmodore 



PORCELAIlSr, see Pottery. 

PORT EGMONT, a fine harbour on the N.W. coast of Falkland Islands. 
Byron was dispatched to found a colony here in 1 765 ; see Falkland Islands. 

PORTEOUS MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edinburgh, on 15 April, 1736, commanded the 
guard at the execution of Wilson, a smuggler, who had saved the life of a fellow criminal, by 
springing ujion the soldiers around them, and by main force keeping them back, while his 
companion fled. The execution of Wilson excited great commiseration, and the spectators 
pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, Porteous ordered his men to fire upon the 



POR 



587 



POR 



Barrels. 


In 1815. Bai"rels. 


74,734 


Barclay & Perkins . . 337,621 


63,408 


Meux, Reid, & Co. . . 282,104 


60, 140 


Truman, Hanbury, & Co. 272,162 


52.785 


Whitbread & Co. . . 261,018 


41,410 


Henry Meux <fc Co. . . 229,100 


34,098 


F. Calvert & Co. . . 219,333 


30,740 


Combe, Delafield, & Co. 105,081 


29.615 




28,017 




10,012 





In 1840. Barrels. 

Barclay, Perkins, & Co. . 361,321 
Truman, Hanbury, & Co. 263,235 
Wbitbread & Co. . 

Reid & Co. 

Combe, Delafield, & Co. 
Felix Calvert & Co. . 
Sir Henry Meux & Co. 



218,828 
196,442 
177,542 
136,387 
116,547 



mob, and seventeen persons were killed or wounded. He was found guilty of murder, 
22 June, 1736 ; but the queen granted him a reprieve (the king being then in Hanover). 
The people, at night, broke open the prison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a dyer's 
sign-post, in the Grass-market, 7 Sept. 1736. None of the rioters was ever detected. 

PORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage obtained its appellation on account of its 
having been drunk by porters in the city of London, about 1730.* The number of licensed 
brewers in 1850, in England, was 2257 ; in Scotland, 154 ; and in Ireland, 96 — total, 2507. 
On 17 Oct. 1814, at Meux's brewhouse two large vats of porter burst, destroyiag neighbour- 
ing houses . Several lives were lost ; and the loss was between 8000 and 9000 barrels. 

In 1760. 
Calvert <fe Co. brewed . 
Whitbread 
Truman 

Sir William Calvert . 
Gifford <fe Co. 
Lady Parsons . 
Tbrale .... 
Huck & Co. 
Harman . . 
Meux & Co. 

PORTERAGE ACT, regulating the charge for porterage of small parcels, passed 1799. 

PORT JACKSON (New South Wales), thirteen miles north of Botany Bay, was so named 
by capt. Cook in 1770; see Sycbiey. Here the duke of Edinburgh was shot by O'FaiTell, 
a Fenian, 12 March, 1868, but recovered. The assassin was hanged, 21 April. 

_ PORTLAND ADMINISTRATIONS. The first was the " Coalition ministry," of which 
William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland, f as first lord of the treasury, was the head. It 
obtained the name of the "Coalition" ministry, from its including lord North with Mr. Fox, 
formerly inveterate opponents. Formed 5 April, 1783 ; dissolved by Mr. Pitt's coming into 
power, Dec. same year. 

SECOND ADMIKISTRATION, 25 MarCh, 1807. 

Earl Camden, lord president. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Westmoreland lord privy seal. 

Hon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury (after- 
wards earl of Liverpool), Mr. Canning, and 
viscount Castlereagh (afterwards marquess of 
Londonderry), home, foreign, and colonial secre- 
taries. 

Efirl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, boards of trade and 
control. 

Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

PORTLAND ISLE (off Dorset). Fortified before 1 142. Portland castle was built by 
Henry VIII. about 1536. Off this peninsula a naval engagement commenced between the 
English and Dutch, 18 Feb. 1653, which continued for three days. The English destroyed 
eleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchantmen. Van Tromp was Admiral of the Dutch, 
and Blake of the English.— Here is foimd the noted freestone used for building our finest 
edifices. The Portland lights were erected 1716 and in 1789. The pier, with nearly half a 
mile square of land, was washed into the sea in Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the first 
stone of the Portland breakwater, 25 July, 1849, completed 1866. A mutiny among the 
convicts here in Sept. 1858, was promptly suppressed. 

PORTLAND or Bakberini Vase. This beautiful specimen of Greek art (com- 
posed of a glass-like substance, with figures and devices raised on it on white enamel ; 
height 10 inches ; diameter in the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle on each side) was 
discovered about the middle of the i6th century, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre 
at a place called Monte del Grano, about 24 miles from Rome. The sepulchre was sup- 
posed to have been that of the Roman emperor, Alexander Severus (222-235), ^^^ ^^^ 
mother Mammsea, and the vase is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of one of 

* The malt liquors previously in use were ale, beer, and twopenny, and it was customary to call for a 
pint or tankard of half-and-half, — i. e , half of ale, and half of beer. In the course of time it also became 
the practice to ask for a jjint of three-thirds, meaning a third of ale, beer, and twopenny. To avoid 
trouble, Harv,'ood, a brewer, made a liquor which partook of the united flavours of ale, beer, and 
twopenny, calling it entire, or entire butt beer, meaning that it was drawn entirely from one cask or 
butt. Being relished by porters and other working people, it obtained its name of porter, and was first 
retailed at the " Blue Last," Cxu-tain-road. — Leigh. 

t Bom 1738 ; became lord chamberlain, 1765 ; lord hctitenant of Ireland, 1782 ; premier, 1783 ; home 
secretary, 1794 ; lord president, 1801 ; premier again, 1807; died, 1809; when Mr. Spencer Perceval iDeoame 
premier. 



FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 

Duke of Portland, first lord of the treasure/. 

Viscoimt Stormont, president of the council. 

Earl of Carlisle, privT/ seal. 

Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, home 

and foreign secretaries. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Viscount Keppel, oxlmiralty. 
Viscoimt Townshend, ordnance. 
Lord Loughborough, chief commissioner of great seal. 
Charles Townshend, Edmund Burke, Bichai-d Fitz- 

patrick, Richard B. Sheridan, <fec. 



FOR 588 FOE, 

these royal personages. It was placed in the palace of the Barberini family, at Eome, 
where it remained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir William Hamilton, from whose 
possession it passed to that of the duchess of Portland : at the sale of her effects, it is said 
to have been bought by the then duke of Portland, who, in 1810, deposited it (on loan) in 
the British Museum. On 7 Feb. 1845, "this vase was smashed to pieces with a stone by a man 
named William Lloyd ; it was skilfully repaired, but is not now shown to the public. Josiah 
Wedgwood made a mould of it, and took a number of casts. 

PORTO BELLO (S. America), discovered by Columbus, 2 ISTov. 1502, was taken by 
Morgan the Buccaneer in 1668 ; by the British under admiral Vernon, from the Spaniards, 
21 Nov. 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifications, in 
1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, it was the great mart for 
the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 

PORTO FERRAJO, capital of Elba (wJiich see) ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of 
Florence, in 1548. The fortifications were not finished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed 
them with great magnificence ; see France. 

PORT PHILLIP (ISTew S. Wales), original name of the colony of Victoria {which see). 

PORTRAIT GALLERY, &c., see National Portrait Gallery. 

PORTREEVE (derived from Saxon words signifying the governor of a port or harbour). 
The chief magistrate of London was so styled ; but Richard I. appointed two bailiffs and 
afterwards London had maj'-ors. Camdeti; see Mayors. 

PORT ROYAL (N. America), capital of the French colony, Acadie, founded in 1604, 
after having been taken and restored several times, was finally acquired by the British in 
1 710, and named Annapolis. 

PORT ROYAL (Jamaica), once a considerable town, was destroyed by earthquakes in 
1602 and 1692 ; laid in ashes by fire in 1702 : reduced to ruins by an inundation of the sea 
in 1722; and destroyed by a luuTieane in 1774. After these extraordinary calamities, the 
custom-house and public offices were removed to Kingston. Fort Royal was again greatly 
damaged by fire in 1 750 ; bj"- another awful storm in 1 784 ; and by a devastating lire in 
Julj^ 1815. In 1850, this place suffered by cholera. 

PORT ROYAL des Champs (near Paris), was a French Cistercian convent, founded by 
Odo, bishop of Paris, at the wish of king Philip Augustus, 1204. Having fallen into decaj^ it 
was revived and reformed in 1608 by Angelica Arnauld. In 1625 the increased community 
removed to Paris. The Port Royal des Champs, in 1736, became the retreat of the Arnaulds, 
Tillemont, Pascal, Lancelot, and other eminent Jansenists, who devoted themselves to edu- 
cation, and produced the Port Royal grammars, logic, and other works. This institution was 
condemned by the pope in 1709, [and the buildings were pulled down, and tombs dese- 
crated, by the order of Louis XIV. in 1710. The Port Royal at Paris was suppressed, with 
other monasteries, in 1790. 

PORTSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most 
strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses were established in 
the reign of Hen. VIII. Population in 185 1, 72,096; in 1861, 94,546. 

The French under D'Annebaut attempted to 

destroy Portsmouth, but were defeated by 

viscount Lisle, in the then finest wai--ship in 

the world, the Great Harry .... 1544 
Here George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, 

was assassinated by Felton . 23 Aug. 1628 

Admiral Byng (see Byng) on a very dubious 

sentence was shot at Portsmouth 14 March, 1757 
The dockyard was fired, the loss estimated at 

400,000^. ...... 3 July, 1760 

Another fire occasioned loss of ioo,oooZ, , 27 July, 1 770 
[The French were suspected both times, but 1 

there was no actual proof.] i 

PORTUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The present name is derived from Porto Callo, the 
original appellation of Oporto. After a nine years' struggle, under Viriathes, a brave able 
leader, the Lusitanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. Portugal underwent 
the same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman empire. There are in Portugal two 
universities, that of Coimbra, founded in 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in 
1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the small town of Thomar has an academy of 
sciences ; but in general, literature is at a low ebb in Portugal. The poet Camoens, called 
the Virgil of his country, and author of the Lusiad (1569), translated into English by 
Mickle, was a native of Lisbon. Population of the kingdom and colonies, in 1863, 
^>°37>i94- The constitiition granted in 1826, was revised in 1852. 



Royal George (which see) sunk . . 29 Aug. 1782 
Grand naval mock engagement and parade of 
the fleet, the king being present, 22 to 
25 June, 1773, and ... 30 Jime, 1794 
Another great fire occurred . . 7 Dec. 1776 
A great naval review was held near Ports- 
mouth on 25 April, 1856 

Visited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, 

29 Aug. -I Sept. 1865 
Easter Monday volunteer review, &c., very 
successful 13 April, 1868 



FOR 



589 



FOR 



FORTUGAL, continued. 

Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here . 472 

Conquered by the Moors 713 

The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen 

ehiefs, and Alphonso III. establishes bishops 900 
The Moois, conquered by Alfonso VI. the 
Valiant, of Castile, assisted by many other 
princes and volunteers. Among those who 
shone mo.'t in this celebrated expedition was 
Henrj"- of Besancjon (a relative of the duke 
of Burgundy and king of France). Alfonso 
bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural 
daughter, and Portugal as her mai'riage 
porcion, which he was to hold of him as 

count 1095 

Alfonso Heni'iqiiez defeats five Moorish kings, 

and is proclaimed king ; see Ourique . . 1139 
Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to 
the Holy Land, he takes Lisbon from, the 

Moors 1 147 

Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by 

Sancho I ... 1189 

Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his 
country, who builds 44 cities or towns ia 

Portugal 1279 

University of Coimbra founded . . . . 1308 
MiUtary orders of Christ and St. James insti- 
tuted 1279 and 1325 

IQes de Castro murdered 1355 

John I. , surnamed the Great, carries his arms 

into Africa 1415 

Maritime discoveries .... 1419-30 

Madeira and the Canaries seized . . . 1420 

Code of laws digested 1425 

Lisbon made the capital, about .... 1433 
Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 
Hop 3 discovered by Vasco de Gama 20 Nov. 1497 

Discovery of the Brazils 1499 

Brazil discovered by Cabral . . . April, 1500 
Camoens, author of the Lusiad, born about . 1520 
The Inquisition established .... 1526 
University of Evora founded . . . 1451 or 1533 
African expedition ; king Sebastian defeated 

and slain in the battle of Alcazar 4 Aug. 1578 
The kingdom seized by PhiUp II. of Spain . 15S0 
The Dutch seize the Portuguese Indian settle- 
ments 1602-20 

The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place 

John, duke of Braganza, on the throne Dec. 1640 
The great earthquake destroys Lisbon i Nov. 1755 
Joseph I. narrowly escapes death by assassins 1758 
[This affair caused some of the first families of 
the kingdom to be tortured to death; their 
very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; 
yet many were unjustly condemned, and 
their innocence was soon afterwards made 
manifest. The Jesuits were also expelled on 
this occasion.] 
Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation 
from the pope to enable his daughter and 
brother to intermarry ; see lucent . . . 1760 
The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, 

which is saved by the EngUsh . 1762 and 1763 
Regency of John (afterwards king), owing to 

the lunacy of queen Maria 1792 

War with Spain iSoi 

Treaty between France and Spain for the par- 
tition of Portugal, Oct. ; Frtnch invasion ; 
Juuot arrives at Lisbon, 27 Nov. ; the court 

sail for Brazil 29 Nov. 1807 

Rise of the Portuguese ; several times defeated, 
June and July ; ai-rival of Wellington at 
Oporto, July ; he defeats Junot at Vimiera, 
21 Aug. ; convention of Cintra confirmed, 

30 Aug. 1S08 
Oporto taken by Soult. . . 29 March, 1S09 
Almeida taken by Massena . . 27 Aug. i3io 
Massena defeated at Busaco . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Wellington secures the hues of Torres Vedras, 

Oct. „ 
Massena defeated at Fuentes d'Onoro ; retreats, 

5 May, 1811 



i»ii 
1814 
1815 
1820 

1821 

1822 
182:! 



1825 
1826 



1827 



The British parliament grants the sufferers in 
Portugal loOjOooi. . . . . . . 

Portugal cedes Guiana to France 

Union of Portugal and Brazil . . . . 

Revolution begins in Oporto . . 29 Aug. 
Constitutional Junta established . . i Oct. 
Return of the court .... 4 July, 

Independence of Brazil ; the prince regent 
made empei'or ; see Brazil . . .12 Oct. 
The king modifies the constitution . 5 June, 
Disturbances at Lisbon; Miguel departs, 

1-9 May, 
Treaty with Brazil . . . .29 Aug. 

Death of John VI 10 Marcb, 

Dom Pedro gi-ants a constitutional charter, and 

confirms the regency . . .26 April, 

He relinquishes the throne in favour of his 

daughter, Donna JIaria da Gloria . 2 May, 

Miguel takes oath of fealty at Vienna 4 Oct. 

Marquess of Chaves' insui-rection at Lisbon in 

favour of Dom Miguel . . . .6 Oct. 

Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed, 

29 Oct. 
Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Biutain, 
3 Dec. : departure of the first British auxi- 
liary troops for Portugal . . .17 Uec. 
Bank of Lisbon stops payment . . 7 Dec. 
Dom Miguel made rogent ; lie arrives in London, 
30 Dec. 1827 ; takes the oaths at Lisbon, 

22 Feb. 
The British armament quits Portugal, 28 April ; 
foreign ministers withdraw . . 3 May, 
Sir John Doyle arrested . . 13 June, 

Dom Miguel assumes the title of king 4 July, 
He dissolves the three estates . .12 July, 
His troops take Madeira . . .24 Aug. 
Release of sir John Doyle . . 7 Sept. 

The queen Donna Maria arrives in London, 
6 Oct. ; and at Windsor . . .22 Deo. 
Miguel's exiDedition against Teroeira defeated, 

II Aug. 

Duke of Palmella appointed regent March, 

Dom Pedro arrives in England . 16 June, 

Insurrection in Portugal in favour of the 

queen ; more than 300 lives L'St . 21 Aug. 

Dom Pedro's expedition sails from Belle-isle, 

9 Feb. ; at Terceira proclaims himself i-egent, 

2 April ; takes Oporto ... 8 J uly. 

The Miguelites attack Oporto ; and are defeated 

with considerable loss on both sides, 19 Sept. 

Mouut Cavello taken ... 9 April, 

Admiral Napier takes Dom Miguel's squadron 

ofl' Cape St. Vincent . . . 2 July, 

Lisbon is evacuated by the duke of Cadaval's 

army ; the queen proclaimed . 24 July, 

After various conflicts Dom Miguel capitulates 

to the Pedroites and Santarem sun-enders, 

26 May, 
Dom Miguel embarks at Evora for Genoa, 

31 May, ,, 

Massacres take place at Lisbon . 9 June, ,, 
The Corte.s declare the queen of age 15 Sept. ,, 
Dom Pedro dies .... 24 Sept. ,, 
Oporto wine co7npany abolished . . . ,, 
Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of Leuch- 

tcnberg), prince consort, dies . 28 March, 1835 
The queen marries Ferdinand of Saxe Coburg, 

9 April, 1836 
Revolution at Lisbon ... 9 An/. ,, 
Another outbreak there . . . 8 Nov. ,, 
The duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 

Pedro's charter . . . .18 Aug. 1837 
He and Saldanha fail, and embark for England, 

18 Sept. ,, 
Oporto wine companj' re-established 7 April, 1838 
The northerji province in a state of insur- 
rection about this time . . 20 April, 1S46 
The duke of Palmella resigns . . 31 Oct. ,, 
Action at Evora, the queen's troojjs defeat the 
insurgent forces .... 31 Oct. ,, 



1829 
1830 
1831 



1834 



POE, 



590 



POK 



PORTUGAL, continued. 

British squadron under admiral Parker arrives 
in the Tagus, at the queen's request 31 Oct. 1846 

Pahnella btinished . . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Marquess of Saldanha defeats count Bomfin at 
Torres Vedras .... 22 Dec. „ 

The insurgents enter Oporto . . 7 Jan. 1847 

London conference : England, Fi-ance, and 
Spain determine to assist the queen of 
Portugal to terminate the civil war 21 May, ,, 

Submission of Sa de Bandeira . 11 June, ,, 

A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the Junto 
capitulates 26 June, ,, 

An American squadron in the Tagus to enforce 
claims against the Portuguese . 22 June, 1850 

Military insurrection, headed by the duke of 
Saldanha, who, being outstripped in his 
inarch on Santarem by the king of Portugal, 
flies northward 10 April, 1851 

Oporto declares for the duke, who had left the 
city for Vigo to embark for England ; but is 
called back by the insurgents . 24 April, ,, 

Saldanha's entry into Oporto . . 29 April, ,, 

The conde de Thomar, prime minister, resigns ; 
arrives in England ... 16 May, ,, 

Saldanha, prime minister . , .23 May, „ 

Dom Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of 
Lowenstein-Eosenberg . . 24 Sept. ,, 

Revision of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned 
by the queen ; the prince royal takes the oath 
to the coustitution ... 

Conversion of the public debt 

Death of the queen Maria II. 

King-consort recognised as regent 

The young king visits England . 

The slaves on royal domains freed 

The king visits France . 

Inauguration of the king . 

Besignation of Saldanha ministry . 

First Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to San- 
tarem) opened 26 Oct. „ 

Fever rages in Lisbon ; the king very active in 
relieving the sufferers . . Oct. and Nov. 1857 

The French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles- 
ei- Georges seized .... 29 Nov. „ 



18 July, 


l8S2 


18 Dec. 


jj 


15 Nov. 


l8S3 


19 Dec. 




June, 


18 S4 


30 Dec. 




. May, 


18SS 


16 Sept. 




5 June, 


1856 



Anger of the French government ; its ultima- 
tum sent, 13 Oct. ; and ships of war to the 
Tagus : the vessel restored (see Charles-et- 
Georges) 25 Oct. 

Death of the duke of Terceira, prime muaister, 
April 26; succeeded by the senhor Agvjiar, 
May 2, who resigns . . . .2 July, 

Death of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded by his 
brother the duke of Oporto . . 11 Nov. 

Death of John, the king's brother . . 29 Dec. 

The law of succession altered in favour of the 
king's sisters 3 Jan. 

The due de Loul^ becomes minister . 21 Feb. 

The king married to Princess Maria Pia of Savoy 
by proxy, at Lisbon .... 6 Oct. 

Elections : majority for the government Nov. 

Birth of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne, 28 Sept. 

Ministerial changes Jan. 

Death of the celebrated statesman the Duke of 
Palmella 2 April, 

Free-trade measures introduced . i June, 

Frontier treaty with Spain concluded 29 Sept. 

U.S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento in the 
Tagus fired on, through suspicion of their 
sailing after the confederate vessel Stonewall, 
27 March ; the difficulty vsdth the U.S. govern- 
ment arranged .... 7 April, 

The premier, De LoulS, resigns ; marquess de 
Bandeira forms a ministry . -17 April, 

Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies, 
> May, 

Another prince born . . . 31 July, 

New ministry formed ; Aguiar premier, 4 Sept. 

The international exhibition at Oporto opened 
by the king 18 Sept. 

The king visits England and Prance . Dec. 

General Prim enters Portugal, 20 Jan. ; ordered 
to depart 17 Feb. 

Death of Dom Miguel, the ex-king . 14 Nov. 

The king and queen of Spain visit Lisbon, 

II Dec. 

New ministry formed under count D'Avila, 

5 Jan. 



1862 



1S65 



COTTNTS AND KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 



1095. 
1112. 
1128. 
"39' 



1185. 
1212. 
1223. 
1248. 
1279. 

1325. 
1357- 
1367. 

1385. 



1433- 
1438, 



1495. 

I52I. 



1SS7. 



1578. 
1580. 



Henry, count or earl of Portugal. 

Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 

Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 

Alfonso I. declared king, having obtained a 

signal victory over a prodigious army of 

Moors on the plains of Ourique. 
Sancho I. , son of Alfonso. 
Alfonso II., sumamed Crassus, or the Fat. 
Sancho II., or the Idle : deposed. 
Alfonso III. 
Denis or Dionysius, styled the father of his 

country. 
Alfonso IV., the Brave. 
Peter, the Severe ; succeeded by his son. 
Ferdinand I. ; succeeded by his natural 

brother. 
John I. , the Bastard and the Great ; married 

Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt, duke 

of Lancaster. 
Edward or Duarte. 
Alfonso V. , the African. 
John II., whose actions procured him the 

titles of the Great and the Perfect ; suc- 
ceeded by his cousin, 
Emmanuel, the Fortunate. 
John III., son of Emmanuel; he admitted into 

his kingdom the reUgious institution of the 

Inquisition. 
Sebastian ; drowned after the great battle of 

Alcazarquivir, in Africa, 4 Aug. 1578, when 

the crown reverted to his great uncle. 
Henry, the cardinal, son of Emmanuel. 
Anthony, prior .of Crato, son of Emmanuel : 



deposed by Philip II., of Spain, who united 
Portugal to his other dominions. 

1580. Philip II. ) 

1598. Philip III. > kings of Spain. 

1621. PhiUpIV. ) 

1640. John IV., duke of B BAG anza; dispossessed the 
Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 
proclaimed king, Dec. i. 

1656. Alfonso VI. ; deposed in 1667, and his brother 
and successor Peter made regent : the latter 
ascended the throne in 

1683. Peter II. ; succeeded by his son, 

1706. John V. ; succeeded by his son, 

1750. Joseph Emmanuel. The daughter and succes- 
sor of this prince married his brother, by 
dispensation from the pope, and they as- 
cended the throne, as 

1777. Maria-Frances-IsabeUa and Peter III. jointly. 

1786. Maria, alone : this princess afterwards faUs 
into a state of melancholy and derangement ; 
dies, 1816. 

1792. Regency — John, son of the queen, and after- 
wards king, declared regent of the kingdom, 
1791. 

1816. John VI., previously regent. He had with- 
drawn in 1807, owing to the French inva- 
sion of Portugal, to his Brazilian dominions ; 
but the discontent of his subjects obUged 
him to return in 1821 : died in 1826. 

1826. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son of John VI. ; 
making his election of the empire of Brazil, 
abdicated the throne of Portugal in favour 
of his daughter, 



POR 



591 



POS 



PORTUGAL, continued. 

1826. Maria II. (da Gloria), who became queen at the royal power accordingly : died, 15 Nov. 

seven years of age. 1853 ; succeq^ed by her son, 

1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the 1S53. Peter V. (Uom Pedro), bom 16 Sept. 1S37 : died, 

crown, which he retained, amid civil con- 11 Nov. 1861 ; succeeded by his brother, 

tcntions, until 1S33. 1861. Luis I., the present (1868) king; born, i Oct. 

1833. Maria II. restored ; declared in Sept. 1834 1838 ; maiTied to Maria Pia, daughter of 

(being then 15) to be of age, and assumed Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, 6 Oct. 1862. 

Heir : Dom Carlos (son), bom 28 Sept. 1863. 

POSElSr, a Polish province, aunexed to Prussia 1772 and 1793 ; made part of the duchy 
of "Warsaw, 1807; restoi-ed to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection here quelled May, 1848. 

POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY* set forth by Auguste Comte, in eminent mathematician, 
horn about 1795 ; died at Paris, 1852. 

POSTS, said to have originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who erected 
post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia, about 536 B.C. Augustus was the first who 
introduced this institution among the Romans. This was imitated by Charlemagne about 
A.D. 800. Ashe. Louis XL first established post-houses in France owing to his eagerness 
for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe, 1470. Henault. An 
international commission respecting postal arrangements met at Paris 1 1 May, and broke up 
9 June, 1863. 

POST-OFFICE OF England. In England, in the reign of Edward IV. 1481, riders on 
post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles from each other, in order to procure 
the king the earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the course of the war that had 
arisen with the Scots. Gale. Richard III. improved the sj'-stern of couriers in 1483. In 
1543 similar aixangements existed in England. Sadler's Letters. Post communications 
behveen London and most towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland, existed in 1635. 
Strype. 



The first chief postmaster of England, Thomas 
Eaudolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth . 1581 

James I. appointed Matthew de I'Equester as 
foreign postmaster ; and Chas. I. appointed 
WiUiam Frizell and Thomas Witherings . . 1631 

A proclamation of Chas. I., " whereas to this 
time there hath been no certain intercoiu-se 
between the kingdoms of England and Scot- 
land, the king now commands his post- 
master of England for foreign parts to settle 
a running post or two to run night and day 
between Edinburgh and London, to go thi- 
ther and come back again in six days " t . . ,, 

An enlarged office erected by the parliament in 
1643 ; and one more considerable in 1657, 
with a view "to benefit commerce, convey 
the public dispatches, and as the best means 
to discover and prevent many dangerous 
wicked designs against the commonwealth 
by the inspection of the correspondence." . 1657 

The Post-office as at present constituted was 
foimded 12 Chas. II. . . . 27 Dec. 1660 

Cross posts established by Ralph Allen . . 1720 

The mails conveyed by coaches ; the first mail 
left London for Bristol (see Mail Coaches) 

2 Aug. 1784 

Penny Post first set up in London and its 
suburbs by a Mr. Robert Murray, uphol- 
sterer 1681 

He assigned his interest in the undertaking to 
Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a 
trial at the King's Bench bar it was adjudged 
to belong to the duke of York, as a branch of 
the general post, and was thereupon annexed 
to the revenue of the crown .... 1600 



1774 
183s 



This institution considerably improved, and 

made a two-penny post, July, 1794, et seq. 
A penny post was first set up in Dublin 
The mails first conveyed by railway, 1830 ; by 
the overland route to India 

Early in 1837, Mr. Rowland Hill broached his 
plan of penny 'postage, which was adopted 
after a full investigation by a committee of 
the house of commons 1839 

A national testimonial was presented to him, 
17 June, 1846 ; on 30 Nov. he was appointed 
secretary to the post-office ; and created 
K.C.B. in i860 

The new postage law, by which the uniform 
rate of ^d. per letter was tried as an experi- 
ment, came into operation . . 5 Dec. 1839 

The uniform rate of irf. per letter of half an 
ounce weight, (fee, commenced . 10 Jan. 1S40 

The stamped postage covers came into use, 

6 May, „ 

Reduction in postage — to be zd. instead of zd. 
for every oiuice above the first . April, 1865 

Nii/nibev of letters delivered in the last, year of 
the heavy postage (1839) "^^^ 82,470,596, in- 
cluding 6,563,024 franks. 

In 1840, the mmiber was 168,768,344; in 1851, 
360,651,187, whereof 36,512,649 were in Scot- 
land, and 35,982,782 were in Ireland. 

The number in 1856 was, England 388 millions, 
Scotland, 42 millions : Ireland, 48 millions ; 
total, 478 millions ; being an increase of 4J 
per cent, on 1855, and an average of 17 to 
each person. 

On 14 Feb. 1856, 618,000 letters passed thi-ough 
the general post-office. 



* It sets aside theology and metaphysics as two merely preliminary stages in life ; and abandons all 
search after causes and essences of things, and restricts itself to the observation and classification of phe- 
nomena and the discovery of their laws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived at the third stage 
of its progress. He aimed at being the founder of a new reUgion as well as a new philosophy, " the religion 
of humanity." 

t The king also commanded his " postmaster of England for foreign parts," to open a regular com- 
munication by running posts between the metropoUs and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, 
Plymouth, Exeter, <fec. (Rates of postage — i letter carried under 80 miles, 2d. ; under 140 miles, ^d. ; above 
that distance in England, 6d. ; to any part of Scotland, S(^) Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the 
post was only transmitted three days a week between Edinburgh and London : and the meti-opolis, on one 
occasion, only sent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay. 



POS 



592 



POT 



POST-OFFICE OF England, continued. 

In iSsg, 544,796,000 letters were posted in the 
United Kingdom ; being an increase of 4} per 
cent, on 1858. The averase annual number 
to each person — in England, 22 ; Scotland, 16 ; 
Ireland, 7. 

In i860, 564 millions of letters were delivered 
in the United Kingdom ; in 1861, 593 millions : 
in 1862, 605 millions; in 1863, 642,634,618; in 
1864, 679,084,822 ; in 1865, 720,467.007. 

Book Post. — On 5 June, 1855, a treasury warrant 
was issued, providing for the carriage by post 
of books, pamplleLs,&c., under certain restric- 
tions — 4 oz. for id ; 8 oz. for 2d., &c. 

Public receptacles for letters before 1840, about 
4500; in 1865, 16,246. 

In i860, there were in the United Kingdom, 
11,412 post-offices ; 1862, 11,316. 

The street Letter-boxes were erected in March, 



1855. The first one was placed at the comer 
of Fleet-street and Farriiigdnn-street. There 
were 1958 in 1860 ; 3460 in 1862. 

Officers employed i Dec. 1861, 25,473. 

X Money-order Office, set vip in 1792, was little 
iised on account of the expense, till 1840. 
In 1839, 188,291 money orders were issued 
for 313, 124^. ; in 1861, 7,580,455 orders for 
14,616,348^. ; in 1865, orders were issued for 
17,829,290!. 

The commission on money orders in 1866 was 
151,979?. 

The Postal Guide first appeared in 1856; m 
which year London and the vicinity were 
divided into districts for postal purposes : 
viz. East, West, &c. The postmaster-general 
has issued Annual Reports (1854-65). 

The Post-office Du-ectory first appeared in 1800. 



KEVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE, 



1643. It yielded 


. £5,000 


1790. It yielded 


£480,074 


1850. Net revenue . . £803,898 


1653. Farmed to 


John 


1800. Ditto 


74Sj3i3 


1855. Ditto . . . 1,137,220 


Manley for 


. 10,000 


1805. Great Britain 


1,424,994 


1859. Ditto . . . 1,150,960 


1663. Farmed to 


Daniel 


1810. Ditto. 


1,709,065 


i860. Ditto . . . 1,102,479 


O'Neale for 


. 21,500 


1815. Ditto . 


1,755.898 


1861. Ditto . . . 1,161,985 


1674. Farmed for . 


. . 43,000 


1820. United Kingdom 


2,402,697 


1862. Ditto . . . 1,236,941 


1685. It yielded 


. 65,000 


1825. Ditto . 


2,255,239 


1863. Ditto (after pay- 


1707. Ditto . 


. . 111,461 


1830. Ditto 


2,301,432 


ment for foreign 


1714. Ditto 


• 145.227 


1835. Ditto . 


2,353,340 


and colonial 


1723. Ditto . 


. . 201,805 


1839. Ditto 


2,S22,4<i5 


mails) . . 1,037,404 


1744. Ditto 


• 235.492 


1840. New rate 


471,000 


1864. Ditto (do. 29,953^) 1,153,261 


1764. Ditto . 


. . 432,048 


1845. Net revenue 


761,982 


1865. Ditto (do. 28,786/.) 1,482,522 



POST-OFFICES. 

The General Post-office of London was originally 
established in Cloak -lane, near Dowgate - hill, 
whence it was removed to the Black Swan, in 
Bishopsgate-street. After the great fire of 1666, it 
was removed to the Two Black- Pillars in Brydges- 
street, Covent-garden, and afterwards (about i6go) 
to sir Robert Viner's mansion in Lombard-street. 
It was transferred to the building in St. Martin's- 
le-Grand, erected on the site of an ancient college 
and sanctuary, from designs by R. Smirke, esq,, 
23 Sept. 1S29. 

The new Post-office of Dublin opened, 6 Jan. 1818. 

The foundation of a new Post-office at Edinburgh 
was laid by the prince consort in Oct. i85i. 

Post-office Saving-banks established i86r (began 
Sept. 16) ; interest 2j per cent. ; government re- 
sponsible to depositors. The number of these 
banks and the amount of deposits received on 
31 March, 1862, were 

Banks. Deposits. 

1795 . £668,879 10 2 

129 . . 28,392 2 10 

299 . . 10,237 9 8 

300 . . 26,064 18 8 
9 . . 1,679 IS o 



England . 
Wales . 
Scotland 
Ireland 
The Islands 



2532 



POSTMASTERS. 

The number of postmasters (2) reduced to r, 1822. 
The offices of postmaster-general of England and of 

Ireland united in one person, 1831. 
Act passed permitting postmaster to sit in house of 

commons, July, iS65. 
1823. Thomas earl of Chichester. 

1826. Lord Frederick Montague. 

1827. William duke of Manchester. 
1830. Charles dvike of Richmond. 

1834. Francis marquess of Conyngham, 

1835. William lord Maryborough. 

,, Francis marquess of Conyngham. 

,, .Thomas earl of Lichfield. 
1841. William viscount Lowther. 
1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. 

,, Ulick marquess of Clanricarde. 
1855. George duke of Argyle. 

1858. Cliaiies lord Colchester. 

1859. James earl of Elgin. 

i860. Edward lord Stanley of Alderley. 
1866. James duke of Montrose (July). 

SECRETARIES. 

1797. Francis Freeliiig. 

1836. Wm. L. Maberley. 

1846. Rowland Hill, j-esigned 29 Feb. 1864 ; made 
K.G.B. 1S60, with a grant of 2o,oooJ. and 
2000?. pension. 

1864. John Tilley (March). 



£735,253 16 4 
London district . . . 267,329 13 8 
i866. Comijuted total amount of capital held by these 
banks in the United Kingdom, 8,121,175/. 

POSTING. Post-chaises were invented by the French, and, according to Grainger, were 
introduced into this country hy Mr. William Tull, son of the writer on husbandry. Posting 
was fixed by sta.tute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548. By a statute, re-establish- 
iug the post-office, none but the postmaster or his deputies could furnish post-horses for 
travellers, 1660. The post-horse duty was imposed in 1779. Post-horse duty yielded, in 
1852, in England, 128,501^., and in Scotland, 16,933?. 

POTASSIUM, a remarkable metal, discovered in 1807 by Humphry Davy, who first suc- 
ceeded in separating it from potash by means of a powerful voltaic battery, in the laboratory 
of the Royal Institution, London ; and also the metals /SocZmm from soda, Calmim h'om. lime, 
&c. The alkalis and earths had been previously regarded as simple substances. Potassium 
ignites on contact with water. 



POT 593 POW 

POTATOES, natives of Cliili and Peru, originally brought to England from Santa F6, 
in America, by sir John Hawkins, 1563. Others ascribe their introduction to sir Fi'ancis 
Drake, in 1586; -while their general introduction is mentioned by many writers as occurring 
in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter Raleigh, who had large 
estates in that country, about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were 
not known in FLmders luitil 1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America 
by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Cardington, near Bedford, 1765; and its culture became 
general soon after. The failure of the potato crop in Ireland, four successive years, from 
1845, caused famine among the poor, to which succeeded pestilent disease of which multi- 
tudes died ; among them many priests and physicians. Parliament voted ten millious sterling 
in this awful exigency ; and several countries of Europe, and the United States of America, 
forwarded provisions and other succours ; see Ireland. 

POTID^E A, a town in Macedonia, a tributary of Athens, against which it revolted 432 B. c. , 
but submitted in 429. It was taken from the Athenians after three years' siege, by Philip II. 
of Macedon in 358 B.C. 

POTOSI (Peru). Silver mines here were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545 ; they are 
in a mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. 

POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. 
Here is situated the palace oi Sans Souci, embellished by Frederick II., and occupied by Na- 
poleon I. in Oct. 1806 ; and the new palace, the residence of prince Frederick William and 
his wife the princess royal of England, married 25 Jan. 1858. 

POTTERY AND PORCELAIiSr. The manufacture of earthenware (the ceramic art) ex- 
isted among the Jews as an honourable occupation (see i Chron. iv. 23), and the power of 
the potter over the clay as a symbol of the power of God is described by Jeremiah, 605 B.C. 
(ch. xviii.) Earthenware was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, 
and Romans. The art, which was lost at the subversion of the Roman Western empire, re- 
appeared in Spain with the Arabs. 



The first European porcelain was made at 
Dresden by Bottclier, about .... 1700 

[The manufacture was fostered by the king 
Augustus II.] 

The Capo di Monte factory at Naples established. 1736 

Thomas Frye painted porcelain, 1749; and Dr. 
Wall established the manufacture at Wor- 
cester 1750 

The St. Cloud china manufactory removed to 
Stivres 1756 

Josiah Wedgwood's patent ware was first made 1762 

Birch's "History of Ancient Pottery" (1858); 
Marryat's " History of Pottery and Porcelain, 
Modiasval and JModern" (1857); and Brong- 
niart's " Arts C^ramiques," are valuable 
works. 

The British manufacture greatly improved by 
Herbert Miuton, who died in ... 1858 

The duty on earthenware taken off in . . . i860 



The Majolica, Raffaelle, or Umbrian ware of the 

15th century, was probably introduced into 

Italy from the Moors from Majorca, as co- 
loured tiles of the 6th and 7th century adorn 

some ancient churches. Baffaelle and other 

artists made designs for this ware. 
Pottery was manufactured at Beauvais, in 

France, in the 12th century. 
St. Cloud enamelled pottery made . about 
Luca dcUa Robbia (born about 1410) ajsplied 

tin enamel to terra-cotta. Fayence ware was 

made in France by Bernard Palissy (died, 

1589) and his family. 

Porcelain', formed of earth kaolin, was made 

in China in the 2nd century after Chi-ist. 

Chinese porcelain is mentioned in histories 

of the i6th century, when it was introduced 

into England, and eagerly sought after. 
Porcelain was made at Bow, near London, early 

in the i8th century, and at Chelsea, before . 

POULTRY. An exhibition of poultry was held in London, Jan. 1853, when neaiiy 
1000 cocks were exhibited ; and similar exhibitions have been held at the Crystal Palace since. 

POULTRY COMPTER (London), was one of the most noted of the old city prisons. 
The compter of Wood-street belonged to the sheriff of London, and was made a prison-house 
in 1555. This latter and Bread-street compter were rebuilt in 1667. The Giltspur-street 
prison, built to supply the place of the old city compters, was pulled down in 1855. The 
Poultry chapel was erected on the site of the Poultiy compter, in 1819. Leigh. 

POUND, from the Latin Ponclus. The value of the Roman ponclo is not precisely known, 
though some suppose it was erpiivalent to an Attic niina, or 3?. 45. jd. The pound sterling 
was in Saxon times, about 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth 
part ; conse(|uently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. Peacham. Our 
avoirdupois weight pound came Jroni the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; it is in 
pro^Dortion to our troy weight as sevoiteen to fourteen ; see under Standard. 

POWDERING THE HAIR is said to have taken its rise from some of the ballad-singers 
at the fair at St. Germains whitening their heads, to make themselves ridiculous. It became 
very general about 16 14. In England the hair-powder tax, one guinea for each person, 
began in May 1795, at which time the practice was at its height. The tax still exists, 
yielding in England, a few years ago, 4000^. per year, but only 1200Z. iu 1S63. It was 
abolished iu Ireland. 

Q Q 



POW 594 PEA 

POWER-LOOMS, see Looms, and Cotton. 

POYNINGS' LAW, named after sir Edward Poynings, one of the loi-d deputies of Ire- 
land at the time of its passing, at Drogheda, 1494. By this Law all legislation in the Irish 
parliament was confined to matters first approved of by the king and the English council. 
The act was repealed, together with the English Declaratory act of the 6tli of Geo. I. and 
some other equally obnoxious Irish statutes, April, 1782. 

PEiEMONSTRATENSIAIT ORDER, founded in 1120 by Korbert, a monk. Its first 
house in England was founded by Peter de Gousla or Gousel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshire, 
114.;^— Tanner ; according to others in 1146. The order spread widely through England 
soon after. The house at ISTewsham was dedicated to St. Mary and St. Martial. Lewis. 

PRAEMUNIRE, Laav of. This law (which obtained its name from the first two words 
" Prcemoneri," or " Prceimmiri facias," " Cause to be forewarned," and which is applied to 
any offence in the way of contempt of the sovereign or his government) derived its origin 
from the aggressive power of the jsope in England. The offence introduced a foreign power 
into the land, and created an impcrium in imijcrio. The first statute of Prremunire was 
enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. Coke. The pope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, &c., 
before they were void, upon favourites, on pretence of providing the church with better 
qualified successors before the vacancies occurred. To put a stop to these encroach- 
ments, Edward 111. enacted a statute in 1353. The statute commonly referred to as the 
statute of Praemunire is the i6th of Richard II. 1392. Several other similar enactments 
followed. 

PRiilTOEIAlSr GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (13 B.C.); their 
numbers were enlarged by Tiberius, Yitellius, and their successors. At first supporters of 
the imperial tyrants they eventually became their masters, actually putting up the imperial 
diadem for sale (as in A.D. 193, when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They committed 
many atrocities, and were finally disbanded by Constantine, in 312. 

PEjETOES, Eoman magistrates. In 365 B.C., one prtetor was appointed ; a second was 
appointed in 252 B.C. One {prcetor icrbanus) administered justice to the citizens, and the 
other {prcetor percgrinus) in causes which related to foreigners. In 227 B.C. two more 
praetors were created to assist the consul in the government of the provinces of Sicily and 
Sardinia, which had been lately conquered.; and two more when Spain was reduced into the 
form of a Roman province, 197 B.C. S3dla, the dictator, added two more, and Julius Caesar 
increased the numlDer to 10, which afterwards became 16. After this, their number fluctuated, 
being sometimes 18, 16, or 12 ; till, in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, 
and their numbers were reduced to three. 

PRAGA, a suburb of Warsaw, where a most bloody battle was fought, 4 Nov. 1 794 ; 
30,000 Poles were killed by the Russian general Suwarrow. Near here, on 25 Feb. 
1831,'the Poles, commanded by Skrznecki, defeated the Russians, under general Giemsar, 
who lost 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon. 

PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to church and sometimes state 
affairs. The ordinances of the kings of France are thus called ; in one the rights of the 
Galilean church were asserted against the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, by 
Charles VII. in 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany in the 
house of Austria, 1439. The "emperor Charles VI. published the Pragmatic Sanction, 
whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should succeed in preference to the daughters 
of his brother Joseph I., 19 April, 1713 ; and he settled his dominions on his daughter 
Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, 1723. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise 
to a war, in which most of the powers of Europe were engaged, and which lasted till 1748. 

PRAGUE, the capital of Bohemia (ivMch see). The old city was founded about 759 ; the 
new city was rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Charles IV., who made it his capital and erected 
a imiversity. Prague has suffered much by war. It was taken by the Swedes in 1648, and 
by the French in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744 it was taken by 
the king of Prussia ; birt he was obliged to abandon it in the same year. The great battle 
of Prague was fought 6 May, 1757." In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by 
prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole camp taken ; their commander, general Braun, was 
mortally wounded, and the Prussian marshal Schweria was killed. Prague was besieged by 
the king of Prussia, but he was soon obliged to raise the siege. — An insurrection in Prague, 
June, 1848, was suppressed in a few days. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia 
was signed at Prague on 23 Aug. 1866. By its articles Austria consented to the breaking 
up of the Germanic confederation, and to Prussia's annexing Hanover, Hesse Cassel, 
Nassau, and Frankfort ; and gave up Holstein, and her political influence in North 
Germany. 



PEA 595 TRE 

PRAGUERIE, War of (so named from Prague, then celebrated for its civil disorders); 
the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, against his father Charles VIL, aided by 
Alexander, the bastard, of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was soon (quelled ; Louis was 
exiled, and Alexander put to death by drowning, July, 1440. 

PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT, see Barebones. 

PRASLIN MURDER. The duchessede Choiseul-Praslin Avas murdered by her husband, 
the due de Praslin, at his own house, in Paris, 17 Aug. 1847. She was the only daughter 
of the celebrated marshal Sebastian!, the mother of nine children, and in her forty-first year. 
Circumstances were so managed by him as to give it the appearance of being the act of 
another. Dui'ing the arrangements for the trial, the duke took poison. 

PRAYER-BOOK, see Common Prayer. 

PRAYERS. " Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord" (Gen. iv. 26), 3875 
B.C. The mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted bj^pope Boniface II. a.d. 
532. This last custom, which prevailed among the Jews, has been recently adopted in some 
protestant places of worship in England. Prayers for the dead were first introduced into the 
Christian Church about 190. Eiisebms. Prayers addressed to the Virgin Mary and to the 
saints are said to have been introduced by pope Gregory, 593. 

PRECEDENCE was established in very early ages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. 
In England the oi'der of precedency was regulated chiefly by two statutes, 31 Hen. VIII. 
1539, and I Geo. I. 17 14. 

PREDESTINATION {Ephcs. i.) The doctrine concerning this is defined in the seven- 
teenth article of the Church of England ; see Articles. It was maintained by St. Augustin, 
and opposed by Pelagius, in the early part of the 5th century. In later times it has been 
maintained by the Augustinians, Jansenists, the clmrch of Scotland, and many dissenters 
(termed Calvinistic), and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and many dissenters (termed 
Arminian), especially by the "Wesleyan methodists. 

PREROGATIVE COURT, in which formerly all wills were proved, and all administrations 
taken, which belonged to the archbishop of Canterbury by his prerogative, a jvidge being 
appointed by hinr to decide disputes. Appeals from this court to the judicial committee of 
the privy council were instituted in 1830. This court was abolished, and the Probate Court 
established in 1857. Sir John Dodson, the last judge, died in 1858. 

PREROGATIVE ROYAL. In England the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it 
is a maxim that he can do no ivrong. He is the head of the established church, of the army 
and navy, and the fountain of office, honour, and privilege, but is subject to the laws, 
unless exempted by name. The royal prerogatives were greatly exceeded by several despotic 
sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, James I., and Charles 1. Elizabeth used the jihrase " We, of 
our Royal prerogative, which we will not have argued or brought in question" (1691). 
James I. told his parliament "that as it was blasphemy to question what the Almighty could 
do of His power, so it was sedition to enquire what a king could do by virtue of his prero- 
gative." These extreme doctrines Avere nullified by the revolution of 1688, and the exercise 
of the prerogative is now virtually subject to parliament ; see Lords. 

PRESBURG, an ancient city in Hungary, where the diets have been held and the kings 
crowned. On 26 Dec. 1805, a treaty was signed between France and Austria, by which the 
ancient states of Venice Avere ceded to Italy ; the i^rincipalitj'' of Eichstadt, part of the 
bishopric of Passau, the cit}'' of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of Austria in Suabia, 
in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke of Wurtem- 
berg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, Avere then created kings by Napoleon. The inde- 
pendence of the Helvetic republic Avas also stipulated. 

PRESBYTERIANS* are so called from their maintaining that the government of the 
church appointed in the new Testament Avas by pjresbyteries, or association of ministers and 
ruling elders, equal in poAver, office, and in order. Presbyterianism Avas established in place 
of episcopacy in England in 1648, but abolished at the restoration in 1660. It became tlic 
established form of church government in Scotland. Its tenets Avere embodied iu tho 
formulary of faith said to have been composed b}' John Knox, in 1560, Avhich Avas approved 
by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate, 
1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of imion Avith England in 1707. The first Presbyterian 
meeting-house in England Avas established at Wandsworth, Surrey, 20 Nov. 1572. 

PRESCOTT (Upper Canada). On 17 Nov. 1838, the Canadian rebels Avere attacked by 
the British imder major Young, and (on the i8th) by lieut. -colonel Dundas, who dispersed 

* " The elders (Greek, presh'Jerous] I exhort, who am also an older {fympresbyieros)." i Peter v. i. 

Q Q2 



PRE 



596 



PPJ 



the insurgents, several of whom wei-e killed, and many taken prisoners, and the remainder 
surrendered. The troops also suffered considerably. 

PRESIDENT, &GQ Privy Council ; United States, 1789; France, 1848; Wrecks, 1841. — 
Pkesident of the Council, Lord, the fourth great officer of state, is appointed under the 
great seal, durante heneplacito, and, by his office, is to attend the king's royal person, and to 
manage the debates in council, to propose matters from the king at the council-table, and to 
report to his majesty the resolutions taken thereupon. 

PRESS, Liberty of the. The imprimatur " let it be printed " was much used on the 
title-pages of books printed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The liberty of the 
press was severely restrained, and the number of master- printers in London and Westminster 
limited by the Star Chamber, 13 Charles I., July i, 1637. 



1695 



" Disorders in printing" were redressed by the 
parliament in 1643 and 1649, and by Charles II. 
in 

The censorship of the press (by a licence estab- 
lished in 1655 and 1693) was abandoned in 

The toast, ' ' The liberty of the press ; it is like 
the air we breathe — if we have it not we die," 
was first given at the Crown and Anchor 
tavern, at a Whig dinner 1795 

Presses licensed, and the printer's name re- 

■ quired to be placed on both the first and last 
pages of a book .... July, 1799 

The severity of the restrictions on the French 



press relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the 
interior, but soon restored . . . Dec. 1S60 

The liberty of the press in the United States 
greatly checked during the civil war . 1861-1865 

Press (newspaper), a revolutionary journal, 
published in Dublin : commenced in Oct. 
1797 ; Arthur O'Connor, Mr. Emmett, the 
barrister (whose brother was executed in 
1803), and other conspicuous men contributors 
to it ; it inflamed the public mind in Ireland 
on the eve of the rebellion, in 1798. The paper 
was suppressed by a military force, 6 March, 1798 

The existing weekly conservative paper the 
Press was first published in . . May, 1853 

PRESSING to Death, see Micte ; for the sea service, see Impressment. 

PRESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell totally defeated the royalists under sir 
Marmaduke Langdale, 17 Aug. 1648. Preston was taken in 1715 bj' the Scotch insurgents, 
under Forster, who proclaimed king James VII. They were defeated in a battle on 12, 13 
Nov. by generals "Wills and Carpenter, who with the royal army invested Preston on all 
sides. The Scots at length laid down their arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured ; 
some of them were shot as deserters, and others were sent to London pinioned and bound 
together, to intimidate their party. — The stoppage of the cotton manufacture in 1861 and 
1862 occasioned great suffering in Preston, 

" The Preston guild festival," said to have been 

instituted in Saxon times, and to have been 

kept once in 20 years regularly since 1562, was 

duly celebrated in Sept. 1862. A fine art and 

industrial exhibition here was opened, 21 

Sept. 1865 ; and the new town hall, by the 

duke of Cambridge .... 3 Oct. 
Preston strike. — In 1853, a great number of 

strikes took place among the workmen in 

the north of England. Those at Preston 

struck for an increase of 10 per cent, on their 



On IS Oct. the masters, in conse- 
quence, closed forty-nine mills, and 20,000 
persons were thrown out of employment, who 
were mostly maintained for a long time by 
subscriptions from their fellows. In the week 
ending 17 Dec. 14,972 were relieved, at tho 
cost of 2820?. 8s. The committee of workmen 
addressed lord Palmerston, 15 Nov., who gave 

them his advice 24 Dec. 1853 

After many attempts at reconciliation, the 
strike closed for want of funds . i May, 1854 



PRESTON- PANS, near Edinburgh, the scene of a battle between the Young Pretender, 
prince Charles Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John Cope, 
21 Sept. 1745. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and fled. 

PRETENDERS. A name given to the son and grandsons of James 11. of England. — 
The Old Pretender, James Francis Edward Stuart, Chevalier de St. George, born 10 June, 
1688, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- 
claimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown, in Scotland, 3 Sept. 1715 ; 
and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, to encourage the rebellion that 
the earl of Mar and his other adherents had prompted, 25 Dec. same year. This rebellion 
having been soon suppressed, the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he proceeded 
to Gravelines), 4 Feb. 1716; and died at Rome, 30 Dec. 1765. — The Young Pretender, 
Charles-Edward, was born in 1720. He landed in Scotland 25 July, 1745, and proclaimed 
his father king. He gained the battle of Pi-eston-paus, 21 Sept. 1745, and of Falkirk, 17 Jan. 
1746 ; but was defeated at CuUoden, 16 April, same year, and sought safety by flight. He 
continued wandering among the wilds of Scotland for nearly six months ; and as 30,000?. 
Avere offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed 
round by his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and at length escaped from 
the isle of Uist to Morlaix in Sept. He died 31 Jan. 1788. His natural daughter assumed 
the title of duchess of Albany ; she died in 1789. His brother, the cardinal York, calling 
himself Henry IX. of England, born March, 1725, died at Rome in Aug. 1807 ; see Scotland. 

PRICES, see Com, Bread, and. Provisions. Mr. T. Tooke, in 1838, published a "His- 
tory of Prices from 1793 to 1856," He was latterly aided by Mr. "VV. Newmarch. 



PPJ 



597 



PKI 



PRIDE'S PURGE. On 6 Dec. 1648, colonel Pride, with two regiments, surrounded the 
house of parliament, and seizing in the passage forty-one members of the Presbyterian party, 
sent them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and 
none admitted but the most furious of tlie Independents . The privileged members were 
named the Rump iMrliament, which Avas dismissed by Cromwell, 20 April, 1653. 

PRIEST (derived from jjrcsbyteros, elder), in the English church the minister who presides 
over the public worship. In Gen. xiv. 18, Melchizedelc king of Salem is termed " priest of 
the most high God." (1913 B.C. ; see Ilebreivs \i\.) The Greek hicreus, like the Jewish 
priest, had a sacrificial character, which idea of the priesthood is still maintained by the 
Romanists and those who favour their views. Among the Jews, the priests assumed their 
office at the age of thirty'years. The dignity of high or chief priest was lixed in Aaron's 
family, 149 1 b. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and the crown were 
superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of the high priest, that he 
could be prosecuted in no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their 
arch-flamen or high priest, resembling the Christian archbishop. 

PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and formerly set forth 
or published by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in schools, 
containing prayers and portions of the scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early 
a date as 1539. AsJie. Henry Vlll. issued a prayer-book tei-med a "primer" in 1546. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right of. A usage brought down from the earliest times. The 
firstborn in the patriarclial ages had a superiority over his brethren, and in the absence of his 
father was priest to the family. In England, by the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primo- 
geniture was of no accoutit. It came in with the feudal law, 3 "Will. I. 1068. The rights of 
primogeniture were abolished in France in 1790. 

PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND (N. America), was discovered by Cabot, in 1497 ; was 
finally taken from the French by the British, in 1758 ; imited with Cape Breton as a colony 
in 1763 ; but separated in 1768. 

PRINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND, see Penang. 

PRINCE RUPERT'S LAND, ?,&& Rupert's Land, a,m\ Hiulson's Bay. 

PRINTED GOODS, see Calico. 

PRINTING. Block-printing was practised by the Chinese several centuries before the 
Christian era. The honour of printing with single types has been appropriated to Mentz, 
Strasbourg, Haarlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg ; but the names of the 
three first only are entitled to attention ; see Press. 

Adrian Junius awards the honour of the inven- 
tion to Lauren zes John Koster, of Haarlem, 

"who printed with blocks, a book of images 

and letters, Speculum Hamance Salvationis, 

and compounded an ink more viscous and 

tenacious than common ink, which blotted, 

about 143&" 
[The leaves of this book, being printed on one 

side only, were afterwards pasted together.] 
[In 1859, Mr. Samuel Leigh Sotheby issued an 

elaborate work compiled by his father and 

himself entitled " Principia I'ypographica," 

containing fac-similes, &c., of the block-books 

of the isth century ; and Mr. J. Russell Smith 

pubhshed a fac-simile of the Biblia JPauperum, 

a very early block book.] 
John Fust established a printing-ofiSce at 

Mentz, and printed the 2'raclutus Petri 

Hupani ........ 1442 

John Guttenburg invented cut metal types, and 

used them in printing the earliest edition of 

the bible (the Mazarine) commenced in . 1444-60 
Peter Schosffer cast the first metal types in 

matrices 1452 

Book of Psalms, by Fust and Schceffer 14 Aug. 1457 
The ikiranti Rationale, first work printed with 

cast metal types 1459 

{Printing was introduced into Oxford, about 

this time. Collier. But this statement is 

discredited by Dibdin.] 
A LivT/ printed. Du Fresnoy .... 1460 
The first Latin bible completed at Mentz . . 1462 
Mentz taken and plundered, and the art of 

printing, in the general ruin, is spread to 

other towns * * 

The typeswere uniformly Gothic, or old German 

(whence our old English ov Black Letter), until 1465 i 



j Greek characters (quotations only) first used, 

I same year 1465 



1467 



1471 



Cicero de Offlciis printed by Fust at Mentz 

Roman characters, first at Rome 

A Chronicle, said to have been found in the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact dis- 
puted;, bearing the date " Oxford, anno 1468." 

William Caxtou, a mercer of Loudon, set up the 
first press at Westminster 

[To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster 
Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
where the first printing press in England 
was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, en- 
couraged by the learned Thomas Miling, 
then abbot. He produced " The Game and 
Play of Chesse,'' the first book ever printed 
in these kingdoms. Leigh.'] 

He ijrinted Willyam Caxlon's Recuyel of the Hys- 
toryes of Troy, by Raoul le Feure. Phillips . „ 

His first pieces were, A Treatise nn the Game of 
Chesse and TiUly's Offices (see below). Dibdin . 1474 

JEsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed 
to be the first book with its leaves numbered * * 

jUdus cast the Greek Aljihabet, and a Greek 
book printed up. Aldi 1476 

He introduces the Italics * * 

The Pentri^e-Mc/t, in Hebrew. . . - . 1482 

Homer, m/o/io, beautifully done at Florence, 
eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius . 1488 

Caxton prints the Boke of Eiiej'dos . . . 1490 

Aldus Manutius begins printing at Venice . . 1494 

Printing used in Scotland 1509 

The first edition of the wliole bible was, strictly 
speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of 
cardinal Ximenes (see Polyglot) . . . . 1517 

The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, 
by Humphi-ey Powell 1550 



PRI 



598 



PRI 



PRINTING, continued. 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by 

Nicholas Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . 
The first newspaper printed in England (see 

Newspapers) ........ 

Pii-st patent granted for i^rinting 

First printing-press improved by William Blaeu, 

at Amsterdam 

First printing in America, in New England, 

•when the Freeman's Oath and an almanack 

were printed 

First Bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast. 

Hardy's Tour . . . . . . . 

First types cast in England by Caslon. Phillips 
Stereotype printing practised by WiUiam Ged, 

of Edinburgh, about 

The present mode of stereotype invented by 

Mr. Tilloch, about 

[Stereotj'pe printing was in use in Holland in 

the last century. FhilHps.'} 
Logographic Printing in which words cast in 

one piece were employed : patented by H. 

Johnson and Mr. Walter of the Times; (soon 

disused) 

Machine-printing (which see) first suggested by 

Nicholson 

The Stanhope press invented about 1800 ; in 

general use 

Columbian press of Clymer introduced . . . 

Albion press introduced 

The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 

introduced 



1591 
1601 

1639 

1704 
1720 

1730 
1779 



1783 
1790 



1814 
1816 



TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF 

The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Translated 
out of the Frenche and emrirynttd by me William 
Caxton. Fynysshid the last day of Marche the yer 
of our Lord God a thousand foure hondred and 
Ixxiiij. 

[A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent 
Figgins in 1859.] 

The Boke of Tulle of Olde Age Fmprynted by me 
simple 2nrsone William Caxton into Englysshe as the 
playsir solace and reverence of men grouing in to old 
age the xij day of August the ytre of our Lord M. 
cccc. Ixxxj. Herbert. 

The PoLYCRONycoN conteyning the Berynges and 
Dedes of many Tymes in eyght Bokes. Imprinted by 
William Caxton after having somewhat chauiiged 
the rude and olde Englysshe, that is to viete [to wit] 
certayn Words which in these JDayes be neither vsyd 
ne under standen. Ended the second Day of Juyll at 
]Vestmestre the xxij yere of the Regne of Kynge 
Edward the fourth, and of the Incarnacion of owe 
Lord a Thousand four hondred four Score and 
tweyne [1482]. Diedin's Tvp. Ant. 

The Cronicles of ENGLONDiJmpn^cd 6y»teWyllyam 
Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by london the v day 
of Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of our lord god 

M.CCCC.LXXX. 

PoLYCBONYCON. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apryll 
the tenth yere of the reyne of hinge Harry the seuenth 
And of the Jnca.rnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv. 
Emprynted by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre. 

The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance 
of the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the 



Cowper's and Applegath's rollers . . . 1817 

Printing for the bhnd (by raised characters) 
begins 1827 

Printers' Pension Society established . . ,, 

Anastatic Printing, in which written or printed 
matter is transferred upon zinc-plates, was 
invented by Baldermus of Berlin about 1841, 
and made known in London ; lectured on by 
Faraday in 1845 ; and improved by Strick- 
land and Delamotte in 1848 

A similar process was invented by Mr. Cooks of 
Falmouth in 1836 

Type-compoiing machines. — By James Young's 
several nunibers of the '"Family Herald" 
were set up, beginning Dec. 17, 1842 ; Hat- 
tersley's appeared at the Exhibition of 1862 ; 
Hart's was shown at the meeting of the 
British Association at Cambridge . 6 Oct. 1862 

Printing- types electro-faced with cojaper, about 1850 

Engraved copper-plate electro-faced with iron 
and nickel 1858 

W. H. Mitchel's machine was tried at Messrs. 
Spottiswoode's, 1861 ; these machines were 
said to be in use in America in . . Jan. 1863 

Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria 
printing-office in Great Coram-street, London, 
in which female compositors are employed : 
the " Englishwoman's Journal" printed there 
Aug. 1 861; appointed printer and publisher 
in ordinary to her Majesty . . . June, 1S62 

\_^(i& Printing Mojchine, Ste^reotype, and Nature Printing. 

CAXTON AND WYNKYN DB WOEDE. 
hous of St.Ann, the order of the charterouse Accom- 
plysshe[d] and fynysshe[d] att IVestmynsttr the uiii 
day of Janeue)' the yere of our lord Thousande 
CCCC.Lxxxxvil. And in the xii yere of Icynge Henry 
the vii by me wynkyn de worde. Ames, Herbert, 

DlBDIN. 

The Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and 
Irlond speaMng of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of 
the same Fynysshed and emprynted in Flete strete in 
the syne of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the 
yere of our lord a m. ccccc and ij. mensis Mayiis 
[mense Mali]. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

The Festyvall or Sei-mons on sondays and holidais 
taken out of the goldin legend enprynted at london 
i7i Flfte-strite at y" sygne of y' Sonne by wynkyade 
worde. In the yere of our lord m. ccccc. viii. And 
ended the xi daye of ilaye. Ames. 

The lord's prayer [As printed by Caxton in 1413.] 
Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy name: 
thy kingdome cone to us: thy will be done in earth as 
is in heaven: our every day bread give us to day ; 
and forgive us ourc trespasses, as we forgive them 
that trespass against rt.s-; and lead us not in to tempta- 
tion, but deliver us from all evil sin, amm. Lewis's 
Life of Caxton. 

A Placard. [As printed by WiUiam Caxton.] If it 
plese ony man spirituel or temperel to bye ony pies of 
two or three comemoraciOs of Salisburi use* enprynted 
after the forme of this preset lettre whichebenweland 
truly correct, laie him come to westmonester in to the 
almonestye at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall 
have them good there. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 



Printing-machines. — William Nicholson, editor of 
the Philosophical Journal, first projected (1790-1), 
but Mr. Konig first contrived and constructed a 
working printing-machine, which began with pro- 
ducing the Times of 28 Nov. 1S14, a memorable 
day in the annals of typography. 
In 1815, Mr. E. Cowper patented improvements, t 
Konig's machine printed 1800 an hour on one side ; 



Cowper's improvements increased this number to 
4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Applegath's 
machine, which prints the Times. 

Hoe's American machine, introduced into London 
1858, prints 20,000 an hour. 

Printing in Colours was first commenced by the 
employment of several blocks, to imitate the 
initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz 



* Romish Service-book.s, used at Salisbury, by the devout called Pies {Pica, Latin), as is supposed from 
the different colour of the text and rubric. Our printing-type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers. 
WIteatley. 

t In 1817 was published Blumenbach's Physiology by Elliotson, the first book printed by machinery. 
The machine employed being Bensley's patent, one which printed both sides in one operation at the rate 
of 900 sheets an hour (1816). 



rEi 



599 



PHI 



FEINTING, continued. 

Psalter of Fust, 1457, wliich has a letter in three 
colours). Imifatioiis of chiaroscuro soon followed 
("Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood after 
Louis Cranach, in 1519, in Germany: others by 
Ugo da (larpi, in Italy, 1518). 

J. B. Jackson (1720-54) attempted, without suc- 
cess, to imitate water-colour drawings, and to 
print paper-hangings. 

About 1783, John ISkippc, an amateur, printed some 
chiaroscuros. 

In iStg-22, Ml'. 'Williani Savage produced his re- 
markable work, " Hints on Colour Printing," 
illustrated by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of 



specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a 
patent, which e.\pired in 1855. In some of the 
illustrations to the " Pictorial Album" (1836), he 
employed twenty different blocks. 

It has been apislied to Lithography (hence Chromo- 
lithogi'apby). 

In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of 
water-eolour-drawiugs, by means of modifications 
and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851 
he commenced colour-printing by machinery, and 
has since availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, 
and also of eleetrotyped silver and copper surfaces 
to obtain purity of colour as well as durabiUty. 



coloured drawings, giving details of the processes The large coloured prints of Tlf Iliustrated London 
employed. A'tws were first issued in Dec. 1S56. 

In 1836, Mr. George Ba.Kter produced beautiful | 

PEIOEIES, at first dependent on the great abbeys, are mentioned in 722 in England; 
see Abbeys, and Monasteries. Alien j)'>'iories were seized by the king (Edward I.^, in 1285, 
and in succeeding reigns with the breaking ont of war with France ; but were nsually restored 
on the conclusion of peace. These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the 
crown, 3 Hen. V. 1414. Rymer's Fcedera. 

PEISCILLIANISTS, disciples of Priscillian, a Spanish bishop wlio propagated doctrines 
alleged to contain Gnosticism and Manicheism. When condemned he appealed from the pope 
to the emperor, but was beheaded at Treves, 385. 

PEISONEES OF Wak, among the ancient nations, when spared, were usually enslaved. 
About the 13th century, civilised nations began to exchange their prisoners. 



The Spanish, French, and American prisoners 
of war in England were 12,000 in number, 

30 Sept. 1779 
The number exchanged by cartel with France, 
from the commencement of the then war, 

■was 44,000 June, 1781 

The EngUsh prisoners in France estimated at 



Cooo, and the French in England 27,000 

Sept. 1798 
The English in France amounted to 10,300, and 

the French, (fee, in England to 47,600, in . xSii 
[This was the greatest number, owing to the 

occasional exchanges made, up to the period 

of the last war. J 



PEISONS 0? London, see Fleet, King's Bench, Neivgate, Poultry, Clerhcnwell. 



To thill Fields Bridewell, buUt in 161 8, was re- 
built in 1836 

The old Marshalsea prison, Southwark, built 

in the 13th century, was taken down . . 1842 
Pentonvilie Model prison was completed in . ,, 
Jiliddlese.x House of Detention, Clerkenwell, 

was erected in 1847 

UoUoway prison was opened . . 6 Feb. 1852 

Act passecl for abi>lishing Queen's Bench prison 1862 
Sheriffs' fund fur assisting discharged prisoners 

commenced 1809 

Dischavgcd Prisoners' Aid society established . 1858 
Prison Ministers' act passed .... 1863 
Acts to consolidate and' amend the law re- 
lating to prisons, passed 5 July, 1865 ; Aug. i866 



Korsemonger-lane gaol was built in . . 1791 

The state of prisons greatly improved after the 

exertions of Howard.* Cold-Bath-Fields 

prison was built on his suggestion . . 1794 

The atrocities of govei-nor Aris in this prison 

were exposed in parliament . 12 July, iSoo 
"White-Ci-oMS-Street prison for debtors was 

erected in 1S13-15 

Borough compter, mean and confined, till 

visited hy a parliamentary committee in . 1S17 
Savoy prison, for the confinement of deserters 

from the Guards, formerly situated in the 

Strand, was pulled down to make room for 

Waterloo-bridge 1819 

New Bridewell prison was erected as a sub- 
stitute for the City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in 1829 

PEISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, by the philantlirojiic labours of sir T. F. Buxton, 
M.P., was instituted in 1815, and held its first xmblic meeting in 1820. Its objects were the 
amelioration of gaols, the classification and emplojanent of the prisoners, and the prevention 
of crime. 

PEIVATEEE, a ship belonging to private individuals, sailing with a licence (termed a 
Letter of Marque), granted by a government in time of Avar, to seize and ])Iunder tlie ships 
of the enemy. The practice, said to have been adopted by Edward I. against the Portuguese 
in 1295, was general during the war between Spain and the Netherlands in the 17th centur}', 
and during the last French Avar. Privateering Avas abolished by the great sovereigns of 
Europe by treaty, 30 March, 1856. The United States government refused to agree unless 
the right of blockade was also given up. The British government declined this, asserting 
"that the .system of commercial blockade Avas essential to its naval supremacy. " On 17 April, 
1S61, Jeffei'son DaA'is, president of the southern confederacy, aimounced his intention of 
issuing letters of marqne, and on the 19th president Lincoln proclaimed that all southern 
privateers should be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried out ; see United States. 
All the great poAvers forbade privateering during the American civil war. 

* John Howard was born 2 Sept. 1726 ; made sheriff" of Bedford, 1773 ; investigated into the state of 
English prisons, 1773-5 ; and gave evidence thereon before the h'luse of commons, which led to amend- 
ments by law, 1774 ; he visited prisons all over the continent, and died at Kherson, 20 Jan. 1790. 



PHI 



600 



PRO 



PEIVILEGED PLACES, see Asyluvis. 

PE.IVY COUNCIL. A council was instituted by Alfred, 895. The number of the 
council -was about twelve when it discharged the functions of state, now confined to the 
members of the cabinet : but it had become of unwieldy amount before 1679, in which 
year it was remodelled upon sir William Temple's plan, and reduced to thirty members : 
Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbuiy, being president. The number is now unlimited. To 
attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office was made capital, occa- 
sioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining him on a charge of 
high treason, 9 Anne, 171 1. 

president of the privy council, the lord chan- 
cellor, and such members of the privy council as 
may hold and have held the ofBce of lord keeper 
or first commissioner of the great seal, lord chief 
justice of the Queen's Bench, master of the rolls, 
vice-chancellor, lord chief justice of the Common 
Pleas, lord chief baron, judge of the Admiralty, 
chief judge of the court of Bankruptcy, and others 
appointed by the Queen, being privy councillors. 



Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. — In 
lieu of the Court of Delegates, for appeals from 
the lord chancellors of Great Britain and of Ireland 
in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and 
Admiralty courts of England, and the Vice-Admi- 
ralty com-ts abroad — from the "Warden of the Stan- 
naries, the courts of the Isle of Man, and other 
islands, and the Colonial courts, &c., — fixed by 
statute 3 tfc 4 Will. IV. c. 41, 1833. Jtidges—the 

PRIVY SEAL, THE Lord, the fifth great officer of state, has the custody of the privy seal, 
which he must not put to any grant, without good warrant under the king's signet. Tliis 
seal is used by the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, signed by the king, before they 
come to the great seal. Richard Fox, bishop of "Winchester, held this office in the reign of 
Henry VIII. previously to 1523, when Cuthbert Tunstall, bishoj) of London, was appointed. 
The privy seal has been on. some occasions in commission. Beatson. See under Liverjpool, 
Canning, Wellington, and succeeding Administrations. 

PRIZE MONEY, arising from captures made from the eriem}^, was decreed by government 
to be divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by order of ranks, 1 7 April, 1 793. The 
distribution of army prize-money is regulated by an act passed in 1832. 

PROBATE COURT, established in 1S57 by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all 
powers exercised by the ecclesiastical courts in the granting of probates of wills, &c. ; see 
Prerogative Court. The first judge, appointed 5 Jan. 1858, was sir Cresswell Cresswell, who 
took his seat on 12 Jan. On his death, sir James P. Wilde was appointed judge, 28 Aug. 
1863. Probate is the exhibiting and proving a will before the proper authority. 

PROCLAMATIONS, Royal, "have only a binding force when grounded upon and to 
enforce the laws of the realm. " Cohe. Henry VIII., in 1539, declared that they were as valid 
as acts of parliament. 

PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who, having 
but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 B.C. Asjie. " Until the end of the 3rd century, 
I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; they were always painted or appeared in 
profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner." Addison. 

PROGRESISTAS, a political party in Spain, headed by Jlspartero, duke of Victorj', and 
to it belongs general Prim. Since 1865 it has adopted a policy of inaction in public affairs ; 
see Spain. 

PROGRESSIONIST THEORY in Natural History, supposes that the existing species 
of animals and plants were not originally created, but were gradually developed from one 
simple form ; see Species. 

PROMISSORY NOTES were regulated and allowed to be made assignable in 1705. 
First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 1804, and again in 1808, and 
subsequently ; see Bills of Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA FIDE, Congregatio be (congregation for the propagation of the faith 
of the Romish church), was constituted at Rome by Gregory XV. in 1622. 

PROPAGATION of the Gosvel Society received its charter, 16 June, 1701. Its 
sphere is generally limited to the British colonies. General income in 1867, 114,546^. 

PROPERTY TAX. The assessments on real property, under the 2:)roperty tax of 1815, 
were 5 1, 898, 423 L ; of which Middlesex was 5,595, 537Z. ; Lancashire, 3,087, 7 74Z. ; and York- 
shire, 4,7oo,oooZ. ; Wales, 2, 153,801?. ; see Income Tax. 

PHOPHETS, see imder Jews. 

PROPHESYING : about 1570 the puritanical part of the clergy, particularly at North- 
ampton, held meetings (termed prophesyings) for praj^er and exposition of the scriptures. 
These were forbidden by queen Elizabeth, 7 May, 1577, and immediately ceased. 

PROROGATION of Parliament. By an act passed 12 Aug. 1867, her majesty was 
enabled to issue a proclamation for the prorogation of parliament during the recess. 



PRO 601 PliO 

PE0TECTI0NI3T, a name given to tliat section of the consen^ative party which 
opposed the repeal of the corn laws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in 1846. The 
name was derived from a " Society for the Protection of Agriculture," of which the duke of 
Richmond was chairman, and which had been established to counteract the efforts of the 
Anti-Corn Law League, 17 Feb. 1844. Lord George Bcntinck was the head of the party 
from 1846 till his death, 21 Sept. 1848. The Derby administration not proposing the 
restoration of tire corn-laws, the above society was dissolved, 7 Feb. 1853. — The protection 
of native manufactures is maintained in the United States, 1868. 

PROTECTORATES in England. That of tlie earl of Pembroke began 19 Oct. 1216, 
and ended by his death the same year. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, in England, began 
31 Aug. 1422; he was murdered, 28 Feb. 1447. Of Richard, duke of Gloucester, began 
9 April, 1483, and ended by his assuming the royal dignity, 22 June, the same year. Ot 
Somerset began 28 Jan. 1547, and ended bj'- his resignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell 
began 16 Dec. 1653, and ended by his death, 13 Sept. 1658. Of Richard Cromwell began 
14 Sept. 1658, and ended by his resignation, 5 Hay, 1659 ; see England. 

PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires iu 1529, to request aid 
from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the religious 
disputes which then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the Roman catholic clergy. 
Against a decree of tliis diet, to support the doctrines of the chiu-ch of Rome, six Lutheran 
princes, with the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly ])''otcsted, 19 
April, 1529. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of Luther, and it after- 
wards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated from the see of Rome. The six pro- 
testing princes were : John and George, the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and 
Francis, the two dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt : 
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbron, 
and seven other cities ; see Luiherawism, Calvbiisni, Huguenots, Germany, kc. 

Protestants persecuted in Scotland and Ger- I Protestants persecuted at Thorn, in Poland . 1724 

Protestant Association (see " Gordon's No- 
Popery" Mub) 17S0 

A society for planting communities of the poorer 
Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in 
the northern counties of Ireland, established 

in Dublin in Dec. 1829 

(London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; 
Protestant Association, 1835 ; Pi-otestant Al- 
liance 1849 



many 1546 

Edward VI. established Protestantism in Eng- 
land 1548 

Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes 
the Protestants : above 300 put to death . 1553-8 

Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop 
of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, 16 Oct. 
1555 ; and Cranmer, archbishop of Cantei'- 
bury* 21 March, 1556 

EUzabeth restores Protestantism . . . 1558 j Protestant Conservative Society established 

Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. 9 Dec. 1831 

Ireland 1608-11 Protestant alliance formed at Armagh 7 Nov. 1845 

Thirty years' war between Romanists and Pro- 
testants in Germany .... 1618-481 

PEOVENCE (the Roman Provincia), S. E. France, was made a kingdom by the emperor 
Lothaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became part of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal 
country, and was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by Conrad II. On the fall of the 
Hohenstaufens it was acquired by Charles of Anjou, king of Nai')les, in 1265 ; and was held 
by his successors till its annexation to France by Louis XL in 1481. 

PROVERBS. The book of Proverbs by Solomon is dated about 1000 B. c. The latter 
part was collected b}?^ order of Hezekiah, about 700 B.C. Ray's collection of English pro- 
verbs appeared in 1672, and Bohn's general collection in 1857. Martin F. Tupper's "Pro- 
verbial Philosophy" appeared in 1839. 

PROVISIONS — Remapjcable Statements concerning them. 

Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only | now) ninety-six, by the first assize, 1202. Mat, 

one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I. Paris. 

about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence A remai-kable plenty in all Europe, 1280. I>ufresnoy. 

per quart for red, and eightpence for white, that Wheat is. per quarter, 14 Edw. I., 1286. Slow. 

the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John The price of provisions fixed by the common council 

1200. Burton's Annals. of London as folio ws : two pullets, three half-pence; 

When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf ' a partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; 

waste be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces | a fat lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, 

(made of the whole grain), and to sixteen the the rest of the year fourjience, 29 Edw. I., 1299, 

white. When wheat was is. 6d. per quarter, the i Htow. 

farthing white loaf was to weigh sixty-four Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate 

ounces, and the whole grain (the same as standard , of 2I. 8.«. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with com. 



* His love of life had induced Cranmer, some time previously, to sign a paper wherein he condemned 
the Reformation ; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretclied forth 
his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his 
body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand ! " Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired, 
saying, "Lord Jesus, receive my spuit." 



PRO 



602 



PRU 



PROVISION'S, continued. 

3^. 12S. ; a shorn sheep, $s. ; two dozen of eggs, 3c?. ; 

other articles nearly the same as fixed by the 

common council above recited, 7 Edw. II., 1313. 

Rot. Pari. 
Wine the best sold for 20.5. per tun, 10 Eich. II., 13S7. 
■ Wheat being at is. id. the bushel in 1390, this was 

deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of 

com by the historians of that era. 
Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and 

veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen. 

Vlir., 1533. Anderson. 
The following document is taken from a "Booh of the 

Joint Diet, Dinner and Supper, and the charge 

thereof, for Cranraer, Latimer, and Ridley," kept 

by the baiUffs of Oxford, while they were in the 

custody of those officers : — 



I Oct. 
Bread and Ale 
Oysters 



1554. DINNER. 



£0 



Butter £002 

Eggs 002 

Lyng 008 

A piece of fresh salmon . . o o lo 

Wine 003 

Cheese and pears . . .002 

The three dinners . £0 2 6 

Milk was sold, three pints ale-measure for one 
halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. Stoio's Chronicle. 

Liebig's discovery of nis " Extractum Carnis," ex- 
tract of meat, announced 1847. 

In the autumn of 1865, meat, mill:, and butter gi-eatly 
increased in price, owing to the cattle-plague. 

The "Food Committee" of Society of Arts first met 
21 Dec. 1866 ; continued 1867-8. 

For the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread. 



PROYVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES in Italy, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and 
Venice, elect Garibaldi as tlieir chief, 10 March, 1862. They -were tolerated by Ricasoli, 
but warned to be moderate by Rattazzi. 

PROXIES. Voting by proxy, an ancient iirivilege of the hou.se of peers, was very 
frequently abused. In the reign of Charles II., when the duke of Buckingham sometimes 
brought 20 proxies in his pocket, it was ordered that no peer should bring more than two 
proxies. From 1830 to 1867, both inclusive, proxies were only called 73 times. In con- 
formity with the recommendation of a committee, a new '* standing order" was adopted, 
31 March, 1868, by which it was ordered "That the practice of calling for proxies on a 
division shall be discontinued." 

PRUD'HOMMES, Conseils de (from prudens Jiomo, a prudent man), trade tribunals 
in France, composed of masters and workmen, were constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes 
in 1806. Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 1452 at Marseilles, and at 
Lyons in 1464. 

PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320 e.g. They 
were conquered by the Borussi, who inhabited the Riphsean mountains ; and from these the 
country was called Borussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, signi- 
fying near, and Mussia. The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the 
Teutonic knights, and latterly with the Poles. The constitution, established 31 Jan. 1850, 
was modified 30 April, 1851 ; 21 May, 5 June, 1852 ; 7 and 24 May, 1853 ; 10 June, 1854 ; 
30 Maj", 1855 ; and 15 May, 1857, Population, with Lauenburg (annexed 14 Aug. 1865), 
19,304,843 ; with Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort (estimated Oct. 1866) 
23.590,453- 



St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach 
Christianity, and is slain about . . . . 997 

Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death by 
dreadful ravages loiS 

Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, 
in the reign of Albert the Bear 

The Teutonic knights retuniing from the holy 
wars, undertake the conquest of Prussia, and 
the conversion of the jjooijle . . . . 

Thorn founded by them 

KiJnig.sberg, lately built, made the capital 

The Teutonic knights almost depopulate 
Prussia. It is repeopled by German colonists 
in the 13th century 

Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the 
reigning family) obtains by purchase from 
Sigismond, emperor of Germany, the mar- 
graviate of Brandenburg .... 

CasimirlV. of Poland assists the natives against 
the oppression of the Teutonic knights . . 1446 

Albert of Brandenburg, grand master of the 
Teutonic order, renounces the Roman catholic 
religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is ac- 
knowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held 
as a fief of Poland 1525 

University of Konigsberg founded by duke 
Albert 1544 

John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg 
and duke of Prussia i6o3 

The principality of Halberstadt and the 



1163 



1225 
1231 
12S6 



1415 



bishopric of Minden transferred to the house 

of Brandenburg .... 
Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an 

independent state, under Frederick WilHam, 

surnamed the Great Elector . . . . 
Order of Concord instituted by Christian 

Ernest, elector of Brandenburg and duke of 

Prussia, to distinguish the part he had taken 

in restoring peace to Europe . 
Frederick III. in an assembly of the states, puts 

a crown upon his own head and upon the head 

of his consort, and is proclaimed king of 

Prussia by the title of Frederick I. 18 Jan, 
Order of the Black Eagle instituted by 

Frederick I. on the day of his coronation 
Guelders taken from the Dutch 
Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neunburg, 

and purchases Tecklenburg .... 
The principality of Meurs added to Prussia _ . 
Eeign of Frederick the Great, during which 

the Prussian monarchy is made to rank 

among the first powers in Europe ^. 

Breslau ceded to Prussia 1741 

Silesia, Glatz, &c. ceded 1742 

Frederick II., the Great, visits England . . i744 
" Seven years' war " (2(/7iic/i .'ce) begins . . 1756 
Frederick II. victor at Prague, 6 May; defeated 

at Kolin, 18 June ; victor at Kosbach, 

5 Nov. 1757 
Gen. Lacy, with an Austrian and Russian army, 



1648 



i6s7 



1660 



1 701 



1702 



1707 
1712 



1740 



PRU 



603 



PRU 



1760 

1763 
1786 
1772 
1792 
1793 



1807 



iai7 
1819 



1848 



PRUSSIA, continued. 

marches to Berlin ; the city is laid \inder con- 
tributioa, &c. ; magazines destroyed . Oct. 

Peace of Hubertsburg (ends "seven years' 
war ") ; Silesia gained by Prussia 15 Feb. 

Frederick the Great dies . . 17 Ang. 

Prussia shares in the first partition of Poland . 

Invades France 

Joins the coalition against France . . . 

The Prassians seize Hanover . iSoi and 

Prussia joins the allies of England against 
France 6 Oct. 

Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt 14 Oct. 
[Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] 

Berlin decree promulgated . . 20 Nov. 

I'eace of Tilsit (johich nee) . . .9 July, 

Convention of Berlin ... 5 Nov. 

Schanhorst secretly restores the army by 
the system of reserves, thus forming a nation 
of soldiers 1809-13 

The people rise to expel the French from 
Germany at the king's appeal, and form the 
"landwehr " or milicia . . 17 Mai-ch, 1813 

Treaty of Paris . ... 11 April, 1814 

The king visits England . . . 6 June, ,, 

]\Iinistry of education established . . . . 

Congress of Carlsbad . . . . ii i Aug. 

Blucher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . 12 Sept. 

[From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and 
undisturbed pohcy until 1848] 

Serious attempt made on the life of the king, 
by an assassin named Tesch, who fired two 
shots at him .... 26 July, 

Insurrection in Berlin . . .18 March, 

Berlin declared in a state of siege . 12 Nov. 

The Constituent Assembly meets in Branden- 
burg castle 29 Nov. 

This assembly is dissolved, and the king issues 
a new constitution to his subjects 5 Dec. 

The German National Assembly elect the king 
of Prussia "hereditary emperor of the 
Germans " 2S March, 

The king declines the imperial crown 29 April, 

The kingdom put under martial law 10 May, 

The Prussians tnter Carlsruhe . 23 June, 

Armistice between Prussia &, Denmark 10 July, 

Bavaria declared an imperial constitution with 
the king of Prussia at its head . 8 Sept. 

Treaty between Prussia and Austria 30 Sept. 

Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia 
with the minor states of Germany 12 Nov. 

New constitution, 31 Jan. ; the king takes the 
oath requii-ed by it . . . .6 Feb. 

Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance, 

25 Feb. 

Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, 
Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtembei-g to main- 
tain the German union . . 27 Feb. 

Wurtemberg denounces the insidious ambition 
of the king of Prussia, and announces a league 
between Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and' Saxony, 
under the sanction of Austria . 15 March, 

Attempt to assassinate the king . 22 May, 

Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 
league 30 June, 

Treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, 

2 July, 

A congress of deputies from the states included 
in the Prussian ZoUverein opened at Cassel, 

12 July, 

Prussia refuses to join the restricted diet of 
Frankfort 25 Aug. 

The Prussian government addre^'ses a despatch 
to the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve 
to uphold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel, 

21 Sept. 

Count Brandenburg, prime minister, dies, 6Nov. 



1850 



Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 
223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 
artillery, with io3o field-pieces . 7 Nov. 

The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the mili- 
tary road in that electorate . . 9 Nov. 

The Prussian forces withdraw from the grand 
duchy of Baden .... 14 Nov. 

General Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 
qiieen Victoria at Windsor . . 26 Nov. 

Convention of Olmutz for ti'.e pacification of 
Germany 29 Nov. 

The Prussian troops commence their retreat 
from Hesse-Cassel . . . . s Dec. 

Prince Schwartzenborg visits the king 28 Doc. 

The king celebrates the 150th anniversary of 
the Prussian monarchy . . 18 Jan. 

The king visits the czar of Russia . 18 Maj', 

The king and cf.ar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to 
meet the emperor of Austria . 31 Jlay, 

Statue of Frederick the Gi'oat, by Ranch, in- 
augurated at Berlin ... 27 May, 

The king revives the comicil of state as it ex- 
isted before the revolution of 1848 12 Jan. 

A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at 
Berlin 28 May, 

Prussia repudiates a customs' union with 
Austria 7 June, 

But agrees to a commercial treaty . 19 Fell. 

Plot at Berlin detected . . . April, 

Death of Radowitz .... 25 Dec. 

Vacillation of the government upon the Eastern 
question . . . March and April, 

Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the 
integrity of Turkey, which is signed at 
Vienna 7 April, 

Declares neutrality in the war Sept. and Oct. 

Excluded from the conferences at Vienna, Feb. 

Disputes with Switzerland (see Neufchdtel) 

Nov. 1856, to May, 

Alarming illness of the king, the prince of 
Prussia appointed regent . " 23 Oct. 

Chevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan. 

Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to 
the princess royal of England . 25 Jan. 

Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam Aug. 

Prince of Prussia permanent regent . 7 Oct. 

Resignation of Manteuffel ministry ; succeeded 
by that of prince Hohenzohern-Sigmaringen 
(liberal) : the elections end in favour of the 
new government .... Nov. 

Prince Frederick William, son of the princess 
royal of England, bom . . .27 Jan. 

Italian war— Prussia declares its neutrality, but 

' arms to protect Germany May nnd June, 

The regent announces that "the Prussian army 
wUlbe in future the Prussian nation in arms " 

12 Jan. 

The regent and several German sovereigns meet 
the emperor of the French at Baden (see 
Baden) 15-17 Juno, 

Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) . . 27 Nov. 

Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
Pmssian police. Stieber, the director, prose- 
cuted and censured, but not punished Nov. 

Death of Frederick Wilham IV. Accession of 
William 1 2 J.an. 

Meeting of the chambers : on the motion for 
the address, M. Von Viiicke carries an amend- 
ment in favour of Italian unity and "a firn\ 
alliance with England" . . .6 Feb. 

The Macdonald affair* settled by a firm yet 
conciliatory despatch from the Baron von 
Schleinitz ... ... May, 

Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, 
a Leipsic student, 14 July; who is sentenced 
to 20 years' imprisonment . . 23 Sept. 



1850 



1851 

1852 

i353 
1354 

185s 
1857 

1858 



1859 



* On 12 Sept. i860, c.apt. Macdonald was committed to prison at Bonn, for resisting the r.ail way autho- 
rities there. The English residents appealed and were also censured. A correspondence ensued between 
the Prussian government and the British foreign secretary ; and strong language was uttered in the house 
of commons, 26 April, and in the Prussian chambers, 6 May, 1861. 



PEU 



604 



PEU 



PRUSSIA, continued. 

The king meets the emperor Napoleon at Com- 
pifegne. 6-8 Oct. 

The lEing and queen crowned at Konigsberg ; 
he declares that he will reign by the "Grace 
of God" i8 0ct. 

Bill for making the ministry responsible, passed 

6 March, 

The chamber of representatives oppose the go- 
vernment in regard to the length of mihtary 
service, 6 March ; and resolve on discussing 
the items of the budget ; the ministry resigns ; 
the king will not accept the resignation, but 
dissolves the chambers . . ii March, 

The ministry (liberal) resign, and a reaction- 
ary' cabinet formed under Van der Heydt, 

i8 March-i2 April, 

Elections go against the government : only one 
minister elected May, 

Parliament opens ; nainisters appeal to the 
patriutism of the members . . 19 May, 

Severe discussion on military expenditure ; the 
chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance 
of the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men, 

11-16 Sept. 

Van der Heydt resigns ; succeeded as premier 
by the count Bismarck Schonhausen, Sept. ; 
who informs the chamber that the budget is 
defen-ed till 1863 ; the chamber protests 
against this as unconstitutional . 30 Sept. 

The chamber of peers passes the budget with- 
out the amendments of the chamber of 
representatives ; which (by 237 against 2) 
resolves that the act is contrary to the letter 
and spirit of the constitution . . 11 Oct. 

The king closes the session (65th) saying, "The 
budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the 
chamber of representatives, having been 
rejected by the chamber of peers on the 
ground of insufficiency, the government of 
his majesty is imder the necessity of con- 
trolUng the public affairs outside the consti- 
tution. " 13 Oct. 

Agitation in favour of the constitution pro- 
ceeding : passive resistance adopted : several 
liberal papers suppressed . . . Nov. 

The chanabers reassemble ; unconciliatory ad- 
dress from the king, 14 Jan. ; and bold reply 
of the deputies ; adopted . . 23 Jan. 

They recommend neutrality in the Polish war 

28 Feb. 

Violent dissension between the deputies and 
the ministry May, 

The chamber of deputies address the king on 
their relation with the ministry, and the state 
of the country, 22 May; the king replies, that 
his ministers possess his confidence, and ad- 
journs the session ... 27 May, 

Eesolves to govern without a parliament . 

The press severely restricted, i June ; the 
crown prince in a speech disavows participa- 
tion in the recent acts of the ministry, 5 
June ; and censures them in a letter to the 
king, 6 July ; reconciled to the king, 8 Sept. 

The liberal members feted in the provinces 

18, 19 July, 

The chamber of deputies dissolved, 2 Sept. ; a 
liberal majority re-elected . . . Oct. 

A motion in favour of 'maintaining the rights 
of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, 
carried 2 Dec. ; but the chamber obstinately 
refused its assent to it or to defray the ex- 
penses of war Dec. 

Chambers dissolved Jan. 

[For the events of the war, see Denmark.] 

Preliminaries for peace with Denmark i Aug. 

Peace with Denmark signed . . 30 Oct. 

The opening of the chambers, 14 Jan. ; revival 
of the constitutional agitation for control 
over the army budget . . .16 Jan. 

International exhibition at Cologne opened by 
the crOwn prince .... 2 June, 



1865 



The deputies having rejected the budget, the 
bills for reorganising the army and increas- 
ing the fleet, and meeting the expense of 
the war with Denmark, the chamber is pro- 
rogued ; the government will rule without 
it .17 June, 

The king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree 
appropriating and disposing of the revenue, 

5 July. 

A political dinner of the liberal deputies prohi- 
bited at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at 
Overlahnstein, in Nassau . . 24 July, 

Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed 

14 Aug. 
Navigation treaty with Great Britain concluded, 

16 Aug. 
The king takes possession of Lauenburg, pur- 
chased from Austria with his own money, 

15 Sept. 
Bismarck visits the emperor Napoleon at 

Biarritz . . . . . . . Oct. 

The chambers opened with a supercilious speech 
from M. Bismarck .... 15 Jan. 

The opposing chamber prorogiied . 22 Feb. 

Decree asserting Prussian jurisdiction over 
Holstein ii March, 

Prussian circular calling on German states to 
decide whether they will support Austria or 
Prussia (they profess neutrality) 24 March, 

Prussia prepares for war . . 27 March, 

Treaty between Prussia and Italy, said to have 
been concluded .... 27 March, 

The French government professes neutrality, 

April, 

Austria demands the demobihsation of the 
Prussian army, 7 April ; Bismarck propfsos 
a German parliament . . .9 April, 

Great meeting at Berlin in favour of peace, 

15 April, 

Blind's attempt to assassinate Bismarck fails, 

7 May, 

Eecriminatory correspondence between Mens- 
dorff (Austrian) and Bismarck, calling for 
disarmament .... April, May 

Alliance with Italy .... May, 

The Prussians enter Holstein ; Austrians retire, 

7 June, 

Meeting of the Federal diet at Frankfort ; the 
demobilisation of tbe Prussian army proposed 
by Austria; voted for by Bavaria, Saxony, 
Hanover, Hesse Cassel, Nassau, and others; 
Prussia declares the Germanic confederation 
to be dissolved . . . .14 June, 

Prince Alexander of Hesse appointed to com- 
mand the Federal army . . . June, 

The Prussians declare war against Hanover and 
Saxony iS June, 

Justificatory manifestoes issued by Austria and 
Prussia 17 June, 

Prussia declares war; royal manifesto to the 
people 18 June, 

The Prussians occupy Hanover and Hesse Cassel, 
Saxony and Nassau . . . 16-20 June, 

The Austrian northern army enters Silesia, 18 
June ; joined by the Saxons about 19 June, 

Nearly all the northern states join Prussia about 

23 June, 

Prince Frederick Charles and the first army, 
and the army of the Elbe enter Bohemia, 23 
June ; victorious in severe engagements at 
1-iebenau, Tiimau, and Podoll, 26 June ; 
Htihnewasser, 27 June; Mtinchengriitz, 28 
June : Gitschin .... 22 June, 

The crown prince and the 2nd army (of Silesia) 
enter Bohemia, 22 June; repulsed at Trau- 
tenau, 27 June ; victorious at Soor and Trau- 
tenau, 28 June ; Koniginhof . 29 June, 

The left column of the crown prince's army de- 
feat the Austrians at Nachod, 27 June ; Ska- 
licz, 28 June : Schweinschadel . 29 June, 

Fruitless victory of the Hanoverians at Laugen- 



1865 



PRU 



605 



PEU 



PRUSSIA, continued. 

salva, 27 June ; they capitulate to the Pnis- 
sians 29 June, iS 

Communications opened between the two 
armies 30 June, , 

The command assumed by the king . i July, , 

Battle of Kouiggi-ittz, or Sadowa ; total defeat 
of the Austrians under Benedek . 3 July, , 

Benedek superseded by the archduke Albrecht, 

8 July, ,, 

Campaign of the army under Vogel von Falcken- 
stein : against the army of the confederation, 
under Princes Charles of Bavaria and Alex- 
ander of Hesse ; Prussian victories at Wiesen- 
thal and Dermbach, 4 July; Hammelburg and 
Kissingen 10 July, , 

Advance of the united armies under the king ; 
cavalry skirmish at Saar ; Austriaus retire, 

10 July, ,. 

Prince Frederick Charles enters Briinn, capital 
of Moravia 12 July, „ 

Campaiga on the Maine : Prussian victories at 
Laufach, 13 July, and Asohaffenburg, 14 July, ,, 

The members of the German diet retire from 
Frantfort to Augsburg . . 13 July, ,, 

Austrians defeated at Tobitschau . 15 July, , 

Frankfort occupied by Falokenstein . 16 July, ,, 

Severe light at Blumenau stopped by the news 
of the armistice .... 22 July ,, 

PreUminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 

26 July, „ 

The Prussians occupy Wiesbaden, 18 July ; vic- 
torious at Tauberbischofsheini, Hochhausen, 
Werbach, 24 July ; Neubrunn, Helmstadt, 
Gerscheim, 25 July ; Wiirzburg, 28 July ; 
armistice granted . . . -30 July, ,, 

The army reviewed by the king fifteen miles 
from Vienna, 31 July ; begin their return 
home ...... I Aug. ,, 

Franconia occupied by the Prussian army of 
reserve, under the grand duke of Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin, 23 July-iAug. ; armistices 
granted 1-3 Aug. ,, 

The diet at Augsburg recognised the dissolution 
of the Germanic confederation . . 4 Aug. ,, 

Bohemia and Moravia cleared by . 18 Aug. ,, 

The treaty of peace signed at Prague 23 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of special committee of the chamber of 
deputies ; cost of the war stated, 88,000,000 
dollars 29 Aug. ,, 

Peace with Wurtemberg concluded, 13 Aug. ; 



with Baden, 17 Aug. ; with Bavaria, 22 Aug, ; 
with Hesse Darmstadt (ceding Hesse Cassel 
Hesse Uomburg, Aic.) ... 3 Sept. 

Formation of the North German confedci-atiou 
(see Gtrmanij) ..... Aug. 

Indemnity bill for the ministry passed, 8 Sept. 

Entry of the army into Berlin ; enthusiastic re- 
ception . . . . . .20 Sept. 

Decree for the annexation of Hanover, Electoral 
Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort . 20 Sept. 

Possession taken of Hanover, 6 Oct. ; of Hesse, 
Nassau, and Frankfort ... 8 Oct. 

Treaty of peace with Saxony . . 21 Oct. 

Electoral law for new German parliament pro- 
mulgated at Berlin ... 23 Oct. 

Prussian chambers reassemble . .12 Nov. 

Schleswig and Holstein incorporated with 
Prussia by decree ; promulgated . 24 Jan. 

Chambers cloied 9 Feb. 

North German pai'liament meet at Berlin, 24 

Feb. ; adopt a federal constitution ; closed, 

17 April, 

Prussian chambers opened by the king, 29 April, 

They accept the North German constitution 

(sacrificing Prussian civil rights to German 

unity) 8 May 

Luxemburg question settled by a conference at 
London (see -iuxe/Kftui'^r) . . 7-1 1 May, 

The king visits Paris ; leaves it . . 14 June, 

The Prussian chambers approve North German 
constitution ; closed by the king . 24 June, 

The new Pi-ussian parliament opened by the 
king 15 Nov. 

Treaty with the United States respecting natu- 
ralisation of aliens signed at Berlin, 22 Feb. 

The parliament closed . ... 29 Feb. 

Much of the king of Hanover's property seques- 
trated, on account of his maintaining a Hano- 
verian legion, &c March, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome visits Berlin ; left, 

March, 

North Gei-man parliament opened by the king, 

23 March, 

Count Bismarck defeated in the North German 
parliament ; his bill withdrawn . 22 April 

Kbaig Wilhebn, a noble ironclad, originally con- 
structedforthesultanbyMr. E. Reed, the chief 
constructor of the British admiralty, bought 
by Prussia, launched at Blackwall 25 April, 

Customs' parUament at Berlin 27 AP.-23 May, 



1867 



MARGKAVES, ELECTOES, DUKES, AND KINGS. 



MARGRAVES OR ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG. 

1134. Albert I., surnamed the Bear, first elector of 

Brandenburg. 
1170. Otho I. 
1 1 84. Otho II. 
1206. Albert II. 
1221. John I. and Otho III. 
1266. John II. 
1282. Otho IV. 
1309. Waldemar. 

1319. Henry I. the Young. 

1320. [Interregnum.] 
1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 
1352. Louis II. the Roman. 
1365. Otho V. the Sluggard. 
1373. Wenceslas, of Lu.xemburg. 
1378. Sigismund, of liuxemburg. 
1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 
1411. Sigismund again, emperor. 

1415. Frederick I , of Nuremberg (of the house of 

Hohenzollern). 
1440. Frederick II. surnamed Ironside. 
1470. Albert III. surnamed the German Achilles. 
1476. John III. his son ; as margrave ; styled the 

Cicero of Germany. 
i486. John III. as elector. 
1499. Joachim I. son of John. 
1535- Joachim II. poisoned by a Jew. 
1571. John-George. 



159S. Joachim-Frederick. 
160S. John-Sigismund. 

DL'KES OF PRUSSIA. 

1618. John-Sigismund. 

1619. George- William. 

1640. Frederick- WiUiam, his son; generally styled 

the " Great Elector." 
16S8. Frederick III., son of the precediug; crowned 

king, 18 Jan. 1701. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1701. Fredeiick I. : king. 

1713. Frederick-William I., son of Frederick I. 

1740. Frederick II. (Frederick III. ; styled the 
Great), son ; made Prussia a military power. 

1786. Frederick- William II. , nephew of the preceding 
king. 

1797. Frederick-William III. He had to contend 
against the might of Napoleon, anrl after 
e.\:traordinary vicissitudes, he aided England 
in his overthrow. 

1840. Frederick- William IV. , son; succeeded 7 June 
(i)oru, 3 Aug. 1770 ; died, 2 Jan. 1S61). 

1861. William I., brother; born, 22 .March, 1797. 

Heir: his son,i3rince Froderick-William; bom' 
18 Oct. 1831 ; married Victoria, princess- 
royal of England, 25 Jan. 1858. They have 
five children. 



PRU 606 PUM 

PEUSSIC ACID (liydrocyanic acid) is colourless, smells like peach flowers, freezes at 
5° Fahrenheit, is very volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. It was accidentally 
discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, in 1709. Scheele first obtained this acid in a 
separate state, about 1782. Simple water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-cerasics was 
first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. Madden of Dublin. 

PRUTH, a river in Moldavia, the boundary of Turkey. The Russians crossed it 2 July, 
1853, and war ensued. 

PRYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually elected from 745 B.C. till the office was 
abolished by Cypselus, a despot, 655 B.C. 

PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by Solomon, 1000 B.C. ; others added 580 and 515 
B.C. The Church of England Old Version in metre by Sternhold and Hopkins was pub- 
lished in 1562 ; the ISTew Version by Tate and Brady in 1698. 

PSEUDOSCOPE, a name given by professor Wheatstone (in 1852) to the stereoscope, 
when employed to produce "conversions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereoscope : a 
terrestrial globe appears lilce a hollow hemisphere. 

PSYCHROMETER, an apparatus for measuring the amount of elastic vapour in the 
atmosphere ; invented by Guy Lussac (died 1850), and modified by Regnault (about 1848). 
An electric psychrometer was described by Edmond Becquerel, 4Feb. 1867. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a.d. 140), 
supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and 
stars moved round once in twenty-four hours- This system (long the oflScial doctrine of the 
church of Rome) was imiversally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B. c. ) was revived by 
Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demonstrated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). 

PUBLICANS, farmers of the state revenues of Rome. Soon after the battle of 
Canute thej' were so wealthy as to be able to advance large sums to the government, payable 
at the end of the war. Ho magistrate was permitted to be a publican. 

PUBLIC BATHS, &c., see BatJis, Education, Health. 

PUBLIC GOOD, see Leagues. PUBLIC HOUSES, see Victuallers. 

PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was established at Paris during the French Revolu- 
tion on 6 April, 1793, with absolute power, in consequence of the coalition against France. 
The severe government of this committee is termed the Reign of Terror, which ended with. 
the execution of Robespierre and his associates, 28 July, 1794. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS, see Education. 

PUBLIC "WORKS ACT, passed 21 July, 1863, to provide work for unemployed persons 
in the manufacturing districts at the time of the cotton famine. It enabled corporate 
bodies to raise loans, and proved very successful. It was continued in 1864 and 1867. 

PUBLIC WORKS AND BUILDINGS. The sum voted for this purpose in 1862 was 
692,215^. ; in 1863, 893,523?. ; in 1S64, 867,518?. ; in 1865, 799,37°'- 5 i^ 1867, 
942,535^- 

PUDDLING. Making the walls of canals water-tight by means of clay was largely' 
adopted by Brindley in constructing the Bridge water canals, 1761 et seq. ; see also mider 
Iron Manufacture. 

• PUEBLA, see Mexico, 1863. PUGILISM, see Boxing. 

PULLEY, vice, and other mechanical instruments, are said to have been invented 
by Archytas of Tareutum, about 400 B.C. In a single moveable pulley the power gained 
is doubled : in a continued combination the power is equal to the number of pulleys, 
less one, doubled. 

PULTOWA (Russia), where Charles XII. of Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the 
Great of Russia, 8 Julj^, 1709. He fled to Bender, in Turkey. 

PULTUSK (Russia), where a battle was fought between the Saxons, under king Augustus, 
and the Swedes, under Charles XII., in which the former were signally defeated, i May, 1703. 
Here also the French under Napoleon fought the Russian and Prussian armies : both sides 
claimed the victorj-, but it inclined in favour of the French, 26 Dec. 1806. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria is said to have invented pumps (with other hydraulic 
instruments), about 224 B.C., although the invention is ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 
1485 B.C. Pumps were in general use in England, A.D. 1425. An inscription on the pump 
in front of the late Royal Exchange, London, stated that the well was sunk in 1282. The 
air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and improved by Boyle in 1657 ; see Wells. 



PUN C07 PYll 

PUNCH or THE London Chakivari, was founded, by Mr. Gilbert' A'Becket and others 
in 1841 ; see Caricatures, 

PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system. Of onr points 
the period (.) is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced about 1485 ; the comma (,) 
•was first seen about 1521, and the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sidney's 
"Arcadia" (1587), they aU appear, as well as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk ('"), and 
parentheses ()• 

PUNIC WAES, see Carthage, 264 B.C. 

PUNISHMENTS, see Beheading, Blinding, Boiling, Death, Drowning, Flogging, and 
Poisoning. 

PUNJAB (N. W. Hindostan), was traversed by Alexander the Great, 327 B.C. ; and 
by Tamerlane, a.d. 1398. The wars witli the Sikhs began here, 14 Dec. 1845, and was 
closed on 29 IMarch, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed ; see India. The Punjab has 
since greatly flourished, and on i Jan. 1S59, was made a distinct presidency (to include the 
Sutlej states, and tlie Delhi territory) ; see Durlar. 

PUEGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), particularly cassia, manna, and seuna, 
are ascribed to Actuariiis, a Greek physician, 1245. 

PURGATORY, the middle place between heaven and hell, where, it is believed hj 
the Roman catholics, the soul ]iasses through the fire of purification before it enters the 
kingdom of God. The doctrine was known abovit 250, and was introduced into the 
Roman church in the 5th century. It was first set forth by a council at Florence, 1438 ; 
see Indulgences. 

PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was ordained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. (Lev. xii.) ; 
see Churching. The feast of the purification was instituted, 542, in honour of the Virgin 
Mary's going to the temple. {Luke ii.) Pope Sergius I. ordered the procession with wax 
tapers, whence Candleinas-daj''. 

PURITANS, the name, first given about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity of 
doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline than others. They withdrew from the 
Established church, professing to follow the word of God alone, and maintaining that the 
cliurch retained many human inventions and popish superstitions ; see Nonconformists, and 
Presbyterianism . 

PURPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, discovered at Tyre. It is said to have been 
found by a dog's having by chance eaten a shell fish, called nnurex or ■purimra ; upon 
returning to his master, Hercules Tyrius, he observed his lips tinged, and made use of the 
discovery. Purple was anciently used by the princes and great men for their garments by 
way of distinction, and to this day the purple colour is the liveiy of our bishops, &c. The 
dignity of an archbishop or great magistrate is frequently meant by the purple. The purple 
was first given to the cardinals by pope Paul II. 1465. 

PURVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of the sovereigns of England of purchasing 
provisions, &c., without the consent of the owners, led to much oppression. It was regu- 
lated by Magna Charta, 1215, and other statutes, and was only surrendered by Charles II. 
in 1660, for a compensation. 

PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of certain clergymen and lay members of the 
church of England, who proposed to restore the practice of the church of England to 
what they believed to be required by the language of her Liturgy and Rubrics, but M-hich 
were considered by their opponents to be of a Romish tendency. The term was derived 
from the name of the professor of Hebrew at Oxford, Dr. Pusey. The heads of houses of 
the university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring Dr. Pusey's .attempts to renew 
practices M'hich are now obsolete, 15 March, 1841 ; and his celebrated sermon was condemned 
by the same bodj^, 30 May, 1843 ; see Tractarians, and Ritualism. 

PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last king of Macedon, was defeated and made 
prisoner by the Romans, commanded by .^Emilius Paulus, 168 B.C. 

PYRAMIDS OF Egypt, according to Dr. Pococke and Sonnini, "so celebrated from 
remote antiquity, are the most iUustrious monuments of art. " Tlie three principal pyramids 
are situated on a rock, at the foot of some high mountains which bound the Nile. The first 
building of them commenced, it is supposed, about 1500 B.C. The greatest is said to have 
been erected by Cheops, 1082 B.C. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular 
height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base is 746 feet. It 
occupies above twelve acres of ground, and is constructed of stupendous blocks of stone. 
There are many other smaller pyramids to the south of these. — The hattlc of the Pyramids, 



PYE, 608 QUA 

when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes, and thus subdued Lower Egypt, took place 
21 July, 1798 ; see Egypt. 

PYRENEES. After the hattle of Vittoria (fought 21 June, 1813), Napoleon sent Soult 
to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which 
his abilities were inferior, for Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 20,000 
men, having been defeated by Wellington in a series of engagements from 25 July to 
2 Aug. One at the Pyrenees on 28 July. A railway through the P3Tenees (from Bilbao 
to Miranda) was opened 21 Aug. 1862. —The Peace of the Pseenees was concluded 
between France and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French king, and Don Louis de 
Haro, on the part of Spain, in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. Bj' this treaty 
Spain yielded Eoussillon, Artois, and her right to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests 
in Catalonia, Italy, &c., and engaged not to assist Portugal, 7 Nov. 1659. 

PYROMETEE (fire-measurer), an apparatus employed to ascertain the temperature of 
furnaces, &c., where thermometers cannot be employed; Muschenbroek's pyrometer (a 
metallic bar) was described by him in 1731. Improvements were made by EUicott and 
others. Wedgwood employed clay cylinders about 1782. Professor Daniell received the 
Rumford medal for an excellent pyrometer in 1 830. Mr. Ericsson's useful pyrometer appeared 
in the Great Exhibition of 185 1. Eng. Cyc. 

PYROXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun Cotton {which see). 

PYRRHONISM, see Sceptics. 

PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect, 
flourished about 555 B.C. He is said to have taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or 
transmigration of the soul from one body to another ; forbidden his disciples to eat flesh, 
and also beans, invented the multiplication table, improved geometry, and taught the pre- 
sent system of astronomy. ' 

PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi ; first instituted, 
according to the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory 
which he had attained over the serpent. Python, from which they received their name ; 
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or by 
Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. 

PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep the consecrated wafer. In the ancient 
chapel of the pyx, at Westminster abbey, are deposited the standard pieces of gold and 
silver, under the joint custody of the lords of the treasury and the comptroller-general. 
The ^Hrial of the 2}yx " signifies the verification of a jury of goldsmiths of the coins deposited 
in the pyx-box by the master of the mint. This took place on 17 July, 1861, at the 
exchequer ofiice. Old Palace-yard, in the presence of twelve privy councillors, twelve gold- 
smiths, and others ; and again, 19, 20 Jan, 1866. 



Q. 



QUACKERY. Quack medicines were taxed in 1783 et seq. An inquest was held on 
the body of a yoiing lady. Miss Cashin, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards 
tried for manslaughter, 21 Aug. 1830 ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 
250Z., 30 Oct. following. He was tried for manslaughter in the case of Mrs. Catherine 
Lloyd, and acquitted, 19 Feb. 1831. Dr. Vries, "the black doctor," a professed cancer- 
curer, at Paris, was condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment as an impostor in Jan. i860; 
see Homceopathy, and Hydropathy. 

QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sunday in Lent ; see Lent, and Quinqimgesima. 

QUADRANT, the mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter of a circle. The 
solar quadrant was introduced aborit 290 B.C. The Arabian astronomers under the caliphs, 
in A.D. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. 
Davis's quadrant for measuring angles was produced about 1600 ; Hadley's quadrant, in 
1731 ; see Navigation. 

QUADRILATERAL or Qtjadrangle, terms applied to the four strong Austrian 
fortresses in N. Italy, surrendered to the Italians in Oct. 1866 ; — Peschiera, on an island 
in the Mincio ; Mantua, on the Mincio ; Verona and Legnago, both on the Adige ; see 
Italy, Peschiera, &c. 

QUADRILLE, a dance, was introduced into this country about 1808, (Miss Berry), 
and was made popular by the duke of Devonshire, and others, in 1813. liaikes. 



QUA 609 QUA 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, between Great Britain, France, and the emperor (signed at 
London, 22 July, 1718); on the accession of the states of Holland, 8 Feb. 1719, obtained 
its name. It guaranteed the succession of the reigning families of Great Britain and 
France, settled the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to war. 

QUiESTOR, in ancient Rome, was an officer who had the management of the public 
treasure ; appointed about 484 B.C. It was the first office any person could bear in the com- 
monwealth, and gave a right to sit in the senate. At first there were two qusestors, 
afterwards eight. Two were added in 409 B.C. Two were called Peregrini, two (for the 
city) Urhaiii. 

QUAKERS or Society of FRiExn-s, originally called Seekers, from their seeking the 
truth, and afterwards Friends (3 John 14). Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the 
name of Quakers in 1650, because George Fox (the founder) admonished him, and those 
present, to quake at the word of the Lord. This sect was commenced in England about 
1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who was joined by George Keith, "William Penn, and 
Robert Barclay, of Ury, and others. Fox rejected all religious ordinances, explained away 
the commands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the ordinary names of days and months, 
and used tlice and thsu for yuu, as more consonant with truth. He published a book pf 
instructions for teachers and professors, and died 13 Jan. 1691. The fii'st meetiug-house in 
London was in White Hart-court, Gracechurch-street. 

The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions. First meeting of Quakers in Ireland in Dub- 

At Boston, U.S., where the first Friends who ar- > lin in 1658; and their first meeting-house 

rived were female.s, they (even females) were \ there was oiiened in Eustace-street . . 1692 

cruelly scourged, and had their ears cut off. ' The solemn affirmation of Quakers enacted to 

In 1659 t^^sy stated in parliament that 2000 Frisnds j be taken in all cases in the^ courts below, 

had endured sufferings and imprisonment in New- - . - . , , 1, i, 

gate : and 164 Friends offered themselves at this 

time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned 

in lieu of an equal number in danger (from cou- 

fiuement) of death, 1659. 
Fifty- five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to 

America, by an order of council, 1664. 
The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for 

some months, an embargo was laid on West India 

ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length 

found for the service. But the Friends would not 

walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them 

into the vessel, and soldiers from the Tower were 

employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was 



wherein oaths are required from other sub- 
jects (see Atfirmaiwn) i6g6 

"William Penn. with a company of Friends, 
colonised Philadelphia 1682 

They emancipated their negro slaves . i Jan. 178S 

Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to par- 
liament on his affirmation . . 15 Feb. 1833 

The Quakers had in England 413 meeting-houses 
in 1800, and 371 in 1851 

At a conference it was agreed to recommend 
that mi.^ed marriages should be permitted, 
and that many of the peculiarities of the sect 
in speech and costume should be abandoned 
(which has been done) . . .2 Nov. 185S 



immediately captured by the Dutch, who liberated : An act was passed rendering valid Quaker niar 
twenty-eight of the prisoners in Holland, the rest . riages when only one of the persons is a 

having died of the plague in that year. Of the , Quaker i860 

120 few reached America. I 

QUALIFICATIOlSr fok Office Abolition Act, passed May, 1866, rendered it unne- 
cessary to make and subscribe certain declarations. 

QUARANTINE, the custom first observed at Yenice, 1127, whereby all merchants and 
others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the 
Lazaretto, forty days before they were admitted into the city. Various southern cities have 
now lazarettos'; that of Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and 
all other nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform quarantine with 
their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts wero 
passed in 1753 and in 1825. By order of council, 10 Nov. 1866, foreign cattle were made 
subject to quarantine. 

QUARTER SESSIONS were established, 25 Edw. III. 1350-1. The days of sitting were 
appointed, 2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was enacted, that quarter sessions of the peace should 
be held in the first week after 1 1 Oct. , 28 Dec. , 3 1 March, and 24 June. 

QUARTERLY REVIEW, the organ of the Tory party, first appeared in Feb. 1809, 
under the editorship of William Giff'ord, the celebrated translator of "Juvenal." He died 
31 Dec. 1826. 

QUASI MODO, a name given to Loxv Sunday (the first Sunday after Easter) on account 
of the commencement of a hymn for that day. 

QUATRE-BRAS (Belgium). Here, on 16 June, 1815, two days before the battle of 
AYaterloo, a battle was fought Ijetween the British and allied armyirnder the duke of Bruns- 
wick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French under marshal Ney. 
The British fought with remarkable intrepidity, notwithstanding tlieir inferiority in number, 
and their fatigue through marching all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment (Scotch 
Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of a French division by cuirassiers being posted in 
ambush behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was killed. 

B K 



QUE 



610 



QUE 



QUEBEC (Canada), was founded by the French in 1608. 



Quebec reduced by the Bnglish, with all Canada, 

in 1626, but restored 1632 

Besieged by the English, but without success . 1711 
Conquered by them after a boJUe memorable for 
the death of general Wolfe in the moment of 
victory ; and the French general Montcalm 

13 Sept. 1759 
Besieged in vain by the American provincials, 
under their general, Montgomery, who was 

slain 31 Dec. 1775 

Bishopric established 1793 

Public and private stores and several wharfs 



destroyed by fire ; the loss estimated at up- 
wards of 260,000? Sept. 181S 

Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 

persons, burnt to the ground . . 28 May, 1845 
Another great fire, 1365 houses burnt 28 June, ,, 
Fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost . . 12 Jan. 184& 
Visited by the prince of Wales . . 18-23 Aug. i86o- 
Great fire in French quarter ; 2500 houses and 
17 churches destroyed, and nearly 20,000 per- 
sons made homeless . . . .14 Oct. i866' 

See Canada and Montreal. 



179s 
1796 



QUEEN (Saxon, cwen; German, Mniginn). The first woman invested Avith sovereign: 
authority was Semiramis, queen of Assyria, 2017 B.C. In 1554 an act was passed "declaring 
that the regall power of tliis realme is in the queues majestic [Mary] as fully and absolutely 
as ever it was in any of her moste noble progenitours kiuges of this realme." The Hungarians 
called a queen-regnant king ; see Hungary. 

QUEEN" ANNE'S BOUNTY, established in Nov. 1703, by queen Anne, being the first 
fruits with the tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer 'clergy. There were 5597 
clerical livings imder 50Z. per anmim found by the commissioners under the act of Anne 
■capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act to consolidate the offices of first fruits, tenths, audi 
Queen Anne's Bounty, i Yict. 1838. 

QUEEN ANNE'S EARTHINGS. The popular stories of the great A^alue of this coin are 
fabulous, although some few of particular dates have been purchased by persons at high 
prices. The current farthing, with the broad brim, when jn fine preservation, is worth il. 
The common patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth il. The two patterns with Britannia undei' 
a canopy, and Peace on a car, R E, E,, are worth 2I. 2S. each. The pattern with Peace on a 
car is more valuable and rare, and worth $1. Pinlcerton (died 1826). 

QUEEN CAEOLINE'S TRIAL, &c. 

Caroline Amelia Augusta, second daughter of 

Charles Wm. Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, 

born 17 May, 1768; married to George, prince 

of Wales 8 April, 

Their daughter, princess Charlotte, born 7 Jan. 
The ' ' Delicate Investigation " {which sec) 22 May, 
Charges against her again disproved . 
The princess embarks for the continent. Aug. 
Becomes queen, 20 Jan. ; arrives in England 

6 June, 
A secret committee in the house of lords, 

appointed to examine papers on charges of 

incontinence 8 June, 

Bill of pains and penalties introduced by lord 

Liverpool 5 July, 

The queen removes to Brandenbiu-g-house 

3 Aug. 
Receives an address from the married ladies of 

the metropolis (and many others afterwards) 

16 Aug. 

QUEEN CHARLOTTE Ship op Wak, a first-rate ship of the line, of no guns, the 
flag-ship of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in the Mediterranean, was burnt by an 
accidental fire, off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 British seamen out of a crew 
of 850 perished by fire or drowning, 17 March, 1800. 

QUEEN'S ADVOCATE, prosecutes or defends on the part of the crown in all cases in 
the court of admiralty. Sir R. J. Phillimore, appointed in 1862, was succeeded by sir Travers 
Twiss, Aug. 1867. 

QUEEN'S BENCH COURT and PRISON, see King's Bench. 

QUEEN'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of loool. which commenced about the beginning 
of the reign of George III. and was continued until the loth Geo. lY. 1829, when it ceased 
altogether. The collection upon the king's letter, which used to accompany this grant, has 
also been discontinued since that year. 

QUEEN'S COLLEGES, see Cambridge and Oxford. Queen's colleges, Ireland, from their 
unsectarian character termed the " Godless Colleges," were instituted in 1845, to afi"ord edu- 
cation of the highest order to all religious denominations. They were placed at Belfast, 
Cork, and Galway; thelast was opened on 30 Oct. 1849. — The " Queen's Univeksity in Ire- 
land," comprehending these colleges, was founded by patent, 15 Aug. 1850; the earl of 
Clarendon, lord lieutenant, the first chancellor. These were " condemned " by the Propa- 



Her trial commences . . . . ig Aug. 1820- 
Last debate on the bill of pains and penalties, 
when the report was approved by 108 against 
99 ; the numerical majority of nine being pro- 
duced by the votes of the ministers them- 
selves. Lord Liverijool moves that the bill be 
reconsidered that day six months . lo Nov. ,,. 
Great public exultation ; illuminations for 

three nights in London . . 10, 11, 12, Nov. ,, 
The queen goes to St. Paul's in state . 29 Nov. ,, 
She protests against her exclusion from the 
coronation, 18 July ; taken ill at Drury-lane 

theatre 30 July, 1821 

Dies at Hammersmith . . . . 7 Aug. „ 
Her remains removed on their route to Bruns- 
wick ; an alarming riot occurs : two persons 
were killed in an affray with the guards 

14 Aug. „ 



QUE 611 • QUI 

ganda and the pope, and by a majority (a small one) of the Irish bisliops in a synod held at 
Tlmrles, in Sept. 1850. A supplemental charter, granted in June, 1866, created much dis- 
sension when acted upon in October following; and was suffered to expire, 31 Jan. 1868; see 
Colleges. 

QUEENSLAND, Moreton-bay, Australia, now including the "jilains of promise," 
Carpentaria, established as a colony in 1859 ; admiral sir George F. Bo wen governor, and 
Brisbane, the capital, a bishopric. Population in Dec. 1859, 23,450 ; in Sept. 1865, about 
90,000. Its chief productions are sugar, cotton, and tobacco. 

QUEENS OF ENGLAND, see under England, p. 275. 

QUEEN'S THEATRE, see Opera, House. 

QUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada). This town, on the river Niagara, was taken in the 
last war with America by the troops of the United States, 13 Oct. 1812 ; but was re-taken 
by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, 
and prisonei's, on the same daJ^ Queenstown suffered severely in this war. — The Cove of 
Cork was named Queenstown, 3 Aug. 1849, by the queen on her visit. 

QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, see Queen's Colleges. 

QUEEN VICTORIA Steam Ship. Wrecked 15 Feb. 1853 ; see Wreclcs. 

QUENTIN, ST. (N. France). Philip II. of Spain, assisted by the English, defeated the 
French at St. Quentin, 10 Aug. 1557 ; and in fulfilment of a vow made before the engage- 
ment, built the famous monastery, palace, &c., the Escurial, considered by the Spaniards the 
eighth wonder of the world ; see Escnrial. 

QUERETARO (Mexico), was besieged and taken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the 
liberal general Escobedo, 15th May, 1867. The emperor Maximilian, and his generals 
Miramon and Mejia, were taken prisoners, and, after trial, were shot 19 June following. 

QUERN or Handmill, is of Roman, or as some say, of Irish invention ; but Roman 
querns have been found in Yorkshire. 

QUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the Austrians, 11 Sept. 1793, but was recovered 
by the French, 16 Aug. 1794. It surrendered to pi-ince Frederick of the Netherlands, 29 
June, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. — It was here that cannon were first used, and called 
bombards. Henault. 

QUIBERON BAY (W. France). A British force landed here in 1746, but was repulsed. 
In the bay admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the French admiral Conflans, and 
thus defeated the projected invasion of Great Britain, 20 Nov. 1 759. Quiberon was taken 
by some French regiments in the pa}^ of England, 3 July, 1795 ; but on 21 July, owing to 
the treachery of some of these soldiers, the French republicans, under Hoche, retook it by 
surprise, and many of the emigrants were executed. About 900 of the troops, and nearly 
1500 royalist inhalDitants who had joined the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected 
their embarkation on board the ships. 

QUICKSILVER, in its liquid state, mercury. Its use in refining silver was discovered, 
1540. There ai-e mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida, in Spain, 
and at Idria, in lUyria ; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, for several years yielded 
1200 tons. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter 
at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without 
snow or ice, by Mr. Walker in 1787. Corrosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination 
of mercury and chlorine ; see Calomel. 

QUIETISM, the doctrine of Molinos, a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the "Spiritual 
Guide," published in 1675, was the foundation of a sect in France. He held that religion 
consisted in an internal silent meditation on the merits of Christ and the mercies of God. 
Madame de la Mothe-Guyon, a quietist, was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions and 
prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, between 
whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, arose a controversy, 1697. Quietism was condemned by 
pope Innocent XI. in 1685. 

QUILLS are said to have been first used for pens in 553 ; some say not before 635. 

QUINCE, Wi^Pyrus Cydonia, brought to these countries from Austria, before 1573. The 
Japan quince or Pyru^ Japonica, brought hither from Japan, 1796. 

QUINDECEMVIRI, fifteen men, chosen to keep the Sibylline books. The number 
originally two (duumA'iri), about 520 B.C., was increased to ten in 365 B.C., and afterwards 
(probably 'by Sylla) to fifteen, about 82 B.C. Julius Cresar added one ; but the precedent 
was not followed. 

QUININE or Quixia, an alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pel- 
Ictier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinclmna barks, especially 

K K 2 



QUI 612 KAC 

of the yellow bavk ; see Jesuits' Baric. Artificial quinine was prepared (synthetically) by 
Mr. AV". L. Scott, in Oct. 1865. — Quinoedine, see Fluorescence. 

QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The observation was appointed by pope Gregory the 
Great, about 1572. The first Sunday in Lent having been termed' Quadragcsivia, and the 
three weeks preceding having been appropriated to the gradual introduction of the Lent fast, 
the three Sundays of these weeks were called by names significant of their position in the 
calendar : and reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday preceding Quadragesima received 
its present name, Quinquagesima, the second Sexagesima, and the third Septuageswia. 

QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd ceutuiy, the disciples of Montanus, who took their 
name from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by his pretended sanctity, and whom 
they regarded as a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread and cheese, and allowed 
women to be priests and bishops. Pardon. 

QUIRINUS, a Sabine god ; afterwards identified with Eomulus. L. Papirius Cursor, 
general in the Roman army, first erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus, from which 
time the days began to be divided into hours, 293 B.C. Aspin. The sun-dial was sometimes 
called the Quirinus, from the original place in which it was set up. Ashe. The Roman citi- 
zens were termed Quipjtes. 

QUITO (capital of the republic of Equator), celebrated as having been the scene of the 
measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathematicians, 1736- 
42. Forty thousand persons perished by an earthquake which almost overwhelmed the city 
of Quito, 4 Feb. 1797. Since then violent shocks, but not so disastrous, occurred; tUl one, 
on 22 March, 1859, when about 5000 persons were killed ; see Eartliquahes. 

QUIXOTE, see Bon (Quixote. 

QUOITS, a game said to have originated with the Greeks, and to have been first played 
at the Olympic games, by the Idpei Dactyli, fifty years after the deluge of Deucalion, 1453 
p,.c. Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inadvertently slain his grand- 
father, when throwing a quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which he was heir, for 
that of Tirynthus, and founded the kingdom of Mycenae, about 13 13 B.C. 

QUO WARRAISPTO ACT, passed 1280. By it a writ may be directed to any person 
to inquire by what authority he holds any office or franchise. Charles II. directed a writ 
against the corporation of London in 1683, and the court of king's bench declared their 
charter forfeited. The decision was reversed in 1690. 

E. 

RACES, one of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece ; see Cliariots. Horse- 
races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen who wrote in the days of 
Henry II. mentions the delight taken hy the citizens of London in the diversion. In James's 
reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near 
York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. Camden. In the end 
of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. patronised them, and 
instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. added to the 
plates (as did queen Anne), and founded an academy for riding. 

The first racing calendar is said to have been 

published by John Cheny in . . . . 1727 
Act for suppressing races by ponies and weak 

horses, 13 Geo. II 1739 

The most eminent races in England are those at 

Newmarket (which see), established by Charles 

II. in 1667 : at Epsom, begun about 1711; by 

Mr. Parkhurst (annual since 1730, Allen's 

Surrey) ; at Ascot, begun by the duke of 

Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Don- 
caster, by col. St. Leger in 1776 (the St. Leger 

stakes were founded in 1776, and so named 

in 1777); and at Goodwood, begun by the 

duke of Richmond, in his park . . . 1S02 
The Jockey Club began in the time ot George 

11. (1727-60). Its rules, by which races are 

regulated, were enacted in 1828, and revised 

since. 
On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal 

stiid was sold for 16,476'. on . . 25 Oct. 1837 
Lord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy 

Grimshaw, a light-weight jockey, at a salary 

of loooi, a year March. 1865 



"Tattersall's," the "high-change of horse- 
flesh," was established by Richard Tattersall, 
near Hyde Park Corner (hence termed "the 
Corner") iu 1766, for the sale of horses. The 
lease of the ground having expired, the new 
premises at Brompton were erected and 
opened for business on . . .10 April, 1865 

RACE-HORSES. 

Flying Childers, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon- 
shire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the 
fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmax-ket, or that 
was ever bred in the world ; he ran four miles in six. 
minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 
35 i miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. 
He died in 1741, aged 26 years. 

Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England 
since the time of Childers; he was never beaten, 
and died in February, 1789, aged 25 years. His 
heart weighed 141b., which accounted for his won- 
derful spirit and courage. Christie White's Hist, of the 
Turf. 



EAC 613 EAI 



EACES, continued. 



RECENT "WINNERS OF " THE DEIICY AT EPSOM. 



1846. Pyrrlius. I 1^54. Andovei-. 



1847. Cossack. 

1848. Surplice. 

1849. Flying Dutcliman. 

1850. Voltigeur. 

1851. Teddington. 

1852. Daniel O'Rourkc. 

1853. West Australian. 



1855. Wild Dayrell. 
1S56. Ellington. 
1857. Blink Bonny. 
185S. Beadsman. 
1859. Musjid. 
1S60. Thormanby. 



Kettledrum. 
Caractacus. 
Maccaroni. 
Blair Athol. 
Ghidiateur, 31 May 



the comtc La Grange. 
Ho also won the at. 
Leger at Doncaster, 
13 Sept.) 
1866. Lord Lyon (i63ra}'). 



(a horse reared in \ 1867. Hermit (22 May). 
France, the property of i iS68. Blue Gown(27May). 



EACK, au engine of torture, for extracting a confession from criminals, Avas early known 
in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians suffei-ed by the rack, which wns 
in later times an instrument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of 
Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now seen in 
the tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges 
of England nobly protested against the ])roposal of the privy council to put the assassin to 
the rack, as being contrary to the laws, 1628 ; see Ravaillac, and Torture. 

EADCLIFFE Librakt, Oxford, founded under the will of Dr. John Eadcliffe, au 
eminent physician. lie died i Nov. 1714, leaving 40,000^. to the university of Oxford for 
the founding a library, the first stone of which was laid 17 May, 1737 ; the edifice was com- 
pletely finished in 1749, and was oj)ened 13 April, in the same year. The library consists 
chiefly of works of medical and philosophical science. — The Eadci.iffe Observatory, 
Oxford, was founded by the exertions of Dr. Hornsby, Savilian professor of astronomy, about 
1771, and completed in 1794. The publication of the observations was commenced in 1842, 
by Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, appointed in 1839. 

EADICALS or "Eadical Eeformers," persons who professed to aim at procuring a 
thorough reformation in the government and policy of England, became prominent in 1816, 
when Hampden clubs were formed, of Avhich sir Francis Burdett, lord Cochrane, major 
Cartwright, and "William Cobbett were prominent members. Samiiel Bamford's "Life of a 
Eadical, " published in 1842, gives much information. Many radicals were severely punished, 
1817-20. — The " Eadicals " in the United States are the party headed by Thaddeus Stevens, 
bitterly opposed to the policy of president Johnson, as too favourable to the subdued Southern 
States. 

EADICLE, see Comjwicnd. 

EADSTADT or Eastadt (in Baden), wdiere the preliminaries of a peace were signed, 6 
March, 1714, by marshal Villars on the part of the French king, and by prince Eugene on 
the part of the emperor ; the German frontier was restored to the terms of the peace of 
Eyswick. — The Congress of Eadstadt, to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, 
Avas commenced 9 Dec. 1797; and negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. 
The atrocious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Eadstadt by the Austrian regiment 
of Szeltzler took place 28 April, 1 799. 

EAFFAELLE WAEE, see FotterT/. 

EAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for outcast destitute ragged children, set up in large 
towns. The instruction is based on the scriptures, and most of the teachers are unpaid. 
John Pounds, a cobbler, of Portsmouth, who died in 1839, opened a school of this kind ; and 
one was set up by Andrew Walker, in "Devil's Acre," Westminster, in 1839. Knight. 
They existed in London previous to 1844, but did not receive their name till that year, 
when the " Eagged school union" Avas formed, principally by Mr. S. Stacey, and !Mr. Wm. 
Locke (afterwards hon. secretary). The earl of Shaftesbury was chairman. In 1856 there 
were 150 Eagged school institutions. In 1867 the number of Sunday ragged schools reported 
in London was 226 ; day schools, 204 ; week evening schools, 207. Average attendance, 
26,000 ; see Slioc Black. 

EAGMAN EOLL (said to derive its name from Eagimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) 
contains the instruments of homage and fealty to Edwai'd I., sworn to by the nobility and 
clergy of Scotland at Berwick in 1296. The original was given up to Eobert Bruce, king 
of Scotland, in 1328, when his son David was contracted in marriage to the princess Joanna 
of England. 

EAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south confines of Dalmatia, wa.i taken hy the 
Venetians, 1171, but became an independent republic, 1358. It suffered much by an earth- 
quake, 1667 ; was taken by the French in 1806, and given up to Austria in 18 14. 

EAID OF Euthven, see EiUhven. 



EAI 



614 



RAI 



RAILWAYS. There were short roads in and about Newcastle, laid down by Mr. Beau- 
mont, so early as 1602 ; which are thus mentioned in 1676 : — " the manner of the carriage is by 
laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky 
carts are made with four rollers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one 
horse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal 
merchants," Roger North. They were made of iron at Whitehaven, in 1738- 



An iron railway was laid down near Sheffield by John 
Curr in 1776, which was destroyed by the colliers. 

The first considerable iron railway was laid down at 
Colebrook Dale in 1786 ; see Tram-roads. 

The first iron railway sanctioned by parliament in 
1801 (with the exception of a few undertaken by 
canal companies as small branches to mines) was 
the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the 
Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon. 

Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high 
pressure locomotive engine in 1802. 

"William Hedley of Wylam colliery made the first 
travelling engine (locomotive), or substitute for 
animal power in a colliery 1813. 

Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by 
Bdw. Pease and George Stephenson, was opened 
27 Sept. 1825. 

The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced 
in Oct. 1826, and opened 15 Sept. 1830; see Livtr- 
pool. This railway led to similar enterprises 
throughout England and the continent. 

Act for transmission of mails by railways, 1838. 

The examination of railway schemes, before their 
introduction into parliament, by the Board of 
Trade, was ordered 1844. 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 8s, required companies to run cheap 
trains every day, and to permit erection of electric 
telegraphs, and authorised government, after 
I Jan. 1866, to buy existing railways with the 
permission of parliament, 1844. 

George Hudson, a draper, mayor of York in 1839, by 
his successful management as chairman of the 
Leeds and York railway and others, was styled 
the "railway king," 1844. 

An act passed 10 Vict. 28 Aug. 1846, for constituting 
commissioners of railways, who have since been 
incorporated with the Board of Trade. 

In 1814, the first locomotive constructed by George 
Stephenson, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per 
• hour ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of 
29 and 35 miles per hour ; * in 1834, the Fire-Ply 
attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the 
North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per 
hour; and at the present moment locomotives 
have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. 

The Railway Mania and panic year, when 272 rail- 
way acts passed, was 1846, 

Act for compensating families of persons killed by 
accidents (see Campbell's Act), 1846. 

Act for the better regulation of railways, 1854. 



Act to enable railway companies to settle differences 
with other companies by arbitration, 1059. 

Railway Clauses Consolidation act passed 1863. 

Joint committee of both houses of parliament 
appointed to report on railway schemes, 5 Feb. 
1864 ; see Atmosphtric and Street Railways. 

Period of " contractors' lines," 1859-66. 

London, Chatham, and Dover company suspend 
payment ; directors censured for their policy, 1866. 

Railway Companies Securities act passed Aug. 1866. 

A Welsh railway train (about to start) seized for 
debt, 27 Nov. 1866. 

250 railway bills passed, 1865 ; only 98, 1867. 

Strike of 350 men on London and Brighton line, 
25-27 March, 1867. 

Strike of 500 on North Eastern line, 11 April; 
overcome by the company, 25 April, 1867. 

Railway commission report against the government 
buying the railways, &c. , May, 1867. 

Railway acts amended by act passed 20 Aug. 1867. 

A climbing locomotive, by means of central rails, 
ascended Mount Cenis in 1865. [The experiments 
were first tried on the High Peak railway, Sept. 
1863 and Feb. 1 1864.] The railway completed and 
traversed by a locomotive and two carriages, con- 
taining Mr. Fell, the inventor of the plan, and 
others ; an unexampled journey in regard to 
steepness of gi-adients and the elevation of the 
summit level, 6700 feet, 21 Ang. 1867. After success- 
ful trials in May, the opening on 8 June, 1868, was 
announced. 

13,500 miles open in United Kingdom; weekly 
receipts about 8oo,oooZ., end of 1867. 

Lord Cairns (on appeal) decides that holders of 
debentures are responsible as qualified proprietors, 
28 Jan. 1868. 

Capt. 'Solland, government inspector, reports that 
in his opinion electric communication between 
the passengers and the railway servants on trains 
stopping at long intervals is necessary and prac- 
ticable, March, 1868. 

Railway Regulation biU read a second time in the 
lords, 20 March, 1868. 

Conference of railway shareholders at Manchester, 
14 and IS April, 1868. 

Capital expended. Receipts. Profit. 

184s . . 75,646,100 6,909,270 548 

1852 . . 248,093,520 15,543,610 3-44 

1866 . . 446,746,800 37)415)927 8'37 



LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL P.AILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 



The railways are generally named after their termini. 



Railways. 
Arbroath and Forfar 
Atmospheric Railway (lohich see) 
Aylesbury branch . 
Bangor and Carnarvon 
Belfast and county of Down 
Birmingham and Derby . 
Birmingham and Gloucester 
Birmingham, Wolverhampton, 

Valley . . . 
Brighton and Chichester 
Brighton and Hastings 
Bristol and Exeter . 
Bristol and Gloucester 
Caledonian .... 
Canterbury and Whitstable 



Date of Opening. 

. 3 Jan. 1839 

. 1840 

10 June, 1839 

. . July, 1852 

April, 1850 

12 Aug. 1839 

. 17 Deo. 1840 

'and Stour 

July, 1852 

8 June, 1846 

. 27 June, ,, 

I May, 1844 

July, 1845 



May, 1830 



Railways. Hate of Opening. 

Charing Cross Railway. London, opened 11 Jan. 



Cheltenham and Swindon 
Chepstow and Swansea, South Wales 
Chester and Birkenhead 
Chester and Crewe . 
Cockei-mouth and Workington 
Colchester and Ipswich . 
Cork and Bandon 

Cornwall 

Coventry and Leamington . 
Croydon and Epsom 
DubHn and Carlo w 
Dublin and Drogheda 
Dublin and Kingstown 
Dublin and Belfast Junction . 



12 May, 184s 
June, 1850 
22 Sept. 1840 

I Get. „ 
28 April, 1847 
15 June, 1846 
Dec. 1851 

1 May, 1859 

2 Dec. 1844 
17 May, 1847 
10 Aug. 1846 
26 May, 1844 

17 Dec. 1834 
. June, 1852 



* It obtained the prize of 500?. offered by the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester railway 
company for the best locomotive, Oct. 1829. 



RAI 



6U 



RAI 



RAILWAYS, continued. 

Railways. Date nf Opening. 
Dundee and Arbroath . . . .8 April, 1S40 
Dundee and Xe\\'i;j'le .... Dec. 1S31 
Dundee and Perth . .• . .22 May, 1S47 
Dunfermline and Alloa; Stirling and Dunferm- 
line Aug. 1850 

Durham and Sunderland . . .28 June, 1839 
Eastern Counties . . . .18 June, ,, 
Eastern Union (London and Colchester) 29 Mar. 1S43 
Bast and West India Docks and Birmingham 
Junction ; from Blackwall railway to Camden 

Town Aug. 1850 

Edinburgh and Berwick . . . iS June, 1846 

Edinburgh and Dalkeith 1831 

Edinburgh and Glasgow ... 8 Feb. 1842 

Edinburgh, Loith, and Granton . . . 1846 

Edinburgh and Musselburgh . . 14 July, 1847 

Ely and Huntingdon ,, 

Ely and Peterborough .... Jan. ,, 
Exeter and Credi ton .... May, 1851 

Exeter and Plymouth (part) . . 29 Jlay, 1846 
Glasgow and Ayr . . . .19 Se[)t. 1S40 
■Glasgow and Greenock . . .24 March, 1S41 
Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge . July, 1845 
Gloucester and Chepstow . . . Sept. 1851 

Grand Junction (Birmingham to Newton), July, 1S37 
Gravesend and Rochester ... 10 Feb. 1845 

Great Western 30 June, 1841 

Great Northern 1842 

Hertford branch of Fastern Counties 31 Oct. 1843 
Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds . 24 Dec. 1S46 
Kelso ; Branch of North British . . June, 1850 

Kendal and Windermere 1847 

Lancaster and Carlisle , . . 16 Dec. 1846 

Lancaster and Preston . . .30 June, 1840 
Leeds and Bradford ... 1 July, 1846 

Xjeeds and Derby .... July, 1840 

Leeds and Selby ..... Sept. 1834 
Liverpool and Birmingham . . 4 July, 1837 
Liverpool and Manchester . . 15 Sept. 1830 
Liverpool and Preston ... 31 Oct. 1838 
London and Birmingham . . 17 Sept. ,, 
London and Blackwall ... 2 Aug. 1841 
Xiondon .and Brighton . . . 21 Sept. ,, 
London and Bristol . . . .30 June, ,, 
London and Cambridge .... July, 1S45 
London and Colchester . . 29 March, 1843 
London and Croydon ... i June, 1839 

London and Dover .... 6 Feb. 1844 
London and Greenwich ... 26 Dec. 1S38 

London and Richmond . . .27 July, 1S46 
London and Southampton . . 11 May, 1840 
London and Warrington ; branch of the Great 

Northern Aug. 1850 

Lowestoft branch ; Norwich and Yarmouth . 1847 

Lynn and Ely ,, 

Manchester and Birmingham . 10 Aug. 1842 
Manchester, Bolton, and Bury . 29 May, 1S38 

Manchester and Leeds . . i March, 1841 

Manchester and Sheffield . . 22 Dec. 1845 
Margate brancli of the London and Dover . . 1S46 
Merthyr-Tydfil and Cardiff . . 12 April, 1841 



Raihoays. Date of Opening. 

Jfetropolitan, London ; act obtained, 1853 ; 

construction began, i86o ; opened 10 Jan. 1863 
Middlosborough and Redcar . . 4 Jime, 1846 
Newcastle and Berwick . . . July, 1847 
Newcastle and Carlisle ... 18 June, 1839 

Newcastle and Darlington 1844 

Newca.stle and North Shields . 18 June 1839 

Newmarket and Cambridge . . Oct. 1851 

Newtown-Stewart and Omagh . . Sept. 1852 
Northampton and Peterborough . 2 June, 1845 
North and South-Western Junction . Dec. 1852 
Northern and Eastern . . . July, 1845 

Norwich and Brandon ,, 

Norwich and Yarmouth . . . i May, 1845 
Nottingham to Grantham . . . July, 1850 
Nottingham and Lincoln ... 3 Aug. 1846 
Nottingham branch ; Rugby and Derby, 30 May, 1839 
Oxford branch of London and Biistol 12 June, 1844 
Oxford and Banbury .... Aug. 1850 
Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton May, 1852 
Paisley and Renfrew .... May, 1837 
Penzance to Camboume . . . Jan. 1852 

Rugby and Derby July, 1840 

Rugby and Leamington . . . Feb. 1851 

St. Andrew's July, 1852 

St Helen's ; first act passed .... 1830 
Salisbury branch of the London &■ Southampton 1847 
Sheffield and Rotherham . . . Oct. 1838 
Shrewsbury and Chester ... 4 Nov. 1846 
Shrewsbury and Ludlow . . . April, 1852 
Southampton and Dorchester . . i June, 1847 

South-Eastern 6 Feb. 1844 

South-Eastern ; North Kent line . . . 1849 
Stockton and Darlington . . Sept. 1825 

Stockton and Hartlepool . . . 10 Feb. 1841 
Stourbridge and Dudley . . . Dec. 1852 
Swinton and Barnsley . . . June, 1851 

Taff Vale 8 Oct. 1840 

Teignmouth to Newton ... 31 Dec. 1846 
Tipperary and Cloumel .... April, 1852 

Trent Valley 26 June, 1847 

Tunbridge-Wells branch . . . Oct. 1846 

Ulster Aug. 1839 

Warrington and Retford ; branch of the Great 

Northern July, 1852 

West and East India Docks and Birmingham 

Junction from the Blackwall railway to 

Camden Town Aug. 1850 

West Durham June, 1840 

West London (part) ... 27 May, 1844 

Worcester and Droitwich .... Jan. 1852 
York and Darlington .... 4 Jan. 1841 
York and Newcastle . . .17 June, 1847 

Yoi-k and Normanton ... 30 June, 1840 
York and Scarborough ... 7 July, 1845 

Alleged Extent of Railways (in miles), 1867 : — 
Austrian dominions, 4001 ; France, 8g8g ; Italy, 
3040 ; Prussia, 5483 ; Russia, 2S93 ; Spain, 3216 ; 
LTnited States of America, 32,896 ; India, 4070 ; 
Australia, 669. 



UNITED KINGDOM— LENGTH OF EAILWAY OPENED, NUMBER OF PASSENGERS, AND 

TOTAL RECEIPTS. 



1 Miles 
Year. ] then 
opened. 


Travellers, 


Kcoeipts. 


Year. 


Miles 

then 

openeJ. 


Travellers. 


lleccipts. 


1S45 . 
1849 . . . 
1854 . 

1858 (iyr.) . 


2343 

4355 
S&62 

9540 


33,791,253 

63,841,539 

111,206,707 

76,529,202 


£6,277,892 
9,174,94s 
12,825,826 


1861 (year) . 
1S63 „ 
186s „ 
1866 „ . . 


10,8691 
12,322 
13,289 
13,854 


173,721,139 
204,699,466 
251,959,862 
274,293,668 


£28,561,355 
31,156,397 
35,751,655 
38,164,354 



It has been calculated that out of 16,168,459 travellers by railway one person is killed, and out of 
458,370 one is injured, by causes beyond their own control. 

In iS66, out of 274,293,668 travellers, 5 were killed, ai>d 540 injured from causes beyond their own con- 
irol,; and 16 killed, and 7 injured by then- own fault. 



EAI 



616 



EAI 



KAILWAYS, continued. 



MEMOKABLE EAILWAY ACCIDENTS. 



Very many {where only 2 persons Jcilled) are not noted; in nearly all cases a large number were injured. 



\r. Huskisson, M P., killed at the opening of 

the Livei-pool and Manchester railway 

15 Sept. 1830 
Great Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle): train 

runs off line; skilled . . . 3 Dec. 1836 

rentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over- 
turned : 3 killed . . . .21 Aug. 1840 
Ouckfield (London and Brighton) : engine runs 

off line ; 4 killed 2 Oct. 1841 

Sunny hill cutting, near Beading : engine forced 

off line ; 8 killed .... 24 Dec. „ 
Versailles ; carriages take fire, passengers locked 

in ; 52 or 53 lives lost, including admiral 

D'Urville 8 May, 1842 

Masborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; 

Mr. Boteler and others killed, many injured 

20 Oct. 1845 
Stratford (Eastern Counties) : collision through 

great carelessness ; Mr. Hind killed, many 

mutilated 18 July, 1846 

Pevensey (Brighton and Bastings): collision; 

40 injured 24 Aug. ,, 

Clifton (Manchester and Bolton) : express runs 

off line; 2 killed, many injured . 15 Dec. „ 
Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs 

off bridge ; 4 killed ; greater number injured 

18 May, 1S47 
Wolverton (North Western): collision: 7 killed, 

many injured 5 June ,, 

Shrivenham( Great "Western): collision; 7 killed, 

many injured . . . . .10 May, 184S 
Carlisle (Caledonian): axletree of carriage 

breaks ; 5 killed 10 Feb. 1S49 

Prodsham Tunnel (Chester and "Warrington 

Junction) : collision ; 6 killed . 30 April, 1851 
Newmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton) : train 

runs off line; 4 killed . . . 6 June, ,, 
Bicester (Buckinghamshire): collision; 6 killed 

6 Sept. „ 
Burnley (Lancashire and Yorkshire) ; collision : 

4 killed 12 July, 1852 

Dixonfold (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : engine 

wheels broke ; 7 killed ... 4 Mar. 1853 
Near Straffan (Great Southern and "Western, 

Ireland): collision; 13 killed . . 5 Oct. ,, 
Near Harling, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : 

collision ; 6 killed . . . .12 Jan. 1854 
Croydon (Brighton and Dover) : collision ; 3 

killed . . . . . .24 Aug. ,, 

Burlington, between New York and Phila- 
delphia: 21 killed . . . 29 Aug. ,, 
Beading (South Eastern) : collision ; 5 killed 

12 Sept. 185s 
Near Paris : collision; g killed . . 9 Oct. ,, 
Between Thoret and Moret: collision; 16 killed 

23 Oct. „ 
Campbell (N. Penusylvania) : collision ; above 

100 killed 17 July, 1S56 

Dunkett ("Waterford and Kilkenny) : collision ; 

7 killed 19 Nov. ,, 

Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collision ; 

200 injured ; none killed . . . 27 June, 1857 
Lewisham (North Kent): collision; 11 killed, 

28 June, ,, 
Between Pyle and Port Talbot : collision ; 4 

killed 14 Oct. ,, 

Attleborough (North "Western) : train thrown 

off the line through a cow crossing the rails ; 

3 killed 10 May, 1858 

Near Mons, Belgium : coke waggon on the rails ; 

21 killed June, ,, 



Chilhani (Soutl^ Eastern) : either too great 
speed or broken axletree ; 3 killed . 30 June, 1858 

Near Bound Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- 
hampton) — excursion train: collision; 14 
killed . . . . . . .23 Aug. ,, 

Tottenham (Eastern Counties) : engine wheel 
breaks ; 6 killed 20 Feb. i860 

Helmshore (Lancashire and Yorkshire) — excur- 
sion train : collision ; 11 killed . 4 Sept. ,, 

Atherstone (North Western) : collision of mail 
and cattle trains ; 11 killed . . 16 Nov. ,, 

Near Wimbledon : Dr. Baly killed . 28 Jan. 1861 

Eailway tunnel falls in near Haddon Hall, 
Derbyshire;: 5 men killed . . .2 July, ,, 

Clayton Tunnel (London and Brighton) : colli- 
sion ; 23 killed, 176 injured . . 25 Aug. ,, 

Kentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 1 6 killed, 
320 injured . . . . . .2 Sept. ,, 

Market Harborough : collision ; i killed and 50 
injured 28 Aug. 1S62 

Near Winchburgh (Edinburgh and Glasgow) : 
collision; 15 killed, 100 wounded . 13 Oct. ,, 

Near Streatham (London and Brighton) : ex- 
plosion of boiler through attempting too great 
speed; 4 killed; above 30 injured . 30 May, 1863 

Near Lynn (Lyi\n and Hunstanton) : carriages 
upset through bullock on the line ; 5 killed 

3 Aug. ,, 

Egham (South Western) : collision ; s killed, 
above 20 injured 7 June, 1864 

Canada : train ran off a bridge at St. Hilaire in 
crossing ; about 83 killed, 200 wounded 

29 June ,, 

Blackheath Tunnel : * fast train ran into a 
ballast train ; 6 killed. . . . 16 Dee. ,, 

Near Eednal (on a branch of Great Western) : 
train ran off insecure rails ; 13 killed, about 
40 injured 7 June, 1865 

Near Staplehurst (South Eastern) : train ran 
off insecure rails, &c. ; 10 killed and about 50 
injured 9 June ,, 

Near Colney Hatch (Midland) : collision with 
coal trucks ; above 50 persons injured 30 Aug. ,, 

Fall of a bridge at Sutton (S. coast line) : 6 men 
killed 28 April, 1866 

Near Caterham junction (London and Brigh- 
ton) : 3 killed, 12 injured . . . 30 April, ,, 

In Welwyn Tunnel (Great Northern) : a steam 
tube burst ; collision of 3 goods trains ; and a 
great fire ; 2 lives lost. . . 9, 10 June, ,, 

Near Eoyston (Great Northern) : train ran off 
line; 3 lives lost .... 2 July, ,, 

Brynkir station (Carnarvonshire) : points said 
to have been tampered with ; train ran off 
line; 6 persons killed . . . 6 Sept. ,, 

20 miles from Carlisle (Lancaster and Carlisle) : 
an axle of carriage of goods train broke ; col- 
lision withanother goods train ; fire, and explo- 
sion of 5 tons of gunpowder ; 2 killed 25 Feb. 1867 

Between Bhosawul and Khundwah (Great 
Indian Peninsular) : train precipitated into a 
chasm made in an embankment by a river 
ton-ent ; many lives lost . . . 26 June, ,, 

Walton Junction, Warrington (London and 
North WesternJ : collision with coal train ; 
error of pointsman ; 8 lives lost . 29 June, ,, 

At Brayhead, near Enniscorthy (Dublin, Wick- 
low, and Wexford) : went olf the line into a 
gorge; 2 killed, many injured . . 9 Aug. ,, 

Between New Mills and Peak Forest : 2 colli- 
sions ; 5 lives lost .... 9 Sept. , , 



* On Dec. 27, 1864, the queen wrote to the directors of the railway companies of London, req\iesting 
them " to be as careful of other passengers as of herself." 



KAI 617 KAT 



Carr's Rock, on river Delaware ; Erie railway : 
carriages precipitated down an embankment; 
26 persons killed, 52 very seriously injured 

14 April, 1868 



RAILWAYS, continued. 

French Great Northern, about 14 miles from 

Paris : several killed, many wounded 27 Oct. 
Lake Shore railway, New York : embankment 

fell; 41 persons burnt to death . i3 Dec. 

RAINBOW. Its theory was developed by Kepler in 161 1, and by Rene Descartes in 
1629 ; see Spectrum. 

RALEIGH'S CONSPIRACY, termed the Main Plot {ivhich see). 

RAMADAN, the Mahometan month of fasting; in 1S65, 28 Jan. to 27 Feb. ; and from 
27 Dec. 1867 to 30 Jan. 1868 inclusive. It is followed by the festival of Bairam {which see). 

RAMBOUILLET, a royal chateau, about 25 miles from Paris. Here Francis I. died 
31 March, 1547 ; and liere Charles X. abdicated, 2 Aug. 1830. After being possessed by 
the count of Thoulouse and the due de Pentliievre, it was bought by Louis XVI. in 1778. 

RAMILLIES (Belgium), the site of a battle between the English under the duke of 
Marlborough and the allies on one side, and the French on the other, commanded by the 
elector of Bavaria and tlie marshal do Villeroy, on Whitsunday, 23 May, (0. s. 12), 1706. 
The French were soon seized with a panic, and a general route ensued : about 4000 of the 
allied army were slain in the engagement. The duke pursued and achieved one of his most 
glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. Parliament settled 
his honoiirs upon the male and female issue of his daughters. 

RANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese empire, was taken by sir A. Campbell on 
II May, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it was ceded to the Burmese on condition of the payment of 
a sum of money, the reception of a British resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. 
Oppression of the British niercliants led to the second Burmese war ; Rangoon was taken 
by storm by general Godwin, 14 April, 1852; and annexed to the British dominions in 
December following. 

RANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE, the invention of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is 
made by dissolving common flint (silica) in heated caustic alkali, adding fine sand. The 
mixture is pressed into moulds and heated to redness. 

. RANTERS, a name given to a sect which arose in 1645, similar to the Seekers, now 
termed Quakers. It is now applied to the Primitive Metliodists, who separated from the 
main body in 1810 ; see Wesleycms. 

RAPE was punished by the Jews with death ; by mutilation and the loss of eyes in 
William I.'s reign. This was mitigated by the statute of Westminster i, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 12 Edw. III. 1338 ; and without benefit of clergy, 
18 Eliz. 1575. Rape was made punishable by transportation in 1841 ; by penal servitude 
for life, or a less period, 1861. 

RAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antioclms III. of Syria, was defeated by Ptolemy 
Philopater, king of Egypt, 217 B.C. 

RAPHOE (a bishopric in N. Ireland). St. Columb-kille, a man of great virtue and 
learning, and born of royal blood, founded a monastery in this place, and it was afterwards 
enlarged by other holy men ; but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan erected the church 
into a cathedral, and was the first bishop of this see in the 8tli century. Raphoe was united 
to the bishopric of Deny by act 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833 ; see Bishops. 

RAPPAHANNOCK, see Chancellorsville, and Trials, 1865. 

RASPBEREY is not named among the fruits that were early introduced into this 
country from the continent. The Virginian raspberry {Rubus occidentalis) before 1696, and 
the flowering raspberry (Ruhus odoralus), about 1 700, came from North America. 

RASTADT, see Radstadt. 

RATHMINES (near Dnblinl. Colonel Jones, governor of Dublin castle, made a sally 
out, routed the marquess of Ormond at Rathmines, killed 4000 men, and took 2517 prisoners, 
with their cannon, baggage, and ammunition, 2 Aug. 1649. 

RATIONALISM, the doctrine of those who reject a divine revelation and admit no other 
means of acc[uiring knowledge but experience and leason. The leading writers are Reimarus 
of Hamburg (died 1768), Paulus of Heidelberg, Eichhorn, Reinhard, and Strauss. W. Lecky's 
" History of Rationalism in Europe " appeared, July, 1865 ; and Dr. J. Hurst's, April, 1867. 

RATISBON (in Bavaria), was made a free imperial city about 1200. Several diets havo 
been held here. A peace was concluded here between France and the emperor of Germany, 
by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, signed 13 Oct. 1630. In 
later times, it was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes seceded from 
the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under the protection of the emperor Napoleon 



KAT 618 EEB 

•of France, i Aug. 1806. Eatisbon was made an ackbishopric in i8o5, but secularised iu 
1810. In 1815 it was ceded to Bavaria, and became again an archbishopric iu 1817. 

RATTENING- (from ratten, provincial for rat), the removing and hiding workmen's 
tools as a punishment for nonpayment to trades unions, or ojiposition to them. Much 
"rattening" was disclosed at the commission of inquiry at Sheffield in June 1867 ; and at 
Manchester Sept. following ; see Sheffield. 

EAUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe and the French army totally defeated the 
allies, II Oct. 1746. 

RAVAILLAC'S MUEDER of Henry lY. of France, 14 May, 1610. The execution of 
the assassin on 27 May was accompanied by most elaborate tortures. 

EAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the Papal states, was founded by Greek colonists, 
and fell under the Eoman power about 234 B.C. It was favoured and embellished by the 
emperors, and Honorius made it the capital of the Empire of the West about a.d. 404. In 
568 it became the capital of an exarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards in 752, and 
their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered it to Pepin, king of France, who gave it in 754 to 
the pope Stephen, and thus laid the foundation of the temporal power of the Holy see. On 
II April, 15 12, a battle was fought between the French, under Gaston de Foix (duke of 
Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.), and the Spanish and Papal armies. De Foix perished 
in the moment of his victory, and his death closed the good fortune of the French in Italy. 
The confederate army was cut to pieces. Menault. Eavenna became part of the kingdom 
•of Italy in i860. 

EiEl, Isle of, ("W. coast of France, near Eochelle). Oyster beds planted here in 1862 have 
flourished. 

EEADEES, a new order of ministrants in the church of England, received the 
assent of the archbishops and bishops in July, 1866. They were not to be ordained or 
addressed as reverend. 

EEADING (Berkshire). Here Alfred defeated the Danes, 871. The abbeywas 
founded in 1121 by Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 for denying the king's 
supremacy. 

EEALISTS, see Nominalists. EEAL PEESENCE, see Transuistantiation. 

REAPING- MACHINES. One was invented in this country early in the present 
century, but failed from its intricacies. At the meeting of the British Association at 
Dundee, Sept. 1867, the rev. Patrick Bell stated that he invented a reaping machine in 
1826, which was used in 1827, the principle being that on which the best American 
machines are now constructed. On 15 Jan. 1868, he was presented with a valuable 
testimonial, and 1000?. in money. McCormick's American machine was invented about 
1831, and perfected in 1846 ; he received a gold medal from the jurors of the Exhibition of 
185 1. Above 200 patented ; few good. Hussey's machine, also American, exhibited at the 
same time, was highly commended. 

EEASON was decreed to be worshipped as a goddess by the French republicans, 
10 Nov. 1793, and was personified by an actress. — Thomas Paine 's "Age of Eeason" Avas 
published in 1794-5. 

EEBECCA EIOTS, see Wales, 1843. 

EEBELLIONS or Insueeections in British History. Among the most memorable 
from the period of the Norman conquest were the following (see also Consinracies) : — 

Against William the conqueror, in favour of Edgar | collector in his rage, and raised a party to opiDOse 

Atheling, aided by the Scots and Danes, io6g. the tax itself, 1381 ; see Ti/ler. 

By Odo of Bayeux and others, against William 11. in In Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy 

favour of his brother Robert, 1088. Extinguished, I andheirpresnmptiveto the cro-wn, -was slain, 1398. 

1090. Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. 

Of the Welsh, who defeated the Normans and [ to be deposed, 1399. 

English, commenced in 1095. : Rebellion of the English and Welsh, 1400-2. 

In England, in favour of the empress Maude, 1139. , Against king Henry IV. by a number of confederated 

Ended, 1153. j lords, 1403. 

The rebellion of prince Richard against his father 1 Against Henry V. by earl of Cambridge and other 

Henry II. 1189. | lords, 1415. 

Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compromised by the Of Jack Cade, in favour of the duke of York, against 

grant of Magna Charta, 15 June following ; see , Henry VI. 1450 ; see Cade's Insurrection. 

Magna Charta. , In favour of the house of York, 1452, which ended 

Of the Barons, 1261-67. in the imprisonment of Henry VI. and seating- 

Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward j Edward IV. of York on the throne, 1461. 

II. on account of his favourites, the Gavestons, i Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which ended 

1312. Again, on account of the Spencers, 1321. with the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restora- 

Of Walter, the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called | tion of Henry VI. the same year. 

Wat Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a : Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the 

j)oll-tax collector to his daughter. He killed the ' death of Henry VI. 



KEB 



619 



REF 



Under the earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 
1600 ; it ended in his death, 1601. 

Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phclira O'Ncil, 
(fee, against the English in Ireland, 1641-5; 
The "Great Rebellion," 1641-60. 

Rebelhon of the Scots, 1666 ; soon put down. 

Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; executed 
15 July. 

Of the Scots, in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; 
quelled in 17 16. 

Of the Scots, under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; 
suppressed in 1746, when lords Lovat, Balmerino, 
and Kilmarnock were beheaded. 

Of the Americana on account of taxation, 1774. 
This rebellion led to a disastrous war, to the loss 
of our chief North American colonies, and to the 
independence of the United States, 1782. 

In Ireland, called the Great Rebellion, when great 
numbers took up arms, commenced 24 May, 1798 ; 
suppressed next year. 

Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a gifted 
enthusiast, 23 July, 1S03, when lord Kilwardeu 
■\s'as killed with several others by tlie insurgents. 

Canadian Insurrection (mhich see), IJec. 1837 to Nov. 
1S3S. 

Of Chartists at Newport (tchicJi see), 4 Nov. 1839. 

Smith O'Brien's silly Irish rebellion ; terminated in 
the defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his 
deluded followers by sub-inspector Trant and 
about sixty pohce constables, on Boulagh com- 
mon, Ballingary, co. Tipperary, 29 July, 1848 ; 
see Ireland. 

Rebellion in India (see India), 1857-8. 

Of Fenians in Ireland ; see Fenians and Ireland, 
1865-7. 



EEBELLIONS, coniinucd. 

Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, 

which ended with the deatli of Richard. 
Under Lambert Simnel, i486, who pretended to 

be Richard III.'s nephew, Edward Plantagenot, 

earl of Wai'wick ; his army was defeated, leaders 

slain, and ho was discovered to be a baker's son ; 

he was pardoned, and employed by the king as a 

menial. 
Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492 ; executed 1499. 
Under Thomas Flammock and Michael Joseph, in 

Cornwall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish 

war expenses. They marched towards London, 

and lord Audley took the command at Wells. 

They were defeated at Blaokheath, 22 Jiuie, and 

the tliree leaders were executed, 28 June, 1497. 
The "Pilgrimage of Grace" against Henry YIIL, 

1536-7- 
Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient 

liturgy, (Sc., 1549 ; suppressed same year. 
In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon 

suppressed, Aug. 1549. 
In favour of lady .Jane Grey, against queen Mary. 

Lady Jane was proclaimed queen of England on 

the death of Edward VI. 10 July, 1553 ; but .she 

resigned the crown to Mary a few days after- 
wards : she was beheaded for high treason, in the 

Tower, 12 Feb. 1554, aged 17. 
Of sir Thomas Wyatt, the poet, and others, against 

queen JIary's marriage with Philip of Sxjain, <fcc., 

fails ; he is beheaded 11 April, 1554. 
Of the Roman catholic eai-ls of Northumberland and 

Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth Nov. and 

Dec. 1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was 

given up by the regent Murray and executed. 
Of the Irish, under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, sup- 
pressed in 1601. I 

RECEIPTS FOE Money, were first taxed by stamp-duty in 1783. The act was amended 
in 1784, 1 79 1 etscq., and receipts -were taxed hj a duty varying according to the amount of 
the money received, in all transactions. Stamps required on bills of exchange, notes, and 
receipts in Ireland, Ly stat. 35 Geo. III. 1795 ; see Bills of Exchange. The imiform stamp 
of one penny on receipts, for all sums above 2I., was enacted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 (4 Aug. 
1853) ; see Stamps. 

RECIPROCITY TREATY between Great Britain and the United States, regulating the 
relation between the latter and Canada, in regard to trade, fisheries, &c. , was negotiated by 
lord Elgin, and ratified 2 Aug. 1854. Its abrogation was proposed by the United States' 
government in 1864. Its renewal was desired in the states in 1867. 

RECITATIVE, a species of singing differing but little from ordinary speaking, and 
used for narratives in operas, is said to have been first employed at Rome by Emilio del 
Cavaliere, who disputed the claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the opera, 1600; 
see Opera. It was soon afterwards adopted in other parts of Italy, and throughout Europe. 

RECORDER, the principal judicial ofiicer of great corporations. The first recorder of 
London was Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 1298 ; Russell Gurney, esq., Q.C., the present 
recorder, was elected in 1856. The salaiy, originally lol. per annum, is now 2500Z. 

RECORDS, Public, in England, began to be regularly preserved in iioo, by order of 
Henry I. The repositories which possessed materials the most ancient and interesting to the 
historian were, the Chapter-house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, and the 
Queen's Remembrancer's offices of the exchequer. The early records of Scotland, going 
from London, were lost by shipwi-eck in 1298. In Ireland, the council-chamber and most 
of the records 'iwere burned, 1711. Public Records act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (10 Aug. 1838). — A 
new Record Office has been erected on the Rolls estate, between Chancery and Fetter- 
lanes, to which the records will be gradually removed. The Record Commissioners com- 
menced their publications in 1802. Mr. F. Thomas's valuable "Handbook to the Public 
Records," was published in 1853. 

RECREATION", see Playground. 

RECRUITING, see under ^rmy, 31 Oct. 1S66. 

REDEMPTORISTS, see Liguorians. REDHILL, see Reformatory Schools. 

RED SEA. In 1826 Ehrenberg discovered that the colour was due to the presence of 
marine plants, which he named TricJwdcsmium Erythrceum. 

REFLECTORS, see Burning-glass 



EEF 



620 



EEF 



KEFOllM IN Pauliament. Mr. Pitt's motion tor a relorm in parliament was lost by a 
majority of 20 in 1782, of 144 in 1783, and of 74 in 1785 ; see Radicals. The measure of 
reform by earl Grey's administration was proposed in the house of commons by lord John 
Russell, I March, 1831. 



BILL OF 1831. 

First division ; second reading : for it, 302 ; against 
it, 301 ; 22 liarch. 

On motion for a committee, general Gascoyne moved 
an amendmient, " tliat the number of representa- 
tives for England and Wales ought not to bo dimi- 
nished." Amendment carried on a division, 299 
to 291 ; 19 April. 

The bill abandoned, and parliament dissolved, 
23 April. 

A new parliament assembled, 14 June. Bill again 
introduced, 24 June. 

Division on second reading : for it, 367 ; against it, 
231 — majority, 136; 7 July. 

Division on third reading of the bill : for it, 345 ; 
against it, 236 — majority, 109; 22 Sept. 

In the Lords:— first division, on second reading; 
lord Wharncliffe moved, "that the bill bo read 
that day six months." For the amendment, 199 ; 
against it, 158 — majority, forty-one ; 8 Oct. [Par- 
liament prorogued, 20 Oct. 1831.] 

BILL or 1832.* 
Read in the Commons a, first time without a division, 

12 Dec. 1831. Second reading ; division, viz. : 
for the bill, 324 ; against it, 162 — majority, 162 ; 
17 Dec. 1831. Third reading ; division, viz. : for 
the bill, 35S ; against it, 239— majority for it, 116 ; 
23 March, 1832. 

In the LoEDS : — read a first time on motion of earl 
Grey, 26 March. Second residing: for the bill, 184 ; 
against it. 17s — majority, nine ; 14 April. In the 
committee lord Lyndhurst moved, "that the ques- 
tion of enfranchisement should precede that of 
disfranchisement." The division was 151 and 116 
— majority against ministers, THiRTY-rivE; 7 May. 

Eesignation of ministers, 9 May; great public excite- 
ment ensued, and they were induced to resume 
oflBce on the king granting them full power to 
secure majorities, by the creation of new peers. 

In the LOBDS, the bill was carried through the com- 
mittee, 30 May ; read a third time : 106 against 22 
— majority, eighty-four; 4 June. Beceived the 
royal assent, 7 June, 1S32. 

The royal assent given to the Scotch reform bill, 
17 July ; and to the Irish one, 7 Aug. 1832. 

RECENT REFORM BILLS. 

Lord John Russell introduced a new reform hill, 

13 Feb. 1854, which was withdrawn, 11 April, 
1854, in consequence of the war with Russia. 

On 28 Feb. 1859, Mr. Disraeli brought in a reform 
bill, which was rfcjected by the commons on 31 
March, by a majority of 39. This led to a dis- 
solution of parliament, and eventually to a change 
of ministry. 

The new government (lords Palmerston and J. Rus- 
sell) brought forward a new bill, i March, i860 ; 



but withdrew it, 11 June. No refoi-m bill was 
brought forward by the government, 1861-5 ; see 
Commons. 

The discussion respecting parliamentary reform was 
revived in the autumn of 1864 and 1865. 

Mr. Baines' reform bill was rejected by the com- 
mons, 8 May, 1865. 

Mr. Gladstone introduced a franchise hill, 12 March. 
1866 ; after much discussion, it was read a second 
time, 28 April. A re-distribution of seats bill was 
introdxiced, and incorporated with the franchise 
bill, 7 May ; an amendment (on a clause, substi- 
tuting "rateable" for "clear yearly value") was 
passed, in opposition to the government, ig June ; 
which led to the resignation of the government, 
26 June ; and the withdrawal of the bill (see Adul- 
lam), 19 July, 1866. 

Numerous great reform meetings : London, Agricul- 
tural Hall, 30 July; and Guildhall, 8 Aug. ; Man- 
chester, 24 Sept. ; Leeds, 8 Oct. ; Glasgow, 16 Oct. ; 
Edinburgh, 17 Nov. ; Conference at Manchester, 
19 Nov. 1866. 

Reform demonstration of trades-unions in London ; 
procession of about 25,000 ; great order observed, 
3 Dec. 1866. 

Procession of about 18,000 men to Agricultural Hall, 
Islington; ^ood order kept ; 11 Feb. 1867. 

Mr. Disraeli announced his plan of proceeding with 
reform by 13 resolutions, ii Feb. ; these with- 
drawn, 26 Feb. 1867. 

"Ten Minutes' bill" introduced, and withdrawn, 
25 Feb. 1867. 

[It comprised a 6?. franchise for borovighs, and 20?. 
for counties. Said by sir John Pakington to have 
been agreed to in the last ten minutes of a cabinet 
council.] 

New bill (with household suffrage) introduced iS 
March ; read second time, 27 March, 1867. 

The " Tea-room meeting" of liberals (Messrs. Owen 
Stanley, Dillwyn, Grant, Duff, and others), who 
agree to support the bill in opposition to Mr. 
Gladstone's resolution, which is withdrawn, and 
the bill goes into cbmmittee, 8 April ; Mr. Glad- 
stone's amendment rejected by 22 (for 28S, against 
310), 12 April, 1867. 

Peaceable reform meetings at Birmingham, 22 April; 
Hyde Park, 6 May ; National Reform Union (first 
meeting), 15 May, 1867. 

The new Reform bill passed by the commons, 15-16 
July ; by the lords (with amendments, when lord 
Derby said, that it was "a great experiment," and 
" a leap in the dark"), 6 Aug. ; received the royal 
assent, 15 Aug. 1867.! 

Scotch reform bill introduced by lord advocate, 17 
Feb. 1868. 

Irish bill introduced by lord Mayo, 19 March, 
1868. 

See Addenda. 



* By this "Act to amend the Representation of the People in England and "Wales" (2 & 3 "Will. IV. c. 45), 
56 boroughs in England were disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 were reduced to one member only (B.) ; 22 
new boroughs were created to send two members (C), and 20 to send one member (D.), and other impor- 
tant changes were made. 

t This act is divided into three parts : — 

I. Franchises. Boroughs : All householders rated for relief of the poor ; lodgers, resident for twelve 
months, and paying loJ. a-year. Counties : Persons of property of the clear annual value of $1. ; and occu- 
piers of lands or tenements paying 12^. a-year. At a contested election for any county or borough repre- 
sented by three members, no person to vote for more than 2 candidates ; in London, to vote for 3 only. 

Disfranchised : Totnes ; Reigate ; Great Yarmouth ; and Lancaster. 

II. Distribution of Seats : Boroughs with less than 10,000 population, to return one member only 
(38 in Schedule A). Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Leeds, to have 3 members instead of 2. 

Chelsea (with Fulham, Hammersmith, and Kensington) made a borough : Merthyr Tydfil, and Sal- 
ford, to return two members ; Tower Hamlets divided into two boroughs — Hackney, and Tower Hamlets. 
(Other new boroughs in Schedule B.). University of London to return one member. 

III. SUPPLEMKNTAKY Provisions : Registration, &c. BoundaryCommissioners(i£i7t?(;;i«ee). Parliament; 
not to be dissolved on any future demise of the crown. Member.s holding offices of profit from the crown 
not to vacate their seats on acceptance of another office. 



REF 621 REG 

EEFORMATIOlSr, The. Ettorts for the reformation of the church may be traced to the 
rcigii of Charlemagne, when Paulinas, bishop of Aquileia, employed his voice and pen to 
accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wicklifte, Huss, Jerome of Prague, 
Savonarola, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Melanchthon, Erasmus, Cranmer, Latimer, 
Knox, and Browne ; see Wickliffitcs, Protestants, Calvinists, Lutherans, Prcshyterianism, &c. 
The «ras of the reformation are as follows : — 



In England (W^'jct^iife) 1360 

In Bohemia (Huss) . 140s 

In Germany (Luther) 1517 

In Switzerland (Zuing'/iu.'.') 1519 

In Denmark 1521 

In Prussia 1527 

In France (Calvin) ; see Huguenots . . . 1529 
Protestants first so called 



In Sweden (Petri) 1530 

In England (//e»i)-»/ VIII.) 1534 

In Ireland (Archbishop George Broune) . . 1535 
In England, completed (Cranmer, Bucer, Fagius, 
<fcc.), 1547 ; annulled by Mary, 1553 ; restored 

by Elizabeth 1558 

In Scotland (Knox), established .... 1560 
In the Netherlands, established . . . . 1562 



REFORMATORY SCHOOLS, for juvenile delinquents.* Two great institutions have 
been set up for this purpose ; the Reformatory Schools at Mettray, near Tours in France, 
and Redhill, near Reigate in Surre}"-. Tlie former was cstablislied in 1S39, by M. de Metz, 
formerly a councillor at Paris ; warmly seconded in his beneficent work by the vicomte de 
Courcelles, who gave the estate on which the establishment is placed. The latter is situated 
on land purchased in 1849 by the Philanthropic Society, and was placed under the direction 
of the rev. Sydney Turner. The first stone of the building was laid 30 April, 1849, by the 
prince consort. The inmates of these establishments ai'c instructed in farm labour, and are 
divided into so-called families. In 1854 the Juvenile Offenders act was passed. In 185 1 
and 1853 great meetings were held on the subject ; and in Aug. 1856, the first grand con- 
ference of the National Reformatory Union was held. 

North-West London Preventive and Reforma- | Fifty-one reformatory schools in England and 

tory Institution in the New-road, established : | nine in Ireland 1863 

all kinds of trades taught .... 1852 An international exhibition of the works of 

Acts for estabhshing reformatory schools passed, j these schools at the Agricultural-hall, Isling- 

1857, 1858, and 1S66 ' ton, near London, opened by the prince of 

I Wales 1865 

"REFORMED CHURCH'' (Calvinistic), established in Holland and in some parts of 
Germany. 

REFRESHMENT HOUSES for the sale of wine, &c., are licensed in pursuance of an 
act passed in i860, amended in 1861, 

REFUGES, see Poor, 1864. REGALIA, see Crown. 

REGENCY BILLS. One was proposed to parliament in consequence of the mental 
illness of George III., and debated 10 Dec. 1788. It was relinquished on his majesty's 
recovery, 26 Feb. 1789. The return of the malady led to the prince of Wales (afterwards 
George IV.) being sworn in before the priv}'^ council as regent of the kingdom, 5 Feb. 181 1. 
The Regency Bill providing for the administration of the government, should the crown 
descend to the princess Victoria while under eighteen years of age, passed i Will. IV. , 23 
Dec. 1830. A Regency Bill appointing prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of 
the queen, should her next lineal successor be under age : passed 4 Aug. 1840. 

REGENTS, see Protectorates. 

REGENT'S CANAL, begun at Paddington, where it joins a cut to the Grand Junction, 
passes under Maida-hill, continues its course by the Regent's-park to Islington, where 
another subterranean excavation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, was formed for 
its passage. It then proceeds by Hoxton, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehousc, where it joins 
the Thames. The whole length of it is nine miles ; it comprises twelve locks and thirty- 
seven bridges. Opened i Aug. 1820. 

REGENT'S PARK, originally part of the grounds belonging to a palace of queen Eliza- 
beth, near to the north end of Tottenham court-road, pulled down in 1791. Since 1600, the 
property was let to various persons, but the leases having expired it reverted to the crown ; 
and in 1814 great improvements were commenced under the direction of Mr. Nash. The 
park consists of about 450 acres ; within it are the gardens of the Zoological Society and the 
Royal Botanical Society. During a frost on 15 Jan. 1867, the rotten ice gave way, and 
about 200 persons were immersed, of whom above 40 perished. 

REGGIO, see BJicgium. 

REGIMENTS of Infantry were formed in France about 1588 ; see Infantry. The 
following are the approximate dates of the establishment of several British regiments : — 

* It was calculated (about 1856) that there were in London 30,000, and in England loo.ooo youths 
under 17 leading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,000 of those who were committed for trial nearly half 
were in custody for the first time. 



REG 



622 



REL 



REGIMENTS, continued. 

CAVALRY. 

Oxford Blues are erroneously said to have been 
formed in the reign of Henry VIII. ; they 
derive their name from their colonel, the earl 
of Oxford, in 1661 

Three Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st) 
added Aug. „ 

The Dragoon Guards, the Royal Irish, and the 
Scots Greys were formed by James II., about, 

1685-6 

Several regiments of Dragoons armed with 
lances (see Lancers) 1816 



INFANTKT. 

ist Royal 1633, 

Coldstream Guards, established by Monk, in 1660. 

3rd Buffs „ 

2nd Queen's Royal 1661 

4th King's Own 1685. 

5th Northumberland Fusiliers . . . . ,, 

26th Cameronian . 1689. 

looth Canadian 1858 

loist to 109th (Indian) added . . Aug. 1861 
The Highland regiments are the 42nd, 71st, 
72nd, 78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd. 



REGISTERS. The registering of deeds and conveyances disposing of real estates was. 
appointed to be effected in Yorkshire and in Middlesex, 2 Anne, 1703, et scq. By this 
regulation, greater security was made for purchasers and mortgagees ; and the value of estates, 
increased in the register counties. Wills have been for a series of years kept and registered, 
in Loudon, at Doctors' Commons ; see Wills. The registering of shipping in the Thames 
was commenced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and several acts and amendments, 
of acts have since followed for keeping and improving registers. 

REGISTERS, Paeochial, were established by Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates, 
of births, marriages, and burials, became ascertainable, 27 Hen. YIII. 1530-8. This measure 
was opposed by the peoj)le, who feared some new taxation. A stamp-tax was laid on them 
in 1784. Laws for their better regulation were enacted in 1813 et seq. The great Regis- 
tration act (introduced by lord John Russell), 6 & 7 WiU. IV. c, 86, passed 17 Aug. 1836 ; 
see Bills of Mortality, &c. 

REGISTRATION of Yotees was enacted by the Reform act, passed 7 June, 1832 ; see 
Revising Barristers. 

REGIUM DONUM (Royal gift), an allowance from the sovereign for the maintenance 
of the Presbyterian ministers in Ireland, was commenced Avith Charles II. in 1672, and 
revived by William III. in 1690. The allowance to other protestant dissenting ministers in 
Ireland was given up by them in 1857, in deference to the wishes of English dissenters. 

REICHENBACH (Prussia). Here was signed a subsidy treaty between Russia, Prussia, 
and England, whereby the last engaged to provide means for carrying on the war against; 
Napoleon I. on certain conditions, 14, 15 June, 1813. Austria joined the alliance soon 
after. Here Duroc Avas killed during the conflicts between the French and the allies, 22 
May, 1813 ; see Bautzen. 

REICHSRATH, the representative council of the empire of Austria, reconstituted by 
decree, 5 March; met on 31 May, i860. In May, 1861, the upper house consisted of 
17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, and 39 peers. The lower house consisted of 136 elected deputies. 
No representatives came from Hungary, Transylvania, Yenetia, the Banat, Slavonia, Croatia, 
and Istria. The Reichsrath was abolished by a rescript, 21 Sept. 1865, with the view of 
restoring autonomy to Hungary and other pro^dnces. It again met 20 May, 1867. 

REIGATE (Surrey), sent two members to parliament in the reign of Edward I. ; lost one 
by the Reform act of 1832, and was wholly disfranchised for corriiption by that of 1867. 

REIGN OF TERROR. Maximilien Robespierre headed the j)opulace in the Champ de 
Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, 17 July, 1791. He was trium- 
phant in 1 793, and numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his san- 
guinary administration. Billaud Yarennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the 
tribune, 28 July, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant ! " resounded through the haU ; 
and he was immediately ordered to the place of execution, and suffered death, with many of 
his companions ; see France. This has been termed the JHed Terror. The re-action, dis- 
graced by many atrocious acts of wanton cruelty, has been termed the White Terror. The 
Jesuits were conspicuous in the destruction of their adversaries. 

REIGNS OF SOYEREIGNS. The average duration, according to Newton, is 19 years 
each; according to Hales 22 J years; that of the sovereigns of England being 23 ^ years, 
and that of the popes, 7^ years. 

RELIEF CHURCH, a secession from the church of Scotland, founded by Thomas 
Gillespie, who was deposed from his ministry for opposing the doctrine of passive obedience 
to the law of the church of Scotland respecting the settlement of ministers, 23 May, 
1752. The church was constituted as the "presbytery of relief," 22 Oct. 1761. The 
Relief and Secession churches were united as the United Presbyterian Church, 13 May, 
1847, 

RELIGION (from religo, I bind again, in the sense of a vow or oath) comprehends a 



EEM 



623 



REP 



belief in tlie being and perfections of God, and obedience to his commandments. Tlie 
Cliristian religion is set forth in the New Testament, which is the spirit and interpreter of 
the Old. Depavtixre from these scriptures has been the origin of all cornipt forms of reli- 
gion, as foretold in them ; see Mahomctanism, and other religions and sects under their 
names. The population of the globe with reference to religious worship, is given by Balbi 
(who assumed the total population to be 1,050,000,000), aud Dieterici (who assumed it to 
be 1,288,000,000), as follows : 



Salbi (1836). Dieterici (1861). 
Idolaters, <fec. , not professing 
the Jewish, Christian, or 
Mahometan worship . . 665,500,000 8oo,ooo,ooo. 



BalU {iZ^e). Dieterici (1061). 

Jews ..... 4,500,000 5,000,000 

Christians . . . . 225,000,000 335,000,000 

Roman Catholics . . 160,000,000 170,000,000 

Mahometans . . . . 155,000,000 160,000,000 

EEMONSTRAlSrCE, The Grand, was drawn iip by the house of commons, and pre- 
sented to king Charles I., i Dec. 1641. It consisted of 206 articles, and dwelt bitterly on 
all the king's illegal and oppressive acts. 

REMONSTRANTS, see Arminians. 

RENAISSANCE, a term applied to the revival of the classic style of art at the beginning 
of the 1 6th centurj', under the patronage of the Medici and others; see Painters, and 
Sculptors. 

RENDSBURG (Holstein), was taken by the Imperialists in 1627 ; by the Swedes in 
1643 ; and by the Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. Tlie first diet of Schleswig and 
Holstein met here 3 April, 1848. It was re-occupied by the Danes in 1852, and taken by 
the Prussians after a serious conflict, 21 July, 1864. 

RENNES (capital of Brittany, N. W. France). Here was established by Henry II., in . 
1553, the parliament so celebrated for its independence, especially in its struggle with the- 
court, 1788-89. On 20 May, 1788, it declared infamous every one who should take part in 
the coiir 2ileiiiere then proposed, biit afterwards suppressed. 

RENTS were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, 1135. Numerous statutes 
have been enacted in various reigns to define the relations and regulate the dealings between 
landlord and tenant. 8 & 9 Vict. c. 106 (1845) regulates leases. By the act 8 Anne, 1709, 
no goods arc removable fi-om tenements under an execution uutil the rent shall have been 
paid to the landlord by the sheriff, 1709. In England, the duke of Sutherland received his 
rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland, in the value of wool and sheep. The rental of 
England, including land, houses, and mines, was 6,000, oooZ. about the year 1600, and twelve 
years' purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to 14,000,000?., and 
the land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on the Revenues. The present 
rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated in the present century at 127,000,000?. ; 
see Land, &c. 

REPEAL OF THE Union, Ireland. An Irish association was formed with this object 
under the auspices iMr. O'Connell, in 1829. 



A procl.amation of the lord-lieutenant pro- 
hibited the meetings of a society " leagued 
for the purpose of procuring a repeal of the 
imion, under the name of the Irish Society 
for Legal and Legislative Relief, or the Anti- 
Union Society " .... 18 Oct. 

The commons, by a majority of 484, reject Mr. 
O'Connell's motion for repeal . 27 April, 

A new association in 1841, 1842, and 1843 be- 
came more violent. Assemblies of the lower 
classes of the jjcople were held in the last- 
named year, in -various parts of Ireland, some 
of them amoimting to 150,000 persons, and 
called "monster meetings." 

A great meeting at Trim, 16 March ; other 
meetings were held at MuUingar, Cork, and 
Longford, on 14, 21, and 28 May, respectively; 
at Drogheda, Kilkenn}'-, Mallow, and Dundalk, 



on 5, 8, II, and 29 June ; at Donny brook and 
Baltinglass, 3 and 20 July ; at Tara, 15 Aug. ; 
atLoughrea, Clifton, andLismore, 10, 17, and 
24 Sept. ; and at Mullaghmast . i Oct. 1843. 

A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on 8 Oct. was 
prevented by government ; and Mr. O'Connell 
and his chief associates were brought to trial 
for political conspiracy, 15 Jan. 1844 ; and 
convicted, 12 Feb. ; but the sentence was 
reversed by the house of lords, 4 Sept. ; see 
Trials. 

The association for the repeal of the union con- 
tinued for some time under the direction of 
Mr. John O'Connell, but was little regarded. 

The total "repeal rent" is said to have 
amounted to 134,379?. 

A fruitless attempt was made in Dublin to 
revive repeal agitation . . .4 Dec. i86o 



REPORTING. The publication of the debates in parliament is forbidden as a breach 
of privilege, but was virtually conceded, after a severe struggle, in 1771.* Reporters' 
galleries were erected in the houses of parliament after the fire of 1S34. To the unlettered 

* Miller, printer of the Londnn Evening Mail, was arrested in the city of London, by order of the house 
of commons, for publishing the deb.ates, but was discharged by the lord mayor ; for doing which ho was- 
sent to the tower, where he remained till the end of the session. No opposition was made to the publica- 
tion of the debates in the next session, 1772. 



KEP 



624 



REV 



liberty of reporting we doubtless owe much of our freedom and good government ; see 
under Lmv. 

REPRESENTATION" of the People Act, passed 15 Aug. 1867; see Reform. 

REPUBLICANS, see Democrats. 

REPUBLICS, see Athens, Rome, Genoa, Vendee, &c. 

REQUESTS, Courts of ; see Court of Conscience. 

RESERVE FORCES. In the summer of 1859, acts were passed to provide for the 
establishment of a military reserve force of men who have been in her majesty's service (not 
to exceed 20,000), and a volunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed 30,000. These 
acts were consolidated and amended in 1867. 

RESTORATION, The, that of king Charles II. to the crown of England, after an inter- 
regnum of eleven years and four months, between 30 Jan. 1649, when Charles I. was 
beheaded, and 29 May, 1660, when Charles II. was restored, and entered London amidst 
the acclamations of the people. 

RETREAT of the Ten Thousand Greeks, who had joined the army of the younger 
Cyrus in his revolt against his brothei', Artaxerxes Mnemon. Tlie Greeks were victors, 
but Cyrus was defeated and slain at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. Artaxerxes having enticed the 
Greek loaders into his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to the command of his 
countrymen. Under continual alarms from sudden attacks, he led them across rapid rivers, 
throitgh vast deserts, over the tops of mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks re- 
turned home after a march of 1155 parasangs or leagues (3465 miles), which was performed 
in 215 days, after the absence of fifteen months. This retreat has been immortalised by the 
account given by its conductor, in his "Anabasis Cyri" (Expedition of Cyrus). 

REUSS-GREIZ and REUSS-SCHLEIZ, two principalities in Central Germany, with 
a united population of 121,200. The reigning family sprang from Ekbert, count of Osterode, 
in the loth century. The princely dignity was conferred by the emperor Sigismond in 
1426. 



1867. Reigning prince of Reuss-ScUeiz, Henry XIV. 
II July; born, 28 May, 1832. 



1859. Reigning prince of Reuss-Greiz, Henry XXII. 
8 Nov. ; born, 28 March, 1846. 



REVELATION, see Apocalypse. 

REVEN UE, Public, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list, and for 
all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordinary, was i,200,oooZ. per 
annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. in 1690 was raised 6,ooo,oooZ., 
every branch of the revenue being anticipated ; this was the origin of the funds and the 
national debt, 2 "William and Mary. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended in 1861. 



PUBLIC REVEKUE, 

■William I. 
"William Rufus 
Henry I. . 
Stephen 
Henry II. 
Richard I. . 
John 

Henry III. . 
Edwai-d I. 
Edward II. . 
Edward I [I. 
Richard II. . 
Henry IV. 



£400,000 
350,000 
300,000 
250,000 
200,000 
150,000 
100,000 
80,000 
150,000 
100,000 
154,000 
130,000 
100,000 



Henry V. . . . ' . £76,643 

Henry VI. . . . 64,976 

Edward IV. . . . * « * 

Edward V. . . . 100,000 

Richard III. . . . 130,000 

Henry VII. . . . 400,000 

Henry VIII. . . . 800,000 

Edward Vi. . . . 400,000 

Mary 450,000 

Elizabeth . . . 500,000 

James I. . . . . 600,000 

Charles I. . . . 895,819 

Commonwealth. . . 1,517,247 

Charles II. . . . 1,400.000 



James II 


£2,001,855 


William III. . 


3,895,205 


Anne (at the Union) . 


5,691,803 


George I. . . . 


6,762,643 


George II. . . . 


8,522,540 


George III., 1788 . 


15,572)971 


,, 1800, aboul 


38,000,000 


United Kingdom, 1820 . 


65,599.570 


George IV., 1825 


62,871,300 


William IV., 1830. 


55,431,317 


183s . . 


50,494.732 


Victoria, 1845, neC. 


53,060,354 


,, 1850 . 


52,810,680 


1853 


54.430,344 





nevenue. 


Expenditure. 




Gross 
Eevenue. 


Gross 
Expenditure. 


185=:, net . 

1856 .... 

1S57 

1858 . . . 


£63,364,605 
68,008,623 
66,056,055 
61,812,525 


£65,692,962 
88,428,345 
75,588,667 
68,128,859 


1859, 31 March, gros 

1S60. 

1S63 . 

1864. 

1865 . 

1866. 

1867 . 

1868. 




£65,477,284 
71,089,669 
70,603,561 
70,208,964 
70,313,437 
67,812,292 
69,434,568 
69,600,219 


£64,663,883 
69,502,289 
69,302,008 
67,056,286 
66,462,207 

65.914,357 
66,780,896 
69,600,218 



Previously to 1854 there had been an average surplus of 2,500,000?. since 1849. In consequence of the 
Russian war the deficiency in 1854 was 3,209,059;. ; in 1855, 21,141,183^ ; in 1856, 10,104,412!. In 1857 there 
was a surplus of 36,0971. ; in 1858, of i,i27,657(. ; in 1859, a dijiciency of 2,019,5841. 



KEV 



625 



RHO 



EEVIEWS. The Journal des Sgavans, published on 5 Jan. 1665, by Denis deSalo, 
under the name of Hedouville, was the parent of ciitical journals. It was soon imitated 
throughout Europe, and was itself translated into various languages. It is still published. 
George III. spoke of this publication to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview with which 
he was honoured by his majesty, in the library of the queen's house, in Feb. 1767. Boswell. 
The BiUiothequa Anglaise came out in 1716-27. For Military Reviews, see Volunteers. 

Westminster . .1824 British Quarterly . 1844 
Southern America . 1828 National . . . 1855 
Dublin . . .1836 daturday . 



Monthly Review 
Critical 
Anti-Jacobin 
Edinburgh 



1749 
1756 



Quarterly . 
Eclectic . 
North American , 
Retrospective . 



1813 
181S 



1820 North British 



Fortnightly 



1865 



In Sweden 1772 and iSog 

In Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution . . . 1813 
In Poland .... 1704, 179s, and 1830 

In the Netherlands ». 

In Brunswick ,, 

In Brazil 1831 

In Hungary 1848 

In Rome 1798 and ,, 

In France . . . 1789, 1830, 1848, and 1851 

In Italy 1859 and i860 

In United States 1860-5 

In Danubian principalities 1866 

In Papal States suppressed . . . Oct. 1867 
[See the countries respectively.] 



REVISING BARRISTERS' COURTS, to examine the lists of voters for members of 
parliament, were instituted by the Reform bill of 1832. 

REVIVALS on the subject of religion arose in the United States in 1857. In the 
autumn of 1859, they began in Scotland, the north of Ireland (particularly Belfast), and 
England. Many meetings were held for prayers and preaching throughout the week, as well 
as on Sundays. 

REVOLUTIOlSrARY CALENDAR, see French Eevoluimi,' and Calendar. 
REVOLUTIONS :— 
The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the 
Modes and Persians founded by Cyrus the 

Great B.C. 536 

The Macedonian empire founded on the destruc- 
' tion of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius 
Codomauus, by Alexander the Great . . 331 
The Roman empire established on the ruins of 

the republic by Julius Cicsar . . . . 47 
The empire of the Western Franks begvin under 

Charlemagne a.d. 800 

In Portugal 1640 

In England . . . . * . . 1649 and 1688 

In Russia 1730 and 1762 

In North America 1775 

In Venice 1797 

REVOLVERS, see Pistols. 

REYNARD THE FOX or Reineke Fuchs, a satirical epic In low! German, in 
which beasts are actors and speakers, was first printed as Reineke Vos at Lubeck in 1498, 
and professes to be written by Hinreck van Alkmer. It has been frequently translated. 
Goethe's version in High or literary German hexameters appeared in. 1794. Jacob Grimm 
has shown that the subject-matter of this " Thier-sage " or " beast-fable" is very ancient, 
many incidents being found in Pilpay and other oriental writers. A poem, entitled "der 
Reinaert," in Flemish, was known in the nth century; Caxton's translation in English 
prose was printed 1481 ; a poetic English translation of Goethe's version, by T. J. Arnold, 
appeared in 1855. 

RHE, Isle of ("VV. France), see Rochelle. 

RHEGIUM (now Reggio), S. Italy, a Greek colony, flourished in the 5th century, B.C. 
It was held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards severely punished for its rebellion. 
Reggio was taken by Garibaldi, Aug. i860. 

RHEIMS (N. France). The principal church here, built before 406; rebuilt m the 
I2th century, is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the archbishop, is pre- 
served behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. The kings of France were crowned 
at Rheims ; probably because Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 496. Several ecclesiastical councils have 
been held here. The city was taken and re-taken several times in the last months of the 
French war, 1814. 

RHEOMETER, see under Eleetricity, p. 264. 

RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 
2CX) B.C. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius Gallus, about 87 B.C. He 
taught Cicero, who said " We are first to consider what is to be said ; secondlj^ how ; thirdly, 
in wliat words ; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented." A regius professor of rhetoric was 
appointed in Edinburgh, 20 April, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 

RHINE. This river was fortified ns the frontier of the Roman empire, 298 and 369, and 
became the boundary of the French republic in 1794 ; see Confederation. 

RHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled by Roger AVilliams about 1636, was taken in 
the war of independence by the British, 8 Dec. 1776 ; but was evacuated by them, 25 Oct. 
1779. 

s s 



RHO 626 . EIO 

RHODES, an island on the coast of Asia Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, 
as early as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were great navigators, and iiistitntors of a maritime code 
afterwards adopted by the Romans. The city was huilt about 432 and flourished 300-200 
B.C. ; see Colossus. Rhodes, long an ally of the Romans, was taken by the emperor Vespa- 
sian, A.D. 71. It was held by the Knights Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it was con- 
quered by the Turks, who still retain it. The knights retired to Malta [which see). Rhodes 
suffered severely by an earthquake on 22 April, 1863. 

RHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in platinum ore, by Dr. Wollaston in 1804. It has 
bsen used for the points of metallic pens. 

RIALTO, Bridge of the, at Venice (mentioned by Shakspeare in his "Merchant of 
Venice "), built about 1590, consists of a marble arch across the Grand Canal, 90 feet wide 
and 24 feet high. 

RIBBOlSriSM, a term given to the principles of a secret society in Ireland, organised 
about 1820, to retaliate on landlords anj'' injuries done to their tenants, not scrupling even at 
assassination. To the ribbonmen are attributed many of the agrarian murders. 

RICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, which in the Saxon tongue signifies 
resplendent. Here stood a palace in which Edward I. and II. resided, and Edward III. died, 
1377. Here also died Anne, queen of Richard II., 1394. The palace was repaired by 
Henry V., who founded three religious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed by fire ; 
but Henry VII. rebuilt it, and commanded tliat the village should be called Richmond, he 
having borne the title of earl of Richmond (Yorkshire) before he obtained the crown : and 
here he died in 1509. Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner in this palace for a short time during 
the reign of her sister. When she became queen it was one of her favourite places of resi- 
dence ; and here she died 24 March, 1603. It was aftenyards the residence of Henry, 
prince of Wales. The beautiful park and gardens were enclosed by Charles I. The obser- 
vatory was built by sir W. Chambers in 1769. In Richmond, Thomson " sang the Seasons 
and their change ;" and died 27 Aug. 1748. — Richmond (Virginia, U. S.) became the 
capital of the southern confederate states. The congress adjourned from Montgomery, 
Alabama, to Richmond, where it met 20 Julj', 1861. After a siege of 1452 days and 
many desperate battles, Richmond was evacuated by the confederates, 2 April, 1865 ; see 
United States. 

RIFLE CORPS, see National Association, and Fire-arms. 

RIGHTS, Bill of, one of the bulwarks of the constitution, obtained by parliament from 
king Charles I., although he had endeavoured by various artifices to avoid granting it, 
26 June, 1628. To the Petition of Rights, preferred 17 March, 1627-8, his majesty 
answered, "I will that right be done according to the laws and customs of the realm." 
Both houses^acldressed the king for a fuller answer to, their petition of rights, whereupon he 
gave them aii answer less evasive, " Soil fait comme il est desire,'" 7 June, 1628. An 
important declaration was made by the lords and commons of England to the prince and 
princess of Orange on 13 Feb. 1689, in an act "declaring the rights and liberties of the 
subject, and settling the succession of the crown." 

RIMNIK (ne,ar Martinesti, Wallachia). Here the Austrians and Russians, under prince 
Coburg and gen. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the Turks, 22 Sept. 1 789. 

RINDERPEST, German for cattle-plague {which see). 

RINGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved on them, to seal writings, and they are 
so used to this day. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh gave Joseph his ring. 
Rings are now put upon women's fourth finger at marriage ; but the first use of rings 
by the Jews was at the espousal or contract before marriage. Wedding-rings are to be of 
standard gold by statute, 1855. 

RIO JANEIRO (S. America), in 1807, was made capital of the empire of Brazil 
(which see). 

RIOTS, in British History. The riotous assembling of twelve or more persons, and 
their not dispersing upon proclamation, was first made high treason by a statute enacted 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The ]ire sent iZtoi Act was passed i Geo. I. 1714 ; see lelow. 



Some riotous citizens of London demolished the 
convent belonging to Westminsterabbey ; the 
ringleader was hanged, and the rest had their 
hands and feet cut off, 6 Hen. III. . . . 

Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fought in 
the streets of Loudon ; several killed ; the 
sheriffs quelled it ; and thirteen hanged 

A riot at Norwich ; the rioters burn the cathe- 
dral and monastery ; the king went thither, 
and saw the ringleaders executed . , . 



Riot of Evil May-day (j6'^ic/4 s«) . . . . 1517 
Dr. Lamb killed by the mob . . . June, 1628 
A riot on pretence of pulling down houses of iU- 

fame ; several of the ringleaders hanged . . 1668 
Another, at Guildhall, at the election of she- 
riffs ; several considerable persons who seized 
the lord mayor were concerned . . . 1682 
At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on account of the 

Union 1707 

In London, on account of Dr. Sacheverel, for 



RIO 



627 



RIO 



RIOTS, continued. 

preaching two sermons, voted by the house of 
commons to be scandalous and seditious (in 
1709) ; several dissenting meeting-houses 
were laroken open .... Feb. 

Hiot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond 
and Newcastle mobs ... 29 May, 

The Mucj-house riot, in Salisbury- court, between 
the Whigs and Tories ; the riot quelled bj- the 
guards ; five rioters hanged . . July, 

Of the Spitalfields weavers, on account of em- 
ploying workmen come over from Ireland ; 
quelled by the military, but many lives lost . 

Porteousriotat Edinburgh (see Poricov.s). 7 Sept. 

The nailers in Worcestershire march to Bir- 
mingham, and make terms with iron mer- 
chants there 

Of sailors, who were robbed and ill-used at a 
house of ill-fame in the Strand ; being assisted 
by a large body, they pulled down the house, 
and destroyed the furniture of several other 
houses, turning the women naked into the 

streets 

Of the Spitalfields weavers ; the duke of Bedford 
narrowly escaped death ; many lives lost 

A mob in St. George's-fields, to see Mr. Wilkes 
in the Iving's Bench prison ; the military aid 
indiscreetly called for by the justices of the 
peace, and several innocent persons, particu- 
larly young Allen, fired upon, and killed . . 

Gordon's " Is'o popery" riots 10 May, 2-9 June, 

At Bii-mingham, onaccovmt of commemorating 
the French revolution, when sevei'al houses 
were destroyed .... 14 July, 

In various parts of Scotland, on account of the 
militia act, when several were killed . Aug. 

At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor 
and others, 22 May, 1798 ; the earl of Thanet, 
Mr. Ferguson, and others, were active in 
■endeavouring to rescue O'Connor, for which 
they were tried and convicted . 25 April, 

At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between 
a party of dragoons and a press-gang, 27 June, 

O. P. riot {which see) at Covent-garden . Sept. 

In Piccadilly, in consequence of the bouse of 
commons committing sir Francis Burdett to 
the Tower 6 April, 

At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belong- 
ing to the local militia were destroyed, 
14 Apill, 

Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham 
from .... Nov. 1811 to Jan. 

In various parts of the north of England, by 
the Luddites, during . . 1811 and 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the 
celebrated Dor/ of Montargis, several nights, 

Dec. 

Alarming riots at Westminster, on account of 
the Com bill; they lasted several days, 

March, 

At the depcit at Dartmoor, in quelling which 
seven Americans were kiUed, and thirty -five 
wounded April, 

Popular meetings at Spa-fields, when the shops 
of the gunsmiths were attacked for arms. 
Mr. Piatt shot in that of Mr. Beokwith, on 
Snow-hill, 2 Dec. 1816. (Watson tried for high 
treason, but acquitted) . . . June, 

In the park, on the prince-regent going to the 
house, in which an air-gun was lii-ed at him, 

28 Jan. 

At Manchester, at a popular meeting, 3 March, 

Affray at Manchester, called the " Field of 
Peterloo" (see Manchester reform meeting), 

16 Aug. 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights' 
duration 

Riot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses 
plundered 16 Sept. 

At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, 

19 Nov. 

In London, at the funeral of the queen, 14 Aug. 



1710 
171S 

1716 
1736 

1737 



1749 
1765 



1791 
1797 



1819 



1820 
1821 



At Knightsbridge, between the military and the 
populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, 

26 Aug. 

At the theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the 
'^ Bottle conspiracy," against the marquess 
WcUesloy, lord-heutenant . . 14 Dec. 

Riot at Bahybay; Mr. Lawless was arrested, 

9 Oct. 

Riot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses 
plundered and mischief done . 15 June, 

Fatal affrays at CastlepoUard, 23 May, 1831 ; 
aud Newtownbai-ry (vj/dch see) . 18 June, 

Alarming riots at Merthyr-Tydvil among the 
iron-workers, several of whom, fired upon 
by the mihtary, were killed and wounded, 

3 June, 

Riot at the Forest of Dean (see Dean) . 8 June, 

Nottingham castle burnt by rioters . 10 Oct. 

Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol) . 29 Oct. 

Affray at Castleshock, county Kilkenny, when 
a number of police, attacked by the populace, 
were, with then- commander, Mr. Gibins, 
killed 14 Dec. 

Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced 
by a body of persons called Thomites, headed 
by a fanatic named Thom, or Courtenay, who, 
with others, was killed (see Thomites), 31 May, 

Great riots throughout the country, occasioned 
by the chartists; suppressed by proclamation, 

12 Dec. 

Riots in Birmingham, when much mischief 
ensued 15 July, 

Chartist riot at Newport (which see) . 4 Nov. 

Meditated chartist outbreak at Sheffield, with 
most destructive objects, providentially dis- 
covered, and many persons arrested 11 Jan. 

Rebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales 

Chartist demonstration (see Chartists), 10 April, 

Fatal affray at Dolly's Brae, near Castlewellan, 
in Ireland, between the Orangemen and the 
Roman catholics ; several of the latter lost 
their lives, and some of their houses were 
ransacked and burnt . . . 12 July, 

Serious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute 
between the shiijowners and the seamen, 

23 Feb. 

Riots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen 
at Liverpool, and several lives lost . 14 July, 

Riot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two catholic 
chapels destroyed and houses burnt, 29 June, 

Fierce rehgious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, 
occur 14 July, 

Fatal election riot .it Six-mile-bridge, in the 
county of Clare, in Ireland ; five persons shot 
dead by the military (see Six-mile-bridge), 

22 July, 

Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, sup- 
pressed by the niOitJiry without loss of hfe, 

28 Oct. 

Bread riots at Liverpool ... 19 Feb. 

Riots at Hyde-park, about Sunday bill, July, 
1855 ; abnijt dearness of bread, 14, 21, 28 Oct. 

Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching 
of the rev. Hugh Hanna . 6, 13, 20 Sept. 

Religious riots at St. George's in the East, 
London, on Sundays in . Sept. and Nov. 

Break-out of the convicts at Chatham, sup- 
pressed by the military . . n Feb. 

Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an 
Orange demonstration . . .17 Sept. 

Fierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the 
favourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde-park, London, 
28 Sept. and 5 Oct. ; and at Birkenhead, 
Cheshire 8 and 15 Oct. 

Rioting at Staley bridge (on accountof the mode 

of relief to unemployed cotton-workers), 

principally Irish, put down by the military 

21 March, 

Fierceconflicts between Romani.sts and protest- 
ants at Belfast ; 9 persons killed, and about 
150 injured .... 10-27 Aug. 
R S 2 



1 822 
1828 



■ 1843 
1S48 

1S49 
1S51 

1S52 



ies7 
1S59 
1861 
1S62 



1863 



RIO 628 EOC 



EIOTS, continued. 

Keform riots in Hyde-park, London ; much 
damage, and many hui-t . . 23, 24 July, i856 

Anti-popery riots at Birmingham, through the 
lecturing of Mvirphy ; much damage done to 
houses ..... 17, 18 June, 1867 



Col. Kelly and Deasy committed for trial as 
Fenians ; rescued from the prisoners' van ; 
Brett, a police sergeant, shot dead . 18 Sept. 1867 

At Wigan ; colUers on strike . end of April, 186S 
See Rebellions. 



RIPOK (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About 661 an abbey cell was built here by Eata. 
Ripon was made a bishopric by archbishop "Wilfred in 690, but did not endure so. It suffered 
much by the ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), and the Scots (1319 and 1323). The 
present see was erected Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of York in the West Riding. 
Income, 4500^. 

BISHOPS. 

1836. Charles Thos. Longley, trans, to Durham, 1856 | 1S56. Eobert Biokersteth (present bishop). 

RITUALISTS, a name giren in 1866 to a party in the church, of England, formerly 
termed Puseyites, for endeavouring to give a more imposing character to public worship, by 
the use of coloured vestments, lighted candles, incense, &c., professing to go back to the 
practices of the church, in the time of Edward VI. An exhibition of these things was 
held during the church congress at York in Oct. 1866, but was not officially connected with 
it. The practices of the ritualists were censured in several episcopal charges in Dec. 1866, 
and in two reports of the ritualistic commission, 19 Aug. 1867, and April, 1868 ; see Church 
of England, and Trials, 1867-8. 

RIVOLI (near Yerona, IST. Italy). Near here the Austrians were defeated by Bonaparte 
14 and 15 Jan. 1797. Massena was made duke of Rivoli for his share in these actions. 

ROAD MURDER. On the night of 29-30 June, i860, Francis Savile Kent, four years 
old, was murdered, and his body hid in a garden water-closet. His sister Constance Kent 
(aged sixteen), and the nurse Elizabeth Gough, the first suspected after several examinations, 
were discharged for want of evidence. The coroner was severely blamed for charging the 
jury improperly, but the court of Queen's Bench, in Jan. 1861, refused to issue a writ for a 
new inquiry. Constance Kent, on 25 April, 1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, 
and at her trial at Salisbury, on 21 July following, confessed herself to be guilty of the 
murder. Her punishment was commuted to penal servitude fo]- life. 

ROADS, see Roman Boads. The first general repair of the highways of this country was 
directed about 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose in 1524 and 1555, followed by others 
in Elizabeth's and succeeding reigns. Roads through the Highlands of Scotland were begun 
by general Wade in 1746. Loudon M'Adam's roads were introduced about 1818. Wooden 
pavements were tried with partial success in the streets of London : at Whitehall in 1839, 
and in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon after. An act "for the better 
management of the highways" was passed in 1862 after much opposition. Steam road- 
rollers were tried in 1867 ; used in London 18 March, 1868 ; see Macadamising, Tolls, and 
Wooden Pavements. 

ROANOAKE, an island off N. Carolina, U. S., discovered by sir Walter Raleigh, 1584, 
and settled by him, 1585, without success. Other settlers also failed. 

ROASTING ALIYE. An early instance is that of Bocchoris, king of Egjrpt, by order 
of Sabacon of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. Leyiglet. Sir John Oldcastle, lord Cobham, was thus put 
to death in 1418, and Michael Servetus for heresy at Geneva, 27 Oct. 1553 ; see Burning 
Alive, and Martyrs. 

ROBBERS. First punished with death by Edmund I.'s laws, which directed that the 
eldest robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in England, 1189 
(see Eobin Hood), and Claud Du Yal, " executed at Tyburn," says an historian, quaintly, 
" to the great grief of the women," Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous MacCabe was hanged 
at Naas, 19 Aug. 1691. Galloping Hogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. Freney, 
the celebrated highwayman, surrendered himself, 10 May, 1749. The accomplished 
Barrington was transported, 22 Sept. 1 790 ; see Trials. 

ROBIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, in Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire ; 
traditionally reported to have been the earl of Huntingdon, disgraced and banished the court 
by Richard I. at his accession (1189). Robin Hood and lAttle John and their band are said 
to have continued their depredations till 1247, when Robin died. Stow. 
"ROBINSON CRUSOE," by Daniel De Foe, first appeared in 1719. 
EOCHEFORT (W. France), a seaport on the Charente. The port was made by Louis 
XIY. in 1666. In Aix-roads or Basque-roads, near Rochefort, capt. lord Cochrane attacked 
the French fleet and destroyed four ships, 11- 12 April, 1809. Near Rochefort, the emperor 
Napoleon surrendered himself to capt, Maitland of the Bcllerophon, 15 July, 1815. 



ROC 629 EOH 

ROCHELLE (W. France), a seaport on the Atlantic, belonged to the English for some 
time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, in 1372. It became a 
stronghold of the Calvinist party, and was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou in 1573. 
It was taken after a siege of thirteen months by cardinal Eiclielieu in 1628. The duke of 
Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve it ; but the citizens declined to admit 
him. He attacked the isle of Re, near Eochelle, and failed, 22 July, 1627. He was repulsed 
8 Nov. following. A conspiracy here in 1822 caused loss of life to sergeant Bories and 
others. 

ROCHESTER, in Kent, an ancient city, built by the Romans and called Dxirohrivis. The 
bishopric, founded by Augustin, 604, is the next in age to Canterbury. The first cathedral 
was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. Justus was bishop in 604 ; alterations were 
made in the diocese in 1845. Rochester is valued in the king's books at 358^. 3s. 2\d. per 
annum. Present income, 5000Z. 

RECRNT BISHOPS. ] 1827. Hugli Pevcy, translated to Carlisle, 27 Oct. 

1793. Samuel Horsley, trans, to St. Asaph's, 1802. 1S27. George IMurray, died 16 Feb. i860. 

1802. Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1S08. i860. Joseph Cotton Wigram, died 5 April, 1867. 
1809. "Walter King, died 22 Feb. 1827. j 1867. Thos. Legh Clavigliton. 

ROCKETS, destructive war implements, were invented by sir William Congreve about 

1803. The carcase-rockets were first used at Boulogne, 8 Oct. 1806, Avhen they set the town 
on fire, their powers having been previously demonstrated in the presence of Mr. Pitt and 
several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. Improved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 

ROCKIiSrGHAM ADMINISTRATIONS. The first succeeded the administration of Mr. 
Geo. Grenville ; the second succeeded that of lord North. 



Lords Besborough and Grantham, lord Jo n 
Cavendish, Thomas Town.shend, &c. 
See Chatham admiiditration. 

.SECOND ADMINISTRATION, March to 2 July, 1782, 
when the marquess died. 
Marquess of Rockingham, /?•«< lo7-d of the treasury. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord Camden, president of the council. 
Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 
Lord Thiu-low, lord chancfUor. 
William, earl of Shelburnc and Charles James Fox, 

secretaries of state. 
Augustus viscount Keppel, first lord of the admiralty. 
Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. 
Thomas Townshend, secretary-at-icar. 
Isaac Barre, Edmund Burke, John Dunning, &c. 



FIRST ADMINISTRATION, July, 1765 tO Aug. I766. 

Charles, marquess of Rockingham,"' first lord of the 

treasury. 
William DowdesweU, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Winchilsea and Nottingham, lord 'president. 
Duke of Newcastle, 'privy seal. 
Earl of Northington, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Portland, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Rutland, master of the horse. 
Lord Talbot, lord steward. 
Henry SejTnour Conway and the duke of Grafton, 

secretaries of state. 
Lord Egmont, admiralty. 
Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
Viscount Ban'ington, secretary-at-u-ar. 
Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
Charles Townshend, iMymaster of the forces. 
Earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. 

ROCROY (N. France). Here, 19 Maj', 1643, the Spaniards were totally defeated by the 
French, commanded by the great Conde. 

RODNEY'S VICTORIES. Admiral Rodney fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish 
admiral, Don Langara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, ca])turing six of his ships, one 
of which blew up, 16 Jan. 1780. On 12 April, 1782, he encountered the French fleet in the 
West Indies, commanded by the count de Grasse, took five ships of the line, and sent the 
French admiral prisoner to England : Rodney was raised to the peerage, June, 1782. 

ROGATION WEEK. Rogation Sunday received its title from the Monday, Tuesday, 
and Wednesday foUoAving it, called Rogation days, derived from the Latin rogare, to be- 
seech. f Rogation Sunday, 17 May, 1868; 2 May, 1S69 ; 22 May, 1870; 14 Ma}', 1871. 

ROHAN, an illustrious familj', descended from the ancient sovereigus of Brittany. 
Henri de Rohan, son-in-law of the great Sully, after the death of Henry IV. (14 May, 1610), 
became head of the Protestant party, and sustained three wars against Louis XIII. He even- 
tually entered the service of the duke of Saxe Weimar, and died of wounds received in battle 
in 1638. Of this family was the cardinal de Rohan ; see Diamond Necklace. 

ROHILCUND (a tract of country N.E. India) was conquered by the Rohillas, an Afghan 
tribe, who settled here about 1747. After aiding the sovereign of Oude to overcome 
the Mahrattas, they were treated with much treachery by him, and nearly exterminated. 

* Charles Watson Wentworth, marquess of Rockingham, was bom 13 May, 1730 ; succeeded his'fathcr 
as marquess, 1750. He died without issue, i Jiily, 1782 ; and his estates passed to his nephew, earl 
Fitz William. 

t Extraordinary prayers and supplications for these three days are said to have been appointed in the 
third century, as a preparation for the devout observance of our Saviour's ascension on the next day suc- 
ceeding to them, denominated Holy Thursday or Ascension-day. The whole week in which these days 
happen is styled Roi,'ation week ; and ia some parts it is still known by the other names of Crop week. 
Grass week, and Procession week. The perambulations of parishes have usually been made in this week. 



EOL 



630 



EOM 



Kohilcimd was ceded to the British, in 1801. After the great mutiny, Eohilcnnd was tran- 
quillised in July, 1858. 

EOLLIFG MILLS, in the metal manufactories, were in use here in the 17th century, 
and in 1 784 Mr. Cort patented his improvements, which greatly increased their utility. 

EOLLS, see Master of the Rolls, and Records. 

EOLLS' CHAPEL (London), founded by Henry III., about 1233, for receiving Jewish 
rabbis converted to Christianity. On the banishment of the Jews, the buildings now called 
the Eolls, and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the oflBce of the keeper or master of 
the rolls of Chancery, from which circumstance they took their name. A number of public 
records from the time of Eichard III. were kept in presses in this chapel. 

EOMAGNA, a province of the Papal States, comprised in the legations of Forli and 
Eavenna. It was conquered by the Lombards ; but taken from them by Pepin, and given 
to the pope, 753. Goesar Borgia held it as a duchy in 1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 
the Eoraagna threw off the temporal authority of the pope, and declared itself subject to the 
king of Sardinia, who accepted it in March, i860. It now forms part of the province of 
iEmilia, in the new kingdom of Italy. Population (i860) 1,014,582 ; see Rome. 

EOMAINYILLE and Belleville, heights near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, 
and Marmont were defeated by the allies after a vigorous resistance, 30 March, 1814. The 
next day Paris capitulated. 

EOMAIf CATHOLICS, called also Eomanists and Papists. Their religion was the es- 
tablished one till the Eeformation. Since then many laws were made against them, which 
have bfeen repealed ; see Rome, Religion, and Leagues. Among other disabilities, Eoman 
catholics were excluded from corporate ofl&ces, 1667 ; from parliament, 1691 ; forbidden to 
marry protestants, 1708 j to possess arms, 1695, &c.; sqq Scully's History of the Penal Laws, 
1812. 



1570 
1567 
1605 



1780 
1791 

801-4 

1824 
1828 



1040 
1 841 

1850 



Bishop Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, 

executed for denying the king's supremacy . 
Catholics absolved from their allegiance to the 

king by Paul III. 1535 : by Pius V. 

They rebel in 1549 and 

The Gunpowder Plot {which see) . . . . 
They suffer by Oates's fictitio\is popish plot 
They are excluded from the throne . . . 
They suffer by the Gordon riots . . June, 
Various disabilities removed in . 17S0 and 
Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, 

which he gives up i 

Eoman Catholic Association organised in Ire- 
land, with the object of removing the political 

and civil disabihties of Eoman catholics 
Bills in their favour frequently brought in with- 
out effect from 1813 to 

An act of parliament passed for the suppression 

of the Catholic Association, it had voted its 

own dissolution, 12 Feb. . . .5 March, 
The duke of Wellington and sir Eobert Peel 

carry the Catholic emancipation bill (10 Geo. 

IV. c. 7) in the commons, 30 March; in the 
. lords, 10 April ; received the royal assent 

13 April, 
The duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and 

Clifford, the first Eoman catholic peers, take 

their seats .... 28 April, 

The first English E. C. member returned, the 

earl of Surrey for Horsham . .4 May, 
Mr. O'Connell elected for Clare, takes his seat 

(first Eoman catholic M.P. since 1689), Aug. 
Mr. Alexander Eaphael, the first Eoman 

Catholic Sheriff of London . . 28 Sept. 
Sir Michael O'Loghlen, the first Eoman catholic 

judge (as Master of the Eolls in Ireland), 

appointed 30 Oct. 

EOMAlSr EOADS in England. Our historians maintain, but are mistaken, that there 
were but four of these roads. Camden. "The Eomans," says Isidore, "made roads almost 
all over the world, to have their marches in a straight line, and to employ the people ;" and 
criminals were frequently condemned to work at such roads, as we learn from Suetonius, in 
his life of Caligula. They were commenced and completed at various periods, between th© 
2nd and 4th centuries, and the Eoman soldiery were employed in making them, that inae- 
tivity might not give them an opportunity to raise disturbances. £ede. 



St. George's cathedral, Southwark, erected by 
A. W. Pngin ; founded 

Mr. O'Connell elected first Eoman catholic 
lord mayor of Dublin 

The "Papal Aggression" {which see) ; cardinal 
Nicholas Wiseman appointed archbishop of 
Westminster 30 Sept. 

Agitation in favour of the pope . . . . il 

[In 1851 there were in England 570 Eoman 
catholic chapels with 186,111 sittings. — The 
Eoman catholic church in Ireland consists 
of four archbishops, 24 bishops, and (in 1854) 
2291 priests ; there are numerous monasteries 
and convents.] 

Eoman catholic university founded at Drum- 
condra, Ireland .... 20 July, 

Eoman catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, 
by Prison Ministers act . . . July, 

Serjeant Wm. Shoe made a justice of the 
Queen's Bench, the first Eoman catholic judge 
since the Eeformation [died 19 Feb. 1868] 

15 Dec. 

Death of cardinal Wiseman, aged 63 ; 7th Eng- 
lish cardinal since the Eeformation 15 Feb. 

Henry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the 
English church) consecrated archbishop of 
Westm-inster 8 June, 

Conference of Eoman catholic bishops at Dub- 
lin ; publish resolutions declining state help 
(in accordance with the papal injunctions, 
1801 and 1805), and condemning mixed educa- 
tion and secret societies ... 17 Oct. 

In Great Britain 1639 Eoman catholic priests ; 
1283 chapels and churches ; 227 convents for 
women (principally educational) ; 21 colleges 
and large schools D ec. 



lb&2: 

1863, 



i86s, 



1867 



ROM 



631 



ROM 



ROMAN ROADS in England, continued. 

ist, Watling-street, so named from Vitellianus, 1 been defended by a fosse on both sides (from 

who is supposed to have directed it, the Britons Cornwall to Lincoln). 

calling him in their language Gmtalin (from Kent 4th, Ehmin-street, from Irmutisul, a German word, 

to Cardigan Bay). meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors 

2nd, Ikeneld, or Ikenild-street, from its beginning worshipped under that name (from St. David's to 

among the /ccni (from St. David's to Tynemonth). Southampton). 
3rd, Fosse, or Fosse Way, probably from its having | 

ROMAN "WALLS. One Avas erected by Agricola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the 
incursions of the Picts and Scots ; the first wall extended from the Tyne to the Solvvay frith 
(80 miles) ; the second from tlie frith of Fortli, near Edinburgh, to the frith of Clyde, near 
Dumbarton (36 miles). The former was renewed and strengthened by tbe emperor Adrian 
(121), and by Septimus Severus (208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, and ended 
at Wallsend, near Newcastle. It had battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The more 
northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. 
Many remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the southern one ; see Bruce's 
" Hovian Wall," published in 1853. 

ROMANCES. As Heliodorns, a bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, was the author of 
^lliiopica, in Greek (relating the loves of Theagenes and Charicleia), the first work in this 
species of writing, he is hence styled the "Father of Romances." He flourished, 398. JIuet. 
Dunlop's "History of Fiction," published 1814, is an esteemed book on this subject. The 
" Romaunt of the Rose " was written about 13 10. 

ROME. The foundation of the citj^, by Romulus, was laid on the 20th April,* accordingto 
Yarro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period (3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 
before the birth of Uhrist, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of the sixth 
Olympiad. Other dates given : Cato, 75 1 ; Polybius, 750 ; Fabius Pictor, 747 ; Cincius, 
728 B.C.) The Romans conquered nearly the whole of the then known world. In the time 
of Julius Ccesar, the empire was bounded by the Euphrates, Taurus, and Armenia on the 
east ; by iEthiopia on the south ; by the Danube on the north ; and by the Atlantic on the 
west. Numerous ecclesiastical councils have been held at Rome, beginning a.d. 197. 



Foundation of the city by Romulus . B.C. 753 

The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a 
public spectacle, and detain them for wives . 750 

The Caininians defeated, and first triumphal 
procession 748 

Rome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabinos incor- 
porated with the Romans as one nation . . 747 

Romulus sole king of the Romans and Sabines 742 

The Circensian games established by him . . 732 

Romulus said to have been murdered by the 
senators 716 

Numa Pompihus elected king, 715 ; institutes 
the priesthood, the augurs and vestals . .710 

Roman calendar of 10 months reformed and 
made 12 ,, 

The Romans and the Albans contesting for 
superiority, agi-eed to choose three champions 
on each part to decide it. The three Horatii, 
Roinan knights, overcame the three Cwiatii, 
Albans, and united Alba to Rome about 669 

War with the Fidenates; the city of Alba 
destroyed 665 

Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built . . . 627 

The first census of the Roman state is taken 
(Lenglei) 566 

Political institutions of Servlus Tullius . . 550 

The rape of Lucretia by Sextus, son of Tarquin 510 

Royalty abolished : the Patricians establish 
an aristocratical commonwealth . . . 509 

Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first 
consuls ; first alliance of the Romans with 
Carthage 508 

The Capitol finished, and dedicated to Jupiter 
Capitulinus 507 

The Latins and the Tarquins declare war against 



the republic, 501 ; defeated at the lake Re- 
gilliis B.C. 

First dictator Titus Lartius .... 

Secession of the Plebeians to the sacred 
mount ; establishment of tribunes of the 
Plebeians _ ■ . 

First agrarian law passed : Spurius Cassius put 
to death by the Patricians .... 

C. Mivrtius Coriolanus banished . . . . 

He (with the Volsci) besieges Rome, but with- 
draws at the suit of his wife and mother _ 

Contests between the Patricians and Plebeians 
respecting the agrarian law . . . . 

Quaistors appointed about 

The Fabii slain (see Fahii) 

Cmcinnatus, dictator, defeats the Mqui . 

The Secular Games first celebrated . . . 

The Decemviri created 

Virginius kills his daughter, Virginia, to save 
her from the decemvir, Appius Claudius 
(Aijpius killed himself in prison ; the decem- 
viral govei-nment abolished) . _ . 

The Canuleian law passed, permitting marriages 
between Patricians and Plebeians . . . 

Military tribunes first created .... 

Ofiice of censor instituted 

Rome afflictedwith an awful famine, and many 
persons on account of it drown themselves 
in the Tiber 

The Veientes defeated, and their king Tolumnus 
slain 

War with the Tuscans 

A temple is dedicated to ApoUo on account of a 
pestilence 

iEqui and Volsci defeated by Tubertus, dictator 



496 
501 



493 

491 



4S6 
484 
477 
458 
456 

4SI 



44S 
444 
443 



437 

434 



• In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, 
to give his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a 
common asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled from their native country to avoid the 
punishment which attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soim collected, and 
before the death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations the Palatine, Capitoline, 
Aventine, and Esquiline hills, with Mounts CoeUus and QuirinaUs. 



liOM 



632 



EOM 



HOME, continued. 
Two more qusestors appointed . . . b.o. 421 
Auotber dreadful famine at Rome . . . 411 
Three quiBstors are chosen from the Plebeians 

for the first time 409 

Institution of the Lectisternian festival on 

account of a pestilence 399 

Veii taken by Camillus after ten years' siege . 396 

Banishment of Camillus 391 

The Gauls under Brennus, besiege Clusium 

(see Gauls) 39° 

They are expelled by Camillus . . . . 389 
Bome burnt to the ground by the Gauls, who 

besiege the Capitol 387 

Eebuilt— Capitoline games instituted . . . „ 
M. Manlius Capitolinus thrown from the Tar- 

peian rock on a charge of aiming at sovereign 

power 384 

The first appointment of curule magistrates . 371 
Lucius Sextus, the first Plebeian consul . . 366 
Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had 

opened in the forum . . . . . 362 
The Gauls defeated in Italy . . . .350 
Treaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy . 348 
War with the Samnites (with breaks) 51 years 343 

Latin war 340-338 

Embassy to Alexander the Great . . -324 

Defeat at Caudium 321 

Priests first elected from the Plebeians . . 300 
Etruscans, Samnites, and others, defeated at 

Sentinum by Fabius 295 

End of the third Samnite war . ... 290 
The Gauls invade the Boman territory ; siege 

of Arezzo 284 

Etruscans defeated at Vadimonian lake 310 and 283 
Pyrrhus of Bpirus invades Italy, 281 ; defeats 

the Bomans at Pandcsia, 280 ; and at Asculum, 

279 ; defeated by them at Benevento . . 27s 

All Italy subdued by Bome 266 

First Punic war commenced (see Punic Wars) 264 

First Boman fieet built 260 

AttiliusBegulus said to be put to a cruel death 

by tbe Carthaginians 255 

End of first Punic war ; Sicily annexed . . 241 

Temple of Janus closed 235 

Corsica and Sardinia annexed . . . . 231 
First Boman embassy to Greece . ■ . . 228 
Invasion of the Gauls : .beaten by the consuls . 225 
Second Punic war breaks out . . . . 218 
Tbe Bomans are defeated by Hannibal at 

Thrasymene, 217 ; Cannse . . 2 Aug. 216 
Syracuse taken by Marcellus . . . . 212 

Marcellus defeated by Hannibal, and slain near 

Venusia 208 

Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama in Africa . 202 
The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 

and 200 ; his defeat at Cynoscephalse . . 197 
Death of Scipio Africanus the elder . . . 185 
Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Perseus 

beaten at Pydna ; Macedon annexed . .168 
First public library erected at Bome . . . 167 
Philosophers and rhetoricians are banished 

from Bome 161 

Third Punic war begins 149 

Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Bomans 

(see Corinth and Carthage) .... 146 
Celtiberian and Numantine war in Spain . 153-133 
Attains III. of Pergamos bequeaths his kingdom 

and riches to the Bomans 133 

The Servile war in Sicily 132 

Two Plebeian consuls chosen . . . . ,, 
Agrarian disturbances : Gracchus slain . .121 

The Jugurthine war 112-106 

The Mithridatic war (which see) . . 108-63 
The Ambrones defeated by Marius . . . 102 

The Social war go-88 

Bome besieged by four armies (viz. : those of 
Marius,Cinna,Cai-bo, and Sertorius) and taken 87 

Sylla defeats Marius : becomes dictator ; san- 
guinary proscriptions, 82 ; abdicates . . 79 
Bithynia bequeathed to the Bomans by king 
Nicomedes 74 



Bevolt of Spai-tacus and the slaves . B.C. 73-71 
Syria conquered by Pompey . . . .65 

The Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero . 63 
Tbe first triumvirate : Caesar, Pompey, and 

Crassus 60 

Caesar's campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain . 55 

Crassus killed by the Parthians • • • 53 

Gaul conquered and made a province . . . 51 

War between Cajsar and Pompey ... 50 

Pompey defeated at Pharsalia (which see) . . 48 
Csesar defeats Pharnaces at Zela ; and writes 

home "Veni, vidi, vici" .... 47 
Cato kills himself at Utica ; Csesar dictator for 

ten years 46 

Cassar killed in the senate-hoiise . 15 March, 44 
Second triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and 

Lepidus 43 

Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony . . . , , 
Battle of Philippi; Brutus and Cassius de- 
feated 42 

Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate ; war be- 
tween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony de- 
feated totally at Actium . . 2 Sept. 31 
Octavius emperor, as Augustus Ccesar . . 27 
The empire now at peace with aU the world ; 
the temple of Janus shut ; Jesus Christ 
born. (See Jews) ... 4 April, 5 

A..D. 

Varus defeated by Hermann and the Ger- 
mans 9 

Ovid banLshed'to Tomi „ 

Death of Ovid and Livy 18 

Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Sejanus 26 

A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor 

and censor, the i nhabitants of Bome are stated 

to amount to 6,944,000. — [It is now considered 

that the population of Bomevrithixi the walls 

was under a million.] 48 

Caractacus brought in chains to Bome . . 50 
St. Paxil arrives in bonds at Bome . . . 62 
Nero burns Bome to the ground, and charges 

the crime upon the Christians ... 64 
Seneca, Lucan, &c. , put to death . . . . 65 
Peter and I'aul said to be put to death . . 67 
Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus 

8 Sept. 70 
Coliseum founded by Vespasian ... 75 
The Dacian war begins (continues 15 years) . 86 
Pliny, junior, proconsul in Bitbynia, sends 

T I ajan his celebrated account of the Christians 102 
Trajan's expedition into the East against the 

Parthians, &c. ; subdues Dacia . . . 106 
Trajan's column erected at Bome . . . 114 

Adrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall 
'I he Capitol destroyed by lightning . 
Byzantium taken ; its walls razed . . . 196 
The Goths are paid tribute .... 222 

[The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other 

Northern nations attack the empire.] 
Pompey's amphitheatre burnt .... 248 

Invasion of the Goths 250 

I^estilence throughout the empire . . . 252 
Great victory over the Goths obtained by 

Cladius ; 300,000 slain ..... 269 
Dacia relinquished to the Goths . . . . 270 
Palmyra conquered, and Longinus put to death 273 
The era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian . . . 284 
The Franks settle in Gaul. Freret . . . 287 

Constantius dies at York 306 

Four emperors reign at one time . . ■ . 308 
Constantine the Great, it is said, in consequence 
of a vision, places the Cross on his banners, 
and begins to favour the Christians . . 312 
Constantine defeats Licinius, at Chrysopolis, 

and reigns alone .... 18 Sept. 323 
He tolerates the Christian faith . . . . ,, 
Puts his son Ci'ispus to death .... 324 
Constantine convokes the first general council 

of Christians at Nice 325 

The seat of empire removed from Bome to 
Byzantium, 328 ; dedicated by Constantine . 330 



ROM 



633 



ROM 



ROME, continued. 

Constantine orders the heathen temples to be 
destroyed . . . . . . a.d. 330 

Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed 334 
Death of Constantine, soon after being baptized 337 
The army under Julian proclaims him emperor 360 
Julian, who had been educated for the priest- 
hood, and had frequently officiated, abjures 
Christianity, and re-opens the heathen tem- 
ples, becoming the pagan pontiff . . . 361 
Julian killed in battle in Persia ; Christianity 

restored by Jo\-ian 363 

The empire divided into Eastern and Western 
by Valentinian and Valens, brothers r the 
former has the Western portion, or Rome . 364 

(See Westei"n, and Eastern Empires; and Italy.) 

Rome placed under the exarchate of Ravenna 404 
Taken by Alaric .... 24 Aug. 410 

Taken and pillaged by Genseric . . 15 July, 455 
Odoacer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy 476 
Rome recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . 536 
Retaken by Totila the Goth, 546 ; recovered by 
Behsarius, 547 ; seized by Totila, 549 ; re- 
covered by Narses, and annexed to the 

eastern empire 553 

Rome independent under the popes, about . 728 
Pepin of France compels Astolphus, king of the 
Lombards, to cede Ravenna and other places 

to the Holy Church 755 

Confirmed and added to by Charlemagne . . 774 
Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West by 

the pope at Rome .... 25 Dec. 800 
Rome taken by Arnulf and the Germans . . 896 
The emperor Henry IV. takes Rome March, 10S4 
Arnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform 
church and state and to establish a senate, 
is put to death as a heretic .... 1155 
The pope removes to Avignon . . . . 1309 
Nicola di Rienzi, as tribune of the people, 
estabhshes a republic, but is comijelled to 
abdicate, 1347 ; returning, is assassinated, 

8 Sept. 1354 
Papal court returns to Rome .... 1377 
Rise of the families, Colonna, Orsini, (fee, about ,, 
Julius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 

Perugia 1503-13 

The city greatly embellished by pope Leo X. 1513-21 
It is captured by the constable de Bourbon, 

who is slain 6 June, 1527 

Ferrara annexed 1597 

St. Peter's dedicated . . . .18 Nov. 1626 

Expulsion of the Jesuits 1773 

Harassed by the French, German, and Spanish 

factions from the i6th to the i8th century. 
The French invasion ; the Legations incorpo- 
rated with the Cisalpine republic . . . 1796 
The French proclaim a Roman republic 

20 March, 1798 
Recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans . . 1799 

Retaken by the French 1800 

Restored to pope Pius VII 1801 

Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, 

and declared second city of the empire, May, 1808 
Restored to the pope, who returns . Jan. 1814 
He re-establishes the Inquisition and the 

Jesuits Aug. ,, 

The papal government endeavour to annul all 
innovations, and thus provoke much oppo- 
sition ; the Carbonari increase in numbers, 1S15-17 
Political assassinations in the Romagna . . 1817 
The "Young Italy" party established by 
Joseph Mazzini ; temporary insunrections at 
Bologna suppressed by Austrian aid . .1831 
Election of Pius IX. . . . 16 June, 1846 
He proclaims an amnesty ; and authorises a 

national guard and municipal institutions . 1847 
The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia 
against the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; 
the Antonelli ministry retires ; and the Ma- 
miani ministry is formed .... 1848 
Count Rossi, minister of justice of the pontifical 



government, assassinated on the staircase of 
the Chamber of Deputies at Rome 15 Nov. 1848 

Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a 
democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
Italian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
tates, the Romans surround the palace, and a 
conflict ensues. The pope accepts a popular 
ministry 16 Nov. ,, 

[Cardinal Palma, the pope's secretary, was shot 
in this conflict.] 

A free constitution published . . 20 Nov. „ 

The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to 
Gaeta 24 Nov. „ 

M. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
armed expedition to Civita Vecchia having 
preceded him, to afford protection to the 
pope 27 Nov. ,, 

Protest of the pope against the acts of the pro- 
visional government ... 28 Nov. ,, 

A constituent assembly meets at Rome, 5 Feb. 1649 

The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
of all temporal power, and adopts the repub- 
lican form of government . . .8 Feb. „ 

The pope appeals to the great Roman Catholic 
powers i8 Feb. ,, 

Civita Vecchia occupied by the French force 
under Marshal Oudinot . . 26 Api-il, ,, 

A French force repulsed with loss 30 April, ,, 

Engagement between the Romans and Neapoh- 
tans ; the former capture 60 prisoners and 
400 muskets 5 May, ,, 

The French imder marshal Oudinot commence 
an attack on Rome ... 3 Jvme, ,, 

After a brave resistance the Romans capitulate 
to the French army . . . 30 June, ,, 

The Roman assembly dissolved . . 4 July, ,, 

Au officer from Oudinot's camp arrives at 
Gaeta, to present the pope with the keys of 
the two gates of Rome by which the French 
army had entered the city . . 4 July, ,, 

The re-establishment of the pope's authority 
proclaimed at Rome . . .15 July, „ 

Oudinot issues a general order stating that the 
pope (or his representative) now re-possesses 
the administration of affairs, but that public 
security in the pontifical dominions still 
remains under the special guarantee of the 
French army 3 Aug. ,, 

The pope arrives at Portici on a visit to the 
king of Naples .... 4 Sept. ,, 

He arrives at Rome ; cardinal AntoneUi be- 
comes foreign minister . . . April, 1850 

He issues the bull establishing a Roman 
catholic hierai'chy in England (see Papal 
Aggression) 24 Sept. „ 

Important concordat with Austria . Aug. 1855 

The pope visits his dominions . . June, 1857 

Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bologna, and 
Ferrara Jime, 1S59 

They declare for adhesion to Piedmont Sept. ,, 

Accept Buoncompagni as governor . Nov. ,, 

The pope appeals to Europe for help against 
Sardinia 12 July, „ 

The Legations form a defensive alliance with 
Tuscany, Parma, and Modena . 20 Aug. ,, 

The queen of Spain eng.ages to send troops to 
Rome, if the French retire . . 26 Aug. ,, 

The assembly at Bologiia vote annexation to 
Piedmont, 7 Sept. ; the king engages to sujh 
port their cause before the great powers, 
15 Sept. ; the pope annuls the acts of the 
assembly at Bologna ; and denounces the 
punishment due to those who attack the holy 
see, 26 Sept. ; and dismisses the Sardinian 
charge d'affaires at Rome . . i Oct. ,, 

The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into 
a province, to be called iEmilia . 24 Dec. „ 

The Sardinian government annul the Tuscan 
and Lombard concordats 27 Jan., 20 March, iSGo 

Riots at Rome suppressed by the police with 
great ci-uelty .... 19 March, ,, 



ROM 



C34 



110 M 



EOME, continued. 

The pope excommunicates all concerned in the 
rebellion in his states . . . 26 March, 

General Lamoricitre takes command of papal 
army, March ; which is re-organised, and in- 
creased by volunteers from Ireland, &c. May, 

Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and 
are repulsed 19 May, 

Irish volunteers are severely treated for insub- 
ordination ; many dismissed . . July, 

The papal army estimated at 20,000 . Aug. 

Insurrection in the Marches, 8 Sept. ; Fossem- 
brone subdued by the papal troops ; the 
people appeal to the Sardinian government, 
whose troops, under Cialdini and Fanti, 
enter the Papal States . . 11 Sept. 

Fanti takes Pesaro, 12 Sept. ; and Perugia, in- 
cluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners 

14 Sept. 
Ancona besieged by sea and land . 17 Sept. 
Severe allocution of the pope against France 

and Sardinia ; he appeals to Europe for help 

28 Sept. 

Cialdini defeats Lamoricifere at Castel-Fidardo, 
18 Sept. ; and takes Ancona . 29 Sept. 

Additional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. 

The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia 

Nov. 

Subscriptions raised for the pope in various 
covmtries ; the formal collection forbidden in 
France and Belgium ; permitted in England 

Kov. 

Monastic establishments suppressed in the 
Legations ; the monks pensioned ; educa- 
tional institutions founded . . . Dec. 

The French emperor advises the pope to give 
up his revolted provinces . . 21 Dec. 

Publication of Rome et Us Eveques, 6 Jan. ; and 
of La France, Rome et VJtaHe, 15 Feb. ; great 
excitement, and strong advocacy of the pope's 
temporal government (attacked by prince 
Napoleon) in the French chambers . March, 

Petition to the emperor Napoleon to withdraw 
French troops from Rome, signed by num- 
bers of the Romans . . . . lo May, 

The emperor of France declines a union with 
Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 
pope's temporal power . . . June, 

Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 
Japanese martyrs (see Canonization) 8 June, 

The pope declares a severe allocution against 
the Italians ' 9 June, 

Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his 
watchword, " Rome or death ! " 19 July, 

Railway between Rome and Naples comjjleted ; 
its opening opposed by the papal government 

Nov. 

Earl Russell's offer to the pope of a residence at 
Malta, 25 Oct. ; declined . . .11 Nov. 

Antonelli's resignation of his office not ac- 
cepted 5 March, 

Convention between France and Italy : French 
troops to quit Rome within two years 

15 Sept. 
Encyclical letter of the pope, censuring 80 er- 
^^ rors in religion, philosophy, and politics 

(caused much dissatisfaction, and was for- 
bidden to be read in churches in France and 
other countries) .... 8 Dec. 

Jews persecuted at Rome . . . Dec. 

Fruitless negotiations between the pope and 
the king of Italy (by Vegezzi) ; nautual con- 
cessions proposed . 21 April to 23 June, 

Pope's severe allocution against secret societies 
(Freemasons, Fenians, &c.) . . 25 Sept. 

Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed 

20 Oct. 

A part of the French troops leave the papal 
dominions Nov. 

Rupture with Russia . . Dec. 1865— Jan. 

A Franco-pontifical legion (1200 men) formed at 
Antibes, arrives ; blessed by the pope, 24 Sept. 



i860 



Pope's severe allocution against Italy and 
Russia 29 Oct. iS65 

The pope invites all catholic bishops to meet at 
Rome to celebrate the 18th centenary of the 
martyrdom of Peter and Paul . . 8 Dec. „ 

The pope's blessing given to French troops 6 
Dec. , who all quit Rome . . '2-12 Dec. ,, 

Rome tranquil 13 Dec. ,, 

Law prohibiting protestant worship except at 
embassies in Rome enforced . . 31 Dec. „ 

Negotiation with Italy fruitless ; the Italian 
councillor, Tonello, quits Rome . April, 1867 

599 bishops and thousands of priests present at 
the pojDe's allocution, 26 June ; and canoniza- 
tion of 25 martyrs ... 29 June, ,, 

The pope receives an album and address from 
100 cities of Italy .... 8 July, „ 

Cholera in Rome ; death of cardinal Altieri 
while assisting the afflicted . 11 Aug. ,, 

The pope's allocution censures the sacrilegious 
audacity of the Sub-alpine kingdom, 20 Sept. „ 

Garibaldi arrested at Sinalunga, near the 
Roman frontier . . . - 23 Sept. 

Irruption of Garibaldians in Viterbo — conflicts 
with various results ; reported appeal of 
AntoneUi for help from the great powers, Oct. „ 

Attempt at insurrection in Rome suppressed, 
• 22 Oct. ; state of siege proclaimed; Garibaldi 
within 20 miles of Rome . . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Zouave barracks at Rome blown up, many 
kiUed ' Oct. „ 

French brigades enter Rome . . .30 Oct. ,, 

Italian troops cross the frontier, 30 Oct. ; oc- 
cupy several posts . . . . i Nov. ,, 

Garibaldians defeated by the papal and French 
troops at Mentana (w/(ic7i «ec) . . 3 Nov. ,, 

Italian troops retire from the papal states Nov. „ 

The Roman committee of insurrection issue a 
narrative, and state that their watchword is 
" Try again and do better " . . .Dec. ,, 

The papal army increased to about 15,000, Dec. „ 

The pope's short allocution (thanking and bless- 
ing the French government) . . ig Dec. ,, 

Nine cardinals made ; Lucien Bonaparte one, 

13 March, 1868 
See Italy, and France, 1862-8. 

KINGS AND EMPERORS OF EOME. 
B.C. 

735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. 

[Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to 
Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 
six years.] 

716. [Interregnum.] 

715. Kuma PompiUus, son-in-law of Tatius the Sa- 
bine, elected ; died at the age of 82. 

673. TuUus Hostilius; murdered by his successor, 
by whom his palace was set on fire ; his 
family perished in the flames. 

640. Ancus Martius, grandson of Kuma. 

616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a 
Corinthian emigi-ant, chosen king. 

578. Servius Tullius, a manumitted slave ; mamed 
the king's daughter ; and succeeded by the 
united sufirages of the army and the people. 

534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius 
Priscus ; assassinates his father-in-law, and 
usurps the throne. 

510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tar- 
quin, and consequent insurrection, leads to 
the abohtion of royalty and the establish- 
ment of the consulate.] 

EEPUBLIC. 

510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquia 
to the dictatorship of Sylla. 
82-27. Secnnd period. From Sylla to Augustus. 
48. Caius J alius Caesar ; perpetual dictator ; assas- 
sinated, 15 March, 44 B.C. 
31. Octavianus Csesar. 



ROM 



635 



ROO 



A.D. 

268. 



275- 
276. 



306. 



ROME, continued. 

B.C. EMPEROltS. 

27. Augustus Imperator, died 19 Aug. a.d. 14. 

A.D. 

14. Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 

37. Caius Caligula ; murdered by a tribune. 

41. Claudius I. (Tiber. Drusus) ; poisoned by his 

wife Agrippina, to make way for 
54. Claudius Nero ; deposed ; kills himself, 63. 

68. Servius Sulpicius Galba ; slain by the pr;\;torians. 

69. M. Salvius Otho ; stabbed himself. 
„ Aulus Vitellius ; deposed by Yespasianj and put 

to death. 
„ Titus Flavius Vespasian. 
79. Titus (Vespasian), his son. 
81. Titus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus ; last 

of the twelve Cassars ; assassinated. 
96. Cocceius Nerva. 
98. Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus). 
117. Adrian or Hadrian (Publius a^lius). 
138. Antoninus Titus, suniamed Pius. 
161. Marcus Aurehus (a philosopher) and Lucius 
Varus, his son-in-law ; the latter died in 169 
iSo. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of 
Marcus Aurelius ; poisoned by his favourite 
mistress, Martia. 
193. Publius-Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death by the 
praetorian band. 
[Four emperors now start up : Didianus Juli- 
anus, at Rome ; Pescennius Niger, iu Syiia ; 
Lucius Septimius Severus, in Pannonia ; 
and Clodius Albinus, iu Britain, ] 
,, Lucius Septimius Severus ; died at York in 
Britain, in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, 
211. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta 
murdered the same year by his brother, 
who reigned alone till 217, when he was 
slain by his successor, 

217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards ; 

beheaded in a mutiny. 

218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; 

put to death for his enormities. 
222. Ale.'iander Severus ; assassinated by some 

soldiers corrupted by Maximinus. 
235. Caius Juhus Verus Maximinus ; assassinated 

in his tent before the walls of Aquileia. 

237. M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son ; the latter 

having been killed in a battle with the par- 
tisans of Maximinus, the father strangled 
himself in a fit of despair, at Carthage, in 
his 80th year. 

238. Balbinus and Pupienus ; put to death. 
,, Gordian III., grandson of the elder Gordian, in 

his i6th year ; assassinated by the guards, at 

the instigation of his successor. 
244. Philip the Arabian ; assassinated by his own 

soldiers ; his son Phihp was murdered, at 

the same time, in his mother's arms. 
249. Metius Decius ; ho perished with his two sons, 

and theu- army, in an engagement with the 

Goths. 
251. Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus ; both 

slain by the soldierj'-. 
253. iEmilianus ; put to death after a reign of only 

four months. 
,, Valerianus, and his son Gallienus ; the first was 

taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 

flayed aUve. 
260. Gallienus reigned alone. 

[About this time thirty pretenders to imperial 

power arise in different parts of the empire ; 

R0]SrCES7ALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said. Charlemngue's paladin, Roland, 
or Orlando, was surprised, defeated, and slain by the Gascons, 778. On 25 July, 1813, 
marshal Soult was defeated, the British entering France. 

ROOF. The largest in the world was said to be that over a riding-school at Moscow, 
erected in 1791, being 235 feet in span. The width of the roof of the London station of the 
Midland railway, erecting in Euston-road, London, N."\V., is 240 feet wide, 690 feet long, 
125 feet high. The extent of ground covered will be 165,000 square feet. 



361. 



363. 
364. 

375- 
379- 
392. 



of these, Cyriades is the first, ,but he 
slain. ] 

Claudius II. (Gallienus having been assassinated 
by the officers of the guard) succeeds; dies 
of the plague. 

Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the 
senate and troops ; Aurelian by the army in 
lUyricum. Quintillus, despairing of success 
against his i-ival, who was marching against 
him, opened his veins and bled himself to 
death. 

Aurelian ; assassinated by his soldiers on hia 
march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 

[Interregnum of about nine raonths.] 

Tacitus, elected 25 Oct. ; died at Tarsus in 
C'ilicia, 13 April, 276. 

Florian, his brother ; his title not recognised, 
by the senate. 

M. Aurehus Probus; assassinated by his troops 
at Sirmium. 

M. Aurelius Carus ; killed at Ctesiphon by 
lightning ; succeeded by his sons, 

Carinus and Numeri;uius ; both assassinated,, 
after transient reigns. 

Diocletian ; who associated as his colleague in. 
the government, 

Maximianus Hercules; the two emperors resign 
in favour of 

Constantius I. Chlorus and Galerius Maximi- 
anus ; the first died at Yoi-k, in Britain, in. 
306, and the troops saluted as emperor his 
son, 

Constantine. afterwards styled the Great :. 
whilst at Rome the prtetorian band pro- 
claimed 

Maxentius, sou of Maximianus Hercules. 
Besides these were 

Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to re- 
cover his abdicated power, 

Flavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last- 
named pretender ; and 

Flavius Valerianus Licinius, the brother-in-law 
of Constantine. 

[Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled, 
in Gaul, in 310; Galerius Maximianus died 
wretchedly m 311 ; Maxentiiis was drowned 
in the Tiber in 312 ; and Licinius was put 
to death by order of Constantine in 324.] 

Constantine the Great now reigned alone ; died, 
on Whitsunday, 22 May, 337. 

/■Sons of Constantine ; di- 
vided the empire betweert 
them ; the first was slain 
ill 340, and the second 
murdered in 350, when 
the third became sole 
emperor. 

Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring 
Christianity, having been educated for the 
priesthood ; mortallj' wounded in a battle 
with the Persians, 363. 

Jovian ; reigned eight months ; found dead ia 
his bed, supposed to have died from the 
fumes of charcoal. 

Valentiuian and Valeus. 

Valcns with Gratiau and Valentini n II. 

Theodosius I., &c. 

Theodosius alone. 

a'he Roman empire divided (see Eastern Empire, 
Western Empire, and Popes). 



( Constantine II 
-I Constans, 
(^ Constantius II 



ROP 



636 



ROT 



ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was patented by Richard March in 1784, and by 
Edmd. Cartwright, in 1792. Many improvements have been made since. 

ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Rosamond was daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of 
Henry II. about 1154. A conspiracy was formed by the queen, prince Henry, and his other 
sons, against the king, on account of his attachment to her. Henry kept her in a labyrinth 
at Woodstock, where his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apartments by the clue 
of a silk thread, and poisoned her. She was buried at Godstow church, from whence Hugh, 
bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, 1191. 

ROSARY, see Beads. 

ROSAS (N. E. Spain), Bat of, where a brilliant naval action was fought by the boats 
of the Tigre, Cumberland, Volontaire, Apollo, Topaze, Philomel, Scout, and Tuscan, led by 
lieut. John Tailour (of the Tigre), which ended in the capture or destruction of eleven armed 
vessels in the bay, i Nov. 1809 ; for which purpose lord Collingwood had organised the 
expedition commanded by capt. Hallowell. 

ROSBACH (Rosebecque), Flanders. Here Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who 
had revolted against their count, 27 Nov. 1382. — At Rosbach, in Prussia, a great battle was 
fought between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick the Great, and the combined armj' 
of French and Austrians, in which the latter sustained a complete defeat and severe loss, 
5 Nov. 1757. 

ROSE, see under Floivers. The rose, a symbol of silence, gave rise to the phrase sicb 
rosd, "under the rose ;" said, by Italian writers, to have risen from the circumstance of the 
pope's presenting consecrated roses, which were placed over the confessionals at Rome, to 
denote secrecy, 1526. The pope sent a golden rose to the queen of Spain, which was given 
to her with much solemnity, 8 Feb. 1868. 

ROSES, Waks of the, between the Lancastrians (who chose the red rose as their 
emblem), and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), began 1455 and ended 1485. It is 
stated, that in the Wars of the Roses there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, and 
100,000 gentry and common people. The union of the roses was effected in the marriage of 
Henry VII. with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., i486. 



Eichard 11., who succeeded his grandfather 
Edwai-d III. in 1377, was deposed and suc- 
ceeded in 1399 by his cousin Henry IV. (son 
of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the 
fourth son of Edward III.), in prejudice to 
the right of Roger Mortimer (grandson of 
Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward's third 
son), who was declared presumptive heir to 
the throne in 1385 

Eoger's grandson, Richard duke of York, first 
openly claimed the crown in . . . . 1449 

Attempts at compromise failed, and the war 
began in 1455 

The Lancastrians were defeated at St. Albans ; 
the protector Somerset was slain ; a truce 
was made, and Richard became his successor, 

23 May, ,, 



The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated 
the Lancastrians at Bloreheath . 23 Sept. 1459 

They eventuallj' dispersed, and the duke was 
attainted. 

He defeated his opponents at Northampton, 
took Henry prisoner, and was declared heir 
to the crov/n ; but fell into an ambuscade 
near Wakefield, and was put to death, 31 Dec. 1460 

His son (Edward) continued the struggle ; was 
installed as king . . -4 March, 1461 

Defeated the Lancastrians at Towton, 29 March, , , 

Was deposed by "Warwick, who restored Henry 
VI Sept. 1470 

Edward defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet, 
14 April, and finally at Tewkesbury, 4 May, 1471 

The struggle ended with the defeat and death 
of Richard III. at Bosworth . 22 Aug. 1485 



ROSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 1798; and by the British and Turks, 
19 April, 1801. The Turks repulsed the British here, 1807. Near Rosetta, at the mouth 
of the Nile, was fought the memorable battle of i Aug. 1798, between the fleets of France 
and England, the latter commanded by Nelson ; see Nile. Ali Pacha rendered great service 
to his country by constructing a canal between Rosetta and Alexandria. 



The Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in 
1799, was brought from Rosetta in a French ves- 
sel, fi-om whence it was taken by Mr. Wm. R. 
Hamilton, who deposited it in the British Mu- 
seum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text 
and a translation of the Greek inscription. It is 



a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet long and 2J 
feet wide, with an inscription in three languages, 
viz. hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (en- 
chorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of 
Ptolemy Epiphanes (about 194 B.C.). It has been 
investigated by Dr. T. Young and Chanipollion. 



ROSICRUCIANS, a sect of mystical philosophers, who first appeared in Germany in the 
14th century, and again early in the 17th century. They derived their name from the Con- 
fesses Rosece Crucis of Valentine Andreas, 1615. They swore fidelity,' promised secrecy, and 
wrote hieroglyphically, and affirmed that the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, 
Magi of Persia, and Gymnosophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine. 

ROSS, Cork (S. Ireland), a bishopric founded, it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the 
beginning of the 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340 ; and Cloyne to both, by the 
Irish Church Temporalities act (1833) ; see Bishops ; New Ross. 

ROTA CLUB. A society who met at Miles's Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, West- 



EOT 637 ROY 

minster, during the administration of Oliver Cromwell : their plan Avas that all the great 
officers of state should be chosen by ballot : and that a certain number of members of ))arlia- 
ment should be changed annually by rotation, f loni whence they took their title. Sir William 
Petty was one of the members in 1659. Biog. Brit. 

ROTHESAY CASTLE, see Wrecks, 1831. 

ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Juden- 
gasse (Jew-lane), Erankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a money-lender and 
dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he placed the sign of the Red Shield (in 
German, Roth Schild). Having had dealings with the landgrave of Hesse, that prince 
entrusted him with his treasure (said to have been 250,000/.) in 1806, when the French held 
his coimtry. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a large fortune, and restored 
the 250,000?. to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons continued the business as 
partners. His son, Nathan, began at Manchester in 1798, removed to Loudon in 1803 ; and 
died immensely rich, 28 July, 1836. 

ROTTERDAM, the second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the 13th century. 
The commerce of Antwei-p was transferred to it in 1509. In 1572, Rotterdam was taken by 
the Spaniards by stratagem, and cruelly treated. It sufl'ered much from the French revolu- 
tionary wars, and from inimdations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born here 
in 1467. The museum and picture-gallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of the 
Schieland palace, 16 Feb. 1864. 

ROUEN (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, became the capital of Normandy in the loth 
century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was retaken by Henry V., 19 Jan. 
1419. Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was burnt here, 30 May, 143 1. It was taken by 
Charles VII. of France in 1449 ; and by the duke of Guise from the Huguenots, Oct. 1562 
and 1591. 

ROUMANIA, the name assumed by the Danubian principalities (ichich see) on 23 Dec. 
1861, when their union was proclaimed at Bucharest and Jassy. 

ROUMELIA or Romania (Turkey), part of Thrace {ichich see). 

ROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which began in 1641, the adherents of Charles I. 
were called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament Round-heads. The term, it is said, 
arose from those persons who had a round bowl or dish put upon their heads, and their hair cut 
to the edge of the bowl ; see Cavaliers. 

ROUND WAY DOWN (near Devizes, Wiltshire). Here the royalists defeated the parlia- 
mentarians with great slaughter, 13 Jidy, 1643. 

ROVEREDO (Austrian Tyrol) Avas held by the Venetians from 1416 till 1609, when it 
was acquired by Austria. It was taken by Bonaparte and the French, 4 Sej^t. 1796, after a 
brilliant victory. 

ROXBURGHE CLUB was instituted in 1812 by earl Spencer, and a number of gentle- 
men, for the republication of rare books, or hitherto unpublished MSS. 

ROYAL Agricultural, Astronomical, Geographical, Horticultural, &c. ; see 
tinder Agriculture, Astronomy, Geography, Horticidture, &c. 

ROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists met in St. Peter's-court, St. Martin's-lane, 
about 1739, which Hogarth established as the society of Incorporated Artists, who held their 
first exhibition at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, 21 April, 1760. From tliis sprang the Royal 
Academy, in consequence of a dispute between the directors and the fellows. On 10 Dec. 

1768, the institution of the present Royal Academy was completed under the patronage of 
George HI.; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first pre- 
sident. Leigh. The first exhibition of the academicians (at Pall-Mall) was on 26 April,. 

1769, when 136 works appeared. In 1771 the king granted them apartments in old Somerset- 
house, and afterwards, in 1780, in new Somerset-house, where they remained till 1838, when 
they removed to the National Gallery. Among its professors have been Johnson, Gibbon,. 
Goldsmith, Macaulay, and Hallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the academy for the 
award of a medal triennally for landscape-painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. 0. Lupton 
in 1857. A commission of inquiry into the affairs of the academy, appointed in 1862, re- 
commended various changes in July, 1863, which were carried into effect. A new building 
for the Royal Academy is now in course of erection in Burlington-gardens (June, 1868). At 
the annual dinner, 2 May, 1868, the president expressed his hope, that the new building 
would be inaugurated on 10 Dec. 1868, the hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the 
academy. 

PRESIDENTS. 1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 

1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 1850. Sir Charles Eastlnke ; died, 23 Dec. 1865. 

1792. Benjamin West. 1866. Sir Edwin Landseer elected; declines, 24 Jan. 

1820. Six Thomas Lawrence. ,, Sir Francis Grant, Feb. i. 



ROY 



638 



EOY 



ROYAL ACADEMY of MUSIC was established in 1823, mainly by the exertions of lord 
Burghersh (afterwards earl of Westmoreland, who died 16 Oct. 1859), and was incorporated 
Tjy charter in 1830. The first concert took place 8 Dec. 1828. Its reconstruction was pro- 
posed in 1866. 

ROYAL ADELAIDE and ROYAL CHARTER, see Wrecks, 1850, 1859. 

ROYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a public bill, the clerk of the parliament 
declares in Norman Erench, " Ze roy le veut," the king wills it so to be. If the king re- 
fuses his assent, it is in the gentle language of " Le roy s'avisera," the king will consider 
it. Male. By the statute 33 Hen. VIII. 1S41, the king may give his assent by letters- 
patent. Blacksloim s Com. 

ROYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), London. The foundation of the original 
edifice was laid by sir Thomas Gresham, 7 June, 1566, on the site of the ancient Tun prison. 
Queen Elizabeth opened it on 23 Jan. 1571, and her herald named it the Royal Exchange. 
Hume. It was totally destroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. laid the foun- 
dation-stone of the next edifice, 23 Oct. 1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmore, a 
pupil of sir Christopher Wren's, in about three years ; it was repaired and beautified in 1769. 
This also was burnt, 10 Jan. 1838, witli a number of public offices, &c. The new Royal 
Exchange, commenced in 1842 under the direction of Mr. Tite, was opened by the queen, 

28 Oct. 1844. — The Royal Exchange, Dublin, was commenced in 1769, and opened in 
1779. 

ROYAL GEORGE, a first-rate man-of-war of 108 guns, overset off Spithead, and sud- 
denly went down while at anchor, by the guns rolling to one side. Rear-admiral Kempen- 
feldt, the crew, many marines, women, and Jews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned, 

29 Aug. 1782. By the use of the diving-bell, the ship, imbedded in the deep, was surveyed 
in May, 1817, et seq. Portions of the vessel and its cargo were brought up in 1839-42, undei* 
the superintendence of sir Charles Pasley, when gunpowder was ignited by the agency of 
electricity. 

ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London), see Humane Society. 

ROYAL INSTITUTION of Great Britain, the earliest of the kind in London, was 
founded 9 March, 1 799, by count Rumford and sir Joseph Banks, assisted by earls Spencer 
-and Morton, and other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the immediate patronage of 
George III. and was incorporated, 13 Jan. 1800, by royal charter, as " The Royal Institution 
of Great Britain, for the diffusing knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction of 
useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophi- 
cal lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life." It 
was enlarged and extended by an act of parliament in 1810 ; the original plan, as dra^p. up 
by count Rumford, in 1799, having been considerably modified. The members are Mected 
by ballot, and pay ten guineas on admission, and five guineas annually, or a composition of 
sixtv guineas. 



The House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was 
purchased in June, 1799, and the present front 
was added by subscription in 1838. The Lecture 
theatre was erected in 1803, under the superin- 
tendence of Mr. T. Webster. 

The Library was commenced in 1803, by the 
munificent subscriptions of the proprietors of the 
institution. It now (1868) comprises about 35,000 
volumes. Classified catalogues (by W. Harris) 
were published in 1809 and 1S21 ; a new one (by 
B. Vincent) in 1857. 

'The Museum contains geological specimens collected 
by Davy, Hatchett, Wollaston, &c., and much of 
the original philosophical apparatus of Cavendish, 
Davy, and Faraday. 

The first Lecture was delivered 4 March, 1801, by 
Dr. Oarnett, he being the first professor of natural 
philosophy and chemistry. 

In 1802 he was succeeded by Dr. Thomas Young, so 
celebrated for his researches in optics, resulting in 
the discovery of the interference of liRht, and the 
establishment of the theory of undulation. His 
"Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Me- 
chanical Arts," first published in 1807, are still 
considered a text-book of physical science. His 
works on antiquarian literature (hieroglyphic in- 
scriptions, &c.) are also highly esteemed. 

In Feb. 1801, Mr. (afterwards sir Humphry)' Davy vtas 
engaged as assistant lecturer and director of the 
laboratory, and on 31 May, 1802, he was appointed 



professor of chemistry. His lectures were emi- 
nently successful, and his discoveries in chemistry 
and electricity have immortalised his name, and 
conferred honour on the institution. By him the 
alkaloids, potassium and sodium, were discovered 
in 1S07 ; the nature of chlorine was determined in 
1810, and the safety-lamp invented in 1815. 

William Thomas Brande succeeded sir Humphry as 
professor of chemistry in 1813, and held that office 
till his resignation in 1852, since which time, till 
his death (Feb. 1866), he was hon. professor. From 
1816 to 1850 he delivered, in the laboratory of this 
institution, his celebrated chemical lectures to 
students. 

In 1813 Michael Faraday Qoom, 22 Sept. 1791), on the 
recommendation of sir H. Davy, was engaged as 
assistant in the laboratory, and in 1825 as its di- 
rector ; in 1827 he became one of the permanent 
lecturers of the institution. In 1820 he commenced 
those researches in electricity .and magnetism 
which form an era in the history of science. In 
1823-4 he discovered the condensability of chlorine 
and other gases ; in 1831 he obtained electricity 
from the magnet ; in 1845 he exhibited the two- 
fold magnetism of matter, coraprehending all 
known substarces, the magnetism of gases, flame, 
&c. ; in 1850 he published his researches on atmo- 
sphtric magnetism : died, 25 Aug. 1867. 

John Tyndall, F.R.S., the present professor of natural 
philosophy, first elected in July, 1853, is eminent 



KOY 



639 



ROY 



EOYAL INSTITUTION of Great Britain, contimied. 



for his researches on magnetism, heat, glaciers, 
&c. 

Edward Franldand, F. R.S., elected professor of che- 
mistry in 1863, is eminent for his discoveries in 
organic chemistry. 

In 1804, sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen pro- 
posed to form a school of mines at this institu- 
tion ; but the plan, although warmly supported by 
the members, was withdrawn for want of en- 
couragement by the government and by mining 
proprietors. 

The WEEKLY EVENING MEETINGS, On the Fridays, 
from January to June, as now arranged, com- 
menced in 1826. Discourses (of which abstracts 
are printed) are given at these meetings by the 
professors of the institution, and other eminent 
scientific men. 

Endowments. In 1833, John Fuller, esq., of Rose- 
hill, endowed two professorships, of chemistry 
and physiology ; the former was bestowed on Mr. 
Faraday for life ; the latter on Dr. Roget for three 
years, to be filled up afterwards by triennial elec- 
tion. — The Pullerian professors of physiology have 
been R. E. Grant, T. R. Jones, W. B. Carpenter, 

ROYAL MARRIAGE ACT, &c., see Marriage Act; Military and Naval Asylums; 
Navy, and Prerogative. 

ROYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 several learned men met in London to discuss 
philosophical questions and report experiments ; the Novum Organon of Bacon, puhlished in 
1620, having given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of them (Drs. Wilkins, Wallis, 
&c.), about 1648-9, removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) Seth Ward, the 
ton. Robert Boyle, Dr. (afterwards sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and physic, 
frequently assembled in the apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in AVadhani college, Oxford. They 
formed what has been called the Philosophical Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. 
The members were, about 1658, called to various parts of the kingdom, on account of their 
respective profes.sions ; and the majority coming to London, constantly attended the lectures 
at Gresham college, and met occasionally till the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1659 ; see 
Societies. 



W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, T. H. Huxley (aowe), 
R. Owen, and J. Marshall, — In 1S38, Mrs. Acton 
gave iooo(. to be invested for paying everj'- seven 
years 100 guineas for the best ess,ay on the benefi- 
cence of the Almighty, as illustrated by discoveries 
in science ; which have been awarded — in 1844 to 
Mr. G. Fownes ; in 1851 to Mr. T. Wharton Jones ; 
in 1858 no award was made ; in 1865 to Mr. George 
Warington. 

The "Fund for the Promotion of Experimental 
Rese.ai-ches " was founded on 6 July, 1863, by sir 
Henry Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. Mur- 
chison. Dr. Bence Jones, and others. 

The firft officers were sir Joseph Banks, president, 
till the charter was granted, afterwards the earl ot 
Winchilsea; Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, 
treasurer ; rev. Dr. Samuel Glasse, secretary. The 
duke of Northumberland, K. G. , elected president 
1842, was succeeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1865; 
W. Pole, esq., treasurer, elected 1849, was succeeded 
by Wm. Sjiottiswoode, esq., in 1865 ; the rev. John 
Barlow, secretary, elected 1842, was succeeded by 
Henry Bence Jones, M.D., i85o. 



The society was organised in 1660, and constituted 

by Charles II. a body politic and corporate, by the 

appellation of " The President, Council, and Fel- 
lows of the Royal Society of London, for improving 

Natural Knowledge," 22 April, 1662. 
.Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. 

Andrew's-day, 30 Nov. 1663. 
'The f/iilosophical Transactions begin 6 March, 

1664-5. 
In i568 Newton invented his reflecting telescope 

(now in the possession of the society), and on 28 

April, 1686, presented to the society the MS. of his 

FrinciiAa, which the council ordered to be printed. 

This was done under the superintendence and at 

the expense of Halley the astronomer, at that 

time clerk to the society. 
'The society met for some years at Gresham College, 

and afterwards at Arundel House (i665j, where it 

came into possession of a valuable library, pre- 
sented by Mr. Howard, grandson of its collector, 

the earl of Arundel. After various changes the 

fellows returned to Gresham College, where they 

95. Chas. Montague (aftds. earl 



PRESIDENTS. 

1660. Sir Robert Moray. 

1663. Lord Brouncker. 

1677. Sir Joseph Williamison. 

i6ao. Sir Christopher Wren. 

1682. Sir John Hoskyns. 

1683. Sir Cyril Wyche. 

1684. Samuel Pepys. 

1686. John, earl of Carbery. 

1689. Thomas, earl of Pembroke. 

1690. Sir Robert Southwell. 



of Halifax), 
John, lord Somors. 
Sir Isaac Newton. 
Sir Hans Sloane. 
Martin Folkes. 
Gaorge, earl of Macclesfield. 

1764. James, earl of Morton. 

1765. James Burrow. 
,, James West. 

1772. James Burrow. 



1703 
1727 
1741 
1752 



remained till their removal to Crane-court, in a 
house purchased by themselves, S Nov. 1610. 
The Bakerian lecture was estalaUshed by Hemy 

Baker, 1774. 
The first Copley medal was awarded to Stephen Gray 
in 1731 ; the royal medal to John Dalton, 1826; 
the Rumfoi-d medal (instituted in 1797) to count 
Rumford himself in 1800. 
They remove to apartments gran ted them in Somerset- 
house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington-house, 
Piccadilly, 1857. 
Parliam^-nt votes annually loooZ. to the Royal Society 

for scientific purposes. 
Regulations made by which fifteen fellows are to be 
elected annually, who pay ten pounds on admis- 
sion, and four pounds annually, or a composition 
of sixty P'lunds, March, 1847. In consequence, the 
number of fellows was reduced from 839 in 1847 to 
626 in 1866. 
The ' ' Royal Society Scientific Fund " was founded 
in imitation of the " Literary Fund" in 1859 ; see 
Scientific Fund. 

1772. Sir John Pringle. 
1778. Sir Joseph Banks. 
1820. Dr. W. H. Wollaston. 

,, Sir Humphry Davy. 
1827. Davies Gilbert. 
1830. Duke of Sussex. 
1838. Marquis of Northampton. 
1S48, Earl of Rosse. 
1854. Lord Wrottesley. 
1858. Sir Benjamin C. Brodie. 
1861. Major-gen. Edward Sabine. 



ROYAL SOCIETY of Edinburgh, incorporated 29 March, 1783, arose out of the 
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, founded in 1739. It received a second charter in 1811. 

ROYAL SOCIETY of Literature was founded under the auspices of king George IV. 
in 1823, and chartered 13 Sept. 1826. It awards gold medals. 



EUB 



640 



EUS 



EUBICOlSr, a small river flowing into the Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from 
Italy proper. Eomau generals were forbidden to pass this river at the head of an army. 
Julius Csesar did so, 49 b. 0. , and thereby began a revolt and deadly civil war. 

EUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by Bunsen by means of the spectrum analysis, 
and made knovra in 1861. 

EUGBY SCHOOL ("Warwickshire), was founded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff, a London 
tradesman. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the historian, entered on the duties of head-master here 
in August, 1828, and imder him the school greatly prospered. He died 12 June, 1842. 

EUGEIST, an island in the Baltic, has frequently changed masters, having been held by 
the Danes, Swedes, and French. It was transferred to Prussia in 181 5. 

EUHMKOEFFS INDUCTIOlSr COIL, see Induction. 

EULING-MACHIlSrES, used for ruling paper with faint lines, for merchants' account- 
books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious Dutchman, resident in London, in 1782, 
and were subsequently greatly improved by "Woodmason, Payne, Brown, and others. They 
were improved in Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately rendered account-books perfect 
by the numbering of the pages with types, instead of the numbers being written by a pen, so 
that a page cannot be torn out from them without being discovered. 

EUM (French rlium), ardent spirit distilled from sugar lees and molasses, deriving its 
peciTliar flavour from a volatile oil. Eum is principally made in the West Indies. The duty 
(since 1858) on colonial rum imported into the United Kingdom is 8s. 2d. per gallon. The 
duty on rum to be employed as methylated spirits was reduced in 1863. 



Imported. 
1848 
1851 . 



Gallons. I Imported. 
6,858,981 I 1853 
4,745,244 1 1855 • 
I i8s7 



Gallons. Imported. 
5,206,248 
8,714,337 
6,515,683 



Gallonn. 
7,194,738 
7,685,180 



EUMFOED MEDAL, see Soyal Society. 

EUMP PAELIAMENT, see Pride's Purge. 

EUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, Surrey. " Here king John signed Magna 
Charta, 15 June, 12 15. 

EUPEET'S LAND (N. America) ; comprehends the Hudson's Bay territories ; made a 
bishopric in 1849. 

EUSSELL ADMIlSriSTEATIOlSrS,* see Palmerston Administration, &c. 



riBST ADMiNiSTEATioN (formed On the resignation of 
sir Eobert Peel), July, 1846. 

First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

Lord chancellor, lord Cottenham (succeeded by lord 
Truro). 

lord president of the council, marquess of Lansdowne. 

Frivy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (aft. sir Charles) 
Wood. 

Foreign, home, and colonial secretaries, viscount Pal- 
merston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. 

Boards of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (aft. 
lord Broughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded 
by Mr. Labouchere). 

Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir 
Francis Thornhill Baring). 

Duchy of Lancaster, lord Campbell (succeeded by the 
earl of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth). 

Secretary at ivar, Mr. Fox Maule. 

Postmaster, marquess of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster-general, T. B. Macaulay. 

Lord John Riissell and his colleagues resigned their 
of&ces, 21 Feb. 1851 ; but were induced (after the 
failure of lord Stanley's party to form an adminis- 
tration) to return to power, 3 March following. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION (or Continuation of his 
first), March, 1851. 
First lord of the treasury, lord John Bussell. 
President of the Council, m.arquess of Lansdowne. 



lord, privy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles Wood. 

Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, sir George 
Grey, viscount Palmerston (succeeded by earL 
Granville, 22 Dec), and earl Grey. 

lord chancellor, lord Truro. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. 

Board of control, lord Broughton. 

Board of trade, Mr. Labouchere. 

Secretary at xoar, Mr. Fox Maule (aft. lord Panmure,. 
and now earl of Dalhousie). 

Postmaster-general, marquess of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster-general, earl Granville. 

Lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, &c. 

This ministry resigned 21 Feb. 1852 ; see Beriy Ad- 
ministration. 

THIRD ADMINISTRATION. (On the deceasc of lord 
Palmerston, iS Oct. 1865, earl Eussell received 
Her Majesty's commands to reconstruct the- 
administration. ) 

First lord of the treasury, John, earl RusselL 

Lord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth. 

Postmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 

President of the poor-law board, Chas. Pelham Villiers. 

lord president of the council, George, earl Granville. 

lord privy seal, George, duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. E. Gladstone. 

Secretaries— foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; 
colonies, Edward Cardwell ; Jiome, sir George Grey ; 



* Lord John Bussell, third son of John, duke of Bedford, was born 19 Aug. 1792; M.P. for Tavistock, 
1813 ; for London, 1841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, 1830-34; secretary for home department, 1835-9 ; 
for the colonies, 1839-41 ; first minister, July 1846 to March 1852 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852. 
to Feb. 1853 ; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855 ; secretary for the colonies, March to Nov. 
1855 ;_ secretary for foreign affairs, June 1859 to Oct. 1865, when he succeeded Lord Palmerston as 
premier ; created a peer, as earl Russell, 30 July, 1861. His motion for reform in parliament was negatived. 
in 1822 ; adopted i March, 1831 ; he introduced the registration bill and a new marriage bill in 1836. 



KUS 



641. 



EUS 



Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, George J. Goschen. 

Sccretari/ for Irelaiui, Chichester Fortescue. 

This ministry resigned, 26 June, 1S66, in consequence 

of a minority on 19 Juno (see under Reform, and 

Derby Administrations). 



EUSSELL ADMINISTEATIONS, continued. 

war, George, earl De Grey and Ripon, succeeded 

by Spencer, marqiiess of Hartington, Feb. 1866 ; 

India, sir Charles Wood, resigned (created viscount 

Halifax); succeeded by earl Be Grey, Feb. 1866. 
First lord 0/ the admiralty, Edward, dukeof Somerset. 
President of the board of trade, Thos. Milncr Gibson. 

EUSSELL INSTITUTION (Great Corara-strect, London), was founded in 1808 by sir 
Samuel Roniilly, Francis Horner, Dr. Mason Good, Henry Hallam, lord Abinger, and others. 
The building comprises a library, lecture room, news room, &c. 

EUSSELL TRIAL. William, lord Eussell's trial for complicity in the Eye-house plot 
was marked by a most touching scene. "When he supplicated to have some one near him to 
take notes to help his memory, he was answered, that any of his attendants might assist 
him ; upon which he said, " My wife is here, and will do it for me." He was beheaded in 
Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, 21 July, 1683. Lady Eussell survived him forty years, dying 29 Sept. 
1723, in her eiglity-seventh year. His attainder was reversed, i Will. III. 1689. 

EUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. The name is generally derived from the 
Eoxolani, a Slavonic tribe. Eurick, a Varangian chief, appears to have been the first to 
establish a government, 862. His descendants ruled amid many vicissitudes till 1598. The 
progress of the Russian power under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is unequalled for 
rapidity in the history of the world. The established religion of Russia is the Greek church, 
with a free toleration however of other sects, even the Mahometans. By an imperial ukase, 
in 1802, six universities were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat 
(in Livonia), Charcov, and Kasan ; but literature has made little progress, the native publi- 
cations being very few, and the best books being all translations. The Russian language, 
though not devoid of elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pronunciation : the number 
of letters and diphthongs is forty-two. The population of the empire in 1864, 77,008,448. 
By the first Russian budget (1862), the estimated revenue was 34,500,000^. ; expenditure, 
37,850,000^. 



376 
855 



904 



Russia invaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 

Baptism of Olga, widow of the Czar Igor, at 
Constantinople, about 

Ruric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Nov- 
gorod (or New City), and becomes grand duke 
[anniversary kept 20 Sept. 1S62] 

Oleg successfully invades the Greek empire 

Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the 
empei-or Basil II., and is baptized . . . 988 

The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large 
part of Russia about 1223 

The grand duke Jurie killed in battle . . 1237 

Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes 1241 

The Tartars establish the empire of the khan of 
Kaptschak, and exercise great influence in 
Russia 1242 

He is made grand duke of Russia by the 
Tartars 1252 

Tartar war, 13S0; Moscow burnt . . . 1383 

Tamerlane, after ravaging Tartary, invades 
Russia, but retires 1395 

Accession of Ivan III. the Great — able and des- 
potic ......... 1462 

The foundation of the present monarchy laid . ,, 

Ivan introduces fire-arms and cannon into 
Russia . , 1475 

Great invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of 



Ivan 



1479 



His general Svenigorod attacks them and anni- 
hilates their power 1481 

Ivan takes the title of czar 1482 

Accession of Ivan IV., a cruel tyrant . . 1533 

The English " Russian company" established . 1553 
Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade . . 1554 

Discoveiy of Siberia ,, 

The royal bodj-guard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 
Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of 

England 1579 

The race of Ruric, who had governed Russia for 

700 years, becomes extinct .... 1598 
The imposition of Demetrius (see Impostors') . 1606 
Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 

ascends the throne 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden 161 7 

Russian victories in Poland .... 1654 
First Russian vessel built 1667 



Subjugation of the Cossacks .... 1671 
Reign of Ivan and Peter I. or the Great . . 1682 

Peter sole sovereign 1689 

He visits Holland and England, and works in 

the dockyard at Deptford 1697 

Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which 
j^ he cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; 

he beheads many with his own hand . . „ 

The Russians begin their new year from i Jan. 

(but retain the old style) 1700 

War with Sweden ; Peter totally defeated by 

Charles XII. at Narva . . . 30 Nov. ,, 
Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital . 1703 

The Strelitz abolished 1704 

Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pul- 

towa, and flees to Turkey . . 8 July, 1709 
14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to colonise 

Siberia „ 

War with Turkey : Peter and his army cross 

the Pruth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; 

they escape by the energy of the empress 

Catherine, who obtains a truce " June, 1711 

Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 

added to the empire . . . • . . . 1715 
Peter visits Germany, Holland, and France . ,, 

The Jesuits expelled 1718 

Conspiracy and mysterious death of the prince 

Alexis July, ,, 

Peter II. (last of the Romanoffs) deposed, and 

the crown given to Anne of Courland . . 1730 
Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in pre- 
judice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is impri- 
soned for life 1741 

Peter III. dethroned and murdered, succeeded 

by Catherine his wife 1762 

Ivan VI., the rightful heir, tiU now immured, 

put to death 1764 

Rebellion of the Cossacks, 1774; suppressed . 1775 
Dismemberment of Poland; commenced by 

Catherine (see Poland), 1772 ; completed . 1795 
Successful invasions of the Crimea . . 1769-84 
Catherine gives her subjects a new code of 
laws ; aboHshes torture in punishing crimi- 
nals ; and dies 1796 

Unsuccessful war with Persia . . . . ,, 
Russian treaty with Austria and England . 1798 

T T 



RUS 



642 



EUS 



RUSSIA, continued. 

Suwarrow with an army joins the Austrians, 

and checks the French in Italy ^ . . . 1799 
Mental derangement of Paul .... 1800 
He is murdered . . . .24 March, 1801 
Accession of Alexander I. (who makes peace 

with England) „ 

He joins tlie coalition against Fi-ance . April, 1805 
Allies defeated at Austerlitz . . 2 Dec. ,, 

Treaty of Tilsit with France . . 7 July, 1807 

Eussians defeated by the Turks, near Silistria 

26 Sept. 1809 
War with France .... June, 1812 

The Eussians defeated at Smolensko, 17 Aug. ; 

and at the Borodino .... 7 Sept. ,, 
Moscow burnt by the Eussians, 14 Sept. ; re- 
treat of the French ... 19 Sept. „ 
Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 
1813 ; entered Paris .... March, 1814 

He visits England June, , , 

Alexander forms the Holy Alliance . . . 1815 
The grand duke Constantine renounces the 

right of succession . . . .26 Jan. 1822 
Death of Alexander, i Dec. ; Pestal's conspiracy 
against Nicholas I. ; insurrection of troops at 
Moscow ; suppressed . . . 26-29 -Dec. 1825 
Emperor Nicholas crowned at Moscow, 3 Sept. 1826 
Eussian war against Persia . . .28 Sept. ,, 
Nicholas visits England ; invested with the 

order of the Garter ... 9 July, 1827 
Peace between Eussia and Persia . 22 Feb. 1828 
"War between Eussia and the Ottoman Porte 

declared (see Turkey, a.ud. Baltles)] . 26 April, ,, 
Peace of Adrianople .... 14 Sept. 1829 
The war for the independence of Poland against 

Eussia (see Poland) ... 29 Nov. 1830 
Failure of the expedition again Khiva . Jan. 1840 
Treaty of London (see (Syria) . . 15 July, ,, 
The emperor Nicholas arrives in London, i June, 1844 
The grand duke Constantine arrives at Ports- 
mouth in the Ingermanland, of 74 guns, 9 June, 1846 
[For the participation of Eussia in the Hunga- 
rian war of 1848-9, see Hungari/.J 
Eussia demands the expulsion of the Hun- 
garian and Polish refugees from Turkey (see 

Turkey) S Nov. 1849 

They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor Jan. 1850 
Conspiracy against the life and policy of the 

emperor detected 6 Jan. ,, 

Harbour of Sebastopol completed . . Feb. ,, 
The emperor decrees seven men in each thou- 
sand of the population of "Western Eussia to 
be enrolled in the army, giving a total in- 
crease of 180,000 soldiers . . . Aug. ,, 
The czar visits Vienna .... 8 May, 1852 
Concentrates his forces on the frontiers of 

Turkey Feb. 1853 

Origin of the Eusso-TuRiiiSHwar(M)/i2c7i see, and 

Holy Places) March, ,, 

Conference between the emperors of Eussia 

and Austria at Olmutz . . . 24 Sept. ,, 
And king of Prussia at Warsaw . . 2 Oct. ,, 
Interview of Mr. J. Sturge and other quakers 

with the czar to obtain xDcace . . Feb. 1854 
Ten northern provinces put in a state of siege 

S March, ,, 
The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; 
he will combat only for the faith and Chris- 
tianity 23 April, „ 

Death of the czar Nicholas, and accession of 

Alexander II. ; no change of policy, 2 March, 1855 
Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at 

Nicolaieff) 3 Nov. „ 

He visits his army at Sebastopol . 10 Nov. ,, 
Death of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74 

I Feb. 1856 
Treaty of peace at Paris . . 30 March, ,, 
Amnesty granted to the Poles, 27 May ; five 
political offenders, &c. ; Alexander II. crowned 

at Moscow 7 Sept. ,, 

Manifesto on account of the English and French 
interference in the affairs of Naples . 2 Sept. ,, 



St. Petersburg and Warsaw railway begun by 
government, 1851 ; ceded to Great Eussian 
railway company (about 335 miles, the half 
completed) 1856 

Grand duke Constantine visits France and 
England April, 1857 

The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stut- 
gardt, 25 Sept. ; and the emperor of Austria 
at Weimar i Oct. ,, 

Partial emancipation of the serfs on the impe- 
rial domains 2 July, 1858 

A Eussian naval station established at Villa 
Franca, on the Mediterranean, creates some 
political excitement .... Aug. „ 

New commercial treaty with Great Britain 

12 Jan. 1859 

Eussia reproves the warlike movements of the 
German confederation during the Italian war 

27 May, ,, 

The czar protests against the recognition of the 
sovereignty of peoples . . -13 Feb. 1S60 

Fruitless meetings of the emperors of Eussia 
and Austria and the regent of Prussia at 
Warsaw 20-25 Oct. ,, 

Treaty with China, for enlargement of com- 
merce ...... I Jan. 1861 

Decree for the total emancipation of the serfs 
(23,000,000) throughout the empire in two 
years 3 March, ,, 

Demonstrations and repression in Poland 
(which see) .^ .... Feb. -April, ,, 

Disturbances in South Eussia, caused by an 
impostor asserting himself to be a descendant 
of Peter III. ; many peasants shot or flogged 

May and June, „ 

Inundations at Kiev, Moscow; 615 houses under 
water May, „ 

Death of prince Michael Gortschakoff, governor 
of Poland 30 May, „ 

Student riots at the university of St. Peters- 
burg, which is closed, 6-9 Oct. ; reopened 

24 Oct. ,, 

The nobles sign a petition for a political consti- 
tution Nov. ,, 

Increased privileges granted to the Jews 26 Jan. 1S62 
Death of Nesselrode, the chancellor of the 
empire ...... 20 March, ,, 

Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg and 
Moscow ; the government suppresses various 
educational institutions . . . June, ,, 
Eussia recognises the kingdom of Italy, 10 July, , , 
Anniversary of the foundation of the establish- 
ment of the Eussian monarchy at Novgorod, 

celebrated 20 Sept. ,, 

Ee-organisation of the departments of justice 
decreed; juries to be employed in trials, &c. 

14 Oct. ,, 
Trade tax bill introduced, admitting foreigners 

to merchants' guilds, &c. . . 26 Nov. „ 

Insurrection in Poland . . 22-24 J^n- 1^63 

[For events, see Poland.1 

Termination of serfdom . . . 3 March, ,, 

Provincial institutions established throughout 
Eussia 13 Jan. 1C64 

Great victory over the Oubykhs in the Cau- 
casus, 31 March; emigration of the Caucasian 
tribes into Turkey, April ; submission of the 
Aibgas ; the war declared to be at an end 

2 June ,, 

The czarowitch betrothed to the princess Dag- 
mar of Denmark .... 28 Sept. ,, 

Serfdom abolished in the Trans-Caucasian pro- 
vinces ; new judicial system promulgated Dec. ,, 

The Eussian nobles request the empei'or to 
estabhsh two houses of representatives 
[declined] 24 Jan. 1865 

New province, "Turkestan," in central Asia, 
created 14 Feb. „ 

The czarowitch Nicholas dies at Nice, 24 April, ,, 

Industrial exhibition at Moscow closes, 16 July, „ 



RUS 



643 



RUS 



RUSSIA, contimted. 

Censorship of the press relaxed ; law begins 

13 Sept. 

Rupture with the pope, on account of Russian 

severity to Polish clergy . Jan. and Feb. 

Assembly of the uobihty ; short, stormy session 

March, 
Inauguration of trial by jury in Russia, 8 Aug. 
Karakozow attempts to assassinate the czar, 16 
April ; after long investigation iato the origin 
of the jjlot, he is executed . . 15 Sept. 
War with Bokhara ; conflicts with varying re- 
sults ; Russians advance in May, elseq. ; ended 

Nov. 

Marriage of prince Alexander, heir to the 

crown, to princess Dagmar of Denmark, 

9 Nov. 



iS6s 
1S66 



I Emancipation of many state serfs in Poland 
1 II Nov. 

I Three decrees for abolishing the remains of 
Polish nationality . . . . i Jan. 
; Congress of Slavonian deputies at Moscow 

j 5 Mfiy. 

' Russian America sold to the United States for 

1 7,ooo,ooodollars, by treaty, 13 March; ratified 

I 15 May, 

Amnesty in favour of the Poles . 29 May, 

The czar visits Paris {v:hicli see) . . June, 

Escapes assassination by Berezowski, a Pole 

June, 
Russian circular censuring Turkish policy in 

Candia about iS Oct. 

i See Poland. 



1866 
1867 



SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA. 



IIS7- . 
II75- 



DUKES OF KIOV. 

85o.?Rurick. 

879. Oleg. 

913. Igor I. 

945. Olga, regent. 

955. Swiatoslaw I. 

973. Jaropalk I. 

980. Vladimir, Wladimir, or "Waldimirl., styled the 

Great. 
1015. Swiatopalk. 
1018. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
1054. Isiaslaw I. 
1073. Swiatoslaw TI. 
1078. Wsewolod I. 
1093. Swiatopalk II. 
1113. Vladimir II. 
1125. Mitislaw. 
1132. Jaropalk II. 

1 1 38. ( Wiatschelaw. 

1139. ( Wsewolod II. 

1146. ] Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. 
1153. I Rostislaw. 

1149. Jurie or George I. ; the city of Moscow was 
built by this duke. 

GRAND-DUKES AT WLADIMIR. 

Andi'ew I. imtil 1175 ; first grand-duke. 
I Michael I. 
II 77. Wsewolod III. 
1213. J Jurie or George II. 
1217-18. \ Constantino. 
1238. Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 
1245. Alexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint. 
1263. Jaraslaw III. 
1270. Vasali or Basil I. 
1275. Dmitri or Demetrius I. 
1281. Andrew II. 
1294. Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 
1303. Jurie or George III. ; deposed. 
1305. Michael III. 
1320. VasaU or BasU II. 
1325. Jurie or George III. : restored. 

1327. Alexander II. 

[The dates are doubtful, owing to the difiSiculty 
that occurs at every step in early Russian 
annals. ] 

GRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 

1328. Ivan or John I. 

1340. Simon, sumamed the proud. 

1353. Ivan or John II. 

1359. Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 

1362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. 

1389. VasaU or Basil III. Temnoi. 

1425. Vasali or BasU IV. 

CZARS OF MITSCOVY. 

1462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title 
of czar 1482. 



1505. Vasali or Basil V. obtained the title of emperor 

from Maximilian I. 
1533. Ivan IV. the terrible. 
1584. Feodor or Theodor I. ; and his son, Demetrius, 

murdered by his successor, 
1598. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 

1605. Feodor II., murdered. 

1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish 

monk ; pretended to be the murdered prince 

Demetrius ; put to death. 
,, Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 
1610. Ladislaus of Poland ; retired 16x3. 
1613. ]\Iiohael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanof , 

descended from the czar Ivan-Basilovitz. 
1645. Alexis, son of the preceding, styled the father 

of his country. 
1676. Feodor or Theodor II. 
,„ ( Ivan V. and 
I0B2. I Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 

EMPERORS. 

1689. Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of 

emperor in 1728, founded St. Petersburg, 

and elevated the empire. 
1725. Catherine I. his consort ; at first the wife of a 

Swedish dragoon, who is said to have been 

killed on the day of marriage. 
1727. Peter II. son of Alexis- Petrovitz, and grandson 

of Peter the Great : deposed. 
1730. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the 

czar Ivan. 

1740. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the 

Great ; immured in a dungeon for 18 years ; 
murdered in 1764. 

1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned 

during Ivan's captivity. 

1762. Peter III. son of Anno and of Charles-Fre- 
derick, duke of Holstem-Gottorp : deposed, 
and died soon after, supposed to have been 
murdered. 
,, Catherine II. his consort : a great sovereign ; 
extended the Russian territories on all 
sides ; died in 1796. 

1796. Paul, her son ; murdered. 

1 801. Alexander, his son ; who, after many adverse 
battles, and a forced alliance with Franco, 
at length aided in the overthrow of Napo- 
leon Bonaparte. 

1825. Nicholas, brother to Alexander; succeeded 

1 Dec. 1825. 

1855. Alexander II. son of Nicholas, bom 29 April, 
1818 ; succeeded at his father's death, 

2 March, 185.5 ; married 28 April, 1841, Mary 
princess of Hesse ; the present emperor. 

Heir : his son Alexander, born 10 March, 1845 ; married 
Dagmar, princess of Denmark, 9 Nov. i805 ; 
son, Nicholas, bom 18 May, 1868. 



RUSSIA COMPANY, see Riissia, 1553-4. 



T T 2 



RUS 



644 



EUS 



EUSSO-TURKISH WAR.* The Russian and French governments having each taken 
. a side in the dispute between the Greek and Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of 
the Holy Places (ivhich sec) in Palestine, the Porte advised the formation of a mixed com- 
mission, which decided in favour of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly, 
9 March, 1853 : to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. 



The Russians make further claims, and prince 
Jlenschikoflf (who arri\'ed at Constantinople 
28 Feb. 1853), by various notes (between 
22 March and 18 May), demands that a con- 
vention should be signed by the sultan 
granting to the czar such a protectorate over 
the Greek Christians in Turkey, as the sultan 
considered inimical to his own authority 

22 March-i8 May, 1853 
Menschikoff's ultimatum rejected ; he quits 

Constantinople 21 May, „ 

The sultan issues a hatti-scherif confirming all 
the rights and privileges of the Greek 
Christians, and appeals to his allies June 6, ,, 
The English and French fleets anchor in Besika 

Bay 13 June, ,, 

The Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the 

Pruth and enter Moldavia . . 2 July, ,, 
Circular of count Nesseli'ode in justification, 2 

July; lord Clarendon's reply . . 16 July, ,, 
The conference of representatives of England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
agree to a note, 31 July : accepted by the czar, 
10 Aug. ; the sultan requires modifications, 
ig Aug. ; which the czar rejects . 7 Sept. ,, 

Two English and two French ships enter the 

Dardanelles 14 Sept. ,, 

The sultan (with consent of a great national 

council) declares war against Russia 5 Oct. „ 
The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a 

Russian flotilla (the first act of war) 23 Oct. „ 
The Turks cross the Danube at Widdin and 

occupy Kalafat . . . .28 Oct.-3 Nov. ,, 
Russia declares war against Turkey . i Nov. ,, 
English and French fleets enter Bosphorus 

2 Nov. ,, 
Russians defeated at Oltenitza . . 4 Nov. ,, 
Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskm-, 

and Achaltzik . . . . 14, 18, 26 Nov. ,, 
Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope . 30 Nov. ,, 
Collective note from the four powers requiring 
to know on what terms the Porte will nego- 
tiate for peace 5 Dec. ,, 

Contests at Kalafat . . 31 Dec. 1853-9 •^^^- 1854 
At the request of the Porte (5 Dec), the allied 

fleets enter the Black Sea . . . 4 Jan. ,, 
Russians defeated at Citate . . . 6 Jan. „ 
Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, con- 
taining four points as bases of negotiation : 
viz. I. The promptest possible evacuation 
of the principalities. 2. Revision of the 
treaties. 3. Maintenance of religious privi- 
leges to the communities of all confessions. 
4. A definitive settlement of the convention 
respecting the Holy Places (dated 31 Dec), — 
approved by the four powers . . 13 Jan. „ 
Vienna conferences close ... 16 Jan. , , 
Kalafat invested by the Russians 28-31 Jan. „ 
Proposal in a letter from the emperor of Prance 

to the czar (29 Jan.) declined . . 9 Feb. ,, 
Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the 
Russians under Schilders . . .15 Feb. ,, 



Ultimatum of England and France sent to St. 

Petersburg 27 Feb. 

The czar " did not judge it suitable to give an 

answer " 19 March, 

Baltic fleet sails, mider sir C. Napier 11 March, 
Treaty between England, Prance, and Turkey 

12 March, 

Russians under Gortschakoflt pass the Danube 

and occupy the Dobrudscha : severe conflicts ; 

the Turks retire . . .23, 24 March, 

France and England declare war against Russia 

27, 28 March, 

Rupture between Turkey and Greece 28 March, 

Gen. Canrobert and French troops amve at 

Gallipoli, soon after followed by the English 

31 March, 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Kal-akai 

30 May, 

English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, 

fired on at Odessa .... 8 April, 

Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna, 

guaranteeing the integrity of Turkey and civil 

and religious rights of her Christian subjects 

10 April, 

Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mustapha 

Pacha 10 April, 

Offensive and defensive alliance between 

England and France ... 10 April, 

Treaty between Austria and Prussia 20 April 

Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 April, 

Russians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat; 

repulsed ; the blockade raised 19-21 April, 

The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, 

captured by the Russians . . .12 May, 

Russians defeated at Turtukai . 13 May, 

Siege of Silistria begun . . . 17 M,ay, 

Allied armies disembark at Varna . 29 May, 

Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets 

1 June, 
Russians repulsed at Silistria ; Paskiewitsch 
and many officers wounded . . 5 June, 
Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) 16 June, 
Severe conflict before Silistria ; the siege raised 
18-26 June, 
Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by 

capt. Parker 26, 27 June 

Captain Parker killed .... 8 July, 
Russians defeated at Giurgevo . 7 July, 

10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for 

the Baltic 15 July, 

Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, 29, 30 

July ; and near Kars . . . .5 Aug. 

Surrender of Bomarsund . . . 16 Aug. , 

[In July and August the allied armies and 

fleets in the east suffered severely from 

cholera. ] 

The Russians defeated by Schamyl in Georgia 

about 28 Aug. , 
They evacuate the principalities Aug. -20 Sept. , 
By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) 
the Austrians, under count Cor6nini, enter 
Buchai-est 6 Sept. , 



854 



* In 1844, when the czar was in England, he conversed with the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen 
(whom he had known many years) respecting the dissolution of the Turkish empire ; and on his return 
he embodied his views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, which was transmitted to 
London, but kept secret till March 1854. In January and February of that year the czar had several con- 
versations on the subject with the British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour, in one of which 
(Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a " sick man " in a state of decrepitude, on the point of death, and made 
proposals to the British government as to the disposal of his property. He stated frankly that he would 
not permit the British to establish themselves at Constantinople ; but said in another conversation, he 
would not object to their possessing Egypt. The purport of these conversations was conveyed in des- 
patches to lord John Russell, who replied that the British government declined to make any provision for 
the contingency of the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals to the French government with 
the same result. 



RUS 



645 



EYE 



KUSSO-TURKISH WAR, continued. 

Allies sail from Varna, 3 Sept. and land at Old Defeat of the Russians at the Tchcmaya i6Aug^ 1855 

Fort, near Eupatoria* . . . 14 Sci:)t. 1854 
Skirmish at the Bulganac . . .19 Sept. ,, 
Battle of the Alma (see Alma) . . 20 Sept. ,, 
Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol 

23 Sept. ,, 
AiUes occupy Balaklava . . 26 Sept. ,, 

Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . 29 Sept. ,, 
General Uanrobert, his succe.'isor . . 24 Nov. , , 
Siege of Sebastopol commenced — grand attack 

(without success) .... 17 Oct. ,, 
Battle of Balaklava— charge of the light cavalry, 

vsrith severe loss 25 Oct. ,, 

Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals 

Evans and Bosquet ... 26 Oct. , , 
Russian attack at Inkerman ; defeated 5 Nov. ,, 
Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari 

6 Nov. ,, 
Great tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the 

Prince and store vessels . . 14-16 Nov. ,, 
Treaty of alliance between England, France, 
Austria, and Prussia — a commission to meet 
at Vienna ; signed .... 2 Dec. ,, 

Russian sortie 20 Dec. ,, 

Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (followed by 

the Turkish army from Varna) . . 5 Jan. 1855 
Sardinia joins England and France . 26 Jan. ,, 
Great sufferings in the camp from cold and 

sickness Jan. and Feb. ,, 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria 

17 Feb. „ 
Death of emperor Nicholas ; accession of Alex- 
ander II. (no change of policy) . 2 March, ,. 
Sortie from the Malakhoff tower . 22 March, ,, 
Capture of Russian ritle-pits . . 19 April, ,, 
Arrival of Sardinian contingent . . 8 May, 
Resignation of gen. Canrobert, succeeded by 

gen, Pelissier 16 May, 

Desperate night combats . . . 22-24 May, 

Expedition into the sea of Azoff (under sir E. " English . ._ . . . . 2 Jan. 1856 

Lyons and sir G. Brown) ; destruction of 
Kertch and large amount of stores, 24 May- 

3 June, 
Taganrog bombarded . . . .3 June, 
Massacre of an English boat's crew with fiag of 
truce at Hango .... 5 June, 
Russians evacuate Anapa . . .5 June, 
The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken 

6, 7 June, 
Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff tower 

and Redan 18 June, 

Death of lord Raglan ; succeeded by general 

Simpson 28 June, 

Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by 

gen. Williams 15 July, 

Bombardment of Sweaborg . . 9 Aug. 

RUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in the ore of platinum by M. Clans, in 1845. 

RUTHERFORD'S ACT, Loed (13 & 14 Vict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings 
in Scotland, passed 1850. 

RUTHVEN, Raid of, a term applied to the seizure of the person of James VI. of 
Scotland by William Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, in 1582, to compel the king 
to dismiss his favourites, Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowrie was judicially put 
to death by his two opponents in 1584. 

RYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some think pretended) to secure the succession of the duke 
of Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke of York (afterwards James II.), a 
Roman catholic. Some of the conspirators are said to have projected the assassination of 
the king, Charles II., and his brother. This design is said to have been frustrated by the 
king's house at Newmarket accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away 
eight days before the plot was to take place, 22 March, 1683 ; see Neiumarket. The plot 
was discovered 12 June following. Lord William Russell on 21 July, and Algernon Sidney 

* 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful artillery were landed in one day. 

t The English lost : killed in action and died of wounds about 3500 ; died of cholera, 4244 ; of other 
diseases nearly 16.000 ; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 270 officers); 2873 were disabled. The war added 
to the national debt 41,041,000/. The French lost about 63.500 men : the Russians about half a million. 
The army suffered greatly by sickness ; see Scutari, Times, and MgldingaU. 



Defeat of the Russians at the Tchcmaya 16 Aug. 
Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff 
taken ; Russian sortie repulsed . 18 Aug. 
The French take the Malakhoff {which see) by 
assault ; the English assault the Redan with- 
out success ; the Russians retire from Sebas- 
topol to the North Forts, and the allies enter 
the city ; the Russians destroy or sink the 
remainder of their fleet . . Sept. 8 &c. 
Tanan and Fanagoria captured . . 24 Sept. 
The Russians assaulting Kars are defeated with 

grent loss 29 Sept. 

Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 pri- 
soners) at Koughil, near Eupatoria, by the 

French 29 Sept. 

Kinburzi taken 17 Oct. 

Russians blow up Oczakofl . . 18 Oct. 
Large s:ores of corn destroyed near Gheisk, in 

the sea of Azoff 4 Nov. 

Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the 
Ingour by the Turks under Omar Pacha 

6 Nov. 
The czar visits his army near Sebastopol 

10 Nov. 

Sir Wm. Codrington takes the command in 

room of gen. Siaipson . . 14 Nov. 

Explosion of 100,000 lbs. of powder in the 

French siege-train at Inkerman, with great 

loss of life IS Nov. 

Sweden joins the allies by a treaty . 21 Nov. 
Capitulation of Kars to gen. Mouravieff, after 
a gallant defence by gen. Wilhams 26 Nov. 
Death of admiral Bruat ... 27 Nov. 
Russian attack on the French posts at Baidar 

repulsed 8 Dec. 

Proposals of peace from Austria, with the 
consent of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg 

12 Dec. 
Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the 

English 2 Jan. 

Council of war at Paris .... 11 Jan. 
Protocol signed accepting the Austrian proposi- 
tions as a basis of negotiation for peace 

I Feb. 
Desti'uction of Sebastopol docks . . i Feb. 
Reijort of sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch on 
state of the army before Sebastopol, pub- 
lished 5 Feb. 

Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice 
till 31 March agreed on . . .25 Feb. 
Suspension of hostilities . . 29 Feb. 

Treaty of peace concluded at Paris 30 March, 
Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 2 April, 

in London 29 April, 

The Crimea evacuated . . . 9 July, f 



EYS 646 SAC 

on 7 Dec. following, suffered death for being concerned in this conspiracy. The name 
Avas derived from the conspirators' place of meeting, the Rye-house at Broxbourne, Hert- 
fordshire. 

E.YSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated peace was concluded between England, 
France, Spain, and Holland, signed, by their representatives, 20 Sept., and by the emperor 
of Germany, 30 Oct. 1697. 



S. 

SAALFBLD (Saxony, IST. Germany). Here the Prussians, under prince Louis of Prussia, 
were defeated and their leader slain by the French under Lannes, 10 Oct. 1806. 

SABBATAEIANS. Traces exist of Sabbatarii, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the 
l6th century on the continent. Upon the publication of the " Book of Sports" in 1618, a 
violent controversy arose among English divmes on two points : first, whether the Sabbath 
of the fourth commandment was in force among Christians ; and secondly, whether, and on 
what ground, the first day of the week was entitled to be distinguished and observed as 
"the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus Brabourne, a clergyman, published the first work in 
favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the true Christian SabJaath. He and several others 
suffered great persecution for this opinion ; but after the restoration there were three or four 
congregations observing the last day of the week for public worship in London, and seven or 
eight in the country parts of England. In 1851 there were three Sabbatarian or Seventh-day 
Baptist congregations in England ; but in America (especially in the New England states) 
they are more numerous. 

SABBATH : ordained by God. Gen. ii. ; Exocl. xx. 8; Isaiali Iviii. 13. Jews observe 
the seventh day in commemoration of the creation of the world, and of their redemption 
from the bondage of the Egyptians ; Christians observe the first day of the week in com- 
memoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of man ; see 
Sunday. 

SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first " Sabbath school " was founded by Ludwig Hacker 
between the years 1 740 and 1 747, at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, among the 
German Seventh-day Baptists there. The school-room was used as an hospital after the 
battle of Brandywine, fought in 1777. This event occasioned the breaking up of the schools, 
about five years before the first Sunday-school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by 
Eobert Eaikes, about 1 782 ; see Sunday Sclwols. 

SABBATICAL YEAE : a Jewish institution,. 149 1 B.C. Every seventh year, during 
which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; and every forty-ninth year all 
debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c., that were before sold or mort- 
gaged, returned to their original families, &c. Josephus. 

SABELLIANISM, fi.-om Sabellius (of Ptolemais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd 
century, and who taught that there was but one person in the Godhead, the other persons of 
the Trinity being bat different names of the same person. This doctrine was condemned at 
a council at Eome, 260. 

SABINES, from whom the Eomans, under Eomulus, took away their daughters by force, 
having invited them to some public sports or shows on purpose. When the Sabines deter- 
mined to revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf of their 
husbands, the Eomans, and a lasting peace was made between them, 750 B. c. After many 
conflicts, the Sabines became a part of the Eoman people, about 266 B.C. One of the eccle- 
siastical provinces is still called Terra Sabina ; chief town, Magliano. 

SACHEVEEEL EIOTS, see Eiots, 1710. 

SACEAMENT (from sacramentum, an oath, obligation, also mystery). The Christian 
sacraments are baptism and the Lord's supper. The council of Trent, in 1547, aSirmed the 
doctrine of the schoolmen that there are seven sacraments : baptism, the Lord's supper, con- 
firmation, penance, holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. The name was given to 
the Lord's supper by the Latin fathers. The wine was laid aside, and commmiion by the 
laity under one form alone, that of bread, took its rise in the West, under pope Urban II. 
1096. _ M. de Marca. Communion in one kind only was authoritatively sanctioned by the 
council of Constance, in 1414. Dr. Hooh. Henry VIII. of Germany was poisoned by a 
priest in the consecrated wafer, 13 14. The sacramental wine was poisoned by the grave- 
digger of the church at Ziirich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of persons lost their 
lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614, by the Test act, all members of . both houses of parliament 



SAC 6-17 SAI 

were ordered to take the sacrament, as a guard against the introduction of Eoman catholics. 
Tlie act Avas repealed in 1828 ; see TransubslanticUion. 

SACRAMENTO, St., a Portuguese settlement in S. America, claimed by Spain in 
1680, but relinquished in 1713 ; several times seized; ceded in 1777; acquired by Brazil 
in 1825. 

SACRED HARMONIC SOCIETY, see Music. 

SACRED "WARS. — I. Declared by the Amphictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for 
robbery and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 B.C. Cirrha was razed to the ground, 
5S6. — II. Between the Phociaus and Delphians for the possession of the temjile at Delphi, 
448, 447. — III. The Phocians, on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, seized the 
temple, 357. They were conquered by Philip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, 346. 

SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel, 3875 B.C. Sacrifices 
to the gods were introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, kingof Argos, 1773 B.C. Human 
sacrifices seem to have originated with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into 
other Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God were to cease with the sacrifice of 
Christ, 33. Hcb. x. 12-14. -Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the emperor Constantius II. 
341- 

SACRILEGE. In 1835, the punishment (formerly death) was made transportation for 
life. By 23 & 24 Vict. c. 96, s. 50 {1861), breaking into a place of worship and stealing there- 
from was made punishable with penal servitude for life. 

SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles 
were in use in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made of leather in 304, and were known 
in England about 600. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by Anne, queen of Richard 
II. in 1388. Stoiv. 

SADDtrCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have been founded bySadoc, a scholar of An tigonus, 
about 2CX3 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught that there was neither 
heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and that tliere was no resur- 
rection of the body from the dead. The Sadducees were opposed by the Pharisees. 

SADLER'S WELLS (N. London), so called after Mr. SacUer, who built an orchestra to 
entertain the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. In time the orchestra was 
enclosed, and the building became a place for dramatic performances. The present theatre, 
was opened in 1765. Eighteen persons were trampled to death at this theatre, on a false 
alarm of fire, 15 Oct. 1807 ; see under Theatres. 

SADOWA, see Koniggratz. 

SAFETY-LAMP. One was invented in 18115 by sir Humphry Davy, to prevent acci- 
dents which happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle 
that flame, in passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be 
capable of igniting inflammable gases. It should be mentioned, that the father of all 
safety-lamps is Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are 
authenticated in i\i(i ' Transactions of the Society of Arts for 181 7. A safety -lamp, the 
" Geordy," was constructed by George Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815. A miner's electric 
light, by MM. Dumas and Benoit, was exhibited inParison 8 Sept. 1862 ; on 14 Aug. 1867, 
safety-lamps were rigidly tested by several mining engineers, and serious doubts thrown 
upon their complete efl&cacy. 

SAFFRON {Saffran, French ; Saffrano, Italian), the flower of crocus was first brought to 
Enghmd in tlie reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, probably from Arabia, as the 
word is from the Arabic saphar. Miller. It was cultivated in England in 1582 ; and the 
best grows in Essex, between Cambridge and Saflfron "Walden. 

SAGE {Sauge, French ; Salvia, Latin), a wholesome herb, comfortable to the brain and 
nerves. Mortimer. A species of this garden plant grew early in England, and some varieties 
were imported. . The Mexican sage. Salvia mcxicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The 
blue African sage. Salvia africa.na, and the golden African sage, Salvia aurea, were brought 
to England from the Cape of Good Hope in 173 1. 

SAGUNTUM (now Mtirviedro), in Valencia, E. Spain, renowned for the dreadful siege 
it sustained, 219 B.C. The citizens, after performing incredible acts of valour for eight 
mouths, chose to be bmied in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. 
They burnt themselves, with their houses, and the conqueror became master of a pile of 
ashes, 218 B.C. 

SAILORS' HOME, in "Wells-street, London Docks, established by Mr. George Green in 
1835. In one year it admitted 5444 boarders, who, besides a home, had evening instruction, 



SAI 648 SAL 

the use of a savings' bank, &c. The establishment is self-supporting, aided by subscriptions. 
Similar institutions have since been established. 

SAINT. For names with this prefix, see the names themselves throughout the book. 

SALADO, a river, S. Spain ; see Tarifa. 

SALADS, introduced into England from the Low Countries, 1520-47. 

SALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the Saracens 861. The university was founded 
1240, and the cathedral built 15 13. Near here the British and allies, commanded by lord 
"Wellington, totally defeated the French army vmder marshal Marmont, 22 July, 1812. The 
loss of the victors was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 
6000 men. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7 141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands 
of colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed by the capture of Madrid. 

SALAMIS (near Athens). In a great sea-fight here, 20 Oct. 480 B.C., Themistocles, 
the Greek commander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, king of Persia, 
which consisted of 2000 sail.- — Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated the Persian 
fleet, 449 B.C. ; and Demetrius Pohorcetes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and his allies, 
306 B.C. 

SALASSI, a turbulent alpine tribe, were thoroughly subdued by Terentius Yarro, 
25 B.C., and a Eoman colony established in their territories (now Aosta). 

SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean, northward of the Cape of Good Hope. Here 
on 17 Aug. 1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was captured by vice-admiral sir 
George Keith Elphinstoue, without resistance ; sir George was created lord Keith. 

_ SALENCKEMEN, on the Danube. Here a victory was gained by the imperialists, tinder 
prince Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, 
19 Aug. 169 1. . ' 

SALERNO (Salernum, S. Italy), an ancient Roman colony. Its university, witli a cele- 
brated school of medicine, reputed to be the oldest in Europe, was founded by Eobert Guis- 
card the N'orman, who seized Salerno in 1077. Salerno suffered much in the wars of 
the middle ages. 

SALIQUE or Salic Law, by which females are excluded from inheriting the crown of 
France, is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, and ratified in a council of state 
by Clovis I., the real founder of the French, monarchy, in 511. BenauU. This law prevailed 
long in Spain, but was formally abolished, March, 1830; and on the death of Ferdinand YII. 
his daughter succeeded to the sceptre as Isabella II., 29 Sept. 1833 ; see Spain. By this 
law also Hanover was separated from England, when queen Yictoria ascended the English 
throne, 1837. 

SALISBURY (Wilts), founded in the beginning of the 13th century, on the removal of 
the cathedral hither from Old Sarum. National 'councils or parliaments were repeatedly 
held at Salisbury, particularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by Edward III. ; and in 
1384, Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, was executed here by order of Richard III., in 
1483. — On Salisbury Plain is Stonehenge {ichich see). This plain was estimated at 
500,000 acres. On it were so may cross roads, and so few houses to take directions from, 
that Thomas, earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone from Salisbury to Shaftes- 
bury, for the traveller's guide. — The first seat of the Bishopric was at Sherborne, St. Aid- 
helm being prelate, 705. Herman removed the seat to Old Sarum, about 1072 ; and the 
see was removed to Salisbury by a papal bull, in 12 17. It has yielded to the church of 
Rome one saint and two cardinals. The building of the cathedral commenced 28 April, 
1220, and was completed in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our finest ecclesiastical 
erections. Its spire, the loftiest in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 1864, 
and subscriptions were begun for its repair (now going on, 1868). The bishopric is valued 
in the king's books at 1367Z. iis, 8d. Present income 5000?. 



EECENT BISHOPS. 

1797. Jolin Fisher, died 2 July, 1825. 
1825. Thomas Burgess, died 19 Feb. 1837. 



1837. Edmund Denison, died 6 March, 1854. 
1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton (present bishop, 18 



SALLENTINI, allies of the Samnites, the only Italian tribe not subject to Rome, were 
overcome in war in 267 and 266 B.C., and Brundisium, their port, taken. 

SALMON FISHERIES. The laM's relating to them were consolidated and amended in 
1861, and the report of a commission of inquiry (including sir Wm. Jardine) was published 
in Feb. 1862. An act restricting the exportation of salmon at certain times was passed in 
1863. During the "salmon fence," 14 Sept. to I Feb., it is unlawful to catch fish of the 
salmon kind. A salmon-fishery congress opened at South Kensington, 7 June, 1867. 

SALONICA, see Thessalonica, 



SAL 649 SAM 

SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the gas chlorine aud the metal sodium) is 
procured from rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from sea-water. The famous salt- 
mines of Wielitzka, near Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years. The salt-works 
in Cheshire, called the wiches (Nantwich, Northwich, and Middlewich), were of great 
importance in the time of the Saxon heptarchy. Since 1797 salt has been largely employed 
in the manufacture of bleaching powder (by obtaining its chlorine), and sonp (by obtaining 
its soda). On this are based the chemical works of Cheshire and Lancashire. The salt- 
mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. Salt duties were first exacted in 1702 ; 
they were renewed in 1732 ; reduced in 1823 ; and in that year were ordered to cease in 1825. 
during the French war the duty reached to 30L per ton. For the salt-tax in France, see 
Gabelle. The government monopoly in India was abolished in May, 1863, by sir C. 
Trevelj'an. 

SALT LAKE, see Mormoiiitcs. 

SALT-PETEE (from sal iictrcc, salt of the rock), or Nitre, is a compound of nitric acid 
and potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and hence is called nitrate of potash. It is 
the explosive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating powders, and lucifer matclies. 
Boyle in the 17th century demonstrated that salt-petre was composed of acpia fortis (nitric 
acid) and potash ; the discoveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) sliowed its real compo- 
sition. Its manufacture in England began about 1625. During the French revolutionary 
war, the manufacture was greatly increased by the researches of Berthollet. 

SALUTE AT Sea. It is a received maxim at sea, that he who returns the salute always 
fires fewer guns than he receives, which is done even between the ships of princes of equal 
dignity ; but the Swedes and Danes return the compliment without regarding how many 
guns are fired to them. The English claim the right of being saluted first in all places, as 
sovereigns of the seas ; the Venetians claimed this honour within their gulf, &c. ; see Flag, 
and Naval Salute. 

SALVADOPi., SAN, one of the Bahamas, and the first point of land discovered in the 
West Indies or America by Columbus. It was previously called Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, 
and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for his deliverance) named it San Salvador, 
II Oct. 1492. The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed by an earthquake, 16 April, 1854, 
and is now abandoned. 

SALVADOR, SAN, one of the republics of Central America, with a constitution esta- 
blished 24 Jan. 1859. General Barrios elected president x Feb. i860, was compelled to fly 
in Oct. 1863 ; when Francis Dueilas became provisional president ; his formal election took 
place April, 1865. The ex-president, Gerard Barrios, was surrendered by Nicaragua, tried 
and shot, Aug. 1865. 

SALZBURG, an ancient city of Germany, was annexed to Austria, 1805 ; to Bavaria, 
1809 ; to Austria again 1815. It was the birthplace of Mozart, 1756. The meeting of 
the emperors of Austria and France here, 18 Aug. 1867, which caused some anxiety, was 
reported to be in favour of peace. 

SAMANIDE DYNASTY, began with Ismail Samani, who overcame the army of the 
Safferides, and established himself in the government of Persia, 902, his descendants rided 
till 999. 

SAMARCAND (in Tartaiy) was conquered by the Mahometans, 707 ; by Genghis Khan, 
1220, and by Timur, or Tamerlane, who ruled here in great splendour. 

SAMARITANS, Samaria was built by Omri, 925 B.C. ; and became the capital of the 
kingdom of Israel. On the breaking up of that kingdom (721 B.C.), the conqueror Shal- 
maneser placed natives of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of these mixed races 
were abominable to the Jews, and much more so in consequence of the rival temple built on 
Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 332 B.C., which was destroyed by John Hyrca- 
nus, 130 B.C. ; see John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. 33. 

SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. Italj', who strenuously resisted the Roman power, 
and were not subjugated till after three sanguinary wars, from 343 to 292 B.C. Their brave 
leader, Caius Pontius, who spared the Romans at Caudium, 320, having been taken prisoner, 
was basely put to death, 292. They did not acquire the right of citizen.ship till 88 B.C. 

SAMOS, an island on the W. coast of Asia Minor. Colonised by lonians about 1043 B.C. 
The city was founded about 986. Polycrates, ruler of Sanios (532-22 B.C.), was one of 
the most able, fortunate, and treacherous of the Greek tyrants, and possessed a powerful 
fleet. He patronised Pythagoras (born here) and Anacreon. Samos was taken by the Athe- 
nians, 440 ; and, with Greece, became subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the Venetians, 
A.D. 1 125, who here made velvet {samct), and became subject to the Turks, about 1459. 



SAM 650 SAN" 

SAMPFORD COURTENAY (Devon). Here John, lord Russell, defeated tlie Cornish 
and Devonshire catholic rebels, about the middle of Aug. 1549. 

SANCTIOISr, see Pragmatw. 

SANCTUARIES, see Asylums. Privileged places for the safety of offenders are said to 
have been granted by king Lucius to churches and their precincts. St. John's of Beverley 
was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by 
Athelstan, 935 ; Westminster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Being 
much abused, the privilege of sanctuary was limited by the pope in 1503 (at the request of 
Henry VII.), and much reduced in 1540. In London, persons were secure from arrest in 
certain localities: these were the Minories, Salisbury-court, "Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, 
Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and 
the Mint. This security was abolished 1696, but lasted in some degree till the reign of 
George II. (1727). 

SANDALS, see SJioes. SANDEMANIANS, see Glasiies. 

SANDHURST, Royal Military College, founded, first at High Wycombe, in 1799 ; 
removed to Great Marlow in 1802, and to Sandhurst in 1 812. It consists of the staff college 
and cadets' college. Competitive examination for entrance into the latter began in Feb. 1858. 
A wing of the college was destroyed by fire, 21 Jan. 1868. 

SANDWICH {Partus Rittupensis, Kent). It suffered by Danish invaders in 851, 993, 
and 1014, but was rebuilt by Canute and became prosperous ; it became chief of the cinque 
jiorts about 1066. It contributed 22 ships and 504 mariners to Edward III.'s French expe- 
dition. It Avas taken and plundered by the French under Breze in Aug. 1457. Flemish silk 
and woollen manufactories were settled here by EHzabeth in 1461. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS or Hawai Archipelago, a, group in the Pacific Ocean, dis- 
covered by captain Cook in 1778. In Oivhyhee or Hmoai, one of these islands, he fell a 
victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, 14 Feb. 1779. The king and queen visited 
London in 1824, and died there in July. These people have made great progress in civilisa- 
tion, and embraced Christianity before any missionaries were settled among them. The 
present king, Kamehameha V., succeeded his brother, Nov. 1863. The preceding king, 
Kamehameha IV., married Miss Emma Rooker, 1856. She came to England in 1865 ; 
landing at Southampton, 13 July, and visited our queen, 9 Sept. An English bishopric 
was established at Honolulu in 1861, for which Dr. Thomas Staley was consecrated, 18 Aug. 
1862. 

SxVN FRANCISCO (California), owes its present prosperity to the gold discovery in 1847 > 
see California. 

SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, oi", 
as some say, seventy-three members, usually considered to be that established by Closes, 
Num. xi. 16, — 1490 B.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John xviii. 31. 
A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon I., 23 July, 1806. A meeting 
of Jewish deputies was held 18 Sept., and the Sanhedrim assembly, 9 March, 1807. 

SANITARY LEGISLATION. Strict cleanliness is enjoined in the law of Moses, 1490 
B.C. Great attention has been paid to the public health in France since 1802. Tardieu 
published his " Dictionnaire de Hygiene," 1852-54. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly 
attributable the honour of commencing the agitation on the subject of public health in 
England about 1832; his " Philosophy of Health " having excited much attention. Since 
1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been much employed by the 
government. Among the results are — 

Nuisances Removal acts passed (repealed) 1845-1860 

Baths and Washhouses act . . . 1846-1847 

Public Health, act, and subsequent Supple- 
mental acts 1848 

Common Lodging Houses act . . 1851-1853 

Labouring Classes Lodging Houses act . . 1S51 

Smoke Nuisance Abatement act (and amend- 
ment) 1853 

SAN SALVADOR, see Salvador. 

SANSCULOTTES, a term of reproach applied to the leaders of the French republican 
about 1790, on account of their negligence in dress, and afterwards assumed by them with 
]>ride. The complimentary days of their new calendar were named by the Mountain party 
Sansculottides. 

SANSKRIT, the language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Solomon, has 
been much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who published a translation of the poem, 
Sakuntala, in 1 783, discovered that a complete literature had been preserved in India, com^ 



Diseases Prevention act 1855 

Public Health act ,, 

Metropolitan Interments acts . . 1850-1855 
Labouring Classes Dwelling-house act passed 

March, 1866 
New Sanitary act (stringent) passed . Aug. ,, 



SAIT 651 SAR 

prising sacred books (the Yedas), histoiy and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts 
and translations of many works have been published by the aid of the East India Company, 
the Oriental Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of Sanskrit at Ox- 
ford was founded by colonel Boden. The first professor, H. H. Wilson, appointed in 1833, 
translated part of the Eig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of the Brahmins, and several 
poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams (elected i860), published an English 
and Sanskrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max Miiller published his History of Sanskrit 
Literature in 1859, and has edited part of the original text of the Vedas. Philologists have 
discovered an intimate connection between the Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, 
Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. 

SANTA CEUZ (Teneriffo, Canary Isles). Here admiral Blake, by daring bravery, 
entirely destroyed sixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill, and protected by 
the castle and forts on the shore, 20 April, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuccessful attack 
made upon Santa Cruz by Kelson, several officei'S and 141 men Avere killed, and the admiral 
lost his right arm, 24 Julj', 1797.* 

SANTA FE DE BOGOTA, see New Granada. 

SANTA HERMANDAD, see Hermandad. 

SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA (N.W. Spain), was sacked by the Moors in 995, and 
held by them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. The order of Santiago, or St. 
James, was founded about 11 70 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. James, said to be 
buried in the cathedral. The town was taken by the French in 1809, and held till 1814. — 
Santiago, the capital of Chili, S. America, Avas founded by Valdiiia in 1541, has suffered 
much by earthquakes, especially in 1822 and 1829. 

About seven o'clock in the evening of S Dec. 1863, j ments, and above 2000 persons, principallj' women, 

the feast of the Immaculate Conception of the ' perished ; the means 01 egress being utterly insuf- 

Virgiu Mary, and the last day of a series of reli- ; ficient. 

gious celebrations in the " month of Mary," the \ On 20 Dee. the government ordered the church to 

church of the Campania, when brilliantly illumi- : be razed to the ground, and much public indig- 

nated in a dangerous manner, was burnt down, j nation was excited against the fauixtical priest- 

the fiire beginning amidst the combustible orna- | hood. 

SAPPERS AND Miners, a name given in 1812 to the non-commissioned officers and pri- 
vates of the corps of Royal Engineers. Brande. 

SAPPHIC VERSE, invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mitylene. She was equally 
celebrated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth of her native 
country, on which last account it is said she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, 
and was drowned, about 590 B.C. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honours, 
and called her the tenth muse, 594 B.C. Some consider the story fabulous. 

SAPPHIRE, a precious stone of an azure colour, and transparent; in hardness it exceeds 
the ruby, and is next to the diamond. One was placed in the Jewish high priest's breast- 
plate, 1491. Thamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a sapphire valued at 300, ooo?., 
1733. Artificial sapphires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. Equal parts of alum aud sul- 
phate of potash Avere heated in a crucible. 

SARACENS, an Arab race, the first disciples of Mahomet, Avho within forty years after 
his death (632), had subdued a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered 
Spain in 711 ct scq., and (under Abderahmau) established the caliphate of Cordova in 755, 
Avhich gave Avay to the Moors in 1237. The empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being 
taken by the Tartars, 1258. Blair. 

SARAGOSSA (N.E. Spain), anciently Casarea Augusta, Avas taken by the Goths, 470; 
by the Arabs, 712 ; by Alfonso of Spain in 1 1 18. Here Philip V. AA-as deleated by the arch- 
duke Charles, in 1710. On 17 Dec. 1778, 400 of the inhabitants perished in a fire at the 
theatre: Saragossa, after successfully resisting the French in 1808, Avas taken by them after 
a most heroic defence by general Palafox, 20 Feb. 1809. The inhabitants, of both sexes, re- 
sisted until Avorn out by fighting, famine, and pestilence. 

SARAH SANDS, see Wrecks, 1S57. 

SARATOGA (Ncav York State, N. America). Here general Biirgoyne, commander of a 
body of the British army, after a severe engagement Avith the Americans (7 Oct.), being sur- 

♦ Captain Fremantle, the friend of Xolson, and his companion in most of his brilliant achievements, 
was also wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had received hii wound in the same limb. The 
following note, addressed to the " ■ - ■ - .... •. . ^.t 1 1 t j„i.ii__ 

time he wrote), has been isreserve 

DEAR Mrs. FKiiMANTLB, — Tell me bow Tom is, I hope ' 
I am as well as I hope he is. Ever yours Hob.at'o Nelson." 



SAR 



652 



SAPt 



1855 



1856 

1857 
1859 



rounded, surrendered all his army (5791 men) to the American general Gates, 17 Oct, I777' 
This was the greatest check the British suffered in the war, 

SARAWAK, see Borneo. 

SARDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, successively possessed hy the Phoenicians, 
Greeks, Carthaginians (about 500 B.C.), Romans (238), Vandals (A.D. 456), Saracens (720-40), 
Geuoese, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to these various nations the present in- 
habitants derive their origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired Sardinia in 1720, 
with the title of king ; see Savoy. Population of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, 5, 194,807. 
The king of Sardinia was recognised as king of Italy by his parliament in Feb. 1861 ; see 
Italy. 

James of Arragon becomes master of a large 

part of Sardinia 1324 

CoEquered by the English naval forces, under 

sir John Lealie and gen. Stanhope . . 1708 

Given to the emperor Charles VI. . . . 1714 

Eecovered by the Spaniards .... 1717 
Ceded to the duke of Savoy with the title of 

kiiig, as an equivalent for Sicily. . . . 1720 
Victor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son, 1730 
Attempting to recover his throne, he is taken, 

and dies in prison 1732 

The court kept at Turin, till Piedmont is over- 
run by the French 1792 

Charles Emmanuel resigns to his brother, duke 

of Aosta 4 June, 1802 

Piedmont annexed to Italy, and Napoleon 

crowned king of Italy . . .26 Dec. 1805 
The king resides in Sardinia . . . 1798-1814 
Piedmont restored to its sovereign, with Genoa 

added Dec. „ 

King Charles-Albert promulgates a new code . 1837 
Cavour establishes the newspaper "llEisorgi- 

mento" ("the Eevival") 1847 

The king gi-ants a constitution, and openly 
espouses the cause of Italian regeneration 
against Austria ... 23 March, 1848 

Defeats the Austrians at Goito ; and takes 

Peschiera 30 May, ,, 

Incorporation with Sardinia of Lombardy, 28 

June, and Venice . . . 4 July, ,, 

Sardinian army defeated by Eadetzky, 26 July, , , 
Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Eadetzky 
..... ^ S Aug. „ 

Armistice signed .... 9 Aug. „ 
Hostilities resumed ... 12 March, 1849 
Eadetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, 

and occupies Mortara . . . 21 March, ,, 
Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the 

Austrians at No vara ... 23 March, ,, 
Charles-Albert abdicates in favour of his son, 

Victor-Emmanuel ... 23 March, ,, 
The Austrians occupy Novara, (fee. 25 March, ,, 
Another armistice ... 26 March, , , 

Death of Charles-Albert, at Oporto . 28 July, ,, 
Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, 

signed 6 Aug. „ 

Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abolishes 

ecclesiastical jurisdictions . . 9 April, 1850 
Arrest of the bishop of Turin . . 4 May, „ 
He is released from the citadel . 2 June, „ 
Cavour minister of foreign affairs . . . 1851 
Bill for suppression of convents and support of 

clergy by the state passed . 2 March, 1835 

Convention with England and France signed ; 
a contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied 
against Eussia .... 10 April, „ 



10,000 troops under general La Marmora arrive 

in the Crimea .... 8 May, 

Who distinguish themselves in the battle of the 

Tchernaya 16 Aug. 

The king visits London, &c. . 30 Nov. &c. 
Important note on Italy from count Cavour to 

England 16 April, 

Eupture with Austria ; subsequent war (see 

Austria, 1857, et sfq) 
Cavour declares in favour of free trade June, 
Prince Napoleon Jerome marries princess 
Clotilde (see Italy) ... 30 Jan. 
Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, 
II July; count Cavour resigns, 13 July; 
Eatazzi administration formed . 19 July, 
The emperor Napoleon's letter to Victor-Em- 
manuel, advocating the formation of an 
Italian confederation : the latter declares it 
to be impracticable, and maintains his en- 
gagements with the Italians . . 20 Oct. 
Treaty of peace signed at Zurich . . Nov. 
Garibaldi retires into private life . 17 Nov. 
Count Cavour returns to office . 16 Jan. 
The Sardinian government refers the question 
of annexation of Tuscany, &c., to the vote of 

the people 29 Feb. 

Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 
French government ; the Sardinian govern- 
ment refer it to the vote of the people, 25 Feb, 
Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unani- 
mously by iEmilia, 14 March ; by Tuscany, 
16 March ; accepted by Victor-Emmanuel 
18-20 March, 
Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to Prance, signed 

24 March, 
Prussia protests against the Italian annexa- 
tions 27 March, 

New Sardinian parliament opens . . 2 April, 
Annexation to Fiance almost unanimously 
voted for by Nice, 15 April ; by Savoy 

22 April, 
The government professes disapproval of Gar- 
ribaldi's expedition to Sicily (which see) 

18 May, 
The chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy 

and Nice 29 May, 

The Sardinian troops enter the papal territo- 
ries (see Italy, and Rome) . . 11 Sept. 
Victor - Emmanuel enters the kingdom of 

Naples 15 Oct. 

Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sar- 
dinia 21 Oct. 

[For future history see Italy.] 
[For the disputes, and war with Austria, and 
the events of 1859-61, see Austria, France, 
Rome, Sicily, and Naples.] 



KINGS OF SAEDINIA. 
1814. 



1720. Victor- Amadeus I. king (as duke II.) ; resigned, 

in 1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. 
1730. Charles- Emmanuel I. his son. 
1773- Victor-Amadeus II. his son. 
1796. Charles Emmanuel II., son of the preceding ; 

resigned his crown in favour of his brother. 
1802 Victor-Emmanuel I. 
1805. [Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of 

which the emperor Napoleon was crowned 

king, 26 May, 1805.] 



See Savoy. 

Victor-Emm anuel restored ; resigned in March, 

1821 ; and died in 1824. 
Charles-Felix ; succeeded by his nephew, 
Charles- Albert ; abdicated in favour of his 

son, 23 March, 1849. Died at Oporto, 28 July, 

1849. 
Victor-Emmanuel II., 23 March ; bom, 14 

March, 1820; the present king of Italy. 
Heir : Humbert, prince of Piedmont ; born, 14 

March, 1844. 



SAR 653 SAV 

SARDIS, see .under Seven Churches. 

SARMATIA, the ancient name for the country in Asia and Europe between the Caspian 
Sea and the Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The Sarmatae or Sauromatae troubled the 
early Roman empire by incursions ; after subduing the Scythians they were subjugated by 
the Goths, in the 3rd and 4th centuries. They joined the Huns and other barbarians in 
invading Western Europe in the 5th century. 

SARUM, Old (Wiltshire), an ancient Pa-itish town, the origin of Salishnvy (which see). 
Although completely decayed, it returned two members to parliament till 1832. 

SASSANIDiE, descendants of Artaxerxes or Ardishir, whose father, Babck, was the son 
of Sassan. He revolted against Artabanus, the king of Parthia ; defeated him on the plain 
of Hormuz, 226 ; and re-established the Persian monarchy. This dynasty was expelled 
by the Mahometans 652 ; see Persia. 

SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its appearance 
at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in this species of composition that 
he has been called the inventor of it, 116 b.o. Livy. The Satires of Horace (35 B.C.), 
Juvenal (about a.d. 100), and Perseus (about a.d. 60), are the most celebrated in ancient 
times, and those of Churchill (i 761) and Pope (1729), in modern times. Butler's "Hudibras," 
satirizing the presbyterians, first appeared in 1663. 

SATRAPIES, divisions of the Persian empire, formed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 b.c. 

SATTARA (W. India) was long a flourishing state, founded by Sevajee about 1646 ; 
subjugated by the Mahrattas about 1749 ; conquered by the British, 1818 ; ruled by a rajah 
under the protection of the company. The last rajah died without issue in 1848 ; when the 
country was annexed. 

SATURDAY (the last, or seventh day of the week ; the Jewish Sabbath ; see Sahhath). 
It was so called fi'om an idol worshipped on this day by the Saxons, and according to Vers- 
tegan, was named by them Saterne's day. Pardon. It is more probably from Saturn, dies 
Saturni. Addison. 

SATURN, the planet, ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the sun, 
and its diameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the eight satellites was discovered by 
Huyghens (25 March, 1655) ; four by Cassini (1671-84) ; two by sir William Herschel (1789), 
and one by Bond and Lassells (1848). The ring was observed by Galileo, about 1610 ; its 
annular form determined by Huyghens, about 1655 ; and discovered to be twofold by Messrs. 
Ball, 13 Oct. 1665 ; an inner ring was detected in 1850 by Dawes in England (29 Nov.), and 
by Bond in America. 

SATURNALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, father of the gods, were instituted long 
before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and equality which pre- 
vailed on the eartli in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that the Saturnalia were 
first observed at Rome in the reign of TuUus Hostilius (673-640 B.C.), after a victory obtained 
over the Sabines : whilst others suppose that Janus first instituted them iu gi'atitude to Saturn, 
from whom he had learned agi'iculture. Others assert that they were first celebrated after a 
victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthumius, when he dedicated a temple to 
Saturn, 497 b.c. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were en- 
couraged, and distinctions ceased. Leiiglei. 

SAVINGS' BANKS. The first of these was instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, 
by the name of caissc de domcstiques, being intended for servants only ; another was set up 
in Basel, in 1792, open to all depositors. The rev. Joseph Smith, of Wendover, began a 
Benevolent Institution in 1799 ; and in 1803-4, a "charitable bank" was instituted at Tot- 
tenham by Miss Pi'iscilla Wakefield. Henry Dundas established a parish bank at Ruthwell 
in 1810. One was opened in Edinburgh iu 1814. The benefit clubs, among artizans, having 
accumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was adopted to identify 
these funds with the public debt of the countiy, and an extra rate of interest was held out as 
an inducement ; hence were formed savings' banks to receive small sums, returnable with 
interest on demand. 

Sir Geo. Rose developed the system, and brought it ; 20,ooofriendlysocietiesiind charitable institutions, 

under parliamentary control, 1816. The depositors (in the banks) were 1,092,581 , while 

In 1840 tb ere were 550 banks; 766,354 depositors; \ the societies embraced avast bab unknown num- 

amount, 22,060,904^. j ber of persons : the amount of deposits was 

Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relat- ' 32,893,51 li. 

ing to savings' banks were passed in 1828 and 1847 ; ' Amount of stock held on account of savings' banks 

extended to Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated in 1853, 34,546,334/. ; in 1857, 35.i°S,595i. ; in 1859, 

and amended in 1863. 38,995, 876/. In 1861, the savings' b.mks received 

On 20 Nov. 1851, the number of savings' banks in ! 8,764, 870^. ; paid 9,621,539?. ; estimated capital. 

Great Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above I 41,532,945!. (depositors, 1,479,723). The military 



SAV 



654 



SAX 



SAVINGS' BANKS, continued. 

savings' bankheld 204,377/. • the seamen's savings' classification of the first 20,000 depositors. 

banks held 26,448/. In 1866, deposits, 33,840,096/. Domestic servants 7245 

For Post-Offioe Savings' Banks, established in i86i. Persons in trade, mechanics, &c. . . . . 7473 

see under Post Office. Labourers and porters 672 

The deposits in the old savings' banks had not Miners 1454 

diminished in consequence in 1864. Friendly and charitable societies ... 58 

Savings' Banks Investment act, passed March 1866. Persons not classed, viz., widows, teachers, 

sailors, &c 3098 

SAVERNDEOOG (Mysore, S. India, "the Eock of Death "), a strong fortress, was cap- 
tured by the British, without loss, 21 Dec. 1791. 

SAVONA (a manufacturing town, N. Italy, long held by the Genoese) was captured by 
the king of Sardinia in 1746 ; by the French in 1809 ; and annexed ; restored to Sardinia at 
the peace. Pope Pius VII. was kept here by Napoleon I., 1809-12. Soap is said to have 
been invented here, and hence its Prench name savon. 

SAVOY, the ancient Sapaudia or Sabmidia, formerly a province in N. Italy, east of 
Piedmont. It became a Eoman province about 118 B.C. The Alemanni seized it in a.d. 
395, and the Franks in 490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till about 1048, when 
Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Coimt Thomas 
acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. Amadeus, count of Savoy, having entered his 
dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect tlieui into a duchy, which he did at Cambray," 
19 Feb. 141 6. Victor- Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by a treaty 
from Spain, in 1713, which, he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of Sar- 
dinia, with the title of king, 1720. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and made it a de- 
partment of France, under the name of Mont Blanc, in 1800. It was restored to the king 
of Sardinia in 1814 ; but was once more annexed to Francd in i860, in accordance with a vote 
by universal suffrage, 23 April, i860. Savoy was visited by the emperor and empress of the 
French in August, i860. The annexation was censured in England. 



DUKES OF SAVOY. 

1391. Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1416 ; 
he was named pope, as FeUx V. He abdi- 
cated as duke of Savoy, 1439 : renounced the 
tiara, 1449 ; died in 145 1. 

1439. Louis. 

1465. Amadeus IX. 

1472. Philibert I. 

1482. Charles I. 

1480. Charles 11. 



1496. Philip II. 

1497. Philibert II. 
1504. Charles III. 

1553. Emmanuel-Philibert. 
1580. Charles- Emmanuel I. 
1630. Victor-Amadeus I. 

1637. Francis-Hyacinthe. 

1638. Charles-Emmanuel II. 

1675. Victor-Amadeus II. becameking of Sicily, 1713 ; 
exchanged for Sardinia {which see) in 1720. 



SAVOY PALACE (London), was built by Peter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of 
Henry III., in 1245, on land granted to him. He gave it to the fraternity of Mountjoy 
(Monte Jovis), from whom it was purchased by queen Eleanor for her son Edmund. Here 
resided John, king of France, when a prisoner, 1357 et seq. The Savoy was burnt by "Wat 
Tyler and his followers, 1381. It was restored as an hospital of St. John the Baptist by 
Henry VII. about 1505. The fruitless Conference of bishops and eminent puritans for the 
revision of the liturgy was held at the Savoy, April- July, 1661. The hospital was dissolved 
in 1702, and the buildings removed for Waterloo-bridge and its approaches, 1817-19. The 
ancient chapel (which once possessed the privilege of sanctuary), after several restorations, 
was destroyed by iire, 7 July, 1864, and was re-built at the queen's expense, and re-opened 
26 Nov. 1865. 

SAW. Invented by Dffidalus. Pliny. Invented by Talus. Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, 
having found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut through a piece of wood, and then 
formed an instrument of iron like it. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420 ; at Breslau 
in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador from 
Mary of England to the court of Eome, describes a saw-miE. there, 1555. The attempts to 
introduce saw-mills in England were violently opposed, and one erected by a Dutchman in 
1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw-mills were erected near London about 1770. The 
excelleiit saw-machinery in Woolwich dockyard is based upon the invention of the elder 
Brunei, 1806-13. The saw-gin for separating cotton wool from the pod, invented by Eli 
Whitney, an American, in 1793, led to the immense growth of cotton in the southern states 
of the Union. Powis and James's band-saw was patented in 1858. 

SAXE-ALTENBURG (formerly Hildburghausen), a duchy in central Germany. Popu- 
lation, Dec. 1864, 141,839. The dukes are descended from Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony. 
Ernest, the first duke, died in 1715. The present duke, Ernest, born Sept. 16, 1826 ; 
succeeded his father, George, 3 Aug. 1853 ; he entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 
1866. 



SAX 



655 



SCA 



SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Population, 
Dec. 1864, 164,527. The reigning family is descended from John Ernest (son of Ernest the 
Pious, duke of Saxony), who died in 1729. 



1826. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; mar- 
ried Louisa, heii-ess of Augustus, duke of 
Saxe-Gotlaa, and became by convention duke 
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 12 Nov. 
[His brother, Leopold, m.arried the princess 
Charlotte of England, 2 May, 1816 ; became 
king of the Belgians, 12 July, 1831 ; and 
Ferdinand, the son of his brother Ferdi- 



nand, married Maria da Gloria, queen of 
Portugal, 9 April, 1836.] 
4. Ernest II., son, 29 Jan. ; bom 21 June, 1818 ; 
■ married Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, 
3 May, 1842 ; no issue. He entered mto 
alliance with Prus.sia, xS Aug. 1S66. 
Heir (presumptive) : Prince Alfred of England, 
duke of Edinburgh ; born, 6 Aug. 1844 (in 
whose favour the prince of Wales resigned 
his rights, 19 April, 1863). 



SAXE-MEININGElSr (a duchy in central Germany). Population, Dec. 1864, 178,065. 
The dukes are descended from Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony. The first duke, Bernard 
(1680), died in 1706. Bernard (duke 24 Dec. 1803) abdicated in favour of his son George, 
20 Sept. 1866, who professed his adhesion to the Prussian policy. Heii", his son Bernard, 
born I April, 185 1. 

SAXE-AVEIMAR-EISENACH (central Germany). The grand-dukes are descended from 
John Frederic, the Protestant elector of Saxony, who was deprived by the emperor in 1548; 
see Saxony. The houses of Saxe-Goburg-Gotha, Saxe-Gotha, Hilberghausen, and Saxe- 
Meiningen also sprang from him. They are all termed the senior or Ernestine branch of the 
old family. — Saxe-Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes have greatly favoured 
literature, and their capital Weimar has been called the Athens of Germany, Population of 
the duchy, Dec. 1864, 280,201. 

GRAND-DUKES. 1818 ; the PRESENT ( 1 868) grand- duke. He 

1815. Charles Augustus. entered into aUiance with Prussia, i8 Aug. 

1828. Charles Frederic. 1866. 

1853. Charles Alexander, 8 July ; bom, 24 June, Heir: Chai-les Augustus : bom, 31 July, 1844. 

SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The Saxons were a fierce warlike race, the terror 
of the inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently attacked France, and conquered 
Britain (ivJiich see). After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were completely subdued 
by Charlemagne, who instituted many fiefs and bishoprics in their country. "Witikind, 
their great leader, who claimed descent from Woden, professed Christianity abotat 785. 
From him descended the first and the present ruling family (the houses of Supplinburg, 
Guelf, and Ascania intervened from 1106 to 142 1). Saxony became a duchy, 880; an 
electorate, 1180 ; and a kingdom, 1S06. It was the seat of war, 1813 ; the king being on 
the side of Napoleon. In the conflict of 1866 the king took the side of Austria, and his 
army fought in the battle of Koniggratz, 3 July. The Prussians entered Saxony 18 June. 
Peace between Prussia and Saxony was signed 21 Oct. (subjecting the Saxon army to 
Prussia), and the king returned to Dresden, 3 Nov. Population, Dec. 1861, 2,225,240; 
Dec. 1864, 2,343,994. 

ELECTORS. 

1423. Frederic I., first elector of the house of Misnia. 
1428. Frederic II. 

[His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states.] 
1464. Ernest. I 1464. Albert. 

i486. Frederic III. | 1500. George. 

1525. John. I 1539. Henry. 

I 1541- Maurice. 

1532. John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor 

Charles V. ; succeeded by 
1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). 
1553. Augustus. 
1586. Christian I. 
1591. Christian II. 
1611. John George I. 
1656. John George II. 



1680. John George III. 

1691. John George IV. 

1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. 

1733. Frederic Augustus II., king of Poland. 

1763. Fredei-ic Augustus III. becomes Jiing 1806. 

KINGS. 

1806. Frederic Augustus I. ; increased his terri- 
tories by alliance with France, 1806-9 ! sul- 
fcred by peace of 1814. 

1827. Anthony Clement. 

1836. Frederic Augustus II., nephew (regent, 1830); 
succeeded by his brother, 

1854. John, 9 Aug. (bom, 12 Dec. 1801); the PfeESENT 
king. 
Heir : His son, Albert ; bom, 23 Apiil, 1828. 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special statute relating to any wrong, by words or in 
writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, jitdges, ministers of the crown, 
ofiicers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation of the scandalous 
statements, false news, or horrible messages, by which any debate or discord between them 
and the commons, or any scandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. This law was 
first enacted 2 llich. II. 1378. 

SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Denmark 
(which Sep.), whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Normandy (about 
900), and eventually England (1066). They were also called Sea-kings, or Vikings. They 



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settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, the northern regions of America, about 
the gth century. A " National Scandinayiau Society " has been formed at Stockholm ; see 
Sweden, Dec. 1864. 

SCAELET, or kermes dye, was known in the East in the earliest ages ; cochineal dye, 
1518. Kepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-house for scarlet in England, at Bow, 
1643. The art of dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. Beckmann. 

SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, about 334 B.C. He gave ten 
reasons for continual suspense of judgment ; he doubted of everything ; never made any 
conclusions, and when he had carefully examined the subject, and investigated all its parts, 
he concluded by still doubting of its evidence. He advocated apathy and unchangeable 
repose. These doctrines were held by Bayle (died 1706). 

SCEPTRE, a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages the 
sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; afterwards carved and miade shorter. Tarquia 
the elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 B.C. The 
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a.d. 481. Le Gendre. 

SCHAFFHAUSEISr (IST. Switzerland), a fishing village in the 8th century, became an 
imperial city in the 13th ; was subjected to Austria, 1330 ; independent, 1415 ; became a 
Swiss Canton, 1501. 

SCHAUMBURG (Germany), was formed into a county by Adolphus, of Sandersleben, 
1033. In 1640, on the death of count Otlio IV., his mother, Elizabeth, transferred the 
domains to Philip of Lippe, from whom descended the reigniug-prince (the title assumed in 
1807), Adolphus, born i Aug. 1817. Heir, prince Hermann, born 19 May, 1848. Popu- 
lation of the principality, 1864, 31,382. 

SCHELDT TOLLS were imposed by the treaty of Mupster (or Westphalia), 1648. The 
tolls were abolished for a compensation, 1867. The house of commons voted 175,650?. 
for the British portion, on 9 March, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free on 3 Aug. with 
much rejoicing at Antwerp and Brussels. 

SCHIEHALLIEN", a mountain in Perthshire, where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the 
astronomer-royal, made his observations with a plumb-line, in 1774, from which Hutton 
calculated that the density of the earth is five times greater than water. 

SCHISM, see Heresy, and Poises. 

SCHLESWIG, see Holstein, Denmark, and Gastein. 

SCHOOLMEN" or Scholastic Philosophy, began in the schools founded by Charle- 
magne, 800-14 ; ^11*1 prevailed in Europe from the 9th to the 15th centuries ; see Doctors. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced into I;ondon to prevent the seduction of 
the infant poor into Roman catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. Rapin. Charter schools 
were instituted in Ireland, 1733. Scully. In England there were, in 1847, 13,642 schools 
(exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor ; and the number of children 
was 998,431. The parochial and endowed schools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday 
schools) 4836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The schools in Wales were 841, and 
the number of children, 38,164; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In 185 1 
there were 2310 schools in connection with the Education Committee actually inspected in 
England and Scotland. They included : 1713 church of England schools in England and 
Wales ; 282 protestant dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman catholic 
schools in Great Britain ; and 217 presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the 
free church : the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 scholars ; see Education, 
Design, &c. 

SCHWARZBURG (the seat of two principalities, N. Germany). Gunther, count of 
Schwarzburg, whose family dates from the 12th century, was elected emperor of Germany in 
1349. From the two sons of count Gunther, who died 1552, sprang the present rulers — 



SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT 

(a principality, 1697). 



SCHWARZBDEG-SOlSrDERSHAUSEN 

(principality, 17 10). 

1835. Gunther, 19 Aug. ; born 24 Sept. 1801. 
Heir: Charles, born 7 Aug. 1830. 



1807. Albert, 28 June ; born 30 April, 1798. 
Heir: George, born 23 Nov. 1838. 

SCHWEIZ, a Swiss canton, which with Uri and Unterwalden renounced subjection to- 
Austria, 7 Nov. 1307. The name Switzerland, for all the country, dates from about 1440. 

SCIENTIFIC RELIEF FUND. In 1859, several Fellows of the Royal Society (Messrs. 
Gassiot, Wheatstone, Miller, Tyndall, and others) commenced the collection of subscriptions 
with the view of establishing a permanent fund to be expended in aiding necessitous men of 
science and their families, in imitation of the "Literary Fund." In the spring of i860. 



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3365?. had been subscribed ; in Jan. 1865, 5320Z. ; in 1867, 60521'. ; and many cases 
had been relieved. 

SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin-islands). They held commerce with the 
Phcenieians ; and are mentioned by Strabo. They were conquered by Athelstan, 936 ; 
and given to the monks. They were granted by Elizabeth to the Godolphin family, by 
whom they were fortified, 1649, and from whom they were taken by Blake, 165 1. A 
shipwreck of the British sc^uadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here, when return- 
ing from an expedition against Toulon ; he mistook rocks for laud, and struck upon 
them. His ship, the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, 
and 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, captain Hancock, and tlie 
Romiicy and Firebrand, were also lost, the rest of the fleet escaped, 22 Oct. 1707. Sir 
Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to Loudon, and buried in Westminster abbey, 
where a monument was erected to his memory. 

SCINDE, see Sinclc. 

SCIO MASSACRE, 11 April, 1822, see Chios. 

SCLAVONIA, see Slavonia. 

SCONE (near Perth), The Scotch coronation chair was brought from Scone to West- 
minster abbey by Edward I. in 1296. Here Charles II. was crowned, i Jan. 1651. 

SCOTISTS. Those who adopted the doctrines of John Duns Scotus (who died 
S Nov. 130S) respecting the birth of the Virgin Mary, &c., strongly opposed by the 
Thomists, disciples of St. Thomas Aquinas, who died 7 March, 1274. 

SCOTLAND, see Caledonia. At the death of queen Elizabeth, James VI. of Scot- 
land, as the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England. Each country 
had a separate pai'liament till 1707, when both kingdoms were united under the general 
name of Great Britain ; see England. 



Camelon, capital of the Picts, taken by Ken- 
neth II. and eveiy living creature put to the 

sword or destroyed 843 

The Korwegians invade and occupy Caithness 
in the 9th century. 

Ravaged by Athelstan 933 

The feudal system estabUshed by Malcolm II. . 1004 

Divided into baronies 1032 

The Danes driven out of Scotland . . . . 1040 
Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Mac- 
beth, by whom the crown is seized . . ,, 
Malcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, 
defeats the usurper at Dunsinane, 1054 ; Mac- 
beth killed by Macduff . . . 1056 or 1057 
The Saxon -English language introduced into 
Scotland by fugitives from England escaping 

from the Normans loSo 

Siege of Alnwick : Malcolm III. killed . . . 1093 
Reigjr of David I., a legislator . . . 1124-53 
Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, 
with 160 ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders 
are defeated by Alexander III., who now re- 
covers the Western Isles 1263 

Death of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the 

throne 7 Oct. 1290 

John Balliol and Edward Bruce contend for the 
throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as um- 
pke, decides in favour of John . . Nov. 1292 
John BalUol, king of Scotland, appears to a 
summons, and defends his own cause in 
Westminster hall against the earl of Fife . 1293 
Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to Eng- 
land, dethrones John, ravages the country, 
destroys the muniments of Scottish history, 
and seizes the prophetic stone (see Corona- 
tion) 1296 

William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus 
Kenneth, and expels them, 1297 ; is defeated 
at Falkirk, 22 July, 1298 ; taken by the Eng- 
lish, and execvited at Smithfield . 23 Aug. 1305 
Robert Bruce, crowned, 1306 ; he defeats the 
English, 1307 ; and takes Inverness, 1313 ; 
defeats the English at Bannockbum, 24 June, 1314 
Edward Balliol gains the throne for a little by 
his victory at Dupplin, ii Aug. 1332 ; and by 
the victory at Halidon-hill . . 19 July, 1333 
David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Dur- 
ham, bj"- queen Philippa of England (and 
detained in captivity 11 years). . . . 1346 



Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Percy 

and earl Douglas (see Otterhurn) 10 Aug. . 1388 
Robert III. defeated at Homelden-hill, 14 Sept. 1402 
James I. captured by the English near Flam- 
borough head on his passage to France 

30 March, 1406 
St. Andrews university founded by bishop 

William Turnbull 1451 

University of Aberdeen founded . . . 1494 
James IV. invades England, slain at Flodden 

Field, and his army cut to pietes . 9 Sept. 1513 
James V. banishes the Douglases . . . 1528 
He establishes the court of session . . . 1532 
Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived . 1540 
Mary, the queen of Soots, born 7 Dec. ; succeeds 

her father, James V. , who dies . 14 Dec. „ 
The regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the 
reformers, 1539, 1546; he is assassinated at 
St. Andrews .... 29 May, 1546 

The Scots defeated at Pinkie . . 10 Sept. 1547 
Mary marries the dauphin of France . April 1558 
Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow Dec. 1560 
The Reformation begins in Scotland, during 

the minoi-ity of Mary . between 1550 and ,, 
The Reformation is consummated by John 

Knox ,, 

Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, ar- 
rives at Leith from France . . 21 Aug. 1561 
Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, 
by order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scots- 
men were found in London. Slow. . . . 1562 

Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord 
Darnley ...... 29 Jul}', 1565 

David Rizzio, her confidential secretary, mur- 
dered by Darnley in her pi-esence 9 March, 1566 
Lord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, in his 
house (Mary accused of conniving at his 

death) 10 Feb. 1567 

James Hepburn, earl of Bothwoll, carries off 

the queen, who marries him . .15 May, ,, 
Mary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her 
nobles ...... 15 June, „ 

Resigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; 

the earl of Murray appointed regent 22 July, „ 
I\Iary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
army, which is defeated by the regent 
Murray, at the battle of Langside . 13 May, 1568 
The regent Murray murdered . . 23 Jan. 1570 
The earl of Lennox appointed regent . 12 July, „ 

U U 



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SCOTLAND, continued. 

The eai-1 of Lennox murdered, 4 Sept. ; the earl 
of Mar chosen regent . . . Sept. 1571 

Death of the reformer John Knox . 24 Nov. 1572 

[His funeral in Edhiburgh is attended by most 
of the nobility, and by the regent Morton, 
who exclaims, " There lies he who never 
feared the face of man ! "] 

The university of lidinburgh founded . . 1582 

The Raid of Ruthven (see Ruthveii) . ■ • „ 

Mary having taken refuge in England, 16 May, 
1568, is, after a long captivity, beheaded at 
Fotheringay castle (see Fothermgai/) 8 Feb. 1587 

Gowrie's conspiracy fails ... 5 Aug. 1600 

Union of the crown of Scotland with that of 
England by the accession of James VI., 

24 March, 1603 

James proclaimed "king of Great Britain, 
France, and Ireland " . . . .24 Oct. 1604 

Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce 
the EugUsh hturgy; tumult at Edinburgh 

23 July, 1637 

Solemn league and covenant subscribed 

I March, 1638 

A Scotch army enters England .... 1640 

Charles join's the Scotch army, 1646 ; betrayed 
into the hands of the English parliament 

30 Jan. 1647 

Marquess of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 
13 Sept. 164s ; executed at Edinburgh 21 May, 1650 

Charles II. crowned at Scone, i Jan. ; defeated 
at Worcester .... 22 Aug. 1651 

Scotland united to the English commonwealth 
by Oliver Cromwell . . . . Sept. ,, 

Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland . 166 1 

Argyll beheaded .... 27 May, „ 

The Covenantors defeated on the Pentlaad hills 1666 

Abp. Sharpe murdered near St. Andrews, by 
John Balfour of Burley and others . 3 May, 1679 

The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drum- 
clog, I June ; are routed at Bothwell bridge 

22 June, ,, 

Resolution of a convention in favour of 
William III.; establishment of presbytery 

14 March, 1689 

Insurrection of Claverhouse : killed at KiUie- 
crankie 27 July, „ 

Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe 13 Feb. 1692 

Legislative union of Scotland with England 

I May, 1707 

Insurrection under the earl of Mar in favour of 
the son of James II. (see PrciCTcZe?'). . . 1715 

The rebels defeated at IPreston, 12 Nov. ; and at 
Dumblane (or SherifEmuir) . . 13 Nov. „ 

Captain Porteous is killed by a mob in Edin- 
burgh (see Porteous) .... 7 Sept. 1736 

Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 
4 Sept. ; at Edinburgh, 16 Sept. ; with the 



Highlanders defeats sir John Cope at Preston- 
pans, 21 Sept. ; takes Carlisle, 15 Nov. ; 
arrives at Manchester, 28 Nov. ; at Derby, 
4 Dec. ; retreats to Glasgow . . 25 Dec. 

Defeats general Hawley at Falkirk, 17 Jan. ; is 
totally defeated at Culloden . . 16 April, 

The Highland dress prohibited by parliament 

12 Aug. 

Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for 
high treason on Tower-bill . . 18 Aug. 

Simon Eraser, lord Lovat, aged 80, executed 

9 April, 

Heritable jurisdictions abolished by parlia- 
ment 

Thomson, the poet, dies ... 27 Aug. 

The Old Pretender, " Chevalier de St. George," 
dies at Rome 30 Dec. 

Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the 
Young Pretender, dies at Rome . .31 Jan. 

Death of Robert Burns . . .21 July, 

Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel " published . 

Cardinal Henry duke of York (last of the 
Stuarts) dies .... 31 Aug. 

The Court of Session is formed into two divisions 

Royal Caledonian asylum, London, founded 

Scott's " Waverley " published . . . . 

The establishment of a jury court under a lord 
chief commissioner 

Visit of George IV. to Scotland . . . Oct. 

Sir Walter Scott dies . . . 21 Sept. 

Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strath- 
bogie are deposed by the General Assembly 
of the Church of Scotland for obeying the 
civil in preference to the ecclesiastical law. 
(Their deposition was formally protested 
against by the minority of ministers and 
elders, headed by Dr. Cook.) . . 2S May, 

The General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
grievance to the cause of true rehgion that 
ought to be abolished ... 23 May, 

Visit of the qxieen, prince Albert, and the court ; 
she landed at Granton pier . . i Sept. 

The queen embarks ... 13 Sept. 

Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
church of Scotland (about 400) at the General 
Assembly (see Fi-ee Church) . . 18 May, 

Death of Jeffrey . ' . . . .26 Jan. 

National Association for vindication of Scottish 
rights formed Nov. 

Act for better government of the universities 
passed Aug. 

The queen's Tisit to the borders, Kelso, Mel- 
rose, (fee 21-24 -^^ig- 

Scotch reform bill introduced into the com- 
mons 17 Feb. 



174s 
1746 



174S 
1765 

1788 
1796 



1B13 
1814 

1815 
1822 
1832 



1841 



1843 
1850 



See Edinburgh. 



KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

[The early accounts of the kings are by many his- 
torians deemed in a great measure fabulous. The 
series of kings is carried as far back as Alexander 
the Great.] 

330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish 
Sea. 

[Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an 
army of Scots, and was chosen king. Having 
defeated the Britons and slain their king Coilus, 
the kingdom of the Scots was entailed upon his 
posterity for ever. He went to Ireland, and, 
havmg settled his affairs there, was drowned on 
his return, launching from the shore, near the 
harbour, called Carrick-Fergus to this day, 3699 
A.M. And,erson.] 



AFTER CHRIST. 

357. Eugenius I., son of Fincormachus ; slain in 
battle by Maximus, the Roman general, and 
the confederate Picts. 

*»* With this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots, 

after having existed from the coronation of 

Fergus I., a period of 706 years ; the royal 

family fled to Denmark. Boece ; Buchanan. 

[InteiTCgnum of 27 years.] 

404. Fergus II.* (I. )great grandson of Eugenius, and 
40th king ; slain in battle with the Romans. 

420. Eugenius II. or Evenus, son of Fergus : reigned 
31 years. 

451. Dongardus or Domangard, brother of Eugenius ; 
defeated and drowned. 

457. Constantine I., brother of Dongardus : assassi- 



* Some call this Fergus the first king, and suppose that either the foregoing kings were fabulous,_ or 
that they were only chiefs or generals of armies, having no royal authority. The controversy thus arising 
I leave to be decided by the antiquaries, and must follow the received histories of Scotland. Anderson. 



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SCOTLAND, continued. 

nated by Dugall, a noble whose daughter he 

had dishonoured. 
479. Congallus I. nephew ; just and prudent. 
501. Goranus, brother ; murdered. Boece. Died 

while Donald of Athol was conspiring to take 

his life. Scott. 
535. Eugenius III. nephew; ''none excelled him in 

justice." 
558. Congallus II. brother. 

569. Kinnatellus, brother ; resig-ned for 

570. Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 

605. Kenneth, son of Congallus II. 

606. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 
621. Eerchard or Perquliard I. son ; confined for 

misdeeds to his palace, where he laid violent 

hands upon himself. Scott. 
632. Donald IV. brother ; drowned in Loch Tay. 
646. Eerchard II. son of Eerchard I. ; "most exe- 
crable. " 
664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his 

wife for his supposed iufidehty, for which 

crime she was immediately afterwards 

burnt. 
684. Eugenius V. brother. 
688. Eugenius VI. son of Eerchard II. 
C98. Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from 

an unknown hand. 
699. Eugenius VII. brother ; some ruffians designing 

the king's murder, entered his chamber, 

and, he being absent, stabbed his queen, 

Spontana, to death. Scott. 
715. Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. 
730. Etflnus, son of Eugenius VII. 
761. Eugenius VIII. son of Mordachus ; sensual and 

tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 
764. Fergus HI. son of Etfinus ; killed by his jealous 

queen, who afterwards stabbed herself to 

escape a death of torture. 
767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 
787. Achaius : a just and wise prince. 
819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 
824. Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathi\is ; drowned. 
831. Alpine, son of Achaius ; beheaded by the Picts. 
834. Kenneth II. son of Alpine, and surnamed 

Mac Alpine ; defeated the Picts, slew their 

king, and united them and the Scots under 

one sceptre, and became the first sole 

monarch of all Scotland, 843. 
854. Donald V. brother ; dethroned ; committed 

suicide. 
858. Constantino II. son of Kenneth II. ; taken in 

battle by the Danes and beheaded. 
874. Eth or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of 

grief in prison, having been thrown into 

confinement for his sensiiality and crimes. 
876. Gregory the Great ; brave and just. 
893' Donald VI. so7i of Constantino II. ; excellent. 
904. Constantine III. son of Ethus ; became a monk, 

and resigned in favour of 
944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. 
953. Indulfus or Goudulph ; killed by the Danes in 

an ambuscade. 
961. Duff or Diiffus, son of Malcolm ; mm-dered by 

Donald, the governor of Forres castle. 
965. CuUen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; avenged 

the murder of his predecessor ; assassinated 

at M ethven, by a thane, whose daughter he 

had dish' 'Uo^ired. 
970. Kenneth III. brother of Duffus ; murdered by 

Fenella, the lady of Fettercaim. 
994. Constantine IV. son of CuUen ; slain. 

SCREW", was known to the Greeks. The pumpiug-screw of Archimedes, or screw- 
cylinder for raising water, invented about 236 B.C., is still in use. It is stated that with the 
assistance of the screw, one man can press do^vn or raise up as much as 150 men can do 
without it.— The Sckevv-Propellee. consists of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes 
of a windmill, set on an axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving be- 
neath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The principle is as old as the 
windmill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and siuce by Du Quet, Bernouilli, and others. 

u u 2 



995. Grimus or the Grim, son of Duflfus ; routed 
and slain in battle by Malcolm, the rightful 
heir to the crown, who succeeded. 

1003. Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated 
on his way to Glamis ; the assassins in their 
flight crossing a frozen lake were drowned. 

1033. Duncan I. grandson; assassinated by his 
cousin 

1039. Macbeth, usurper ; slain by Macduff, the thane 
of Fife. 

*.;,;-* Historians so differ up to this reign, in the 
number of the kings, the dates of succes- 
sion, and the circumstances naiTated, that 
no account can be taken as precisely accu- 
rate. 

1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), son of Duncan; killed 
while besieging Alnwick castle. 

1093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother of the 

usurper ; fled to the Hebrides. 

1094. Duucan II. natural son of Malcolm : murdered. 
,, Donald Bane again ; deposed. 

1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England 
married his sister Maud). 

1 107. Alexander the Fierce, brother. 

1 1 24. David I. brother; raarried Matilda, daughter 
of Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 

1153. Malcolm IV. grandson. 

1 165. William, surnamed the Lion : brother. 

1214. Alexander II. son ; married Joan, daughter of 
John, king of England. 

1249. Alexander III. ; married Margaret, daughter 
of Henry HI. of England ; dislocated his 
neck, when hunting near Kinghorn. 

1285. Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway," grand- 
daughter of Alexander, " recognised by the 
states of Scotland, though a female, an infant, 
and a foreigner ; " died on her passage to 
Scotland. 

A competition for the vacant throne ; Edward I. 
of England decides in favour of 

1292. John Balliol, who afterwards siirrendered his 
crown, and died in exile. 
[Interregnum.] 

1306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. 

1329. David (Bruce) II. son ; Edward BaUiol dis- 
puted the throne with him. 

1332. Edward Balliol, son of John ; resigned. 

1333. David II. again; eleven years a prisoner in 

England. 

1371. Bobert (Stuart) II. nephew ; died ig April, 

1390. Robert (John Stuart) III. son ; died 4 April, 

1406. James I. second son ; imprisoned 18 years in 
England ; set at liberty in 1423 ; conspired 
against, and mui'dered at Perth, 20 Feb., 

1437. James II. son ; killed at the siege of Rox- 
burgh castle by a cannon bursting, 3 Aug., 

1460. James III. son ; killed in a revolt of his sub- 
jects at Bannockburn-field, ii June, 

1488. James IV. son ; married Margaret Tudor, 
daughter of Henry VII. of England ; kiUed 
at the battle of Flodden, 9 Sept., 

1513. James V. son ; succeeded when little more 
than a year old ; a sovereign possessing 
many virtues ; died 14 Dec, 

1542. Mary, daughter ; born 7 Dec. 1542, succeeded 
14 Dec. ; see Annals, above. 

1567. James VI. son. Succeeded to the throne of 
England, and the kingdoms became united, 
1603. 

See England. ' 



SCR 660 SEA 

Patents for propellers were taken out by Joseph Bramali in 1784; by Wm. Lyttelton in 
1794 ; and by Edward Shorter in 1799. But these led to no useful result. In 1836 patents 
were obtained by F. P. Smith and captain John Ericsson, and to them the successful appli- 
cation of the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the screw were the 
Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1836, and the Rattler, built in the United States (1844), 
and tried in England in 1845. Double screw-propellers are now emploj'ed. 

SCEOFULA, see King's-evil. SCULLABOGUE, see Massacres, 1798. 

SCULPTUEE is said to have begun with the Egyptians. Pausanias refers the nearest 
approach to perfection in the art to 560 B.C. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the tabernacle in 
the wilderness, and made all the vessels and ornaments, 149 1 B.C., and their skill is recorded 
as the gift of God. Exocl. xxxi. 3. Dipoenus and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a 
school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the iirst who sculptured marble and 
polished it ; all statues before their time being of wood, 568 B. c. Alexander gave Lysippus 
the sole right of making his statues, 326 B. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which 
were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. 
Sctilpture did not flourish among the Piomans ; and in the middle ages had much degraded. 
With the revival of painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at Florence, 
A.D. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. An institute of sculptors was 
established in 1861. 



Pheidon flourislied . b.c. 869 
Myron ..... 480 

Phidias 442 

Praxiteles .... 363 

Lysippus 328 

Chares 288 

Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 

A.B. 1474-1564 



EMINENT SCULPTORS. 
Benvenuto Cellini . 1500-1570 
Giovanni L. Bernini 1598-1680 
Louis Roubiliac (statue of sir 

I. Newton) . . died 1762 
John Bacon . . . 1740-1799 
Thomas Banks . . 1735-1805 
Antonio Canova . . 1757-1822 
John Plaxman . . 1754-1826 



Francis Chantrey . . 1781-1841 
Albert Thorwaldsen . . 1770-1844 
Sir Richard Westmacott 1775-1856 
Christian Eauch . . 1777-1857 
John Thomas . . 1813-1862 

Wm. Behnes .... 1864 
C. Kiss . . . . 1802-1865 
John Gibson . . . 1791-1866 



SCUTAGE or Esctiage. The service of the shield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. 
Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure is bound to follow his lord ; and is called 
Castleward, where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. Escuage certain is where the 
tenant is set at a certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such uncertain services. The 
first tax levied in England to pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1159. Cowel. 

SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constantinople, of which it is a suburb. It was 
anciently called Chrysopolis, golden city, in consequence, it is said, of the Persians having 
established a treasury here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. Near here Con- 
stantine finally defea:ted Licinius, 323. The hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded 
of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose sufferings were much alleviated by the kind 
exertions of Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses under her, aided by a large fund 
of money (15,000?.) subscribed by the public and placed in the care of the proprietors of the 
Times newspaper ; see Times. 

SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts of Europe and Asia. The boundaries were 
unknown to the ancients. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more southern 
provinces of Asia, especially 624 B.C., when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for 
twenty-eight years, and at difi'erent periods extended their ^conquests in Europe, penetrating 
as far as Egypt ; see Tartary. 

SEA FIGHTS, see Naval Battles. 

SEALS or Signets. Engraved gems were used as such by the Egyptians, Jews, 
Assyrians, and Greeks ; see Exod. xxviii. 14. The Romans in the time of the Tarquins 
(about 600 B. c. ) had gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, bags of money, &c. The 
German emperor, Frederick I. (a.d. i 152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Impressions 
of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; and the English great seal is attributed to Edward 
the Confessor (1041-66). "A seal with armorial bearings before the nth century, is cer- 
tainly false." Poshroke. The most ancient English seal with arms on it is said to be that 
of Richard I. or John. White and coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing-wax, 
containing shellac, did not come into general use in Germany and England until about 
1556. Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624 ; but were not used for public seals 
till the 1 8th century. — For Sealed Letters, see Letires de Cachet. 

SEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim of England to rule the British seas is of very 
ancient date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred afterwards supported this right. 
It was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by government in consequence, 8 
Chas. I. 1633. The JDutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, 



SEB 661 SEC 

bnt were roughly treated by Blake and other admii'als. Russia and other powers of the 
north armed to avoid search, 1780; again, 1800; sqq Armed Neutrality, anOi Flag. 

SEBASTIAN, ST. (E. Spain), was taken by the French, under the duke of Berwick, in 
1719. It was besieged by the British and allied anny under Wellington. After a most 
heavy bombardment, by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it was stormed by 
general Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), and taken 31 Aug. 18 13. The loss sustained by 
the besiegers, though not considerable, was chiefly British. — On 5 May, 1836, the fortified 
works, through the centre of which ran the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English 
auxiliary legion under general Evans, after very hard fighting. The British naval squadron, 
off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, lent very opportune aid to the victors in this con- 
test. — A vigorous assault was made on the lines of general De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, 
by the Carlists, i Oct. 1836. Both parties fought with bravery. The Carlists were repulsed, 
after suflering severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force was 376 men and 37 officers, 
killed and wounded. General De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. 

SEBASTOPOL or Sea^astopol, a town and once a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the 
Crimea, formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings were commenced in 1784, by 
Catherine II. after the conquest of the country. The town is built in the shape of an 
amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid 
down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. The fortifications and liarbour were con- 
structed by an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, since 1830. The population in 
1834 was 15,000. This place "\vill be memorable hereafter for its eleven months' Siege, by 
the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately after the battle of the Alma, 
20 Sept. 1854, the allied army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position on the 
plateau between it and Balaklava, and the grand attack and bombardment commenced 

17 Oct. 1854, without success.* After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and 
repeated bombardments, a grand assault Avas made on 8 Sept. 1855, upon the Malakhoff 
tower and the Eedans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The 
French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on 
the great Redan and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants 
were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of life. The French lost 
1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 woimded, 
and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 killed (29 being commissioned and 42 non-com- 
missioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned 
the southern and principal part of the town and fortifications, after destroying as much as 
possible, and crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the remainder of their 
fleet. The allies found a very great amount of stores when they entered the place, 9 Sept. 
The works were utterly destroyed in April, 1856, and the town was restored to the Russians 
in July ; see Russo-Turkish War. 

SECEDERS ; SECESSION CHURCH, see Burghers. 

SECRETARIES of State. The earliest authentic record of a secretary of state is in 
the reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is described as ^'Secrdariiis Nosier," 1253. 
Rymer. Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign, two secretaries were appointed; and 
upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for Scotch affairs ; this 
appointment Avas afterwards laid aside ; but in the reign of George III. the number was 
again increased to three, one for the American department. In 1782 this last was abolished 
by act of parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed for home, foreign, and colonial 
affairs. When there were but two secretaries, one held the portefeuille of the Northern 
department, comprising the Low Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Russia, 
&c. ; the other, of the Southern department, including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, and Turkey; the affairs of Ireland belonging to the elder secretary; both secre- 
taries then equally directed the home affairs. Beatson. There are now five secretaries — 
home, foreign, colonial, war, and India (appointed in 1858), all in the cabinet. 

SECTS, RELIGIOUS, see under Worslvi'p, and their respective titles. 

SECULAR GAMES {Ludi Smculares), very ancient Roman games, celebrated on impor- 
tant occasions. Horace wrote his "Carmen Saeculare" for their celebration in the reign of 

• In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol 
Inquiry Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administration resigned, Feb. 1855. The committee 
sat from i March to 15 May, lord Aberdeen being the last person examined. Its report was presented 

18 June. Mr. Roebuck, the chairman, moved on 17 July that the house should p.ass a vote of severe 
reprehension on every member of the Aberdeen administration. On ig July his motion was lost by a 
majority of 107 against it. In 1855 the government sent sir John M'Neill and er>l. Tulloch to inquire into 
the state of the armies in the Crimea. Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. 1856. A com- 
mission was appointed to consider the statements in the report (which were very unfavourable to many 
officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken. 



SEC 662 SEM 

the emperor Augustus (17). They took place again in the reign of Claudius (47), of Do- 
mitian (88), and for the last time, of Philip (248), believed to be 2000 years after the 
foundation of the city. 

SECURITY FROM Violence AcT,''passed in 1863, appointed whipping as a punishment 
for attempts at garotting. 

SEDAN (an ancient citj', N. E. of France), the seat of a principality long held by the 
dukes of Bouillon. On 6 July, 1641, a victory was gained at La Marfee, near Sedan, by the 
count of Soissons and the troops of Bouillon and other French princes, over the royal army 
supporting Eichelieu ; but the countwas slain on 23 Jane, 1642. The duke was arrested in 
the midst of his army, and was made to cede Sedan to the crown. The protestant university 
was abolished after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685. 

SEDAN CHAIES (so called from Sedan), were first seen in England in 1581. One used 
in the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, caused great indignation, and the 
people exclaimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of beasts. 
Sedan chairs came into London in 1634, when sir Francis Duncomb obtained the sole privi- 
lege to use, let, and hire a number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. They came into 
very general use in 1649. 

SEDGMOOR (Somersetshire), where the duke of Monmouth (the natural son of Charles IL 
by Lucy Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the accession of James IL, was completely 
defeated by the royal army, 6 July, 1685. The duke was made a prisoner in the disguise of 
a peasant, at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety. He was 
beheaded on 15 July following. 

SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the reign of George III. The proclamation 
against seditious writings was published May, 1792. The celebrated Sedition bill passed 
Dec. 1795. Seditious societies were suppressed by act, June, 1797. The Seditious Meetings 
and Assemblies' bill passed 31 March, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman catholic and 
Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations against sedition and seditious meetings were 
j)ublished from time to time until 1848. 

SEEKERS, see Quakers. SEGEDIN, see Varna. 

SEICENTO, see Italy, p. 399, note. 

SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought 10 April, 183 1, between the Poles and 
Russians. The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody conflict, taking 4000 prisoners and 
several pieces of cannon ; but this success was soon followed by fatal reverses. 

SEISMOMETER (from seismos, Greek for earthquake), an apparatus for measuring the 
violence of the shocks. One is described by Mr. Robert Mallet in his work on earthquakes, 
published in 1858. 

SELA, see Petra. 

SELENIUM, a grayish-white elementary substance (chemically resembling sulphur), dis- 
covered in the stone riolite by Berzelius, in 181 7. 

SELEUCIA (Syria), was made the capital of the Syrian monarchy by its builder, Seleucus 
Nicator, 312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucid?e, it became a republic, 65 B.C. It was taken 
by Trajan, A.D. 116; was several times given up and retaken; was subjugated by the 
Saracens, and imited with Ctesiphon, 636, 

SELEUCIDES, Era of the, dates from the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in 
Syria for many years, and frequently by the Jews until the 15th century, and by some 
Arabians. Opinions vary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our era (supposing it to 
begin i Sept. 312 B.C.), subtract 311 years 4 months, 

SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, which ordained that no member of parliament should 
hold any civil or military office or command conferred by either or both of the houses, or by 
authority derived from them, after much discussion, was passed 3 April, 1645, ^J the 
influence of Cromwell, who thus removed the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians out of 
his way. A somewhat similar ordinance was adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in 
Australia, in 1858. 

SELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans under Cleomeues were defeated by Antigonus 
Doson and the Achseans, 221 B.C. 

SELSEY, see Chichester. 

SEMINARA (Naples). Near here Gonsalvo de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated 
by the French, in 1495 > ^'^^^ defeated them, 21 April, 1503. 
' SEMINCAS, see Simancas. 



SEM 66B SEP 

SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here the Swiss gained a great victory over Leopold, duke of 
Austria, 9 July, 1386. The duke was slain, the liberty of their country was established ; and 
the day is still commemorated. 

SEMPER EADEM ("Always the same "), one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, -was 
adopted by queen Anne, 13 Dec. 1702. Many suspected this motto to denote her Jacobitism. 
and it ceased to be used after her reign. 

SEMPERIISrGHAM, see Gilhertines. 

SENATE (Senatiis). In the ancient republics the government was divided between the 
scnatus (from senis, old; in Gxeok, gcrousia, from gcron, old), an assembly of elders, and the 
popular assembly {comitia, Latin ; ecdcsia, Greek), the king being merely the executive. 
The Roman senate, said to have originally been composed of 100 members, was raised to 300 
by Tarquinius Priscus ; to about 600 by Sylla, about 81 B. c. ; and to 900 by Julius Cresar. It 
was reformed and reduced to 600 by Augustus ; and'gradually lost its power and dignity under 
the emperors. The mere form existed in the reign of Justinian. A second senate, formed 
at Constantinople by Constantiue, retained its oilice till the 9th century. S. P. Q. Pt. on the 
Eoman standard stood for ' ' Senatus Populusque Komanus, " ' ' the Roman senate and people. " 
A scnatus consultum was a law enacted by the senate. 

SENEFFE (Belgium). ISTear here was fought a .severe but indecisive battle between the 
Dutch, under the prince of Orange (afterwards William III.), and the French, led by the 
great Conde, 11 Aug. 1674. 

SENEGAL, French colonies on the river of that name in Seuegambia, W. Africa, settled 
about 1626; several times taken by the British, but recovered by the French, to whom they 
were finally restored in 1814. 

SENESCHAL, a high officer of the French royal household. In the reign of Philip I. 
1059, the office was esteemed the highest jjlace of trust. 

SENLAC, see Hastings. 

SENONES (see Gauls), defeated by CamiUus, 367 B.C. They defeated Metellus the consul 
at Arretium, 284, but wei'e almost exterminated by Dolabella., 283. They invaded Greece 
in 279; were defeated by Antigonus Gonatas, 278; and sued for peace. 

SENTINUM (central Italy). The site of a great victory of the Romans over the Sam- 
nites and Gauls, whose general, Gellius Egnatius, was slain, 295 c.c. 

SEPHARDIM, the name given to the descendants of the highly civilised Jews of Spain 
and Portragal, who fled from the persecutions of the Imj^uisitiou, 1492-1505. The Jews in- 
terpret Sephai'ad, in Obadiah 20, as Spain. 

SEPOYS (a corruption oLsipdhl, Hindostanee for a soldier), the term applied to the native 
troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in establishing British rule in India. 
For their mutinies, see Vellore, 1806; Madras, 1809; and India, 1857. 

SEPTEMBER, the seventh Roman month reckoned from March, (from sejJtinms, seventh). 
It became the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by Numa ; 
713 B.C. The Roman senate would have given this month tlie name of Tiberius, but the 
emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicus ; the senate 
under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Hercu- 
leus ; and the emperor Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. 

SEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolution a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 
2-5 Sept. 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the prisoners butchered, among them an 
ex-bishop, and nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts state the number of persons 
slain at 1200, others at 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named Septembrizers. 

SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Edward I. held but one parliament every two years. 
In the 4th Edward III. it was enacted, "that a parliament should be holdeu every year 
once." This continued to be the statute-law till i6th Charles J. 1641, when an act was 
passed for holding parliaments once in three years at least ; rep'ealed in 1664. The Trien- 
nial act was re-enacted in 1694. Triennial parliaments thence continued till the 2 Geo. I. 
17 16, when, in consequence of the allegation that "a popish faction were designing to renew 
the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an invasion from abroad, it was enacted that 
the then parliament should continue for seven years." This Sqdcnnial act, entitled "an 
act for enlarging the continuance of parliaments " (1715 in the statutes, 4to., given as i Geo. 
I. stat. 2, c. 38), was passed 7 May, 1716 ; see Parliaments. Several unsuccessful motions 
have been made for its repeal ; one in May, 1837. 

SEPTIMANIA, a Roman province, S. France ; see Langucdoc. 

SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY, 9 Feb. 1S68; 24 Jan. 1869; 13 Feb. 1870 ; 5 Feb. 1871 ; 
see Quadragesinia Sunday, and Week. 



SEP 664 SET 

SEPTUAGmT VERSION" of the Bible, made from Hebrew into Greek, 277 B.C. 
Seventy-two translators were shut up in thirt3^-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; 
and on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or letter. Justin, 
Martyr. St. Jerome affii'ms that they translated only the Pentateuch ; others say they 
translated the whole. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave tlie Jews about a million sterling for a 
copy of the Old Testament, and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. 
Josejihus. Finished in seventy-two days. Hewlett. The above statements are merely tra- 
ditional ; see Bible, and Alexandrian Codex. 

SEKAPIS, Temple of (near ITaples), was exhumed in 1750. The investigations of 
Lyell and Babbage into the history of the sinking and burying of this temple are of great 
geological interest. 

SERFS, see Slavery (note), and Russia, 1861, 1863. 

SERINGAPATAM (S. India), the capital of Hyder Ali, sovereign of Mysore (which see). 
The battle of Seringapatam, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated 
Tippoo Sahib, was fought 15 May, 1 791. The redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was re- 
duced by lord^Cornwallis, 6 Feb. 1792. After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, 
and Tippoo agreed to cede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 
3,300,000?. sterling) to England, and to give up to loi'd Cornwallis his two eldest sons as 
hostages. — In a new war the Madras army, under general Harris, arrived before Seringa- 
patam, 5 Apxil, 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army 14 April; and the place was 
stormed and carried by major-general Baird, 4 May, same year. In this engagement Tippoo 
was killed. 

SERJEANTS- AT-LAW are pleaders from among whom the judges are ordinaiily chosen, 
and who are called Serjeants of the coif. The judges call them brothers ; see Coif. 

SERPENTINE, see ff2jde Park. 

SERVANTS. An act levying a dutj"- on male servants was passed in 1777, which was 
augmented in 1781, ct seq. A tax on female servants, imposed in 1785, was repealed in 
1792. The tax on servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000?. per annum ; in 1840 the revenue 
from it had fallen to 201,482?. ; in 1850 it produced about the same sum. The law respecting 
servants was amended by the Master and Servants act passed in 1867. 

SERVIA, a hereditary principality nominally subject to Turkey, south of Hungary. The 
Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about 640. The emperor 
Manuel subjected them in 1150; but they recovered their independence in 1180, and were 
ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, till their country was finally subdued by the 
sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. Population in 1854, 985,000. 

Milosch dies ; succeeded by his son jVIichael 
III, Obrenovitch, (born 4 Sept 1825) 26 Sept. i860 

Rising movement to render Servia independent 
of Turkey March, 1861 

Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish 
garrison at Belgrade, which lead to blood- 
shed ; the city bombarded, 15 June ; submits, 
17 June ; the Turkish pacha dismissed, 

19 June, 1862 

A conference of the representatives of the great 
powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte 
agrees to liberal concessions to the Servians, 
which their prince accepts . . 7 Oct. „ 

Servians demand withdrawal of Turkish gar- 
risons from Belgrade and other forti-esses 

5 Oct. 1866 

Which are evacuated, March ; prince Michael, 
at Constantinople, thanks the sultan 

30 Mai-ch, 1867 

Prince Michael assassinated in Belgrade 10 June, 1868 



A Servian rebellion quelled .... 1737 
The Servians aid Austria by free companies 1788-90 
Again rebel, and capture Belgrade . . . 1806 
Kara George, aided by the Russians, establishes 

a government 1 807-11 

The Turks break a treaty, and Kara George flies 1814 
Their governor Milosch rebels . March, 1815 

Kara George returning, is executed . . . 1816 
Milosch I. recognised as hereditary prince by 

the sultan 15 Aug. 1829 

Milosch becoming despotic, made to abdicate, 

and a new constitution established 13 June, 1839 
His son Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of 

Kara George, chosen prince . 14 Sept. 1842 
Alexander becoming unpopular, made to abdi- 
cate ; Alexander Milosch re-elected prince 

23 Dec. 1858 
Plot against Milosch frustrated, 11 July ; the 
Servian assembly meets . . 13 July, i860 



SERVILE "WARS, insurrections of slaves against their masters. Two v/ere quelled in 
Sicily, after much slaughter, 132 and 99 B.C.; see Spartans. 

SESSION COURTS in England Avere appointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the 
times for holding them regulated in 1831 ; see Quarter Sessions, and Court of Session. The 
kirk-session in Scotland consists of the minister and elders of each parish. They super- 
intend religious worship and discipline, dispense the money collected for the poor, &c. 

SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus ; see Hellespont. Near Sestus was the western 
end of Xerxes' bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. Sestus v^as retaken from the Persians 
by the Athenians, 478 B.C., and held by them till 404, giving them the command of the 
trade of the Euxine. 

SETTLEMENT, Act of, for securing the succession to the British throne, to the 



SEV 665 SEW 

exclusion of Eoman catholics, was passed in 1689. This name is also given to the statute 
by which the crown, alter the demise of William III. and queen Anne, without issue, was 
limited to Sophia, electress of Hanover, grand-daughter of James I., and to heirs being 
protestauts, 1702. The Irish act of settlement, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689 ; see 
Hanover. 

SEVEN BISHOPS, see Bislwps, 1688. 

SEVEN BROTHERS, martyrs at Rome, under Antoninus ; their feast is kept 10 July. 

SEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was 
commanded to write the epistles contained in the 2nd and 3rd chapters of his Revelation, 
viz. Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, 96. 

1. Ephesus {which see). Paul founded tlie church II., 159; Attalus III., 138. He bequeathed his 
here, 57. In 59, he was in great danger from a kingdom to the Eomans, 133. It revolted, was 
tumult created by Demetrius : to the elders of .subdued, and made the Eoman province, Asia, 
this church he delivered his warning address, 60 Pergamos is still an important place, caUtd Ber 
(Acts xix. "vX. ). Ephesus was in a ruinous state 1 gamo. Parchment is said to have been invented 
even in the time of Justinian (527), and stiU re- ' here. 

mains so. 4. 2'hi/aiira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, 

2. Smyrna. An ancient Greek city, claiming to be called Ak-bissar, " White Castle." 

the birth-place of Homer ; was destroyed by the 5. Sai-dis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the 
Lydians ; about 627 b.c. rebuilt by Antigonus and kingdom of CrcEsus (560 B.C.); taken by Cyrus, 
Lysimachus. Its first bisbo)i, Polycarp, was mar- 548 ; burnt by the Greeks, 499 ; it flourished 
tyred here about i6g. It has been frequently under the Roman empire ; was taken by the 
captured. It was sacked by Tamerlane in 1402 ; Turks ; and destroyed by Tamerlane about 1462 ; 
and finally tal;en by the Turks, 1424. It is now it is now a miserable village, named Sart. 
the chief city of Asia Minor, and the seat of the , 6. Philadelphia was built by Attalus (III.) Phila- 
Levant trade. ! delphus, king of Pergamos (159-138 B.C.); was 

3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same I taken by Bajazet I., a.d. 1390. It is now caUed 
name, founded by Philetasrus, whom Lysimachus, [ Allah Shebr," The city of God," and is a miserable 
one of Alexander's generals, had made governor, j town of 3000 houses. 

2S3 B.C. He was succeeded by Eumenes I., 263 ; I 7. laodicea. In Phrypia, near Lydia ; has suffered 
Attabis (who took the title of king), 241; Eumenes much from earthquakes. It is now a deserted 
II. (who collected a great library), 197 ; Attalus place, called Eske-hissar, " The old castle." 

SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were authorised to be issued 29 Nov. 1797. 

SEVEN SLEEPERS. According to an early legend seven youths, in 251, commanded 
to worship a statue set up iu Ephesus by the emperor Decius, refused, and fled to a cavern 
in the mountain, where they were inclosed, and slept, according to Durandus, for 300 years. 
Other writers give shorter periods, and various accounts of the incidents which accompanied 
the awakening. A festival in their honour is kept by the Roman church on 27 July. 

SEVEN WEEKS' WAR, see Prussia, 1866. 
SEVEN WONDERS, see Wonders. 

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, the conflict maintained by Frederick II. of Prussia against 
Austria, Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763 ; see Battles. He gained Silesia. 

SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS, see article Sabbatarians, &c. 

SEVERUS'S WALL, see Eo7na7i Walls. 

SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans, 
was the capital until Philip II. finally established his court at Madrid, 1563. It opened its 
gates to the Saracens in 712, and was taken from them by the Christians in 1247, after an 
obstinate siege. The peace of Seville between England, France, and Spain, and also a 
defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed 9 Nov. 1729. In the peninsular war, 
Seville surrendered to the French, i Feb. 1810 ; and was taken by assault by the British 
and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, 27 Aug. 1812. It was besieged but not taken 
by Espartero, July, 1843. 

SEVRES, see Porcelain. 

SEWERS, see Cloaca Maxima. An act was passed in 1847 enforcing the conveyance oi' 
the sewage of houses in London into the public sewers. The Commissioners of Sewers in 
London were superseded by the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, nominated by the 
government. Thej' abolished the large brick sewers, introducing pijjc drains, and turned 
the contents of 30,000 cesspools into the river Thames. The necessity for purifying the 
river led to the construction of a new system of drainage, under the superintendence of the 
Metropolitan Board of Works {wJiich see). The mala drainage (the plan of Mr. J. W. 
Bazalgette) consists of the Northern High-level, Middle-level, and Low-level, and Southern 
High-level and Low-level. On 14 March, 1865, the works were said to be completed, 
except the low-level sewer on the north side, which was waiting for the completion of the 



SEW 



666 



SHA 



Thames embankment, &c. On 4 April, 1865, the prince of Wales started the engines 
which commenced lifting the waters of the southern outfall, at Crossness Point, near Erith.* 
Estimated total cost, 4,ooo,oooZ. ; see Carbolic Acid. 

SEWING-MACHINE. The first practical sewing-machine was the invention of Elias 
Howe, an American mechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about 1841, who died at 
Brooklyn, 2 Oct. 1867, aged 47. It is now known under an improved form as Thomas's 
shuttle machine, by whom it was introduced into England in 1846. 



stitch; and a more simple macliine makes, by 
the aid of one needle and a hook, the common, 
single chain stitch with one thread. These ma- 
chines are all of American origin. 



Two threads are wrought into the fabric to be sewn, 
by a needle and shuttle, which interlace the 
threads and form a strong seam. In some ma- 
chines now in extensive use, two needles are em- 
ployed to make with two threads a double chain 

SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY, see Quadragesima Sunday, and WecTc. 

SEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, containing sixty degrees, or the sixth 
part of a circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 1550. Vinces Astron. The 
Arabian astronomers are said to have had a sextant of fifty nine feet nine inches radius, 
about 995. Ashe. 

SEYCHELLES ISLES (Indian Ocean), settled by the French about 1768; captm-ed by 
the British, 1794 ; ceded to them, 1815. 

SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. William Shakspeare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, 
Warwickshire, 23 April, 1564, and died on his birthday, 1616. The first collected edition 
of his works is dated 1623 [a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5]; tl^^ second, 
1632 ;t the third, 1664 ; the fourth, 1685 ; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, edited 
by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 and 1864-6 ; Boydell's edition, with numerous 
plates, was published in nine vols., folio, ia 1802. Ayscough's Index to Shakspeare was 
published in 1790 ; Twiss's Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance, 1847. 



26 Aug. in that year, and took measures for 
promoting a subscription set on foot by the Shak- 
spearian Club at Stratford-on-Ayon ; and a com- 
mittee was appointed to carry out their object. 
In the end Shaksiseare's house was sold at the 
Auction Mart in the city of London, where it was 
"knocked down" to the United Conimittee of 
London and Stratford for the large sum of 3000Z. 
16 Sept. 1847. In 1856, a learned oriental scholar, 
John Shakespeare (no relation of the poet), gave 
2500^. to purchase the adjoining house, that It 
might be pulled down, in order to ensure the 
poet's house from the risk of fire. 

Shakspeare Fund, established in Oct. 1861, to pur- 
chase Shakspeare's garden, birtb-place estate, and 
to erect and endow a pubhc library and museum 
at Stratford-on-Avon. The catalogue of the library 
and museum was published Feb. 1868. 

The Shakspeaee Library, at Birmingham, was 
founded in 1864, and formally opened 23 April, 
1868. 

Shakspeaee Forgeries, see Ireland. 



Shakspeare's Globe Theatre, London, built, 1594, 
situated near the spot still called Bankside. Shak- 
speare was himself part-proprietor ; here some of 
his plays were first produced, and he himself 
performed in them. It was of a horse-shoe form, 
partly covered with thatch. After it was licensed, 
the thatch took fire, through the negligent dis- 
charge of a piece of ordnance, and the whole 
building was consumed 29 June, 1613. The house 
was crowded to excess, to witness the play of 
Henry Fill., but the audience escaped unhurt; see 
Globe. 

Shakspeare's Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avon, 6-8 Sept. 
1769. A similar festival was kept 23 April, 1836. 
The tercentenary of Shakspeare's birth was cele- 
brated, with many festivities, at Stratford-on- 
Avon, 23-29 April, 1864. 

Shakspeare's House. In 1847, a number of persons 
of distinction interested themselves for the pre- 
servation of the house in which Shakspeare was 
born, then actually set up for sale : they held 
a meeting at the Thatohed-House tavern, London, 

SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock used by the Irish was introduced by Patrick 
M 'Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the Trinity, about 432. 

SHANGHAE, or SHANGHAI (China), captured by the British, 19 June, 1842; by the 
Tae-ping rebels, 7 Sept. 1853 ; retaken by the imperialists, 1855. The rebels were defeated 
near Shangliae by the English and French, allies of the emperor, i March, 1862; see 
Chiiia. 

SHARPSBURG (Maryland), see Antietam. 

* Tlie utilisation of disinfected sewage as manure is now much advocated. Great success is said to have 
been attained at Edinburgh, Carlisle, Croydon, and other places. Much hot controversy has arisen respect- 
ing this disposal of the London sewage. On 15 Nov. 1864, the Metropolitan board accepted a contract for 
its disposal from Messrs. Hope and Napier. Sewage Utilisation acts were passed in 1865 and 1867, and 
the VIetropolitan Sewage and Essex Reclamation acts were passed in June, 1865. The sewage farm, near 
Barking, Essex, was reported to be flourishing in 1868. 

t In 1849, Mr. J. P. Collier, editor of an edition of Shakspeare, purchased a copy of the second folio, 
on which was written in pencil, a number of corrections, supposed to have been made soon after the time 
of publication. At first he thought Uttle of these marks ; but in 1853 he was induced to publish " Notes 
and Emendations " derived from this volume. Much controversy ensued as to the authentieity of these 
corrections ; and in 1859 it was generally agreed that they were of modern date, and consequently of Uttle 
value. 



SHA 667 SHE 

SHAWLS are of oriental origin. The manufacture was introduced by Barrow and 
Watson, in 1784, at Norwich. It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1805. Urc. 

SHEEP were exported from England to Spain, and, the breed being thereby ini])roved, 
produced the fine Spanish wool, Avliich proved detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 
1467. Anderson. Their exportation was prohibited on pain of line and imprisonment, 
1522. The number of sheep, in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — by some at 
43,000, CX30, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. The number 
must have progressively increased to the present time, particularly as the unrestricted im- 
portation since 1846 vastly swells the amount. In 185 1 there were imported into England 
201,859 sheep and lambs; in 185S, 184,482; in 1864, 496,243. In Aug. and Sept. 1862, 
many sheep in Wiltshire died of small-pox ; and on Sept. 1 1 government declared its inten- 
tion of enforcing the act for the prevention of contagion. The evil soon abated. In April, 
1866, when the disease reappeared, the preventive regulations were re-issued. In 1865, 
914,170 sheep and lambs were imported; in 1866, 790,880; in 1867, 540,326. 

SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS. On 2 Feb. 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed 
of gift, presented to the nation his valuable collection of paintings and drawings, valued at 
60,000^. In accordance with the donor's directions, the pictures were placed at the South 
Kensington Museum. The collection is rich in the works of Mulready, Landseer, and 
Leslie. He died 5 Oct. 1863. —On 2 Dec. 1858, the trustees of his brother, the late rev. 
Richard Sheepshanks, presented 10,000^. stock to Trinity college, Cambridge, for the 
promotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism. 

SHEERNESS (N. Kent), a royaldockyard, planned and fortified by Charles II. in 1667, 
was taken by the Dutch, under De Euyter, 11 June, same year. Improved since 1815. 

SHEFFIELD, on the river Sheaf, West Riding, Yorkshire ; renowned for ciitlery, plated 
goods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by Chaucer, in the time of Edward III. 
Sheffield in the time of the Compieror was obtained by Roger de Buisli, and has since been 
held by the Lovetots, Nevils, Talbots, and Howards. 

St. Peter's chiiroh built temp. Henry I. 1 52,751^. collected for the sufferers by 29 April, 1S64 

Hospital and almshouses erected by the earl of ' The Surrey music hall burnt . 25 March, 1S65 

Malmesbury 1616 House of Fearnehough, a non-unionist saw- 
Cutlers' company incorporated .... 1624 | grinder, blown up, attributed to unionists 
The castle (built in the 13th century) was taken (no deaths) 8 Oct. i855 

by the parliamentarians, and demolished . 1648 j Great excitement : meetings held; subscriptions 

Cutlers' hall built 1726 1 made ; a SheflBeld manufacturers' protection 

Plate assay office established .... 1773 society formed ; and rewards offered 

Made a borough by the Reform act . . . 1832 I 12 Oct., &c. „ 

Wesley college opened 1838 A commission (headed by Mr. Overend) to 

Sheffield and Manchester railway opened . . 1845! enquire into trade outrages met 

Athenasum and Mechanics' Institution opened 1849 1 3 June-8 July, 1867 

John A. Roebuck (gi-andson of Dr. Roebuck of , [Several murders and outrages (including the 

Sheffield), M. P. for SheflBeld . May, 1849-68 1 above) confessed to by Crookes, Hallam, and 
Embankment of the Bradfield water reservoir 

broke down, and flooded Sheffield and the 

country 12 or 14 miles round; about 250 lives 

were lost ; many buildings and much pro- 
perty destroyed ; estimated loss, 327,0004. i " "8 July, 
II March, 1864 [ 

SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION, formed at the death of the marquess of Rock- 
ingham, July, 1782; terminated April, 1783; the "Coalition" administration followed. 
The earl of Shelbourne '' (afterward marquess of I Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend, 



others ; instigated and paid by Wni. Broad- 
head, secretary to the saw-grinders' union: 
indemnity granted.] 
A meethig of workmen expresses abhorrence 



Lansdowne), first lord of the treasury. 
William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of tJie 

council. 
Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 



(afterwards lord Sydney), secretaries. 
Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 
Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
Henry Duudas, Isaac Barre, sir George Yonge, <Sic. 



SHELLS, see Bombs. 

SHERIFF, or sJiire-rcvc, governor of a shire or coimty. London had its sheriffs prior to 
William I.'s reign ; but some say that sheriffs were tirst nominated for every county in 
England by William in 1079. According to other historians, Henry Coruhill and Richard 
Reynere were the first sheriffs of London, i Rich. I., 1189. The nomination of sheriffs, ac- 
cording to the present mode, took place in 146 1. Stoiv. Anciently sheriffs were hereditary 
in Scotland, and in some English counties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of Dublin ■;first 
called bailifis) were appointed in 1308, and obtained the name of sheriff by an incorporation 
of Edward VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and eleven excused in one year, rather 
than serve the office for London, 1734 ; see Bailiffs. 

* William Petty, 'carl of Shelbume, bom 1737; secretary of state under lord Chatham, July, 1766; 
premier, 1782-3 ; created first marquess of Lansdowne, 1784 ; died, 7 May, 1805. 



SHE 



668 



SHI 



SHERIFFMUIR, see Dumblane. SHETLAND ISLES, see Orkneys. 

SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the followers of Jephthah tested their opponents the 
Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 B.C. Judges xii. The term is now applied 
to any party watchword or dogma. 

SHIITES, the Mahometan sect predominating in Persia ; see Maliometanism. 

SHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon coin of this name was livepence, but it 
was reduced to fourpence about a century before the conquest. After the conquest the French 
5oW(ip of twelve pence, in use among the Normans, was called shilling. The true English 
shilling was first coined, some say, in small numbers, by Henry VII., 1504. Ruding. A 
peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but to be current at twelve, was struck in Ireland, 1560 ; 
and a large but very base coinage in England for the service of Ireland, 1598. MiUed 
shillings were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662 ; see Coins. 

SHILOH, see Pittsburg. 

SHIP-BUILDING. The first ship (probably a galley) was brought from Egypt to Greece, 
by Danaus, 1485 b. c. Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 B. c. 
Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burthen, by order 
■of Henry YIL, was called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000?. Stow. Port-holes and other 
improvements were invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of 
Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 
74-gun ship was put upon the stocks "at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed with India- 
rubber, 1829. Iron is now greatly used in ship -building ; see Navy, Steam Vessels^ 
Garrack, &c. 

SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to form a navy to oppose the Danes. This 
impost, levied by Charles I. in 1634-6, was much opposed, and led to the revolution. He 
assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; Yorkshire in two ships, of 
600 tons or i2,oooZ. ; Bristol in one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship, of 400 tons. 
John Hampden refused to pay the tax, and was tried in the Exchequer in 1636. The judges 
declared the tax legal, 12 June, 1637. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances 
in 1641. The five judges, who had given an opinion in its favour, were imprisoned. 
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died 24 June, 1643. 

SHIPPING, British. Shipping was first registered in the river Thames in 1786 ; and 
throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the i8th century, the shipping of England 
was but half a million of tons — less than London now. In 1830, the number of ships in the 
British empire was 22,785. The merchant shipping act of 1854 was amended in 1867 ; see 
Navy, and Navigation Acts. 

NUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN TUB BRITISH EMPIRE ON JAN. I, 1840. 

Country. Vessels. ' Tonnage. Seamen. 

England 15,830 .... 1,983,522 .... 114,593 

bcotland ....... 3,318 . . . . 378,194 . . . . 25.909 

Ireland 1,889 .... 169,289 .... 11,288 

Guernsey, Jersey, and Man . . . 633 . ... 39,630 . . . . 4.473 

British Plantations .... 6,075 • • • 497,798 . . ■ ■ 35,020 

Total 27,745 . . . . 3,o6S,433 . . . . 191,283 

The following are the numbers of the Registered Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of 
River Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the home and foreign trade : — 



1849. 


1856. 


1861. 


1866. 




V. ssels. 


Tonna e. 


Men em- 
ployed. 


Vessels. 


Tonnage. 


Mpn em- 
ployed. 


Vessels.' 


Tonnase. 


Vessels.f 


Tonnage. 


Sailing . . 
Steamers . 

Total. . 


17,807 
414 


2,988,021 
108,321 


144,165 
8,446 


18,419 
851 


3,825,022 
331.055 


151,080 
22,838 


19,288 
997 


3,918,511 
441,184 


20,212 
1,506 


4,705,049 
747.813 


18,221 


3,096,342 


152,611 


19,270 


4,156,077 


173,918 


20,285 


4,359,695 


21,718 


5,452,862 



* Men employed — sailing vessels, 144,949; steamers, 27,008; total, 171,957. 
t „ ,, ,, „ 156,568; „ 39,803; „ 196,371. 

SHIPWRECKS, see Wrecks. SHIRES, see Counties. 

SHIRTS are said to have been first generally worn in the M^est of Europe early in the 8th 
century. Du Frcsnoy. "Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about 1253, 
when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), was first manu- 
factured in England by Flemish artisans. Stoio. 



SHO 669 SHR 

SHODDY, a kind of soft woollen goods, manufactured from old woollen rags, and the 
refuse, to which new wool is added, is stated to have been first manufactured about 1813, at 
Batlej'^, near Dewsbury, Yorkshire. 

SHOEBLACK BRIGADES (Blue, Red, and Yellow) were established at various times, 
especially in 185 1, by the Ragged School \J nion (vjhich see), founded 1844. In 1855, loS 
boys had cleaned 544,800 pairs of boots and shoes, and thus earned 2270^. ; of which 1235Z. 
had been paid to the boys, 519Z. to their bank, and 516?. to the society. The brigades earned 
4548Z. in 1859. 

SHOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground here, purchased in 1842 and 1855, by an act 
of parliament in 1862 was set apart as " ranges for the use and practice of artillery ;" see 
Cannon, note. Experiments with Mr. "Whitworth's projectiles on Nov. 12, 1862, showed 
their great improvement in form and material. Shells were sent througli 5 h inch plate 
and the wood-work behind it. It was objected, that they might not do this with ships iu 
motion. 

SHOES, among the Jews were made of leather, linen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn 
as ornaments in their shoes by Jewish women. Isaiah iii. 18. Pythagoras would have 
his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably that they might not wear what 
were made of the skins of animals, as they refrained from the use of everything that had life. 
The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their shoes ; and Caligida enriched his with precious 
stones. In England, about 1462, the people wore the beaks or points of their shoes so long, 
that they encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; 
the fine gentlemen fastened theirs with chains of silver or silver gilt, and others with laces. 
This was prohibited, on the forfeiture of 205. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 
7 Edw. IV. 1467 ; see Dress. Shoes, as at present worn, were introduced about 1633. 
The buckle was not used till 1668. Stow; Mortimer. The buckle-makers petitioned against 
the use oi shoe-strings in 1791. 

SHOOTING STARS, see Meteorites. 

SHOP- TAX enacted in 1785 ; caused so great a commotion, particularly in London, 
that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute whereby shoplifting was 
made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was passed 10 & ii Will. III. 1699. This statute 
has been some time repealed. 

SHORE, JANE, the mistress of Edward lY. and afterwards of Lord Hastings. She did 
public penance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in Ludgate ; but upon the petition of 
Thomas Hyniore, who agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in 1484, restored her to 
liberty ; and sir Thomas More mentions having seen her, which contradicts the story of 
her having perished by hunger. Harleian MSS. 

SHORT-HAND, see Stenographrj. 

"SHORT-LIVED" ADMINISTRATION— that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, lord 
Carlisle, lord Winchilsea, and lord Granville, existed from 10 Feb. to 12 Feb. 1746. 

SHOT. In'early times various missiles were shot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 
1413 ; and in 1418 Henry V. ordered his clerk of tlie ordnance to get 7000 stones made at 
the quarries at Maidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister shot have been invented, 
as well as shells ; all of which are described in Scoffern's work on "Projectile Weaj)ons of 
War, and Explosive Compounds," 1858 ; see Bomhs, and Cannon. 

SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord 
treasurer, 29 July, 17 14, two days before the death of queen Anne ; his patent was revoked 
soon after the accession of George I., 29 Oct. following, when the earl of Halifax became first 
lord of the treasury ; see HaUfax. The ofiice of lord treasurer has been executed by com- 
missioners ever since. 

SHREWSBURY (Shropshire), arose on the ruin of the Roman town Uriconium (see 
Wroxeter), and became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, having a mint till the reign of 
Henry III. Here Richard II. held a parliament iu 1397. — On July 23, 1403, was fought a 
sanguinary hattle at Hately field, near Shrewsburj^, between the army of Henry IV. and that 
of the nobles, led by Percy (suruamed Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who 
had conspired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen in the thickest of the fight, with his 
son, afterwards Henry V. The death of Hotspur by an unknown hand gave the victory to 
the king. Hume. — Shrewsbury grammar school was founded by Edward VI. in 155 1, 
endowed by Elizabeth, and opened 1562. 

SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, and 
Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the treachery of the queen 
of the Brigantes, a prisoner to the Romans, 50. 



SHR 



670 



SIC 



SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash-Wednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast ; 
see Carnival. 

SIAM, a kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam •was re-discovered 
by the Portuguese in 15 ii, and a trade established, in which the Dutch joined about 1604. 
A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian Greek, Constautine Pliaulcon, 
became foreign minister of Siam, and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. 
sent an embassy in 1685 with a view of converting the king, without effect. After several 
ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowring succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and 
commerce between England and Siam, which was signed 30 April, 1855, and ratified 5 April, 
1856 ; and one with France followed in August. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in 
Oct. 1857, and had an audience with the queen ; they brought with them magnificent 
presents, which they delivered crawling, on Nov. 16. They visited Paris in June, 1861. 



Siamese Twins. Two persons bom about 1811, en- 
joying all the faculties and powers usually pos- 
sessed by separate and distinct individuals, al- 
though united together by a short cartilaginous 
band at the pit of ,the stomach. They are named 
Chang and Eng, and were first discovered on the 
banks of the Siam river by an American, Mr. 



Robert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New 
York, where they were exhibited. Cai^tain Coffin 
brought them to England. After h.iving been ex- 
hibited for several years in Britain, they went to 
America, where they settled on a farm, and mar- 
ried two sisters. In 1865 they were said to be 
living in North Carolraa in declining health. 



SIBERIA (N. Asia). In 1580 the conquest was begun by the Cossacks under Jermak 
Timofejew. In 17 10 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. An insurrection 
broke out among the Poles in Siberia in June, 1866, and was soon suppressed. 

SIBYLS, Sibyllee, women believed to be inspired, who flourished in different parts of 
the world. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^lian of four, and Varro of 
ten. An Erythrean Sibyl is said to have offered to Tarqjiin II. nine books containing the 
Roman destinies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her ; whereupon the 
sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for the other six, which 
being still denied, she burnt three more, and again demanded the same sum for those that 
remained ; when Tarquin conferring with the pontiffs was advised to buy them. Two 
magistrates were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 B.C. ; see Quindecemvirs. 

SICILIAN VESPERS, the term given to the massacre of the French in Sicily com- 
menced at Palermo, 30 March, 1282. 



exasperated at this affront, stabbed him with his 
own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French were 
instantly murdered. The enraged populace now 
ran through the city, crying out, " Let the French 
die ! " and, without distinction ef rank, age, or 
sex, slaughtered all of that nation they could 
find, to the number of 8000. Even the churches 
pi'oved no sanctuary, and the massacre became 
general throughout the island. 



The French had become hateful to the Sicilians, and 
a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou was already 
ripe, when the following occurrence led to its de- 
velopment and accomplishment. On Easter Mon- 
day, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- 
lermo ; and while the French were engaged in 
festivities, a Sicilian bride happened to pass by 
with her train. She was observed by oneDrochet, 
a Frenchman, who began to use her rudely, under 
pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, 

SICILY (anciently Trinacria, three-cornered). The early inhabitants were the Sicani, 
or Siculi, a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came from Italy about 1294 B.C. A second 
colony, under Siculus, arrived eighty years before the destruction of Troy, 1284 B.c. 
The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here (735-582). It is supposed that Sicily 
was separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the sti'aits of the Charybdis were thus 
formed. Its government has frequently been united with and separated from that of Naples 
(which see) ; the two now form part of the kingdom of Ital3^ Population of Sicily in 1856, 
2,231,020. 



Arrival of Ulysses. Homer . . . B.C. 11 86 
Syracuse founded. Evsebius . . about 732 

Gela founded. Thucy elides . . . 680 or 713 

Agrigentum founded 582 

Phalaris, tyrant of Agi-igentum, put to death. 

See Brazen Bull ...... 549 

Law of Petalism instituted 460 

Athenian expedition fails 413 

War with Carthage 409 

Dionysius becomes master of Syracuse, makes 

peace with the Carthaginians and reigns 406-367 
Dionysius II. sells Plato for a slave, who is 

ransomed by his friends 360 

Dionysius expelled by Timoleon . . . 343 

Who governs well : and dies 337 

Agathocles usurps sovereign power at Syracuse, 

317; defeated at Himera by the Carthaginians, 

310 ; poisoned 289 

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Sicily; expels 



the Carthaginians from most of their settle- 
ments, but returns to Italy . . B.C. 278-2.77 
The Romans enter Sicily (see Punic Wars) . . 264 
Agrigentum taken by the Romans . . . 262 
Palermo besieged by the Romans. . . . 254 
Archimedes flourishes . . . about 236 
Hiero II. defeated by the Romans, 263 ; be- 
comes their ally, and reigus till . . . 216 
The Romans take Syracuse, and make all Sicily 

a province ; Archimedes slain . . .212 

The Carthaginians lose half their possessions, 

241 ; all the remainder ,, 

The Servile wars ; much slaughter, 135, 134, and 132 
Tyrannical government of Verres (for which he 

was accused by Cicero) .... 73-71 
Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the 
great Pompey, 42 ; defeated ; expelled . . 36 
***** 

Invaded by the Vandals, a.d. 440 ; by the 



SIC 



671 



SIE 



SICILY, continued. 

Goths, 493 ; taken for the Greek emperors by 
BeUsarius a.d. S3S 

Conquered by the Saracens .... 832-78 

The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
prince, Roger I. son of Tancred, 1058 : who 
takes the title of count of Sicily . T061-1090 

Eoger II. son of the above-named, unites Sicily 
with Naples, and is crowned king of the Two 
Sicilies . 1131 

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 
France, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes 
the Norman princes, and makes himself king, 1266 

The French massacred (see Sicilian Vespers) . 1282 

Sicily is seized by a fleet sent by the kings of 
Aragou ; but Naples remains to the house of 
Anjou ,, 

Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
Najiles 1435 

The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the 
Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the 
Catholic 1501 

Victor, duke of Savoy, made king of Sicily, by 
the treaty of Utrecht 1713 

Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VI. , 
and becomes king of Sardinia . , , 1720 

Charles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king 
of the Two Sicilies 1735 

The throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, 
who is heir, vacates the throne of the Two 
Sicilies, in favour of his third son Ferdinand, 
agreeably to treaty 1759 

Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, 
which destroys 40,000 persons . . . 1783 

The French conquer Naples {which see) ; Ferdi- 
dand IV. retires to Sicily .... 1806 

Political disturbances 1810 

New constitution granted, under British 
auspices 1812 

The French expelled : kingdom of Two Sicilies 
re-estabhshed ; Ferdinand returns to Naples ; 
abohshes the constitution 1815 

Revolution at Palermo suppressed . . . 1820 

The gi-eat towns in Sicily rise and demand the 
constitution ; a provisional government pro- 
claimed 12 Jan. 1848 

The king nominates his brother, the count of 
Aquil, viceroy, 17 Jan. ; promises a new 
constitution 29 Jan. ,, 

The SiciUan parUament decrees the exclusion 



of the Bourbon family, 13 April ; and invites 
the duke of Genoa to the throne . 11 July, 

Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapo- 
litans 7 Sept. 

Catania taken by assault, 6 April ; Syracuse 
suiTenders 23 April ; and Palermo 15 May, 

Insun-ections sujopressed at Palermo, Messina, 
and Catania, 4 April et seq. ; the rebels retire 
into the interior . . 21 April et seq. 

Garibaldi and his followers (2200 men) embark 
at Genoa, 5 May ; and land at Marsala, 
II May : he abandons his ships ; and assumes 
the dictatorship in the name of the king of 
Sardinia 14 May, 

He defeats the royal troops at Calatafimi, 
15 May; storms Palermo, 27 May; which is 
bombarded liy the royal fleet, 28 May ; an 
armistice agreed to . . . .31 May, 

A provisional government formed at Palermo, 
3 June ; which is evacuated by the Neapoli- 
tans ...... 6 June, 

Garibaldi defeats the Neapohtans at Molazzo 
20, 21 July, 

Convention signed, by which the Neapolitans 
agree to evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel 
of Messina) 30 July, 

iNew SiciUan constitution proclaimed . 3 Aug. 

Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (see Naples) 

19 Aug. 

Professor SaflJ (late of Oxford), a short time 
dictator Sept. 

The Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for 
annexation to Sardinia (432,054 against 667) 

21 Oct. 

Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily . . i Dec. 

Citadel of Messina blockaded, 28 Feb. ; sur- 
renders to general Cialdini . .13 March, 

King Victor-Emmanuel warmly received at 
Messina May, 

Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 
19 July ; he enters Catania, and establishes 
a provisional government, 19 Aug. ; embarks 
for Italy 24 Aug. 

Sicily placed under blockade ; removed in 
Sept. ; tranquil Oct. 

Insurrection in Palermo, attributed to the 
priests and brigands ; 16 Sept. ; suppressed 
with blood.shed by Itahan troops 21-26 Sept. 



1848 

1849 
i860 



"SICK MAN," an epithet applied to Turkey, by the czar ISTicliolas, 14 Jan. 1854; see 
Russo- Turkish War, note. 

SICYON, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded, it is said, about 
20S0B. c. Its people took part in the wars in Greece, usually supporting Sparta. In 252 
it became a republic and joined tlie Achaean league formed hy Aratus. It was the country 
of the sculptors Polycletes (436) and Lysippus (238 B.C.). 

SIDEROSTAT (from siclus, Latin for a star), an apparatus constructed by M. Leon 
Foucault, shortly before his death, 11 Feb. 1868, for observing the light of the stars in pre- 
cisely the same way in which the light of the sun maj'- be studied in the camera obscura. It 
consists of a mirror moved by clockwork, and a fixed objective glass for concentrating the 
rays into a focus. 

SIDOK or ZiBON (Syria), a city of Phrenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by 
Cyrus about 537 b.c. ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332 B.C. ; see Plicenicia. The town 
■was taken from the Pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by 
some ships of the British squadron, under admiral the hon. sir Eobert Stopford and commo- 
dore Charles Napiei-, 27 Sept. 1840 ; see Syria, and TurTccy. 

SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out for nine- 
teen years. TJshcr. It held out for twenty-nine years. Herodotus. This was the longest 
siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the most celebrated, and 
occupied ten years, 11 84 B.C. The following are the most memorable sieges since the 12th 
century ; for details of many of them see separate articles. 



SIE 



672 



SIE 



SIEGES, continued. 

Acre, iig2, 1799, 1832, 1840. 

Algesiras, 1341. 

Algiers, 1681 : Bomb vessels first used 

by a French engineer named Re- 

nau; 18 16. 
Alkmaer, 1573. 
Almeida, 27 Aug. 1810. 
Amiens, 1597. 
Ancona, 1174, 1799, i860. 
Antwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 

1832. 
Arras, 1640. 
Azoff, 1736. 
Badajoz, 11 March, 1811 ; 6 April, 

1812. 
Bagdad, 1258. 
Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
Belgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 1688, 

1717, 1739. 1789. 
Belle-Isle, 1761. 

Bergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. 
Berwick, 1333. 
Bethune, 1710. 
Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 
Bologna, 1512, 1796, 1799. 
Bommel: theinvtntion of the covert- 

uay, 1794. 
Bonn, 1672, 1689, 1703. 
Bouchain, 171 1. 
Boulogne, 1544. 
Breda, 1625. 

Brescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. 
Breslau, 1807. 
Brisac, 1638, 1704. 
Brussels, 1695, 1746. 
Bomarsund, 1854. 
Buda, 1541, 1686. 
Burgos, 1812, 1813. 
Cadiz, 1812. 
Calais, i247(£ritish historians affirm 

that cannon were used at Cressi/, 

1346, and here in 1347. Firxt 

■used here in 1388. Eymer's 

FCED.), 1558, 1596. 
Calvi, 1794. 
Candia : the largest cannon then 

known in Europe, used here by the 

Turks, 1667. 
Carthagena, 1706-7, 1740. 
Chalus, Tigg. 
Charleroi, 1693. 
Charleston, U.S., 1864-5. 
Chartres, 1568. 
Cherbourg, 1758. 
Ciudad Rodrigo, 1810, 1812. 
Colchester, 1648. 
Comorn, 1849. 

Compifegne (Joan of Arc), 1430. 
Conde, 1676, 1793, 1794. 
Coni, 1691, 1744. 
Constantinople, 1453. 
Copenhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. 
Corfu, 1716. 
Courtray, 1646. 
Cracow, 1702. 
Cremona, 1702. 
Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. 



Delhi, 1857. 

Douay, 1710. 

Dresden, 1756, 1813. 

Urogheda, 1649. 

Dublin, 1500. 

Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 

Flushing, 15 Aug. 1809. 

Frederickshald : ChoMes XII. killed, 

1718. 
Gaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. 
Genoa, 1747, iSoo. 
Gerona, 1809. 
Ghent, 1708. 

Gibraltar, 1704, 1779, 1782-3. 
Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
Gottingen, 1760. 
Graves, 1674. 
Grenada, 1491, 1492. 
Groningen, 1594. 
Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
Harfleur, 1415. 
Heidelberg, 1688. 
Herat, 1838. 
Ismail, 1790. 
Kara, 1855. 
Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
Landau, 1702 ei seq., 1792. 
Landrecy, 1712, 1794. 
Laon, 988, 991. 
Leipsic, 1757 et seq., 1813. 
Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1810. " 

Leyden, 1574. 
Li%e, 1408, 16S8, 1702. 
Lille, 1708, 1792. 
Limerick, 1651, i6gi. 
Londonderry, 1689. 
Louisbourg, 1738. 
Luxemburg, 1795. 
Lyons, 1793. 
Maestricht, iS79, 1673 ; Vauban 

first came into notice ; 1676, 174S. 
Magdala, 1868. 
Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. 
Malaga, 1487. 
Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
Mantua, 1797, 1799. 
Marseilles, 1524. 
Menin, 1706. 
Mentz, 1689, 1793. 
Messina, 1282, 1719, 1848, 1S61. 
Metz, 1552-3. 
Mons, i6gi, 1709, 1792. 
Montargis, 1426. 
Montauban, 1621. 
Montevideo, Jan. 1807. 
Mothe : the French, taught by a Mr. 

Muller, iir.<!t practised the art of 

throwing shells, 1634. 
Namur, 1692, 1746, 1794. 
Naples, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, 

1806. 
Nice, 1706. 
Nieuport, 1600. 
Olivenza, iSoi, 1811. 
Olmutz, 1758. 
Orleans, 1428, 1563. 



Ostend, 1601, 1798. 

Oudenarde, 1706. 

Padua, 1509. 

Pampeluna, 1813. 

Paris, 1420, 1594. 

Parma, 1248. 

Pavia, 1524, 1655. 

Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 

Philipsburg, 1644, 1676, 16S8, first 

experiment of firing artillery d-ri- 

cochet, 1734, 1799- 
Pondicherry, 174S, 1793. 
Prague, 1741-1744. 
Quesnoy, 1793, 1794. 
Rheims, 1359. 
Rhodes, 1521. 
Richmond, U.S., 1864-5. 
Riga, 1700, 1 710. 
I Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 
Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. 
Romorentin ; artillery first used in 

sieges (Voltaire), 1356. 
Rouen, 1419, 1449) 1591. 
Roxburgh, 1460. 
St. Sebastian, 1813. 
Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809; the 

two last dreadful. 
Sebastopol, 1854-5. 
Schweidnitz : first experiment _ to 

reduce a fortress by springing 

globes of compression, 1757-1762. 
Scio (see Greece), 1822. 
Seringapatam, 1799. 
Seville, 1247-S. 
Silistria, 1854. 
Smolensko, 1632, 1812. 
Stralsund: the method ofthrovnn^ 

red-hot balls first practised with 

certainty, 171 5. 
Tarragona, 18 11. 
Temeswar, 1716. 
Thionville, 1792. 
Thorn, 1703. 
Tortosa, 1811. 
Toulon, 1707, 1793. 
Toulouse, 121 7. 
Tournay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 

1709 {this was the best defence ever 

drawn from counter mines), 1792. 
Treves, 1635, 1673, 1675. 
Tunis, 1270, 1535. 
Turin, 1640, 1706. 
Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. 
Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, i794- 
Vannes, 1342. 
Venloo, 1702. 
Verdun, 1792. 
Vicksburg, U.S., 1863. 
Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
Wakefield, 1460. 
Warsaw, 1831. 
Xativa, 1246. 
Xeres, 1262. 
Ypres, 1648. 
Zurich, 1544. 
Zutphen, 1586. 



SIENNA (formerly Sena Julia), Italy, in the middle ages a powerful republic, rivalling 
Florence and Pisa, through intestine quarrels was subjugated by the emperor Charles V., 
and given to his son in 1555, who ceded it to Cosmo of Tuscany, 1557. It was incorporated 
with France, 1808-14. 

SIERRA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered in 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with free 
negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with sixty whites, mostly women of 
bad character and in ill-health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the cliarge of government 
to form a settlement, 9 Dec. 1786. The settlement was attacked by the French, Sept. 1794; 
by the natives, Feb. 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murdered by 



SIG 673 SIL 

the Ashantee chief, 21 Jan. 1824.— 16 & 17 Vict. c. 16, relates to the government, &c., of 
this colony. It was made a bishopric in 1S52 ; see Ashantces. 

SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. Elizabeth had instructions drawn up for the 
admiral and general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be announced to the fleet in a cert^iin 
latitude ; this is said to have been the iirst set of signals given to the commanders of the 
English fleet. A system for the navy was invented by the duke of York, afterwards 
James II. 1665. Guthrie; see Fog-signals. 

SIGNBOARDS were used by the Greeks and Romans. A " History of Signboards," by 
Jacob Larwood and John Hotten, was published in 1866. 

SIGNETS, see Seals. 

SIGN MANUAL, ROYAL, a stamp employed when the sovereign was so ill as to be 
unable to write : in the case of Henry VIII. 1547 ; James I. 1628 ; and George IV., 29 May, 
1830. Hosse. 

SIKHS, a people of N. India, invaded the Mogul empire, 1703-8 ; see Punjab, and 
India, 1849. 

SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and 
ceded to him. 1355. It was conquered and lost several times during the Seven years' war by 
Frederick of Prussia, but was retained by him at the peace in 1763. 

SILICON or SiLiciUM (from siUx, flint), a non-metallic element, next to oxygen, the 
most abundant substance in the earth, as it enters into the constitution of many earths, 
metallic oxides, and a great number of minerals. The mode of procrrring pure silicon was 
discovered by Berzelius in 1823. Gmelin. See Water-glass, and Ransome's Stone. 

SILISTRIA, a strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken by the 
Russians, 30 June, 1829, and held some years by them as a pledge for the payment of a large 
sum by the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854 it was again besieged by the 
Russians, 30,000 strong, under prince Paskie-svitch, and many assaults were made. The 
Russian general was compelled to return in consequence of a dangerous contusion. On 

2 June, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful commander of the garrison, was killed. On 
9 June, the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. A grand assault took place on 
13 June, under prince Gortschakoff and general Schilders, which was vigorously repelled. 
On the 15th, the garrison assumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the Russians, 
and destroyed the siege works. The siege was thus raised, and the Russians commenced 
their retreat as Omar Pacha was drawing near. The garrison was ably assisted by two 
British officers, captain Butler and lieutenant Nasmyth, the former of whom, after being 
wounded, died of exhaustion. They were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Har- 
dinge, and lieutenant Nasmyth was made a major. 

SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Rome in 
Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting the use of plate of massy gold, 
and also forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. _ Helio- 
gabalus first wore a garment of silk, a.d. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, 
weight for weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- 
worms were brought from India to Europe in the 6th century. Charlemagne sentOlfa, king 
of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, 
king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1 146, when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun 
and wove the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the 
south of France, a little before the reign of Francis I. about 15 10; and Henry IV. pro- 
pagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, about 1600. In England, 
silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenil worth castle, 1286. 
Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and 
broad silk wove from raw silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in 
London at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at 
Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the original mill then 
in the king of Sardhiia's dominions, about 17 14. He obtained a patent in 1718, and died 

3 Jan. 1739. Six new species of silk- worm were rearing in France, 1861.* 

SILURES, a British tribe, occupying the counties of Monmouth and Hereford, was 
subdued by the Roman general Ostorius Scapula, 50 ; see ShrojJsMre. From this tribe is 
derived the geological term "Silurian strata," among the lowest of the palaeozoic or primary 
series, from their occurrence in the above mentioned counties. Murchison's "Siluria." 

* lu 1S58, M. Gii^rin-Mfeneville introduced into Franco a Chinese wonn termed the Cynthia Bombvx, 
which feeds on the Ailanthus glandulosa, a hardy tree of the oak kind. The cynthia yields a silk-liko 
substance termed Ailantine, which promises to become valuable. It was brought to Turin by Pantoni 
in 1856. 

X S 



SIL 674 SIN 

SILVER exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various 
mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America are far the richest. A mine 
was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was 
often cut out with a chisel. In 1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. 
From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at 
Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680Z. In England silver-plate and vessels were 
first used by Wilfrid, a JSTorthumbrian bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, 709. Tyrrell. 
Silver knives, spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300 ; see Mirrors. In 1855, 
561,906 oz., in 1857, 532,866 oz., in 1865, 724,856 oz., were obtained from mines in Britain, 
Pattinson's process for obtaining silver from lead ore was introduced in 1829. 

SILVER BOOK (Codex Argenteus), see under Bible, p. 100. 

SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say at ^gina, in Greece, 
783 ; others, by Pheidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 
269 B.C. Used in Britain 25 B.C. The Saxons coined silver pennies which were 22^ grains 
weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin in England ; see Shillings, &c. 
New silver coinage, 18 r 6. From 1816 to 1840, inclusive, were coined at our mint in 
London, 11,108,265?. 15s. in silver, being a yearly average of 444,3 30Z. The total amoimt 
of the seniorage received on this coin was 616,747?. ^^- 2<^- Pari. Hot. From 1837 to 1847, 
the amount of silver coined was 2,440,614?. ; see Coin of England. 

SIMANCAS (Castile, Spain). Near it Ramirez II. of Leon, and Fernando of Castile 
gained a great victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of Cordova, 6 Aug. 938. 

SIMNEL CONSPIRACY, see Rehellions, i486. 

SIMONASAKI, see Japan, 1864. 

SIMON lANS, a sect named after the founder, Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. 
A sect of social reformers called St. Simonians sprang up in France in 1819, and attracted 
considerable attention ; the doctrines were advocated in England, particularly by Dr. Prati, 
who lectured upon them in London, 24 Jan. 1834. St. Simon died in 1825, and Ms 
follower, Pere Enfantin, died i Sept. 1864. 

SIMONY (trading in church offices), derives its name from Simon desiring to purchase 
the gift of the Holy Spirit {Acts viii. 18, 19). It is forbidden in England by the canon law, 
and by statute 31 Eliz. c. 6, "for the avoiding of simony and corruption in presentations, 
collations, and donations of and to benefices," &c. 1588-9. 

SIMPLON, a mountain road, leading from Switzerland into Italj', constructed by 
Napoleon in 180 1-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes by galleries through, 
solid rock, and has eight principal bridges. The number of workmen employed at one time 
varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 

SINALUNGA or Asinalunga (near Sienna, Italy). Here Garibaldi, when about to 
enter the papal territory, was seized and conveyed to Alessandria, 23 Sept. 1867 ; see 
Italy. 

SINCE (N. "W. India), was traversed by the Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C. ; 
conquered by the Persian Mahometans in the 8th century a.d. ; tributary to the Ghazneride 
dynasty in the i ith century ; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739 ; reverted to the empire of Delhi 
after his death, 1 747 ; after various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by the English, 
and annexed, March, 1843. 

SINGAPORE, see Straits Settle7nents. SINGING, see Music, and Hymm, 

SINKING FUND. First projected by sir Robert "Walpole to redeem the debt to the 
bank of England ; act passed in 1716. The act establishing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt, 
devised by Dr. Price, was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated Rurj)lus of 900,000?. in 
the revenue was augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of 1,000,000?. which was to 
be invariably applied to the reduction of the national debt. The fallacy of the scheme was 
shown by Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, the sinking fund was limited to the actual 
surplus of revenue. 

SINOPE (Sinoub), an ancient sea-port of Asia Minor, formerly capital of the kingdom of 
Pontus, said to have been the birth-place of Diogenes, the cjmic philosopher. On 30 Nov. 
1853, a Turkish fieet of seven frigates, three corvettes, and two smaller vessels, was attacked 
by a Russian fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and three steamers, under 
admiral Nachimoff, and totally destroyed, except one vessel, which conveyed the tidings to 
Constantinople. Four thousand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman Pacha, the 
Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. In consequence of this event, the Anglo- 
French fleet entered the Black Sea, 3 Jan. 1854. 



SIO 675 SLA 

SION COLLEGE and Hospital, situated on the site of a nunnery, wliich, having fallen 
to decay, was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen and mercer, and converted into a 
college and hospital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In 1340 he changed it to an 
Austin priory, which was afterwards granted by Henry VIII. to sir John Williams, master 
of the jewel-office, who, with sir Roland Hayward, inhabited it till its destruction by fire. 
In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having bequeathed 3000?. towards purchasing and building a 
college and alms-house on the ancient site, his executors erected the present college. It is 
held by two charters of incorporation, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 16 Chas. II. 1664. It contains a 
valuable library (easily accessible to the public) maintained by a treasury grant, and an 
almshouse for ten men and ten women. 

SIRENE, an instrument for determining the velocity of aerial vibrations corresponding 
to the different pitches of musical sounds, was invented by Baron Cagniard de la Tour of 
Paris in 1819. The principle was shown in an apparatus exliibited by Robert Hooke before 
the Royal Society, 27 July, 1681. 

SISTERS OF CHARITY, an order for the service of the sick poor, was founded by 
Vincent de Paul, in 1634. Their establishment in London began in 1834. 

SIX ACTS, a term given to certain acts, also named " Gagging Acts," passed in 1819 
to suppress seditious meetings and publications. 

SIX ARTICLES, see Articles. 

SIX CLERKS, officers of the court of chancery, who were anciently clcrici or clergy. 
They were to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit their places if they married ; but 
when the constitution of the court began to alter, a law was made to permit them to marry; 
statute 24 & 25 Hen. VIII. 1533. The six clerks continued for many ages officers of the 
chancery court, and held their offices in Chancery-lane, London, where proceedings by bill 
.and answer were transacted and filed, and certain patents issued. Lmv Diet. The six clerks 
were discontinued by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 1841. 

SIXTEEN {seize), a large French political club, in the reigns of Henry III. and IV., 
sixteen members of which took charge of the sixteen quarters of Paris. They at first 
supported the catholic league, and attempted to overthrow Henry III. in 1587 ; but vacil- 
lating in their policy, and committing many crimes, their power was annihilated by 
Mayenne in 1591, and several of them executed. 

SKALITZ (Bohemia), was stormed by the Prussian general Steinmetz, 28 June, 1866 ; 
whereby the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was greatly facilitated. 

SKINS. The raw skins of cattle were usually suspended on stakes and made use of 
instead of kettles to boil meat, in the north of England, and in Scotland, i Edw. III. 1327. 
Lelmid. In 1857, 4,489,163 skins of oxen, lambs, kid, &c., dressed and undressed, in 
1867, 9,593,798, were imported into Great Britain. 

SLAVERY has existed from the earliest ages. The traffic in men came from Chaldsea 
into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East. In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisonei-s 
of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedsemonian youths, trained up in the practice of 
deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their 
proficiency ; and once, for amusement only, murdered, it is said, 3000 in one night. — 
Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the whole people for slaves, 335 B. c. ; see Helots. 
There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 B.C. In Rome slaves were often chained to the 
gate of a great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one 
of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them 
in their houses, till by their services or labour they had discharged the sum they owed. 
C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his 
lampreys, 42 b.c. Cajcilius Isidorus left to his heir 41 16 slaves, 12 B.C. The first Janis- 
saries were Christian slaves, 1329.* 

SLAVERY IN England. Laws respecting the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The 
English peasantry were so commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that 
children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ireland 
and others to Scotland. Under the Normans the vassals were termed villains (of and 
pertaining to the vill). They were devisable as chattels during the feudal times. 

* Serfs were peasants attached to, and part of, the landed estates. The system was abolished by 
Frederick I. of Prussia in 1702 : by Christian VII. of Denmark in 1766; by the emperor Joseph II. in his 
hereditary states in 17S1 ; by Nicholas I. of Bussia on the imperial domains in 1842 ; and by his successor, 
Alexander II. (3 March, 1861), throughout his empire. Slavery ceased in the Diitch West Indies on 
I July, 1863. It was decreed in Brazil in 1S67 that all children bom to slaves henceforth were to be free, 
and aXi. slaves were to be free in 20 years from that time. In Nov. slaves of the state became free when 
made soldiers. 

X X 2 



SLA 



676 



SLA 



Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of 
industry among the manumitted slaves, and 
for compensation to the persons hitherto 
entitled to the services of such slaves by the 
grant from parliament of 2o,ooo,oooi. sterling, 
passed 28 Aug. 1833 

Slavery terminated in the British possessions ; 
770,280 slaves became free . . .1 Aug. 1834 

Slavery was abolished in the East Indies, i Aug. 1838 



SLAVERY IN England, continued. 

Severe statutes were passed in the reign of 

Richard II. 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of 

Wat Tyler, 1381, arose partly out of the evils 

of serfdom.* 
Queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in 

the western counties to be made free at easy 

rates 

Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when 

tenures in capite, knights' service, &c., were 

abolished. 
In 1772 it was decided that slavery could not 

exist in England, f 

SLAVERY IN United States. Before the war of independence all the estates contained 
slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All men are horn free 
and equal," was declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar slave-holding in that state. 
Slaves in the United States in 1790, 697,897; in 1810, 1,191,364; in 1820, 2,009,031; iu 
1850, 3,204,313 ; in i860, 4,002,996. 

admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave- 
holding states ; civil war ensued (see Kansas) 1854 
Dred Scot's case (see United States) . . . 1857 
John Brown's attempt to create a slave rebellion 

in Virginia failed (see United States) . Nov. 1859 
Abraham Lincoln, the anti-slavery candidate, 

elected president of the United States, 4 Nov. i860 
Secession of South Carolina (see United States) 

Dec. „ 
Slavery abolisl^ed in the district of Colombia, 

16 April, 1862 
President Lincoln proclaims the abolition of 
slavery in the southern states, if they have 
not returned to the union on i Jan. 1863 

22 Sept. „ 
Slavery was extinguished by the defeat and 

submission of the southern states . April, 1865 
The total abolition of slavery in the United 

States officially announced . . i8 Dec. ,, 
Mr. William Lloyd Garrison, a fervent cham- 
pion for emancipation, entertained at St. 
James's-hall, London (he started the Liberator 
in 1831, and had suffered much for his zeal) 

29 June, 1867 
A negro j udge present in a court at New (Orleans, 

18 Sept. „ 
See United States, 1860-5. 

SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congou and Angola was begun by the Portu- 
guese in 1481. The commerce in man has brutalised a tract fifteen degrees on each side of 
the equator, and forty degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles ; and men and women 
have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during the last 250 years, and war carried on 
to make prisoners for tlie Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computed (1777) that, at the 
time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans. The slave- 
trade is now approaching extinction. 



Congress passes unanimously the celebrated 
ordinance ' ' for the government of the terri- 
tory to the N.W. of the Ohic)," which con- 
tained an "unalterable" article, forbidding 
slavery or involuntary servitude in the said 
state, 13 July, 1787 ; after 1800, several of the 
states prayed, without effect, to be relieved 
from this prohibition. 

Louisiana purchased, which was considered by 
many as fatal to the constitution . . . 

The enormoiis increase in the growth of cotton 
in the southern states (see Coiton)led to a cor- 
responding increase in the demand for slave 
labour. The Missouri Compromise (drawn up 
by Henry Clay, by which slavery was per- 
mitted in that state, but was prohibited in 
all that part of it to the north of 36° 30' N. lat. ) 
carried Feb. 

Contest between the slave-holders and their 
opponents at the annexation of Texas ; a 
similar division to that of Missouri obtained, 

25 Dec. 184s 

Another compromise effected ; California ad- 
mitted as a free state : but the Fugitive Slave 
act passed (which see) 1850 

The Missouri compromise was abrogated by the 



1820 



In 1768 the slaves taken from their own continent 
amounted to 104,100. In 1786 the annual number 
was about 100,000. 

In 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by 



government, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 
Africans had been torn from their country, and 
had either perished on the passage or been sold in 
the West Indies. 



* A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, 
should be brought before two justices of the peace, and mai-ked V with a hot iron on the breast, and 
adjudged the slave of him who bought hina for two years. He was to take the slave and give him bread, 
water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, 
within that space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be naarked on the forehead or cheek, by a 
hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever ; second desertion was made felony. It was lawful 
to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A child might be put apprentice, and, on running away, 
become a slave to his master, 1547. 

t Determined by the judgment of the court of king's bench, at the instance of Mr. Granville Sharpe. 
A poor slave named Somerset, brought to England, was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by his 
master. By the charity of Mr. G. Sharpe he was restored to health, when his unfeeling and avaricious 
master again claimed him. This was resisted, and a suit was the consequence, which established, by its 
result in favour of the black, the great point that slavery could not exist in Great Britain, 22 June, 1772. 
In 1853 John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who attempted to 
arrest him, and escaped to Canada. The American government claimed him as a murderer. The Canadian 
judges deciding that the law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, Q.C. (15 Jan. 1861), obtained a 
writ of habeas corpus for his appearance before the court of queen's bench. Anderson wa.s, however, 
discharged on 16 Feb. following, on technical grounds. 



SLA 077 SMA 



The allies at Vienna declared against it Feb. 1815. 

Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, 
Kg March, 1815. 

Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the 
Netherlands, May, 181S ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. 

Its revival was proposed in the congress of the 
United States of America, 14 Dec. 1856, and nega- 
tived by 183 votes to 58. 

In June, 1857, the French government gave permis- 
sion to M. Eegis to convey .r'ree negroesfrom Africa 
to Guadaloupe and Martinico, French colonies. 

This having led to abuses and consequent troubles 
(see Charles et Georges), was eventually given up in 
Jan. 1859. 

It is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at 
Cuba in i860. 

A treaty between Great Britain and the United 
States for the abolition of the slave trade, was 



SLAVE TRADE, continued. 

Slave Trade of England: begun by sir John 

Hawkins. His first expedition, with the object 

of procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and 

conveying them for sale at the West Indies, took 

place in Oct. 1562 ; see Guinea. 
England employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 

slaves, 1786. 
Slave-trade qviestion debated in parliament, 1787. 
The debate for its abolition ; two days, April, 1791. 
Mr. Wilberforce's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 

83, 3 April, 1798. 
The question introduced under the auspices of lord 

Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, 31 March, 

1806. 
The trade abolished by parliament, 25 March, 1807. 
Thomas Clarkson, whose whole life may be said to 

have, been passed in labouring for the extinction 

of the slave trade, died, aged 85, Sept. 1S46. 
Foreign" countries : the trade was abolished by 1 signed 7 April ; ratified 20 May, 1862. 

Austria in 1782; by the French convention in 1794; [ The Spanish government denounce the slave trade 

by the United States in 1808. as piracy, Nov. 1865. 

SLAVONIA or Sclavonia, a province of Austria, derives its name from tlie Slaves, a 
Sarmatian people who replaced the Avars in Pannonia early in the 9th century. In 864 
Cyril and Methodius, Greek missionaries, preached here, and adapted the Greek alphahet 
to the Slavonian language ; the letters of which have since heen a little altered. The 
country, after having been held at times by the Greeks, Turks, and Hungarians, and the 
cause of sanguinary conflicts, was ceded finally to Hungar}'- in 1699, at the peace of Carlo- 
witz. The Slavonian family of languages includes Eussian, Polish, Servian, Bohemian, 
Bulgarian, "Wendic, Slovak, and Polabic. Deputies from the Slavonian provinces of Austria 
were entertained at Moscow and St. Petersburg, May, 1867. The Croatian-Slavonian diet, 
at Agram, was dissolved. May, 1867. It protested against incorporation with Hungary. 

SLIDING-SCALE, see Corn Laivs. 

SLING, an ancient weapon. In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the skill of the Ben- 
jamite slingers (about 1406 B.C.), and with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 B.C. (i Sam. 
xvii). The natives of the Balearic isles (Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi^a) were celebrated 
slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Carthaginian and Roman armies. Slings are said 
to have been used by the Huguenots at the siege of Sancerre, in 1672, to economise their 
powder. 

SLOANE'S MUSEUM, see British Museum. 

SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. gained a signal naval victory over the French. 
The English had the wind of the enemy, nnd the sun at their backs, and began the action, 
which was fierce and bloody, the English archers galling the French on their approach. Two 
hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thirty thousand Frenchmen were killed, with 
two of their admirals ; the loss of the English was inconsiderable : 24 June, 1340. 

SMALCALD (Hesse), Treaty of, entered into between the elector of Brandenburg and 
the other princes of German)' in favour of Protestantism, 31 Dec. 1530; see Protestants. 
The emperor, apprehensive that the kings of France and England would join this league, 
signed the treaty at Nuremberg, in Jul}-, 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. 

SMALL POX, variola (diminutive of varus, a pimple), a highly contagious disease, 
supposed to have been introduced into Europe from the East by the Saracens. Rhazes, an 
Arabian, described it acciu'ately, about 900. From Europe it was carried to America, soon 
after its discovery, and raged there with great severity, destroying the Indians by thou- 
sands, lu 1694, queen Mary of England died of small pox, as did in 171 1 and 1712 the 
emperor of Germany, dauphin and dauphiness of France and their son, in 1730 the emperor 
of Russia, in 1741 the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of France. It is stated 
that in the middle of the last century two millions perished by it in Russia. In London in 
1723 one out of fourteen deaths was caused by small pox, and in France in 1754 the rate 
was one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this scourge, see InocuJation, introduced into 
England in 1722, and Vaccination, announced by Dr. Jenner in 1798. In Sept. and Oct. 
1862, a great many sheep died of small pox in the West of England, till successful pi'even- 
tive measures were resorted to. 

SMALL TENEMENTS ACT, 1850(13 & 14 Vict. c. 99), provided for owners paying 
rates of houses instead of the occupiers. This was annulled by the new Reform act, 
30 & 31 Vict. c. 102, s. 7 (1867}. 



SMI 678 SOA 

SMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of London, was once a favourite walk of the London 
citizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. Wallace was executed here, 23 Aug. 1305. On 
15 June, 138 1, Wat Tyler was met by king Richard IL at this place, and was stabbed by 
Walworth the mayor. Many tournaments were also held here. In the reign of Mary 
(1553-8), 277 persons perished by fire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt and Edward Wightman, 
Arians, were burnt here in 1612. — Bartholomew fair was held here till 1853. — This place 
is mentioned as the site of a cattle market as far back as 1150. The space devoted to this 
purpose was enlarged from about three acres to four and a half, and in 1 834 to six and a 
quarter. The ancient regulations were called the "statutes of Smithlield." In one day 
there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the 
sales was about 7,ooo,oooL In 1846 there were sold here 226, 132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep 
and lambs, 26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. There were about 160 salesmen. The contracted 
space of the market, the slaughteiing places adjoining, and many other nuisances, gave 
ground to much dissatisfaction, and after parliamentary investigation, an act was passed on 
I Aug. 1 85 1, appointing metropolitan market commissioners with powers to provide a new 
market, slaughtering places, &c. ; and to close the market at Smithfield. Smithfield Avas 
used as a cattle market for the last time on 11 June, 1855 ; and the new market in Copen- 
hagen-fields was opened on 13 June ; see Metropolitan Market. By an act passed in 1861 a 
dead-meat and poultry market was ordered to be erected in Smithfield, and ISTewgate market 
to cease.* A tender for its erection was accepted from Messrs. Browne and Robinson for 
i34,46oZ.,]S'ov. 1866. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, "for the increase and diffusion of Imowledge among 
men," a handsome building at Washington, U.S., was foimdediu 1846, by means of a legacy 
of above loo.oooZ. bequeathed for the purpose to the United States government by James 
Smithson, illegitimate son of sir Hugh Smithson, who becapie duke of Northumberland in 
1766. It publishes and freely distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The library was 
burnt on 25 Jan. 1865. 

SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding 
from chimney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 1856 another act, obtained for 
its further application to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries and glass-houses 
Tjreviously exempted, came into operation, i Jan. 1858 ; enactments have been made for 
all the kingdom. 

SMOLENSKO (Russia). The French in a most sanguinary engagement here were three 
times repulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smolensko, and found the city, which 
had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins, 16, 17 Aug. 1812. Barclay de Tolly, 
the Russian commander in chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander because 
he retreated after the battle, and Kutusotf succeeded to the command. 

SMUGGLERS. The customs duties were instituted to enable the king to afford 
protection to trade against pirates; afterwards became a branch of public revenue, and 
gave rise to much smuggling. The Smugglers' Act was passed in 1736, and its 
severity was mitigated in 1781 and 1784. A revision of these statutes took place 
1826 and 1835. 

SMYRNA, see Seven ChurcJies. 

SNEEZING. The custom of saying "God bless you" to the sneezer originated, 
according to Strada, among the ancients, who, through an opinion of the danger attending 
it, after sneezing made a short prayer to the gods, as "Jupiter, help me." The custom is 
mentioned by Homer, the Jewish rabbis, and others, and is found among savages. 
Polydore Vergil says it took its rise at the time of the plague, 558, when the infected 
fell down dead sneezing, though seemingly in good health. 

SNIDER GUN, see under Firearms. 

SNUFE-TAKING took its rise in England from the captures made of vast quantities of 
snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. It soon became general, from which 
the revenue now draws, with tobacco, considerably more than 5,000,000?. per annum. In 
1839 there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snufF, of which 196,305 lbs. were entered for 
home consumption ; the duty was 88,263?. ; see Tohacco. In 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of snuiF 
and cigars, in 1861, 2, 110,429 lbs. were imported. 

SOANE MUSEUM, at No. 13, Lincoln's Inn Fields, was gradually formed by sir John 
Soane, the architect, who died in 1837, after making arrangements for its being open to the 
public. It contains Egyptian and other antiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &c, 

* The SniHhfldd Club, to promote improvements in the breed of cattle, was established in 1798. The 
members established an annual cattle show in December in Goswell-street, which was removed to Baker- 
street in 1840, and to the new Agricultural Hall, Liverpool-road, Islington, in 1862. The cattle show, 
suspended in Dec. 1866, on account of the plague, was resumed Dec. 1867. 



SOA 



679 



SOC 



SOAP was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in 
Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though 
he prefers the German to the G:illic soap. In remote periods clothes were cleaned by 
being rubbed or stamped upon in water. ISTausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, 
washed theirs by treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. Odyssmj, book vi. 
The Eomans used fuller's earth. Savon, the Prench word for soap, is ascribed to its having 
been manufactured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture of soap began in London 
in 1524, before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. The 
duty upon soap, imposed in 171 1, after several reductions from yl. per pound, was totally 
repealed in 1853. It then produced, according to the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. 
Gladstone, annually, about 1,126,000^. 

SOBRAOIST (N.W. India). The British army, 35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards 
viscount) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, 10 Peb. 1846. The enemy was 
dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and in attempting the 
passage of the river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weiglit of the masses that crowded 
upon it caused it to break down, and more than 13,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or 
drowned. The British loss was 2,338 men. 

SOCIALISM was warmly advocated in London, 24 Jan. 1834, b}' the celebrated Eobert 
Owen. He had, beginning at New Lanark, in Scotland, about 1801, established a settle- 
ment at New Harmony in America in 1824. He died 17 Nov. 1858, aged 90. The French 
socialists, termed Communists, became a powerful political body in that country, and were 
much implicated in the revolution in 1848. 

SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science 
originated in a meeting at lord Bi'ougham's in May, 1857. Its object is to promote improve- 
ments in the administration of law, in education, in public health, and in social economy. 
It holds annual meetings, and publishes its proceedings. 



Birmingham . 


. 12 Oct. 


i8=;7 


Dublin . 


Liverpool 


II Oct. 


i8=;8 


London 


Bradford . 


. 10 Oct. 


I8SQ 


Edinburgh 


Glasgow 


24 Sept. 


i860 


York . 



14 Aug. 1861 

6 June, 1862 

7 Oct. 1863 

22 Sept. 1864 



Sheffield . . . 4 Oct. 1865 
Manchester . . 2 Oct. 1866 

Belfast . . . 18 Sept. 1867 
To be at Birmingham . . 1868 



SOCIAL WARS, see Athens, and Marsi. 



SOCIETIES AND Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in Great Britain. Further 
details of many of these will be found under their respective heads. All in the list below 
are in London, except otherwise stated. An act was passed 11 jAug. 1854, "to afford 
facilities for the establishment of institutions for the promotion of literature and science," 
by grants of land, &c. ; and for their regulation. The Eoyal and London Institutions are 
exempted from the operation of the act. 

(Charter 1824) 1823 



Charter 1662 



Royal Society 

Christian Knowledge Society . ... 

Society of Antiquaries . . (Charter 1751) 

Society of Dilettanti 

Society of Arts .... (Charter 1847) 
Bath and West of England Society . 
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 
Boyal Society of Edinburgh . (Charter 1783) 

Highland Society 

Eoyal Irish Academy .... Charter 

Linnpean Society . . . (Charter 1802) 
Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society . 
Royal Institution . . . (Charter 1810) 
Boyal Horticultural Society . (Charter 1809) 
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society 
(Charter 1834) 
Loudon Institution ...... 

Geological Society . 

Russell Institution 

Swedenborg Society . . . ... 

Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society . 

Roxburgbe Chib 

Institution of Civil Engineers (Charter 1828) 
Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society . . 

Egyptian Society 

Cambridge Philosophical Society (Charter 1832) 
Royal Astronomical Society . (Charter 1831) 

Medico-Botanical Society 

Hull Literai-y and Philosophical Society . . 
Yorkshire PhUosuphical Society. 
Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society 
Royal Society of Literature . (Charter 1826) 



1717 
1734 
1753 
1777 
1781 
1782 
1725 



1793 
1800 



1805 

(Charter 1826) 1S07 

. 1808 

. . 1810 

1812 



1819 
1820 



Royal Asiatic Society . 
Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh . 

Athenteum Club 1824 

Western Literary Institution 1825 

Eastern Literary Institution . . . . ,, 

Zoological Society 1826 

Incorporated Law Society . . (Charter 1831) 1827 
Mechanics' Institution, London . . . . ,, 
Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge . ,, 

Ashmolean Society, Oxford 182S 

Maitland Club, Glasgow ,, 

Ro3'al Geographical Society 1830 

Gaelic Society ,, 

Royal United Service Institution . . . . 1831 

Royal Dublin Society ,, 

Harveian Society , 

Bi-itish Association ,, 

Marylobone Literary Institution . . . . 1832 
Entomological Society . . . . . . 1833 

Statistical Society 1834 

Westminster Literary Institution . . . ,, 

Surtees Society, Durham ,, 

Royal Institute of British Architects (Charter 

1837) ., 
Leicester Literary and PhUosophioal Society . 1835 
Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh . , . 1835-7 

Numismatic Society 1836 

Ornithological Society 1837 

Electrical Society 1837-8 

Etching Club 1838 

English Historical Society .... 1838-56 
Royal Agricultural Society 1838 



soc 



680 



SOL 



SOCIETIES, contimied. 



Camden Society .... 

Royal Botanical Society 

Microscopical Society (Royal, 1866) 

Ecolesiological Society 

Spalding Club, Aberdeen 

Royal Botanical Society of London 

Parker Society .... 

Percy Society .... 

IrislL Ai'chseological Society, Dublin 

London Library .... 

Shakespeare Society 

Chemical Society .... 

Pharmaceutical Society . 

Wodrow Society, Edinburgh 

Philological Society. 

jElfric Society .... 

Chetham Society, Manchester 

Spottiswoode Society, Edinburgh 

Archseological Association 

Archaeological Institute 

Sydenham Society .... 

Ethnological Society . . . , 

Law Amendment Society 

Handel Society .... 

Syro-Egyptian Society . 

Ray Society 



1839 



40-SS 
40-52 



B41-7 
1842 
43-56 



Caxton Society 1844-54 

Celtic Society, Dublin. .... 1845-53 

Pathological Society 1846 

Sussex Archeeological Society, Lewes . . „ 
Cambrian Arohajological Association . . . „ 

Cavendish Society „ 

Hakluyt Society ,, 

Palfeontographical Society 1847 

Instituteof Mechanical Eugineers(Birmingham) ,, 

Institute of Actuaries 1848 

Arundel Society ,, 

(British) Meteorological Society (Charter 1866) 1850 

Epidemiological Society j, 

North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, 

Newcastle 1851 

Photographic Society 1852 

Philobiblon Society 1853 

Juridical Society 1855 

Genealogical Society 1857 

National Association for Social Science . . ,, 

Horological Institute 1858 

Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts . ,, 
Institution of Naval Architecture . . . i860 
Anthropological Society . . . . . 1863 

Victoria Institute .... 24 May, 1865 
Aeronautical Society ..... Jan. 1866 

SOOIlSriANS, persons who accept the opinions of Fanstns Socinus (died 1562) and his 
nephew Lselius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held — i. That the Eternal Father 
was the one only God, and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than by his superiority 
to all other creatures ; 2. That Chiist was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure for 
a time, after which the soul and body will be destroyed ; and 4, That it is unlawful for 
princes to make war. Hook. The Socinians established a church at Eakow, in Poland, and 
made proselytes in Transylvania, 1563. They were expelled from Poland in 1658. The 
Eakovian catechism was first published in 1574 ; see Unitarians. 

SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained in 1807 by sir Humphry Davy from 
soda (which was formerly confounded with potash, but proved to be a distinct substance 
by Duhamel in 1736). This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the agency of the 
electric battery. In conseqxience of Deville's improved processes, sodium is now manu- 
factured by Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at los. a pound. Common salt (chloride of sodium) 
is a compound of sodium and chlorine. 

SODOM AND Gomorrah (Palestine), with their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from 
heaven, 1898 B.C., Gen. xix. 

SODOR is a village of Icolmkill. Dr. Johnson calls it " the luminary of the Caledonian 
regions, whence," he adds, "savage clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits of 
knowledge, and the blessings of religion." The bishop's seat was at Rushin, or Castletown, 
in the Isle of Man, and in Latin is entitled Sodorensis. But when that island became 
dependent upon the kiugdom of England the western islands withdrew themselves from the 
obedience of their bishop, and had a bishop of their own, whom they entitled also 
Sodorensis, but commonly bishop of the Isles ; see Isles. Germanus was settled here by St. 
Patrick in 447. The bishop of Sodor and Man is not a lord of parliament ; see Man. 

SOFFARIDES DYNASTY reigned in Persia 872-902. 

SOHO THEATRE, see Theatres. 

SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Caesar, 
57 B.C. It was held by Syagrius, after his father jEgidius, till his defeat by Clovis, A.D. 
486. Several councils have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). Its academy was 
established in 1674. 

SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of 
Samos, about 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in 
elliptical orbits round it — a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic system {which see). The 
system of Pythagoras, revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Copernican system. Its 
truth was demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton in 1687. 

SOLDIERS' DAUGHTERS' HOME was established at Hampstead, near London, in 
Aug. 1857, by the surplus of the money collected by the central association in aid of the 
wives and families of soldiers in active service during the Crimean war, and opened by the 
prince consort, i8 June, 1858. It has been indebted to the exertions of major Powys. 

SOLEBAY or Sotjthv^'-old Bay (Suffolk), where a fi.erce naval battle was fought between 



SOL 681 SOM 

the fleets of England and France on one side, and the Dutch on the other, the former com- 
manded by the duke of York, afterwards James II., 28 May, 1672. The English lost four 
ships, and the Dutch three ; but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their coasts. The 
earl of Sandwich was blown up, and thousands were killed and wounded. 

SOL-FA SYSTEM, see Miisic. 

SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), the site of the chief struggle on the greatbattleof 24June, 
1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army commanded by their respective 
sovereigns, and the Austrians under general Hesse ; the emperor being present. The 
Austrians, after their defeat at Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up 
a position in the celebrated quadrilateral, and were expected there to await the attack. But 
the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, 
induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offensive, on 23 June. The conflict began 
early on the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the Austrians had the advantage ; but 
the successful attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino changed the fortune of the day, 
and the Austrians were after desperate encounters compelled to retreat. The French attri- 
bute the victory to the skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals M'Mahon and 
Mel ; the Austrians, to the destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adver- 
saries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said 
against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers ; of the 
allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed and wounded. This battle closed 
the war ; preliminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca, 12 July. 

SOLFIDIANS (from solus, only, and fides, faith), a name given to the Antinomians 
{which see). 

SOLICITOE, see Attorney. 

SOLICITOR-GENERAL, the legal officer next in rank, and deputy to the attorney- 
general, whom he frequently succeeds. 



1839. Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 

5 Dec. 
1841. Sir William Follett (second time), 6 Sept. 

1844. Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelms- 

ford), 17 April. 

1845. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 17 July. 

1846. Sir John Jervis, 4 July. 

,, Sir David Dundas, 18 July. 
1848. Sir John Romilly, April 4. 

1850. Sir Alex. J. E. Cookbum, 11 July. 

1851. Sir W. Page Wood, 28 March. 

1852. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb. 



1852. Sir Richard Bethell, Dec. 

1856. Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov. 

1857. Sir Henry Keating, May. 

1858. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 26 Feb. 

1859. Sir Henry Keating, 18 June. 
,, Sir WiUiam Atherton, Dec. 

1861. Sir RoundeU Palmer, 27 June. 

1863. Sir Robei-t Porrett Collier, 2 Oct. 

1866. Sir William Bovill, 13 July. 

,, Sir John Burgess K^trslake, 29 Nov. 

1867. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, July. 

1868. Sir Wm. Baliol Brett, Feb. 



SOLOMON'S TEMPLE, see Temple. 

SOLWAY MOSS (Cumberland, bordering on Scotland). On 13 Nov. 1771, it swelled, 
owing to heavy rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such a height above the level of the 
ground, that at last it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweeping along with it 
houses, trees, &c. It covered 600 acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small villages. 
Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeated by the English, 25 Nov. 1542. 

SOMBRERO (West Indies). On this desert isle, Robert Jeftery, a British man-of-war's 
man, was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain W. Lake, for having tapped a 
barrel of beer when the ship was on short allowance. After sustaining life for eight days on 
a few limpets and rain-water, he was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807 ; and 
returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett advocated his cause in parliament, and he re- 
ceived 600Z. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was tried by a court-martial, and 
dismissed the service, 10 Feb. 18 10. 

SOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a palace, founded on the site of several churches 
and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the protector Somerset, whose residence fell to the 
crown after his execution, 22 Jan. 1552. Here resided at times queen Elizabeth, Anne of 
Denmark, and Catherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset-house, a mixture of Grecian 
and Gothic, was demolished in 1775, and the ])resent edifice, from a design by sir William 
Chambers, was erected for public offices. The Royal Academy of Arts first assembled in the 
apartments given to the members by the king, 17 Jan. 1771, and the Royal Society met here 
in 1780. Large suits of government buildings were erected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe- 
office, Victualling and other offices, were removed here in 1788, and various government 
departments since. The east wing, forming the King's College (see King's College), was 
completed in 1833. By an act passed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall were 
ordered to be transfen-ed to Pimlico, 

SOMERSET THE BLACK, see Slavenj in England. 



SOM 682 SOU 

SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient Hindoo temple at Guzerat wliich was 
destroyed by Malimoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished to preserve the idol ; but 
Mahnaoud broke it to pieces and found it filled with diamonds, &c. He carried the gates to 
Ghuznee. When that city was taken by general Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord EUenborough 
ordered the gates to be restored after an exile of 800 years. They are made of sandal wood, 
and are described and figured in the Archseologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. xxx. 

SONDERBUND, see Switzerland, 1846. 

SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, the rhymes being adjusted by rules, invented, it is 
said, by Guido d'Arezzo, about 1024. The most celebrated sonnets were written by Petrarch 
(about 1327), Shakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and Wordsworth (1820). 

SONNITES, the orthodox Mahometans who now possess the Turkish empire ; see Maho- 
metanisni. 

SONS OF THE CLEKGY, see Clerg^J. 

SONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, brought to Bengal about 1830, where they 
prospered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, and partly from the exactions of 
money-lenders, they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages. 
They were quite subdued early in 1856, and many were removed to the newly-conquered 
province of Pegu. 

SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first church was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy 
wisdom) by Constantius II., 360 ; having been destroyed, the second, the present edifice, 
was founded by Justinian, 532, and dedicated 537. Since the Mahometan conquest in 1453, 
it has been used as an imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth 243 feet. 
Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and of porphyry, 
from the temple of the Sun, at Rome. Four minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned 
in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully ornamented with mosaic work. 

SOPHISTS, teachers of youth in Athens, Avho were censured by Socrates, and conse- 
quently were instrumental in causing his judicial murder, 399 b.c.^ The controversy against 
them was carried on by Plato and his disciples. 

SORBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. 
The members lived in common, and devoted themselves to study and gratuitous teaching. 
They attained an European reputation as a faculty of theology, their judgment being fre- 
quentty appealed to, from the 14th to the 17th centuries. The influence of the Sorbonne was 
declining when the societj' was broken up in 1789. The buildings are now devoted to 
education. 

SORCERERS and Magicians. A law was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen. 
VIII. 1 541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to 
sorcery was made capital, i James I. 1603 ; see Witchcraft. 

SOUDAN or Soujah, the title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they bore 
in their provinces and armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, 
general of the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this 
title in Egypt, 11 65, after having killed the caliph Caym. 

SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, M. Soulages of Thoulouse, collected 790 
specimens of Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were bought for ii,oooZ. by 73 
English gentlemen, with the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and afterwards 
selling them to the government (who gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1865). 
Q'hey formed part of the "Art Treasures" exhibited at Manchester in 1857. 

SOUND. Robesval stated the velocity of sound to be 560 feet in a second ; Gassendi, 
1473 ; Derham, 1 142 feet ; Tyndall, 1090 feet, at 32° Falir. The velocity increases with the 
temperature. At Paris, where cannon were fired under many varieties of weather, in 1 738, 
it was found to be 1107. The range of perception of sound by the human ear was deter- 
mined by Savart (1830) to extend from 7 to 24,000 vibrations in a second. The fire of the 
British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles on the sea; see Acoicstics. > 

SOUND DUTIES. Till the year 1857 no merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound 
(a narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) without clearing at Elsineur and paying 
toll. These duties had their origin in an agreement between the king of Denmark and the 
Hanse towns (1348), by which the former undertook to maintain lighthouses, &c., along the 
Cattegat, and the latter to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with England in relation 
to this was in 1450 ; other countries followed. In 1855 the United States determined to pay 
the dues no more ; and in the same year the Danish government proposed that these dues 
should be capitalised ; which was eventually agreed to, the sum agreed on being 
30,476,325 rix-doUars. In Aug. 1857, the British government paid 10,126,855 rix-doUars 
(1,125,206?.) to the Danes as their proportion. — The passage of the Sound was effected, in 



sou 683 SOU 

defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde Parker and loi'd Nelson, 2 April, 1801 ; see Baltic 
Expedition. 

SOUNDINGS AT Sea. Captain Eoss, of H.M.S. (Edipus, in 1840, took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. One taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, extended to the depth of $000 
fathoms. In the latitude 33° S. and longitude 9° W. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good 
Hope, 2266 fathoms were sounded; the weight employed amounted to 450 lbs. On 13 July, 
1857, lieut. Joseph Dayman, in the North Atlantic Ocean, lat. 51° 9' N., long. 40° 2' W"., in 
sounding, found a bottom at 2424 fathoms. 

SOUTH AMEEICA, see America. 

SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a county of itself, near the Eoman Clausentum 
and the Saxon Hamtune. It frequently suffered by Danish incursions : Canute when king 
occasionally resided here. The charter was granted by Henry I. and confirmed by Eichard 
I. and John ; and the free grammar school was founded by Edward VI. On 17 July, 1861, 
a monument to Dr. Isaac Watts was inaugurated, and on 15 Oct. 1862, the Hartley institu- 
tion was opened by lord Palmerston. 

SOUTH AUSTEALIA was visited by capt, Sturt in 1830, and explored shortly after by 
capt. Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was killed by the natives. The bounda- 
ries of the province were fixed by 4 & 5 "Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) ; and it was occupied 26 
Dec. 1836, by capt. Hindmarsh, the first governor. It was colonised according to Mr. E. 
Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which was carried out by the South Australian Colonisation 
Association. The colony for several years underwent severe trials through the great influx 
of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, &c., which produced almost imiversal 
bankruptcy in 1S39. In five years after, the energy of the colonists had overcome their 
difiiculties, and the prosperity of the colony appeared fully established. In 1842 the highly 
productive Burra Burra copper mines were discovered, and large fortunes were suddenly 
realised ; but in 1851 the discovery of gold in New South Wales and Victoria almost para- 
lysed this province by drawing off a large part of the labouring population. Very little gold 
was found in South Australia ; but a reaction took place in favour of the copper mines and 
agriculture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, little trade existed between Adelaide (the 
capital of South Australia) and Melbourne; but in 1852 gold was transmitted from the latter 
to the former to the amount of 2,215, 167Z. principally for bread-stuffs, farm produce, &c. 
The bishopric of Adelaide was founded in 1847. Sir Dominic Daly, appointed governor in 
Nov. 1861, died 19 Feb. 1868. Population in 1855, 85)^21 ; in 1865, 156,605. 

SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born in 1750, came from Exeter to London, where 
her followers at one period amounted to many thousands, among whom were military 
ofiicers, but the low and ignorant we-re her principal dupes. In 1792 she announced 
herself as the woman spoken of in the book of Eevelation, chap xii. ; and a disorder gave 
her the appearance of pregnancy after she had passed her grand climacteric, favouring the 
delusion that she would be the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died 27 Dec. 1814. 
In 1 85 1 there existed in England four congregations, professing to expect her return. 

SOUTHEEN CONFEDEEATE STATES, see Confederates. 

SOUTHEEN CONTINENT. The Southern Ocean was first traversed by Magellan in 
1520; and explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766; and by Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of 
the southern continent little more is known than that it is ice-bound, and contains active 
volcanoes. It was discovered in the first instance by capt. John Eiscoe, on 27 Feb. 1831, 
in lat. 65° 57' S., long. 47° 20' E., extending east and west 200 miles, — this he named 
Enderby Land, after the gentleman who had equipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biscoe 
also discovered Graham's Laud on 15 Feb. 1832, situated in lat. 67° i' S., long. 71° 48' W. 
The Messrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions in search of the southern continent, 
the last (in connection with some other gentleman) in 1838, when capt. Balleny had com- 
mand, who, on 9 Feb. 1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 67° S., long. 165° E., and 
in March, 1839, Sabrina Land, in lat. 65° 10' S., long. 118° 30' E. In 1840, a French ex- 
pedition, under the command of .admiral D'Urville, and an American expedition, under the 
command of commodore Wilkes, greatly added to our knowledge in respect to the existence 
of a southern continent, and this was again increased by the expedition which sailed from 
England in 1839, under the command of capt. sir James Clark Eoss, who discovered Victoria 
Land in 1841, and subsequently penetrated as far south as 78° 11'. 

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, near Brompton old church (containing the pictures 
presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, Mrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, 
the great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture and art, educational collections, ]iroducts 
of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, &c.), was opened on 24 June, 1857. A 
special exhibition of works of art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, was opened here 
in the summer of 1862, and closed in November. 



sou 



684 



SPA 



SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE commenced with the establishment of the South-sea company in 
1 710, which was at tirst unwisely and afterwards dishonestly managed. It exploded in 1720, 
ruining thousands of families, and the directors' estates, to the value of 2,014,000?. were 
seized in 1721 and sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with ioo,oooZ. ; but he com- 
pounded the fraud for io,oooZ. and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy 
persons in the kingdom had become speculators ; the artifices of the directors having raised 
the shares, originally lool. to the price of 1000?, A parliamentary inquiry took place in Nov. 
1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, and several members of parliament were ex- 
pelled the house in 1721 ; see Law's Bubble. 

SOUTHWARK (S. London), was governed by its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, how- 
ever, found great inconvenience from the number of malefactors who escaped thither, in 
order to be out of the reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and a grant was made of 
Southwai-k to the city of London by the crown, for a small annuity. In Edward VI. 's reign 
it was formed into a city ward, and was named Bridge Ward Without, 1550. — Soiot/iwarh 
bridge wsLS designed by John Rennie, and built by a company, 1815-19, at an expense of 
8oo,oooZ. It consists of three great cast-iron arches, resting on massive stone piers and 
abutments ; the distance between the abutments is 708 feet ; the centre arch is 240 feet span, 
the two others 210 feet each; and the total weight of iron 5308 tons. The bridge was freed 
from toll on 8 Nov. 1864, the company receiving a compensation from the city. 

SOUTRWOLD, see Solebrnj. 

SOVEREIGN, an ancient and modern British gold coin. In 1489 22I pieces, in value 20s. 
"to be called the sovereign," were ordered to be coined out of a pound of gold. Ruding. 
In 1542 sovereigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 
Ed. VI.), passed for 24s. and 30s. "Sovereigns " of the new coinage were directed to pass 
for 20s. I July, and half-sovereigns for los. 10 Oct. 181 7 ; see Coin, and Gold. 

SPA-FIELDS (N. London). Here about 30,000 persons assembled to vote an address 
from the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, 15 Nov. 18 16. A second meeting, 
2 Dec. following, terminated in an alarming riot ; the shops of several gunsmiths were at- 
tacked for arms by the rioters ; and in the shop of Sir. Beckwith, on Snowhill, Mr. Piatt 
was wounded, and much injury was done before the tumult was suppressed. For this riot, 
Cashman the seaman, was hanged, 12 March, 181 7. Watson, the ringleader, escaped to 
America. 

SPAHIS, Turkish cavalry. African horsemen, under this name, were incorporated by 
the French in Algeria in 1834 ; three regiments of them came to France in 1863. 

SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania). The first settlers are supposed to have been 
the progeny of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians (360 B.C.) 
successively planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans conquered the whole country, 
206 B.C. Population of Spain in 1857, 15,464,078 ;• of the colonies, 4,528,633. Estimated 
revenue in 1861, 19,324, 743Z. ; expenditure, 19,386,800?. 

The Carthaginians, enriched by the mines of b. c. 

Spain (480 B.C. €« seg.) form settlements . 360 
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Has- 

drubal 242 

Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain 238-233 
At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the com- 
mand, 221 ; and prepares for war, 220 ; lie 

takes Saguntum, 219 ; crosses the Alps, and 

enters Italy 218 

The Komans carry the war into Spain ; two 

Scipios defeated and slain by Hasdrubal . 212 
Pub. Cornelius Scipio Afrioanus takes New 

Carthage, 210; and drives the Carthaginians 

out of Spain 207 

Celtiberian and Numantine war . . . 153-133 
Viriathus, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- 

tanians, subdued all West Spain, 145 ; makes 

peace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 

142 ; assassinated by order of the Romans . 140 
Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by 

Pompey, and assassinated .... 72 
Julius Cajsar quells an insurrection in Spain . 67 
Pompey governs Spain .... 60-50 

Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus . 48-47 
The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spain from a.d. 

the Romans 409 

Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths 414 
The Vandals pass over to Africa . . . 427 
Theodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . 452 
Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 

master of all Spain 466 



Recared I. expels the Franks . . a.d, 587 

He abjures Arianism, and rules ably . till 601 
Wamba's wise administration ; he prepared a 

fleet for defence against the Saracens . 672-677 
The Arabs invited into Spain agamst king 

Roderic 709 

His defeat and death at Xeres . 
Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova 
Victorious progress of Musa and Tarik 
Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, 

rules in Asturias and Leon 
The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles 

Martel 732 1 

Abderahman the first king at Cordova 
Invasion of Charlemagne .... 

Sancho luigo, count of Navarre, &c. 
Sancho of Navarre becomes king of Castile 
The kingdom of Aragon commenced under 
Ramirez I. .... . 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile 

Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of 

Besangon (see Portugal) . 
The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Chris- 
tians, call in the aidof the Moors from Africa, 
who seize the dominions they came to protect, 
and subdue the Saracens . . io(^i et seq. 
Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . about 1099 
Dynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova 1094-1144 
The Moors defeated in several battles by 

Alfonso of Leon 1144 

Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 1144-1225 



711 



712-13 
718 

or 733 

755 
777-7S 

873 
1026 



1035 
1037 



109s 



SPA 



685 



SPA 



SPAIN", continued. 

Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &c. , taken by Ferdi- 
nand of Castile and Leon . . . 1233-48 
The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, 

last refuge from the power of the Christians 123S 
The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family 

of France 1274 

200,000 Moors arrive to assist the king of 

Granada 1327 

Thej' are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XI. of 
Castile with great slaughter . . . . 1340 

Keign of Pedro the Cruel 1350 

His alhance with Edward the Black Prince . 1363 
Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . 1369 
Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of 
Castile, 18 Oct. 1469 ; and nearly the whole 
Christian dominions of Spain are \inited in 

one monarchy 1479 

Establishment of the Inquisition . . . 1480-4 
Persecution of the Jews .... 1492-8 
Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and 
the power of the Moors is finally extirpated 

by Ferdinand 1492 

Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the 

western ocean . . . .17 April, ,, 
Mahometans persecuted and expeUed . 1499-1502 
Death of Columbus . . . 20 May, 1506 

Ferdinand conquers great part of Navarre . 1512 
Accession of the house of Austria to the throne 

of Spain ; Charles I. of Spain .... 1516 
Able administration of Ximenes ; ungratefully 

used, 1516 ; his death 1517 

Charles elected emperor of Germany . . .1519 
Dreadful insurrection at Castile . . . 1520-21 
Philip of Spain marries Mary of England 

25 July, ISS4 
Charles abdicates and retires from the world . 1556 
War with France ; victory at St. Quentin 

10 Aug. 1557 
Phihp II. commences his bloody persecution of 

the protestants 1561 

The Escurial begun building .... 1563 
Eevolt of the Moriscoes, 1567; suppressed . . 1570 
Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 7 Oct. 1571 
Portugal united to Spain by conquest . . 1580 
The Spanish Armada destroyed ; see Armada . 1588 
Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) 1598-1610 

Ministry of Olivarez T621-43 

Philip IV. loses Portugal 1640 

Death of Charles II., last of the house of 
Austria ; accession of Philip V. of the house 

of Bourbon 1700 

War of the Succession 1702-13 

Gibraltar taken by the English , . . . 1704 

Siege of Barcelona 1713 

Able government of cardinal Alberoni ; he re- 
establish ed the authority of the king, reformed 
many abuses, and raised Spain to the rank of a 
firstpower, 1715-20 ; ordered to quit Spain . 1720 
Charles, son of Philip V. conquers Naples . . 1735 
Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds 

to the crown of Spain 1759 

War with England, 1762-3 1796 

Battle of Cape St. Vincent ... 14 Feb. 1797 
Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 

dollars, seized by the English . . Oct. 1804 
Battle of Trafalgar (see Trafalgar) . 21 Oct. 1805 
Sway of Godoy, prince of peace . . . . 1806 
The French enter Spain ; a Spanish army sent 

to the Baltic 1807 

Conspiracy of the prince of Astuiias against his 

father 25 July, „ 

Treaty of Fontainebleau ... 27 Oct. ,, 
The French take Madrid . . . March, 1808 
The prince of peace dismissed . 18 March, ,, 

Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdi- 
nand, 19 March ; and at Bayonne, in favour 
of his "friend and ally" Napoleon, when 
Ferdinand rehnquished the crown . i May, ,, 
Revolution : the French massacred at Madrid 

2 May, ,, 
The province of Asturias rises en masse 3 May, ,, 



laii 
1812 



1813 
1814 
1817 
1819 



1823 



Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne, 

25 May, 1808 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of 

Spain, 12 July ; retires . . 29 July, ,, 
Battle of Vitniera ; French defeated . 21 Aug. ,, 
Supreme Junta installed . . . Sept. ,, 
Madrid taken by the French, and Joseph 

restored 2 Dec. ,, 

Napoleon enters Madrid . . . . 4 Dec. ,, 
The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the 

palace of Chambery in Savoy . . 5 Dec. ,, 
The French defeated at Corunna, 16 Jan. ; take 

Ferrol, 27 Jan. ; Saragossa. 21 Feb. ; Oporto, 

29 Feb. ; Cordova and Seville, Nov. ; Gerona 

12 Dec. 1809 
Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo . . 10 July, 1810 
The Spanish cortes meet . . .24 Sept. ,, 
Wellington defeats Massena at Fuentes de 

Onoro 5 May, 

Soult defeated at Albuera . . .16 May, 
Constitution of the cortes . . .8 May, 
WeUington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan., 

storms Badajoz, 6 AprU ; defeats Marmont 

at Salamanca .... 22 July, 
He occupies Madrid, and totally defeats the 

French at Vittoria, 21 Jime ; defeats Soult in 

the Pyrenees, 28 July; takes St. Sebastian, 

31 Aug. ; and enters France . . 8 Oct. 
Ferdinand VII. restored. . . 14 May, 
Slave trade abolished for a compensation . 
Insurrection at Valencia repressed . . . 
Spanish revolution began by Riego . . Jan. 
Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the 

cortes 8 March, 

The cortes remove the king to Seville, and 

thence to Cadiz .... March, 
The French enter Spain 7 April; and invest 

Cadiz 25 June, ,, 

Battle of the Trocadero . . . 31 Aug. „ 
Despotism resumed ; the cortes dissolved ; exe- 

cvitions of liberals .... Oct. „ 
Riego put to death . . . .27 Nov. ,, 
The French evacuate Cadiz . . 21 Sept. 1828 
Cadiz made a free port . . . 24 Feb. 1829 
Salique law abohshed; Carlist and Christina 

parties formed March, 1830 

Queen of Spain appointed regent during the 

king's indisposition ; change in the ministry 

25 Oct. 1832 
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor 

to the king 29 April, 1833 

Death of Ferdinand VII., and his queen 

assumes the title of governing queen until 

Isabella II. her infant daughter, attains her 

majority 29 Sept. 

The royalist volunteers disarmed with some 

bloodshed at Madrid ... 27 Oct. 
Queen Christina marries Ferdinand MuSoz 

(afterwards duke of Rianzares) . . 28 Dec. 
The quadruple treaty estabUshes the right of 

Isabella to the throne . . .22 April, 1834 
Don Carlos suddenly appears in Spain 10 July, 
The peers vote his exclusion . . 30 Aug. 

Mendizabal, prime minister; Mina and 

Espartero commanded the royalists ; the rebel 

leader, Zumalacarregui, killed near Bilboa 

June, 183S 
Sir De Lacy Evans, lord John Hay, and others, 

raised a JBritish legion for the queen of Spain ,, 
They defeat the Carlists at St. Sebastian i Oct. 1836 
Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa . 25 Dec. ,, 
General Ev;ms takes Irun . . 17 May, 1837 
The Carlists under Maroto desert Don Carlos 

and conclude a treaty of peace . 29 Aug. 1839 
Don Carlos seeks refuge in France . 13 Sept. ,, 
Surrender of Morello . . . .28 May, 1840 
Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain 

the war, enters France . . .7 July, ,, 
The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian 

and Passages 25 Aug. ,, 



SPA 



SPA 



SPAIN, continued. 

Eevoliationary movement at Madrid : the 
authorities triumphant . . . i Sept. 

Dismissal of the ministry, and dissolution of the 
cortes 9 Sept. 

Espartero, minister, makes his triumphal entry 
into Madrid 3 Oct. 

The queen regent appoints a new ministry, 
who are nominated by Espartero, 5 Oct. ; she 
abdicates and leaves the kingdom; visits 
France and Sicily ; returns to France 12 Oct. 

Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal 
nuncio 29 Dec. 

The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent 
during the queen's minority . 12 April, 

Queen Christina's protest . . -19 July, 

Insurrection in favour of Christina is com- 
menced at Pampeluna by general O'Donnell, 
and Concha 2 Oct. 

Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; 
his followers are repulsed, and numbers 
slain by the queen's guards . , 7 Oct. 

Don Diego Leon shot at Madrid . .15 Oct. 

Zurbano captures Bilboa . . .21 Oct. 

Eodil, the constitutional general, enters 
Vittoria 21 Oct. 

Montes de Oca shot .... 21 Oct. 

General O'Donnell takes refuge in the French 
territory 21 Oct. 

Espartero decrees the suspension of queen 
Christina's pension .... 26 Oct. 

Fueros of the Basque provinces abolished 

29 Oct. 

Borio and Gobernado implicated in the Chris- 
tina plot, put to death at Madrid . g Nov. 

Espartero enters Madrid ... 23 Nov. 

General pardon of aU persons not yet tried, 
concerned in the events of October . 13 Dec. 

The effective strength of the army fixed at 
130,000 men 28 June, 

An insurrection breaks out at Barcelona ; the 
national guard joins the populace, 13 Nov. ; 
battle in the streets between the national 
guard and the troops : the latter lose 500 in 
killed and wounded, and retreat to the 
citadel 15 Nov. 

Barcelona blockaded ; the British consul refuses 
refuge to any but British subjects on board 
British ships 26 Nov. 

Espartero arrives before Barcelona, 29 Nov. ; 
its bombardment and surrender 3, 4 Dec. 

The disturbances at Malaga . . 25 May, 

The revolutionary junta is re-established at 
Barcelona 11 June, 

[Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and 
numerous other towns, shortly afterwards 
"pronounce" against the regent Espartero.] 

Arrival of general Narvaez at Madrid, which 
surrenders . . . . . 15 July, 

Espartero bombards Seville . .21 July, 

The siege is raised .... 27 July, 

[The revolution is completely successful, and 
Espartero flies to Cadiz, and embarks on 
board her Majesty's ship Malabar.'] 

The new government deprives Espartero of his 
titles and rank, 16 Aug. ; he arrives in 
London 23 Aug. 

Re-action suppressed at Madrid . . Aug. 

Isabella II. 13 years old, is declared by the 
cortes to be of age ; Narvaez (friend of the 
queen-mother), lieutenant-general 8 Nov. 

The queen-mother returns to Spain 23 March, 

Zurbano's insurrection, 12 Nov. 1844 ; he is 
shot 21 Jan. 

Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown 
in favour of his son . . . 18 May, 

Narvaez and his ministry resign 12 Feb. ; return 
to power, 17 March ; again resign 28 March, 

Escape of Don Carlos from France . 14 Sept. 

Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don 
Francisco d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz ; and 



1843 



1844 
^845 

1846 



marriage also of the infanta Louisa to the 
duke de Montpensier . . .10 Oct. 1846 
[The Spanish marriages disturb the friendly 
relations of the Freneh and English govern- 
ments.] 
Amnesty granted to political offenders 18 Oct. ,, 
Two shots fired at the queen by an assassin. 

La Eiva 4 May, 1847 

He suffers " death by the cord " . 23 June, ,, 
Espartero restored .... 3 Sept. ,, 
Sir IHenry Lytton Bulwer, British envoy, 

ordered to quit Spain in 48 hours 17 May, 1848 
Narvaez dismissed and recalled .... 1849 
Diplomatic relations between the two countries 

not restored until .... 18 April, 1850 
The queen of Spain delivered of a male child 

which lives but ten minutes . . 12 July, „ 
The American expeditions under Lopez against 

Cuba ("see Cuba, and the United States) 1850, 1851 
Besigiiation of Narvaez . . .10 Jan. ,, 
The infante don Henrique permitted to return 

to Spain 2 Feb. ,, 

Madrid-Aranjuez railway opened . q Feb. ,, 
Law respecting the public debt (which has 
since excluded Spain from the European 
money-markets) . . . . i Aug. 1851 
Death of Godoy, prince of peace . . 4 Oct. ,, 
The queen pardons the prisoners taken in the 

attempt upon Cuba . . . 11 Dec. „ 
Her majesty gives birth to a princess 20 Dec. 1851 
Attempt made on the life of the queen ; she is 
slightly wounded by the dagger of Merino, a 

Franciscan 2 Feb. 1852 

Gen. CastaiSos, duke of Baylen, renowned in 

the French war dies, aged 95 . .23 Sept. ,, 
Narvaez exiled to Vienna . . . Jan. 1853 

Ministerial changes — Lersundi forms a cabinet 

II April, ,, 
Resignation of Lersundi— Sartorius's cabinet 

Sept. „ 
Birth and death of a princess . . 5 Jan. 1854 
General O'Donnell, Concha, and others 

banished 17 Jan. ,, 

Distui-bances at Saragossa, &c. . . Feb. ,, 
Don Francisco (father of the king consort), 

marries an " unfortunate " woman March, ,, 
Military insurrection, under O'Donnell, near 

Madrid 28 Jime, ,, 

The movement headed by Espartero ; Barcelona 
and Madrid pronounce against the govern- 
ment ; barricades in Madrid . i -17 July, ,, 
Triumph of the insurrection ; resignation of 
the ministry ; the queen sends for Espartero 

19 July, ,, 
Peace restored : the degraded generals rein- 
stated, &c. ; Espartero forms an administra- 
tion 31 July, ,, 

The queen mother impeached; she quits Spain 

28 Aug. „ 
Ministerial crisis ; Espartero resigns, but re- 
sumes office .... 21-30 Nov. ,, 
New constitution of the cortes ijroposed 

13 Jan. 1855 
The cortes vote that all power proceeds from 
the people ; they permit liberty of belief, but 

not of worship Feb. ,, 

Don Carlos dies 10 March, „ 

Insurrection at Valencia . . .6 April, 1856 
Resignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed, 
headed by marshal O'Donnell ; insurrection 
in Madrid, 14 July; O'Donnell and the 
government troops subdue the insurgents; 
the national guard suppressed 15-16 July, ,, 
Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa, 

quelled by O'Donnell, as dictator 15-23 July, ,, 
Amnesty granted to political offenders 19 Oct. ,, 
O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Nai-vaez 

becomes minister .... 12 Oct. ,, 
Espartero resigns as senator . . i Feb. 1857 
Insurrection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ; 



SPA 



687 



SPA 



SPAIN, continued. 

cruel military executions ; 98 insurgents shot 
(24 at Seville) . . . June and July, 1857 
■Ministerial changes ; Armero minister 26 Oct. „ 
Birth of the prince royal . . .28 Nov. ,, 
Isturitz, minister, 14 Jan. ; O'Donnell, minister 

I July, 1858 
Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, ifec. 

20 Sept. ,, 
Joint French and Spanish expedition against 

Cochin China announced . . i Dec. ,, 
War with Jlorooco (jo/jic/i. see) . Nov.-Deo. 1859 
An association for reformmg the tarifif, <&c. 

foi'nied ,, 

O'Donnell commands the army in Africa ; inde- 
cisive conflicts reported ; battle at Castellejos ; 
a Spanish " Balaklava " charge . i Jan. i860 
The Moors defeated near Tetuan, which svir- 

renders 4 Feb. ,, 

An ineffectual truce . . . 16-23 Feb. ,, 
The Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras 23 March, ,, 
Treaty of peace signed; 400,000.000 reals to be 
paid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till 

paid 26 March, ,, 

■General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, 
lands near Turtosa, in Valentia, with 3000 
men, and jiroclaims the comte de Monte- 
molin king, as Charles VI. ; his troops resist, 
and he is compelled to flee, with the comte 
and others, 3 April ; Ortega shot 19 Api'il, ,, 
The comte de Montemolin and his brother Fer- 
dinand arrested at Tortosa, 21 April ; re- 
nounce their claim to the throne 23 April , , 
An amnesty proclaimed . . . .2 May, ,, 
Their brother Juan asserts his right, 5 June ; 
and they, when at Cologne, annul their re- 
nunciation 28 June, ,, 

The emperor Napoleon's proposal to admit 
Spain as a first-class power is opposed by 
England, and given up . . . Aug. ,, 
The comte de Montemolin and his wife die at 

Trieste 14 Jan. 1S61 

The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain rati- 
fied; slavery not to be re-established 19 May, ,, 
Insurrection at Loja suppressed . . July, „ 
The queen said to be governed by the nun Pa- 
trocinio ....... Dec. ,, 

Intervention in Mexico (see 3fea:ico) . 8 Dec. ,, 
Much church property in course of sale April, 1862 
Jose Alhama and Manuel Matamoras, protes- 
tant propagandists, sentenced to 10 years' im- 
prisonment . . . . . 14 Oct. ,, 

Don Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to 

the throne 8 Jan. 1863 

Resignation of the premier, marshal O'Don- 
nell, 26 Feb. ; marquis de Miraflores minister 

4 JIarch, , , 
Insurrection at St. Domingo ; war ensues (see 
Domingo) ...... i Sejjt. ,, 

Empress of France visits the queen . Oct. ,, 
Rupture with Peru (which see) . . April, 1864 
General Prim exiled for conspiracy 13 Aug. ,, 
Arrazola ministry, Jan. ; Mon forms a 
ministry, i March ; resigns, 13 Sept. ; Nar- 
vaez forms a cabinet .... Sept. , , 

<3ueen Christina returns to Spain . 26 Sept. ,, 
English government recognises the insurrec- 
tion at St. Domuigo ; Narvaez advises aban- 
donment of the contest ; the queen refuses ; 
the ministry resign; but resume office 

14-18 Dec. ,, 
Peace with Peru, which has to pay a heavy 

indemnity 27 Jan. 1865 

The queen orders the sale of crown lands, 

giving up three-fourths to the nation 20 Feb. ,, 
Student riots at Madrid ; several persons killed 

10 April, ,, 
Decree relinquishing St. Domingo . 5 May, ,, 
Suppression of a conspiracy at Valentia to re- 
unite Spain and Portugal . . 10 June, ,, 
Kesignation of Narvaez, ig June; O'Donnell 
forms a hberal cabinet . . . 22 June, ,, 



Kingdom of Italy recognised by Spain 26 June, 1865 

Father Claret dismissed from court . 20 July, ,, 

Dispute with Chili; M. Tavira's settlement (20 
May) disavowed by the government 25 July, „ 

Emperor Napoleon visits the queen at St. 
Sebastian, 9 Sept. ; she visits him at 
Biarritz 11 Sept. ,, 

Disturbances at Saragossa suppressed 3 Oct. ,, 

Admiral Pare j a, at Valparaiso, insults the 
Chilian government, 18 Sept. ; which declares 
war, 25 Sept. ; Pareja declares a blockade 

Oct. „ 

The Chilian capt. 'Williams captures the 
Spanish vessel Covadonga (Pareja commits 
suicide) 26 Nov. ,, 

Intervention fruitless .... Dec. ,, 

Claret returns to court . . .25 Dec. , , 

New cortes elected ; the great Progresista party 
still abstams from action m public affairs ; 
queen opens cortes .... 27 Dec. ,, 

Military insurrection at Aranjuez, headed by 
gen. Prim, 3 Jan. ; martial law in Madrid, 
4 Jan. ; Concha and Zabala march against 
rebels, 4 Jan., &c. ; riots at Barcelona, 9, 10 
Jan. ; state of siege in New Castile, Catalonia, 
andArragon 6-12 Jan. 1866 

Pi'im enters Portugal and lays down arms ; the 
insun-ection ends .... 20 Jan. 

Queen Victoria, British sloop, seized by a guard- 
a-costa 15 Jan. „ 

Admiral Mendez bombards Valparaiso, destroy- 
ing much property, 2 May ; he is repulsed at 
Callao with loss . . . .2 May, 

The queen declares the campaign in the Pacific 
ended 15 June, ,, 

Great military revolt in favour of Prim at 
Madrid ; about 1200 men, headed by non- 
commissioned oflicers, with cannon, quelled 
summarily by marshals O'Donnell and 
Narvaez, with much bloodshed ; 200 prisoners 
shot, 22 June ; 21 sergeants shot 26 June, 

Military revolts at Barcelona and at various 
other places 23 June, 

Resignation of O'Donnell as minister, succeeded 
by Narvaez and Bravo, who adopt severe 
measures against the liberals . . July, 

The queen said to be subject to the influence 
of the " bleeding nun," Patrocinio, and the 
priests July, ,, 

Freedom of the press aboli-shed, and writers 
transported to the colonies ; a " reign of 
terror" Aug. -Sept. „ 

British screw steamer Tornado, com. E. Col- 
lier, seized by Spaniards (charged with 
aiding Chili) and carried to Cadiz 21-22 Aug. „ 

33 persons condemned to death, many of whom 
had fled 23 Sept. „ 

Re-establishment of tranquillity declared at 
Madrid 3 Oct. ,, 

Public instruction placed under the clergy Oct. ,, 

Reform of the mimicipal institutions decreed 
on account of revolutionary pi-oceedings 

Oct. „ 

Crew of Tornado detained as prisoners, 31 Oct. ; 
the case referred to law . . . Nov. ,, 

King and queen visit Lisbon . . . u Dec. ,, 

Taxes for 1S67 received in advance . . Dec. ,, 

The queen dismissed the cortes (and im- 
prisoned many eminent deputies for peti- 
tioning against it) ... 30 Dec. „ 

O'Donnell and his colleagues residing in Paris 

Jan. 18C7 

Decision in Tornado case— the ship a prize and 
the crew prisoners of war, 18 Dec. 1866 ; 
Lord Stanley protests against the proceedings 

8 Feb. „ 

Decree for making secretpublication of journals 
and pamphlets penal . . . .16 Feb. 

The r&)-/!arfo prisoners released . . .Feb. 

State of siege raised ... 7 March, 

Qucin Victoria sloop declared by Spain to have 



SPA 



SPA 



SPAIN, continued. 

been wrongfully seized ; and reparation to be 

made 21 April, 1867 

Amnesty to revolters of June 1866 . 25 April, ,, 
Hon of duchess of Montpensier bom . i May, „ 
Attempted insurrection in different parts (at- 
tributed to Prim) failed through want of or- 
ganisation, about. . . . 15 Aug. ,, 
Insurrectionary movements reported in Cata- 
lonia and Arragon ; state of siege proclaimed 
(precautionary) . . . .22 Aug. , , 
State of siege proclaimed . . .22 Aug. ,, 
Death of marshal O'Donnell, duke of Tetuan 

5 Nov. ,, 
Martiallaw abolished .... Nov. ,, 



Parliament opened by the queen in person 

27 Dec. 
An armament bill adopted by the chamber of 

deputies 22 Jan. 

Proposed settlement of national creditors at 

20 per cent, of the debt . . . Jan. 
Death of marshal Narvaez, duke of Valentia 

23 April, 
New ministry formed by Gonzalez Bravo 

24 April, 
Marriage of princess Isabella, the queen's eldest 

daughter, to the count of Girgenti, brother 
of ex-kiug of Naples . . .13 May, 



1867 



SOVEREIGNS OF SPAIN. 



GOTHIC SOVEREIGNS. 

411. Ataulfo ; murdered by his soldiers. 
415. Sigerico ; rei-ned a few days only. 

„ Valia, or Wallia. 
420. Theodoric I. ; killed in a battle, which he 
gained, against Attila. 

451. Thorismund, or Torrismund ; assassinated by 

his favourite. 

452. Theodoric H. ; assassinated by 

466. Euric, the first naonarch of all Spain. 
483. Alai-ic II. ; killed in battle. 
506. Gesalric ; his bastard son. 

511. Amalric, or Amalaric ; legitimate son of Alaric. 
531. Theudis, or Theodat; assassinated by a mad- 
man. 

548. Theudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. 

549. Agila ; taken prisoner, and put to death. 
554. Atanagildo. 

567. Liuva, or Levua I. 

568. Leuviyildo ; associated on the throne with 

Liuva, in 568 ; and sole king in 572. 
586. Becaredo I. 
601. Liuva II. ; assassinated. 
603. Vitericus ; also murdered. 
6io, Gundemar. 

612. Sisibiit, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. 
621. Eecaredo II. 

„ Suintila ; dethroned. 
631. Sisenando. 
636. Chintella. 
640. Tulga, or Tulca. 
642. Cindasuinto ; died in 652. 
649. Recesuinto ; associated on the throne this 

year, and in 653 became sole king. 
672. Vaniba, or Wamba; dethroned, and died in a 

monastery. 
680. Brvigius, or Brvigio. 
687. Egica, or Egiza. 
698. Vitiza, or Witiza ; associated on the throne ; 

in 701 sole king. 
711. Rodrigo, or Roderic ; slain in battle. 

[Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-469 ; 
and Two Vandalic kings : Gunderic 409-425 ; his 
successor Genseric with his whole nation passed 
over to Africa.] 

MAHOMETAN SPAIN. 

COEDOVA. 

Smirs. The first, Abdelasis ; the last, Yussuf-el- 

Tehri : a.d. 714-755. 
Kings. The first, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu 

Ali : 755-1238. 



The first, Mohammed I. ; the last, Ab- 
daUa: 1238-1492. 

CHRISTIAN SPAIN. 

KINGS OF ASTTJRIAS AND LEON. 

718. Pelagius, or Pelayo; overthrew the Moors, 

and checked their conquests. 
737. Favila ; killed in hunting. 



739' 
757. 

768. 
774- 
788. 
791. 
842. 

850. 



910. 
914. 
923- 
925- 
930' 
9SO- 
9SS- 
956. 
967. 
983- 
999. 
1027. 



873. 
885. 
905- 
924. 
970. 

1035- 
1054. 
1076. 
1094. 
1104. 
II34- 
1 1 50. 
1 194. 
1234. 

1253- 
1270. 
1274. 

1305- 
1316. 

1322. 
1328. 

1343- 
1349. 
1387. 
1425. 

1479. 

1483. 



Alfonso the Catholic. 

FroUa; murdered his brother Samaran, in 
revenge for which he was murdered by his 
brother and successor, 

Aurelius or Aurelio. ■ 

Mauregato, the Usurper. 

Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 

Alfonso II., the Chaste. 

Eamiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword 
in one battle. Rabhe. 

Ordofio I. 

Alfonso III., surnamed the Great; relin- 
quished his crown to his son. 

Garcias.' 

OrdoBio II. 

Proila II. 

Alfonso IV., the Monk ; abdicated. 

Ramiro II., killed in battle. 

Ordofio III. 

Ordofio IV. 

Sancho I., the Eat ; poisoned with an apple. 

Ramiro III. 

Veremundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 

Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. 

Veremundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 

KINGS OF NAVARRE. 

Sancho Iiiigo, Courd. 

Garcia I., king. 

Sancho Garcias ; a renovTned warrior. 
' Garcias II. , surnamed the Trembler. 

Sancho II., surnamed the Great (king of Cas- 
tile through his wife). 

Garcias III. 

Sancho III. 

Sancho IV., Ramirez, king of Aragon. 

Peter of Aragon. 

Alfonso I., of Aragon. 

Garcias IV., Ramirez. 

Sancho V. , surnamed the Wise. 

Sancho VI., surnamed the Infirm. 

Theobald I. , count of Champagne. 

Theobald II. 

Henry Crassus. 

Joanna ; married to Philip the Fair of France, 
1285. 

Loviis Hutin of France. 

John ; lived but a few days. 

Philip v., the Long, of France. 

Charles I. , the IV. of Prance. 

Joanna II., and Philip, count d'Evreux. 

Joanna alone. 

Charles II., or the Bad. 

Charles III., or the Noble. 

Blanche and her husband John II., afterwards 
king of Aragon. 

Eleanor. 

Francis Phcebus de Foix. 

Catherine and John d'Albret. 

Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, 
and luiited with Castile. 



KINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. 

1035. Ferdinand the Great. 



SPA 



689 



SPA 



1252. 



1295. 
1312. 



SPAIN, continued. 

1065. Sancho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; 
Alfonso in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias 
in Galicia. 

1072. Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon. 

1109. Uraca and Alfonso VI [. 

1126. Alfonso VII., Raymond. 

1157. Sancho III., sumamed the Beloved. 

115S. Alfonso VIII., the Noble. 

[Leon is separated from Castile under Fer- 
dinand II., 1157-88.] 

1188. Alfonso IX., of Leon. 

1214. Henry I. 

1217. Ferdinand III., the Saint and the Holy. By 
him Leon and Castile were permanently 
united. 
Alfonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsine Tables 

were drawn up under his direction). 
Sancho IV. , the Great and the Brave. 
Ferdinand IV. 
Alfonso XL 

1350. Peter the Cruel : deposed ; reinstated by 
Edward the Black Prince of England ; slain 
by his natural brother and successor, 

1369. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 

1379. John I. : he united Biscay to Castile. 

1390. Henry III., the Sickly. 

1406. John II., son of Henry. 

1454. Henry IV., the Impotent. 

1474. Isabella, sister (had married Ferdinand of 
Aragon, 18 Oct. 1469). 

1504. Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella), 
and Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's 
death Joanna succeeded, jointly with her 
hu.sband Philip ; but Philip dying in 1506, 
and Joanna becoming imbecile, her father 
Ferdinand continued the reign ; and thus 
perpetuated the union of Castile with 
Aragon. 

KINGS OF ARAGON. 

1035. Kamiro I. 

1065. Sancho Kamirez (IV. of Navarre). 
1094. Peter of Navarre. 

1104. Alfonso L, the Warrior, king of Kavarre. 
1134. Ramiro II., the Monk. 

1137. PetroniUa, and Rayraond, count of Barcelona. 
1 1 63. Alfonso II. 
1196. Peter II. 

1213. James I. ; succeeded by his son. 
1276. Peter III. ; conquered SiciZ!/(w/uc7is«fi) in 1282. 
1285. Alfonso III., the Beneficent. 
1291. James II., surnamed the Just. 
1327. Alfonso IV. 
1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. 
1387. John I. 
Martiu. 



1410. [Interregnum.] 

1412. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sicily. 

1416. Alfonso v., the Wise. 

1458. John II., king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ; 
died 1479. 

1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir : in 
consequence of his marriage with Isabella of 
Castile, the kingdoms were united. 



1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic. This 
prince having conquered Granada and Na- 
vaiTe, became king of all Spain ; succeeded 
by his grandson, 

1516. Charles I., son of Joanna of Castile and Philip 
of Austria (became emi^eror of Germany, as 
Charles V., in 1519) ; resigned both crowns, 
and retired to a monastery. 

1556. Philip II., his son, king of Naples and Sicily ; 
a merciless bigot ; married Mary, queeu- 
regnant of England ; died a most dreadful 
death, being covered with ulcers. 

1598. Philip III., his son, drove the Moors from 
Granada and the adjacent provinces. 

1621. Philip IV. , his son : a reign of unfortunate war 
with the Dutch and French ; he lost Por- 
tugal in 1640. 

1665. Charles II., his son ; last of the Austrian line ; 
he nominated, by will, as his successor, 

1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis 
XIV. of France : hence arose the "war of 
the Succession," terminated by the treaty 
of Utrecht in 1713; resigned. 

1724. Louis I., son ; reigned only a few months. 
,, Philip V. again. 

1746. Ferdinand VI., the Wise; liberal and bene- 
ficent. 

1759. Charles III., brother-king of the Two Sicilies, 
which he gave to his third son, Ferdinand. 

1788. Charles IV., son of Charles III. ; the influence 
of Godoy, prince of Peace, reached to almost 
royal authority in this reign ; Charles abdi- 
cated in favour of his son and successor, in 
1808, and died in i8ig. 

1S08. Ferdinand VII. , whom Napoleon of France also 
forced to resign. 
„ Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; forced 
to abdicate. 

1813. Ferdinand VII. restored; succeeded by 

1833. Isabella II., daughter (bom, 10 Oct. 1830); 
ascended the throne 29 Sept. 1833 ; mar- 
ried her cousin, Don Francis d'Assisi, 10 Oct. 
1846. The PRESENT queen of Spain. 
Heir : her son, Alfonso, prince of Asturias, 
1395. Martm. bom, 28 Nov. 1857. 

SPALATRO (Dalmatia), the ancient Spalatum, and Salona. At his palace here, Diocle- 
tian spent his last nine years, and died Julj-, I3 13. E. Adam published the " Antiquities of 
Diocletian's Palace," 1764. 

SPANISH AEItlADA, see Armada. SPANISH ERA, see Eras. 

SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher nobility, at one time almost equal to the Icings 
of Castile and Aragon, and often setting their authority at defiance, were restrained on 
the union of the crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1474, who compelled 
several to relinquish the royal fortresses aud domains Avhich they held. Charles V. reduced 
the grandees to sixteen families (l^lediua-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c.), dividing them into 
three classes. 

SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castellana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled 
with Arabic, which was the legal language till the 14th ceutiuy. Spanish did not become 
general till the i6th century. 



EMINENT SPANISH AUTHORS. 



Bom 

GarcUasso de la Vega 1503 
Boscan . . . 1496 
Las Casas . . . 1474 
Cervantes (author of 
Don Quixote) . . 1547 



T)ifd 




Born 


Died 




Born 


Died 


1536 


Mariana . 


1536 


1623 


Soils . 


, . i5io 


1 686 


1S43 
1566 

i6i6 


Herrera 

Lope de Vega . 

Quevedo 

Calderon 


1565 
1568 
1570 
1601 


1625 
1635 
1647 
1682 


Feyjos . 
Yriarte 
Cond^ . 


. . 1701 

• 1750 

• . 1765 


1765 
1798 
1820 



SPA 



690 



SPA 



SPANISH SUCCESSION and MARRIAGES, see Spain, 1700, and 10 Oct. 1846. 

SPARTA, the capital of Laconia, the most considerable republic of the Peloponnesus, 
and the rival of Athens. Though without walls it resisted the attacks of its enemies by 
the valour of its citizens for eight centuries. Lelex is supposed to have been the first 
king. Erom LacedEemon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of 
as the founders of the city, it obtained the names by which it is most known. The 
Lacedasmonians were a nation of soldiers, and cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, 
nor agriculture. 



Sparta founded. Pausanias. . . . B.C. 1490 
Tyndarus marries Leda : Helen bom . . . "** 
Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but 

recovered by ber brothers .... 1213 
The princes of Greece demand Helen in mar- 
riage ; she makes choice of Menelaus of 

Mycenpe 1201 

Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries ofE 
Helen, 1198 ; which leads to 

The Trojan war 1193 

After a war of ten years, and a disastrous voyage 
of nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return 

to Sparta 1176 

The kingdom seized by the Heraclidse . . 1104 
Establishment of two kings, Burysthenes and 

Procles, by their father, Aristodemus . . 1102 
Eule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, 

and enacts a code of laws. Euuhius . . 881-884 
Charilaus declares war against Polymnestor, 

king of Arcadia 848 

Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, makes 

war upon the Messenians .... 813 
Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus; war 

with the Argives 800 

Theopompus introduces the Ephori into the 

government about 757 

War declared against the Messenians, and 

Amphia taken 743 

"War with the Argives, and celebrated battle 
between 300 select heroes of each nation ; 
and all perished except two Argives and one 
Spartan. The latter remained on the field, 
whilst the two former repaired to Argos to 
announce their victory. Each party claimed 
the advantage : the Argives, because they 
had lost the fewest men ; the Lacedsemo- 
nians, because they remained masters of the 
field. A second battle was fought, in which 
the Argives were beaten. Pausanias . . 735 
The progeny of the Parthenise, the sons of 

Virgins 733 

Battle of Ithome 730 

Ithome taken ; the Messenians become vassals 
to Sparta, and the war ends, which had lasted 

nineteen years 724 

Conspiracy of the Parthenil with the Helots to 

take Sparta 707 

The Parthenii colonise Tarentum . . . 706 
The Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, 
Argos, and Arcadia, against the Laced8em.o- 
nians. [This war lasted fourteen years] . 685 

Camian festivals instituted 675 

The Messenians settle in Sicily .... 66g 
The Spartans resist the king of Persia . . , 491 
The states of Greece unite against the Persians 482 
Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans, with- 
stands the Persian arms at the defile of 
Thermopylse (see Tlwmopylce) . . . 480 
Persians defeated by Pausanias, king of Sparta 479 
He is put to death for treason ; the Grecian 
armies choose an Athenian general . . 472 



An earthquake at Sparta destroys thirty thou- 
sand persons ; rebellion of the Helots . B.C. 466 
Platsea taken by the Spartans . . . . 428 
The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and 

lay waste the country 426 

Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the 

Argives and the Mantinseans .... 418 
The Lacedsemonian fleet, under Mindarus, 

defeated at Cyzicum, and Mindarus slain . 410 
The Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, sue 
for peace, which is denied by the Athenians, 409 

Beign of Pausanias 408 

The Athenians defeated at Jilgospotamos by 

Lysander 405 

Athens taken by him, which ends the Pelopon- 

nesian war 404 

Agesilaus (king 39S) enters Lydia . . . . 396 
The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corin- 
thians enter into a league against the Spar- 
tans, which begins the Corinthian war . . 395 
Agesilaus defeats the allies at Coronea . . . 394 
The Lacedsemonian fleet, under Lysander, 
defeated by Conon, the Athenian commander, 
near Cnidos ; Lysander killed in an engage- 
ment , . . ,, 

The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea, 378 
The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas; 

their fleet totally destroyed by Timotheus . 376 
The Spartans defeated at Leuctra . . .371 
Epaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears 

before Sparta 369 

Battle of Mantinea : the Thebans victors . . 362 
Philip of Macedon overcomes Sparta . . 344 

PyiThus defeated before Sparta . . . . 294 
Agis endeavours to revive the laws of Lycurgus 244 
Leonidas vacates the throne, and flies from 

Sparta . . . • 243 

He is recalled, and becomes sole sovereign ; 

Agis put to death 241 

Reign of Cleomenes HI. the son of Leonidas . 236 
He re-estabhshes most of the laws of Lycurgus 225 
Antigonus defeats Cleomenes, and enters Sparta 222 

Cleomenes retires to Egypt 

The Spartans murder the Ephori . . . . 221 
Machanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes 

the Ephori 210 

He is defeated and slain by Philopoemen, 

prsetor of the Achasan league .... 206 
Cruel government of Nabis . . . . . „ 
The Romans besiege Sparta, and the tyrant 

sues for peace 197 

The iEtolians seize Sparta : Nabis assassi- 
nated 192 

The laws of Lycurgus abolished . . . . 18S 
Sparta, under the protection or rather subju- 
gation of Rome, retains its authority for a 

short time 147 

Taken by Mahomet II a.d. 1460 

Burnt by Sigismund Malatesta .... 1463 
Rebuilt at Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and 
is part of the kingdom of Greece. 



SPARTACUS'S INSURRECTION (or Servile War). Spartacus was a noble Thracian, 
•who served in an auxiliary corps of the Roman army. Having deserted and been appre- 
hended, he was reduced to slavery and made a gladiator. With some companions he made 
his escape, collected a body of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C. ; ravaged Southern Italy ; and 
defeated the Roman forces under the consuls sent against him. Knowing the impossibility 
of successfully resisting the republic, he endeavoured to conduct his forces into Sicily, but 
on the way was defeated and slain by Crassus, 72 b. c. 



SPE 



691 



SPE 



SPEAKERS OF THE House of Commons. Peter de Montford, afterwards killed at the 
battle of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260 ; but sir Peter de la Mare is 
supposed to have been the first regular speaker, 50 Edw. III. 1376. The king refused his 
assent to the choice of sir Edward Seymour, as speaker, 6 March, 1678 ; and serjeant William 
Gregory was chosen in his room. Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the house for 
taking a gratuity after the act for the benefit of orphans had passed, March, 1694; a 
deputy speaker was appointed Aug. 1853. 

KECENT SPEAKERS. 



1835. James Abercromby (aftei-wards baron Dun- 
fermline), ig Feb. 

1839. Charles Shaw Lefevre (afterwards viscount 
Eversley), 27 May. 

1857. John Evelyn Deuison, 30 April; re-elected 
Feb. 1866. 



1789. Henry Addington (afterwards viscount Sid- 
mouth). 

1 801 . Sir John Mitford (afterwards baron Redesdale), 

II Feb. 

1802. Charles Abbot (afterwai-ds lord Colchester), 

10 Feb. 
1817. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount 
Canterbury), 2 June. 

SPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships at sea. One is said to have been used by 
Alexander, 335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher's description by Salaud, 1652. 
Philosophically explained and brought into notice by Moreland, 1671. 

SPECIAL CONSTABLES are sworn in for the preservation of the public peace when 
disturbances are feared. The laws relative to their appointment were amended in 1831 and 
1835. Louis Napoleon, now emperor, aided as a special constable in London, 10 April, 1848 ; 
see Chartists, and London, Dec. 1867. Instructions for their organisation were issued 
13 Jan. 1868. On 28 Jan. 52,974 in the metropolis, and 113,674 in the United Kingdom, 
had been sworn in. Their services were not required, and they were honourably dismissed 
by an order issued 31 March, 1868. 

SPECIES. Much controversy among naturalists arose in consequence of the publi- 
cation, in 1859, of Ml'. Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species, " in which he suggests that 
all the various species of animals were not created at one time, but have been gradually 
developed by what he terms "natural selection," and the struggle for life of the strong 
against the weak. 

SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are generally supposed to have been invented 
by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 1285. According to Dr. Plott, 
they were invented by Roger Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes them to Salvino, who 
died 13 1 7. On the tomb of Salvino, at Florence, is the inscription "Qui giace Salvino 
degli Armati, inventore degli occhiali : Dio gli perdoni le peccata." (" Here lies Salvino 
degli Armati, inventor of spectacles : May God pardon his sins.") 

SPECTATOR. The first number of this periodical appeared on i March, 171 1 ; the last 
was No. 635, 20 Dec. 1714. The papers by Addison have one of the letters c l i at the 
end. The most of the other papers are by sir Richard Steele, a few by Hughes, Budgell, 
Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others.— The Spectator newspaper began in 1828. 

SPECTRUM, the term given to the image of the sun or any other luminous body formed 
on a wall or screen, by a beam of light received through a small hole or slit and refracted by 
a prism. The colours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. 
The phenomena were first explained by Newton, whose "Optics" was published in 
1704. Several of these colours are considered to be compounds of three primary ones, by 
Mayer (1775), red, yellow, and blue ; by Dr. Thos. Young (1801), red, green, and violet ; 
by Prof. Clerk MaxweU(i86o), red, green, and blue.* As the colom- of a flame varies ac- 
cording to the substance producing it or introduced into it, so the spectrum varies also. 
This has led to the invention of a method of chemical analysis by professors Buuseu and 
Kirchhoff (i860), by which they have discovered two new metals, and have drawn conclu- 
sions as to the iiature of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, and of the light of the nebulse, 
by comparing the spectrum with that produced by flames into which iron, sodium, and other 
substances have been introduced, t For the invisible rays of the spectrum, see Calorescence, 
and Fltwrescence. 

SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh (which had included among its members David 
Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on 14 Oct. 1863. 

* Fraunhofer's lines. In 1802 Dr. "Wollaston observed several dark lines in the solar spectrum; in 
1815 Joseph Fraunhofer not only observed them but constructed a map of them, giving 590 lines or dark 
bauds. By the researches of Brewster and others the number observed is now above 2000. 

t Mr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in the spectnim in 1826 ; and sir David 
Brewster observed other lines, 1833-42-3. In 1862-3 ^r- Wm. Huggins analysed the hght of the fixed stars 
and of the nebulise ; and in 1865 Dr. Bence Jones, by means of spectrum analyses, detected the presence of 
minute quantities of metals in the living body, introduced only a few minutes previously. 

Y Y 2 



SPH 



692 



SPO 



SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, are said to have been, 
invented byAnaximander, 552B.C. ; and the armillary sphere by Eratosthenes, about225B.c. 
The planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 B.C. Pythagoras maintained 
that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to mortals, 
which he called the music of the spheres. 

SPHYGMOGEAPH (from the Greek, sphygonos, a pulsation), an instrument for investi- 
gating disease, by showing the state of the pulse, invented by M. E. J. Marey, of Paris, and 
described by him in 1863. 

SPINNING was asciibed by the ancients to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom. Areas, 
king of Arcadia, taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.C. Tradition reports that Lucretia 
with her maids was found spinning, when her husband CoUatinus paid a visit to her from 
the camp, that the wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner, and that a garment made by 
her, worn by Servius Tallius, was preserved in the temple of Fortune. Tradition reports 
that the spinning- wheel was invented at Brimswick, about A. D, 1530. Till 1767, the spin- 
ning of cotton was performed by the hand spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious 
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning jenny, with eight spindles. Hargreaves also 
erected the first carding machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spinning by 
water was an extension of the principle of Hargreaves ; but he also applied a large and small 
roller to expand the thread, and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. 
At first he worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream of 
the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1774-9, Crompton invented the mule (which see). 

SPIRES (in Bavaria). The emperors held many diets at Spires since 1309, and it was the 
seat of the Imperial chamber till 1688, when the city was burnt by the Prench, and not 
rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. The diet to condemn the reformers was 
held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles Y. 1529 >; see Protestants. 

SPIRIT-RAPPING, &c. Spiritual manifestations (so called) began it is said in America 
about 1848, and attracted attention in this country about 185 1, in the shape of table-turning, 
&c. Many inquisitive or credulous persons visited Mr. Daniel Dunglas Hume or Home and 
Mr. Forster, noted "spiritual mediums." Mr. Home, who was secretary of the Spiritual 
Athenseum, Sloane-street, Chelsea, published, in 1863, "Incidents of my Life," in which 
he states that the only benefit he derived from the "gift," was the convincing many un- 
believers of the certainty of a life to come ; sle Trials, April, May 1868. 

SPIRITS, see Distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors have been considered as a 
proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state ; see Alcohol, Brandy, 
Methylated Spirits, &c. 



In 1840 England made about ten millions of gallons 
of spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, 
and Ireland about nine millions of gallons. 

In 1851 the number of gallons on which duty was 
paid for home consumption was 23,976,596. The 
total amount paid was 6,017,2182., of which 
3,758,1862. were paid by England, 1,252,2972. by 
Scotland, and 1,006,7352. by Ireland. 

The total duty on home consumption paid in 1853 
was 6,760,4222. 

In 1858, 9,195,1542. were paid as duty on 27,370,934 



In 1855, methylated .spirits of wine, for use in the arts 
and sciences, were made duty free. 

In 18^9, 27,657,721 gallons of spirits were distilled in 
the United Kingdom. The loniform duty of 8s. 
per gallon was paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home 
consumption, producing 9,701,7642. In the year 
1865-6 the tax produced about 13,955,0002., being 
the largest sum ever raised by indirect ta.xation.. 

In 1 861 an act was passed repealing wholly or in 
part 26 previous acts, and embodying all regula- 
tions for the guidance of manufacturers and dealers 
in spirits. 

SPITALFIELDS (East London). Here the French protestant refugees settled and 
established the silk manufacture in 1685. In consequence of commercial changes the 
weavers endured much distress about 1829. 

SPITHEAD, see Naval Reviews under Navy of England. 

SPITZBERGEN, an archipelago in the Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553 by sir Hugh 
WiUoughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. 
In 1595 it was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the 
original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the many sharp 
pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds ; see Phipps. 

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. The origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules 
developed during putrefaction, &;c. , has been and is still fiercely debated by naturalists. 
Spallanzani (about 1766), and especially M. Pasteur and others at the present time (1868), 
assert that these germs are really endowed with organic life existing in the atmosphere. 
Needham (about 1747), and especially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, pretend that 
these germs are spontaneously formed out of organic molecules, and may be formed artifi- 
cially. — Pouchet's "i/didrosfsme" appeared in 1859. 



SPO 693 STA 

SPOETS. The first "Book of Sports," under the title of "The King's Majestie's 
Declaration to his Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used" on Sundays after evening 
prayers, was published by king James I. 24 IMay, 1618. Ih.Qsecond " Book of Sports," with 
a ratification by his majesty Charles I., is dated 18 Oct. 1633. On the publication of tho 
first "Book of Sports," there arose a long and violent controversy among English divines 
on certain points ; see Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. The book was ordered to be burnt by 
the hangman, and the sports w"ere suppressed by the parliament. 

SPOTTSYLVANIA (Virginia), see United States, May, 1864. 

SPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was fought the desperate battle of "Wilson's 
Creek, in which tlie federals had the advantage over the confederates, but lost their brave 
general, Nathaniel Lyon, 10 Aug. 1S61. 

SPURS. Anciently the difference between the knight and esquire was, that the knight 
wore gilt spurs (eques auraius) and the esquire silver ones. Two sorts of spurs seem to have 
been in use at the time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having only a single point, the 
other a number of points of considerable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind came into 
use about 1400 ; see Plating. 

SPURS, Battle of. Henry VIII. of England, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, 
in 1513, entered into an offensive alliance against France. Hemy VIII. landed at Calais in 
the month of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 men. He was joined by the emperor 
with a good corps of horse and some foot, the emperor as a mercenary to the king of England, 
who allowed him a hundred ducats a day for his table ! They invested Teroiienne with an 
army of 50,000 men ; and the due de Longueville, marching to its relief, was signally 
defeated on the i6th of August, at Guinegate. This battle was called the battle of Spurs, 
because the Frencli used their sjjurs more than they did their sivo7'ds. The English king 
laid siege to Toui'naj^, which submitted in a few days. Henault ; see Courtrai, for another 
* ' battle of spurs. " 

STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of Stade, in Hanover, certain dues were 
charged by the Hanoverian government on all goods imported into Hamburg. The British 
government settled these dues in 1844; and they were resisted by tlie Americans in 1855. 
Negotiations on the subject began in i860, and the dues were abolished in June, 1861. 
Great Britain paid i6o,oooZ. as her share of the compensation. 

STADTHOLDER, see Holland. 

STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for providing an education to qualify military officers 
for the duties of the staff. The foundation stone was laid by the duke of Cambridge on 
14 Dec. 1859. 

STAGE-COACHES. So called from the stages or inns at which the coaches stopped to 
refresh and change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty act passed in 1785. These 
coaches were made subject to salutary provisions for the safety of passengers, in 1810 ; to 
mileage duties, 1815. Other acts were passed in 1832, 1833, and 1842 ; see Mail 
Coaches, &c. 

STAMP-DUTIES. By 22 &23 Charles II. (1670-1) duties were imposed on certain legal 
documents. In 1694 a duty was imposed upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The 
stamp-duty on newspapers was commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of 
articles upon which stamp-duty was made payable. 



The American Stamp Act, a memorable statute, 

one of those imposts levied by the parliament 

of Great Britain, which led to the American 

war, and the independence of that country, 

passed 22 March, 1765 ; it was repealed in . 1766 
Stamp duties in Ireland commenced . . . 1774 
Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in . . 1782 
The 8tami>dnties produced in England, in 1800, 

a revenue of 3, 1 26, 5 35 Z. 
Many alterations made in 1853 and 1857. In 

June, 1855, the stamp-duty on newspapers as 

such was totally abolished ; the stamp on 

them being henceforth for postal purposes. 

AMOUNT OF STAMP DUTIES KECEIVED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

1840 . . £6,726,817 I 1850 . . £6,358,332 I i86o(t0 3iMar.)£8,o43,958 I i867(to 31 Mar.) £9,420,000 

184s . . 7,710,683 I 185s . . . 6,805,605 I 1866 (ditto) 9,560,000 I 1868 (ditto) 9,541,000 

STANDARD for gold and silver in England fixed by law, 1300. Standard gold is 22 
parts out of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats being silver or copper. The 
standard of silver is 11 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of copper, or 37 parts 
out of 40 pure silver, and three parts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were coined 



In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 newspaper 
stamps were issued ; in the same months, 
1855, only 6,870,000. 

Drafts on bankers to be stamped . . . . 

Additional stamp duties were enacted in i860 
(on leases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, 
extracts from registers of births, <fec.); in 
1861 (on leases, licences to house agents, ifec). 

Stamp-duties reduced in 1864, 1865. 

All fees payable in the superior courts of law, 
after 31 Dec. 1865, are to be collected by 
stamps, by an act passed in June, 1865. 



STA 694 STA 

into 20 shillings ; in 1412 they were coined into 30 shillings ; and in 1527 into 45 shillings. 
In 1545 Heniy VIII. coined 6 oz. of silver and "6 oz. of alloy into 48 shillings ; and the 
next year he coined 4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. Elizabeth, in 1560, 
restored the old standard in 60 shillings ; and in 1601 in 62 shillings. It is now 66 
shillings. The average proportions of silver to gold at the royal mint are 154 to i. The 
standard of plate and silver manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 17 19 et seq. ; see Gold and 
Cdinage. 

STAND AED, Battle of the, see Northallerton. 

STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds 
arising from the diversity of measures, and for the establishment of a legal standard measure 
to be used in every part of his dominions. The standard vessels made by order of the king 
were deposited in the city of Winchester, and hence originated the well-known term of 
"Winchester measure." The bushel so made is still preserved in the guildhall of that city. 
Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measurement of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the 
length of his own arm to be made and deposited at Winchester, with the standard measures 
of king Edgar. The Guildhall contains the standard measures of succeeding sovereigns. 
Camden. — The standard weights and measures were settled by parliament in 1824. The 
pound troy was to be 5760 grains, and the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The "Standard 
yard of 1760," in the custody of the clerk of the house of commons, was declared to be the 
Imperial Standard yard and the unit of measures of extension. This standard having been 
destroyed by the fire in 1834, a new commission was appointed to reconstruct it, and 
researches for this purpose, in conformity with the act, which directed the comparison of the 
standard with a pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude of London, were begun 
by Francis Baily (died in 1844), continued by the rev. R. Sheepshanks till his death in 1855, 
and completed by G. B. Airy, astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed "an act for legalising 
and preserving the lost standards of weights and measures." The parliamentary copies of 
the standard pound and yard are deposited at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The 
standard weights and measures act was passed Aug. 1866. 

STANDARDS, see Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using a cross on 
standards and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantino, 
previously to his battle with Maxentius ; Eusebius says that he received this statement from 
the emperor himself, 312. The standard was named Labarum. For the celebrated French 
standard, see Auriflamme. — Standard of Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dared look. 
It was carried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians, who ignorantly 
looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace. — The British iMPEPaAL Standard 
was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by 
the Foot Guards, on the union of the kingdoms, i Jan. 1801. 

STANFORD BRIDGE (York). In 1066, Tostig,' brother of Harold II., rebeUed against 
his brother, and joined the invading army of Harold Hardrada, king of Norway. They 
defeated the northern earls and took York, but were defeated at Stanford-bridge by Harold, 
25 Sept. , and were both slain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his defeat at Hastings 
14 Oct. following. 

STANHOPE ADMINISTRATION was formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and 
the earl of Sunderland in April 1717. It included earl Stanhope, premier and chancellor of 
the exchequer ; earl Cowper, lord chancellor ; earl of Sunderland and Joseph Addison, 
secretaries of state, &c. In March, 17 18, Addison resigned, and the earl of Sunderland 
became premier. 

STANNARY COURTS of Devon and Cornwall for the administration of justice among 
the tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by 33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated 
by parliament in 1641, and at other times ; the last in 1855. 

STAPLE (literally that which is fixed). The chief English staple commodities which 
were traded in by privileged merchants, and on which customs were levied, were wool, skins, 
leather, tin, lead, and sometimes cloth, butter, and cheese ; certain towns were appointed 
for the collection of the duties ; statutes relating to the staple were passed by Edward III., 
Richard II., and Henry VI. Edward III.'s " ordinacio stapularum" (ordinance of the 
staple) was enacted in 1353. 

STARCH is a sediment produced at the bottom of vessels wherein wheat has been 
steeped in water : it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, and is used to stifiien and 
clear linen, with blue ; its powder is employed to powder the hair. The art of starching 
linen was brought into England by Mrs. Dinghein, a Flemish woman, i Mary, 1553. Siow. 
Patents for obtaining starch from other substances have been taken out : from potatoes by 
Samuel Newton and others in 1707 ; from the horse-chestnut by Wm. Murray in 1796 ; from 
rice by Thomas Wickham in 1823 ; from various matters by Orlando Jones in 1839-40. 



STA 695 STA 

STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished with stars. 
Coke. This court of justice was called Star-Chamber, not from the stars on its roof (which 
were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from the Starra, or Jewish 
covenants, deposited there by order of Richard I. No star was allowed to be valid except 
found in those repositories, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by 
Edward I. The court was instituted 2 Hen. VII. i486, for trials by a committee of the 
privy council, which was in violation of Magna Charta ; as it dealt with civil and criminal 
causes unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s reign it exercised its power upon 
several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in their sufferings, and contributed to 
render government odious and contemptible. It was abolished in 1641. There were in this 
court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chancellor having the casting voice. 

STAR OF INDIA, a new order of knighthood for India, gazetted 25 June, 1861, and 
enlarged in 1866. It comprises the sovereign, the grand master, 25 knights (Europeans and 
natives), and extra or honorary knights, such as the prince consort, the prince of Wales, &c. 
The queen invested several knights on i Nov. 1861. 

STARS, THE Fixed. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 
1200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and 
that the earth moved round them, about 344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and perhaps 
gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention 
several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the 
heavens, made aboixt 600 b. c. in which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of 
the stars was discovered by Dr. Bradley, 1727; see Astronomy, and Solar System. Maps of 
the stars were published by the Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge in 1839, and a set of 
Celestial Maps, issued under the superintendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, was com- 
pleted in 1859. 

STATE PAPER OFFICE was founded in 1578. In 1857 the British government began 
the publication of Calendars of State Papers, invaluable to future historians. 

STATES- GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France, first met, it is said, 
in 1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Previously to the Revolution, it had not met 
since 1614. The states consisted of three orders, the clergy, nobility, and commons. They 
were convened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, 5 May, 1789 (308 ecclesiastics, 
285 nobles, and 621 deputies or tiers etat, thii'd estate). A contest arose whether the three 
orders should make three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon 
the latter, and, assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were com- 
petent to proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if they 
refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the point, and 
they all met in one hall ; see National Assembly. 

STATES op the CHURCH, see Pope, and Borne. 

STATIONERS. Books and papers were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers 
were caUed stationers. The company of stationers of London is of great antiquity, and 
existed long before printing was invented, yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip &Mary, 
1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. Mortimer. 

STATISTICS, defined as the science of figures applied to life, is said to have been 
founded by sir Wm. Petty, who died in 1687. The term is said to have been invented by 
professor Achenwall of Gottingen in 1 749. The first statistical society in England was formed 
at Manchester in 1833 j the Statistical Society of London, which publishes a quarterly 
journal, was established in 1834 ; similar societies have been established on the continent. 
International Statistical Congresses are now held occasionally. The 1st at Brussels, in 1853 ; 
2nd at Paris, 1855 ; 3rd at Vienna, 1857 ; 4th at London, under the presidency of the prince 
consort, 16-21 July, i860. 

STATUES, see Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter passed for one of the 
wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 B.C. Ho had 
previously made a statue of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was jilaced in the 
Parthenon. It was made of ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised 
a golden statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of 
taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast models in wax, 326 B.C. 
Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. The first equestrian statue 
erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 10 (10 July, 

* This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueurs, in 1633, at the expense of the Howard-Arundel family. 
During- the civil war, the parliament sold it to John River, a brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to 
break it to pieces ; but he concealed it underfjround till the Restoi-ation, when it was erected, in 1678, on a 
pedestal executed by Grmlin Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of bronze, founded at one cast, was tha 
of Louis XIV". of France, 1699; it was elevated about 1724. 



STA 



696 



STE 



1854), public statues are placed under the control and protection of tlie Board of Works. 
The following are the chief public statues in London : — 

Achilles, Hyde-park, in honour of the duke of 

Wellingtou, by the ladies of Great Britain, 

18 June, 1822 
Albert, prince consort, Horticultural Society 

gardens 1863 

Anne, queen, St. Paul's Churchyard . ' . .1711 
Bedford, duke of, Russell-square . . . i8og 
Canning, Geo., New Palace-yard, Westminster . 1832 
Cartwright, major. Burton-crescent . . .1831 

Charles I. Charing-cross 1678 

Charles 11. Soho-square * * * 

Clyde, lord, Waterloo-place 1868 

Cumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square . . 1770 
Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan's, Fleet-street . 1586 
Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square . . 1816 
Franklin, sir John, Waterloo-place . . . 1866 

George I. Grosvenor-square 1726 

George I. Leicester-square ,, WUiiam 111. St. James's-square . . . . 1717 

George III. Somerset-house 1788 William IV. King William-street . . . 1845 

George III. Cockspur-street .... 1836 I York, duke of, Waterloo-place . . . . 1834 



Havelock, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square . . . 

Herbert, lord 3 June, 

Howard, John ; first erected in St. Paul's . . 

James II. Whitehall 

Jenner, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 1858 ; re- 
moved to Kensington-gardens 

Myddelton, Sic Hugh, Islington-green 

Napier, gen. sir Chas. J., Trafalgar-square . . 

Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square [the lions at the 
base, designed by sir E. Landseer, were un- 
covered 31 Jan. 1867] .... 

Peel, sir Bobert, Cheapside, 1855 ; near West 
minster abbey 

Pitt, William, Hanover-square . 

Richard Coeur de Lion, near Westminster abbey 

Wellington, duke of. Royal Exchange . 

Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park-comer 

William III. St. James's-square 

William IV. King William-street 

York, duke of, Waterloo-place 



1 861 
1867 
1796 
1687 



1862 
1856 



1843 



STATUTES, see Acts of Parliament, Clarendon, Merton, &c. The Statute Law Revision 
act was passed in 1863. 

STEAM CARRIAGE (for ordinary roads), invented by the earl of Caithness, was said to 
be successful in i860. It travels over rough roads at the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost 
of less than id. per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles in two days. 

STEAM-ENGINE and NAVIGATION. Hero of Alexandria, in his " Pneumatics," 
describes various methods of employing steam as a power ; and to him is ascribed the 
Jilolopile, which, although a toy, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : he flourished 
about 284-241 B.C. Roger Bacon appears to have foreseen the application of steam-power ; 
see Railways, Locomotives, &c. 



Solomon de Caus, a French protestant, pub- 
lishes a work which Arago considers to have 
contained the gei-ms of the steam-engine . . 1615 
The marquess of Worcester alludes to steam in 
his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 

Papin's digester invented 1681 

Captain Savery's engine constructed for raising 

water 1698 

Papin's engine exhibited to the Royal Society 

about 1699 
Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen 1713 
First idea of steam navigation set forth in a 

patent obtained by Jonathan Hulls . . . 1736 
Watt's invention of performing condensation in 
a separate vessel from the cylinder . . 1765 

His first patent 1769 

His engines upon a large scale erected in manu- 
factories, and his patent renewed by act of 
parliament ... ... 1775 

Thomas Paine proposes steam navigation Jin 

America 1778 

Engines made to give a rotary motion . . ,, 

Watt's expansion engine „ 

Double-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck on 

Newcomen's principle 1779 

Watt's double-engine, and his first patent for it 1781 
The marquess Jouffroy constructed an engine 

on the Sa6ne „ 

Wm. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels ' . 1787 
[He and Mr. Symington are said to have con- 
structed a small steamboat which travelled at 
about 5 miles an hour soon after.] 
W. Symington made a passage on the Forth 

and Clyde canal 1789 

First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry 

Jackson 1791 

First experiment with steam navigation on the 

Thames i8oi 

Trevethick's high-pressure engine . . . ,, 
Woolf's double-cylinder expansion engine con- 
structed ... .... 1804 

Manufactories warmed by steam . . . 1806 
Fulton's steamboat Clermont on the Seine, 
9 Aug. 1803 ; at New York 



Fulton started a steamboat on the river Hudson, 
America . 1807 

Steam power to convey coals on a railway em- 
ployed by Blenkinsop 1811 

Comet built by Henry Bell, plies on the Clyde 

Jan. 1812 

Steam applied to printing in the Times ofiice 
(see Printing machines) ..... 1814 

There were five steam-vessels in Scotland (Pari. 
Returns) . . . . . . . . ,, 

First steam- vessel on the Thames, brought by 
Mr. Dodd from Glasgow .... 1815 

First steamer buUt in England (Pari. Returns) ,, 

The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons, came from 
New York to Liverpool in 26 days 15 July, 1819 

First steamer in Ireland 1820 

Steam-gun, invented by Perkins . . . . 1824 

Steam-jet apphed 1825 

Captain Johnson obtained io,oooJ. for making 
the first steam voyage to India, in the Enter- 
prise, which sailed IroTaFahnonth. 16 Aug. ,, 

The locomotive steam-carriages on railways, 
at Liverpool Oct. 1S29 

The railway opened, see Liverpool . . . 1830 

The Gi'eat Western arrives from Bristol at New 
York, being her fljst voyage, in 18 days, 

17 June, 1838 

War-steamers built in England . . . . ,, 

War-steamers buUt at Birkenhead, named the 
JSeinesis and Phlegethon, carrying each two 
thirty-two pounders, sent by government to 
China 1840 

The Cunard steamers began to sail 5 July, „ 

[Sir Sam. Cunard died 28 April, 1865, aged 78.] 

Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company began 1841 
[They possess 53 steamers and a fleet of tugs, 
Dec. 1866.] 

The Great Britain sailed from the Mersey 

26 July, 1845 
[She arrived at New York 10 Aug. During 
her second voyage, she ran aground in 
Dundrum bay, Ireland, 22 Sept. 1846. 
Her passengers were landed ; and she 
was extricated with little injury, after 



STE 



697 



STE 



STEAM-ENGINE, continued. 

long-continued and strenuous efforts, by 
I. Brunei, jun. and Bremner, 27 Aug. 
1847-] 

The Collins steamers began .... 1850 

The Pacific crosses the Atlantic in 9 days, 
19 hours, 25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead 

20 May, 1851 

Steam packets leave Galway for America . . 1858 

The merits of an attacking vessel termed a 
steam ram, advocated by sir G. Sartorius, 
were discussed in 1859-60 

An iron-platod frigate, Za Gloire, completed in 
France (see Navy, French) i860 

The Wan'ior, an iron-plated vessel, launched 

29 Dec. ,, 

The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched 
at Millwall 31 Oct. 1863 

A cigar ship, a steam yacht, designed by Mr. 

. Wiuan, built by Hepworth, launched on the 
Thames 19 Feb. 1866 

Trial trip of the Nautilus, with a hydrauUc pro- 
peller worked by steam, Ruthven's patent ; 
no paddle or screw required . 24 March, ,, 

Successful trial trip of the Water-witch, a govern- 
ment hydrauhc propeller u-on-clad gun-vessel 
(Ruthven's patent),* on the Thames 19 Oct. „ 

Steam vessels belonging to the British empire in 
1814, 6; in 1815, 10; in 1820, 43; in 1825, 168; in 
1830, 315 ; in 183s, 545 ; in 1845, looi ; in 1850, 
1187; in 1864, 2496. 

Bee Navy, and Shipping. 

LARGE STEAM VESSELS OF ENGLAND. 

long. Broad. 

Great Western 236 feet 35 feet 

Duke of Wellington . . . 240 feet 60 feet 

British Queen 275 feet 61 feet 

Great Britain .... 322 feet 51 feet 

Himalaya 370 feet 43 feet 

Persia 390 feet 45 feet 

Great Eastern, for a short time 
(1857-8) called Levia.than . . 692 feet 83 feet 
Horse Power : — Paddles, 1000; screw, 1600: 
Weight of ship, &c., 12,000 tons; ordinary 
Ught draught, 12,000 tons. 



She was designed by Mr. I. K. Branel [who died 15 

Sept. 1S59], and built by Messrs. Scutt Russell 

and Co., at Millwall ; launching lasted from 3 Nov. 

1857, to 31 Jan. 1S58. 

The capital subscribed having been all expended, a 

new company was formed to fit her for sea. 
On 7 Sept. 1859, she left her moorings at Deptford 
for Portland-roads. On the voyage an explosion 
took place (off Hastings), through some neglect in 
regard to the casing of one of the chimneys, when 
ten firemen were killed and many persons seriousty 
injured. After repairs she sailed to Holyhead, 
ari-iving there 10 Oct. ; she endured the storm of 
25-26 Oct. well; and proceeded to Southampton 
for the winter, 4 Nov. 

She was fitted up to convey 5000 persons from London 
to Australia, a distance of 22,500 miles, with ac- 
commodation for 800 ist class passengers, 2000 
2nd clasa, and 1200 3rd class. Her able captain 
( H arrison) was drowned in the Solent 22 Jan. 1 860, 
deeply regretted. She sailed for New York 17 
June, under command of captain Vine Hall, and 
arrived there 28 June. After being exhibited she 
left New York 16 Aug. and returned to England 
26 Aug. 

Owing to a lawsuit in April, the ship came into the 
hands of sheriff's ofBcers ; but was released and 
sailed for New Y'ork on i May, 1S61. On 12 Sept. 
she suffered much loss through a violent gale. 

In 1862 she performed several voyages to and from 
New Y^ork ; but in Aug. ran on a rock near Long 
Island and injured her bottom. 

She was repaired and arrived at Liverpool 17 Jan. 
1863, and sailed to New York (16-27 May). 

She was bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co. in March 
or April, 1864, and was chartered to convey the 
Atlantic telegraph cable ; sailed from Sheerness 15 
July ; and returned 19 Aug. 1865 ; see Electric 
Telegraph, p. 265. 

She sailed for New Y''ork, prepared for 2000 passen- 
gers, 26 Jlarch, and returned with 191. She was 
seized, by the seamen claiming their wages. May, 
1867 ; and the case was carried into chancery in 
July. 

At the meeting of the shareholders 10 Feb. 1868, no 
dividend was declared. 

STEAM-HAMMER was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1838, and patented by him 
18 June, 1842. The main feature in the construction of the steam-hammer is, the abso- 
lutely direct manner by which the elastic power of steam is employed to lift up and let fall 
the mass of iron which constitutes the hammer, which mass or block of iron is attached 
direct to the end of a piston-rod passing through the bottom of an inverted steam cylinder 
placed immediately over the anvil. The vast range and perfect control over the power of the 
blows enable the largest or smallest forge-work to be executed by the same steam-hammer. 
In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to driving piles, which invention has 
importantly assisted in the execution of every great public work in which pile-driving has 
been required. 

It is now employed in every coimtry where the have been possible by the means previously exist- 
working of malleable iron is carried on. Owuig ing. Parts of the most gigantic marine steam- 
to the vast range of power possessed by the steam- engines, anchors, and Armstrong gims, as well as 
hammer, forged iron- work can now by its means the most minute details of machinery, as in Enfield 
be executed on a scale, and for a variety of pur- rifles, are now executed by the steam-hammer. 
poses, with such ease and perfection as could not 

STEAM-MAN. A figure constructed to drag a phaeton received this name in New 
York in March, 1868. 

STEAM NAVIGATION, see under Steam. 

STEAM-PLOUGHS were patented by G. Callaway and R. A. Purkes, 1849 ; H. Cowing, 
1850 ; aud others. John Fowler's is much approved. 

STEAM-RAM (to be used in naval warfare), was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 
1836, and communicated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam-rams built by Mr. James Laird 

* Mr. Ruthven patented his system in 1849, and exliibited his machinery at the International Exhibi- 
tionin 1851. His object is to uicrease speed aud save fuel. In the Water-wiick a steam-engine gives the 
power of absorbing and expelling the water, and no screw or paddle is required. The water-wheel is 145 feet 
in diameter. 



STE 698 STE 

of Birkenliead for tlie confederates in N. America, were stopped and eventually bought by 
the British government in 1864. 

STEARINE (from stear, suet), that part of oils and fats which is solid at common tem- 
perature. The nature of these substances was first made known by Chevreul,_ in 1823, who 
showed that they were compounds of peculiar acids, with a base termed glycerine ; of these 
compounds the chief are stearine, margarine, and elaine ; see CaindUs, 

STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, exists in nature, and has been largely 
fabricated from the earliest times. A manufactory for cast steel is said to have been set up 
by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, near ShefiBeld, in 1740. The manufacture of shear 
steel began at Sheffield about 1800. German steel was made at Newcastle previoiisly by Mr. 
Crawley. Tlie inventions of Mushat (1800) and Lucas (1804) were important steps in this 
manufacture ; see Engraving. In 1856, Mr. H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air 
through liquid iron ; in 1859, tungsten steel was made in Germany ; and in i86i, M. Fremy 
made steel by bringing red-hot iron in contact with carbonate of ammonia. The subject has 
been much investigated by M. Caron, 1861-5. In i860, much attention was excited by 
cutlery made from a metallic sand, brought from Taranaki or New Plymouth, in New 
Zealand. In consequence of improved modes, steel is now made cheaply in large masses, 
and will be employed in the manufacture of cannon, &c. A steel bridge, in connexion with, 
the exhibition, was constructed at Paris by M. Joret in 1866. 

STEEL PENS. "Iron pens" are mentioned by Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens 
came into use about 1820, when the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for 
7Z. 4s. In 1830, the price was 8s., and in 1832, 6s. A better pen is now sold for 6(i. a 
gross. Birmingham in 1858 produced about 1000 million pens per annum. Women and 
children are principally employed in the manufacture. ]Periy, Mitchell, and GUlott are 
eminent makers. 

STEEL- YAED. An ancient instrument, the same that is translated balance in the 
Pentateuch. The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is mentioned in 315 B.c. — The 
Steel- Yakd Company, London merchants, who had the steel-yard assigned to them by 
Henry III., about 1232, were Flemings and Germans, and the only exporters, for many 
years after, of the staple commodities of England. Anderson. The company lost its pri- 
vileges, finally, in 1578 ; and the merchants were expelled in 1597. 

STEENKIRK, see Enghien. 

STENOGRAPHY (from stenos, narrow), the art of short-hand, said to have been prac- 
tised by the ancients. Its improvement is attributed to the poet Ennius, to Tyro, Cicero's 
freedman, and still more to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Characteris, written about 1412, is 
the oldest system extant. Dr. Timothy Brigbt's " Characterie, or, the Art of Short, Swift, 
and Secret Writing," published in 1588, is the first English work on short-hand. Peter 
Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590 ; and John Willis published 
his "Stenographic" in 1602. There are now numerous systems ; Byrom's (1750), Gurney's 
(i753)j Taylor's (1786), Mavor's (1789), Pitman's (phonographic), 1837. 

STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST. (Westminster). The commons of England held their 
assemblies in this chapel, which was built by king Stephen, and dedicated about 1135. 
It was rebuilt by Edward III. in 1347, and by him made a collegiate churcb, to which 
a dean and twelve secular priests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to Edward VI., 
aboiit 1548, it was applied to the use of Parliament ; see Parliament. It was destroyed 
by fire, 16 Oct. 1834. The Society of Antiquaries published memorials of it about 1810 ; 
and Mr. Mackenzie's work appeared in 1844. 

STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solution of 
flint, silex) serves as the connecting medium between the colour and the siibstratum. Its 
invention is ascribed to Yon Fuchs, who died at Munich on 5 March, 1856. Fine specimens 
of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich. 

STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of 
liquids by gauging, invented about 1350. Anderson. M. Say's stereometer, for deter- 
mining the specific gravity of liquids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, was 
described in 1797. 

STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and shopein, to see), an optical instrument for 
representing in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by uniting into one image two plane 
representations of these objects as seen by each eye separatel3^ The first stereoscope by 
reflection was constructed and exhibited by professor Charles Wheatst(me in 1838, who 
had annoianced its principle in 1833. Since 1854, stereoscopes have been greatly improved. 

STEREOTYPE (a cast from a page of moveable printing- types). It is said that stereo- 
typing was known in 171 1. It was practised by Wm. Gedof Edinburgh, about 1730. Some 



STE 699 STO 

of Ged's plates are at tlie Koyal Institution, London. A Mr. James attempted to introduce 
Ged's process in London, but failed, about 1735. Nichols. Stereotype printing was in use 
in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed 
there. Phillips. It was revived in London by Wilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability 
of stereotypes has been gi-eatly increased by electrot3rping them with copper or silver. 

In the libmry of the Koyal Institution is an edition laminis fusis, excudebat. 1744." (Printed at Edin- 

of Sallust, with this imprint ; " Edmburgi, burgh by William Ged of Edinburgh, goldsmith, 

Gulielmus Ged, auri faber Edinensis, non tyijis not with moveable types, as is commonly done, 

mobiUbus, ut vulgo fieri solet, sed tabelUs sou but with cast tablets or plates.) 

STERLING (money). Ducange says (1733), *' Esterlingus, sterlingus, are English 
words relating to money, and hence familiar to other nations, and applied to the weight, 
quality, and kind of money." " Denarius Anglite, quo vocatur sterlingus," stat. Edw. I. 
(The penny of England, which is called sterling). Camden derives the word from easterling 
or esterling, observing that the money brought from Germany, in the reign of Richard I., 
was the most esteemed on account of its j^urity, being called in old deeds, ^'nu7nvii easter- 
liiig." Othei's derive the word from the Easterlings, the first moneyers in England. 

STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of 
cylinder, and applying one end to the patient's chest and the other to his own ear, perceived 
the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner than by the immediate application 
of the ear. This led to his inventing the stethoscope, or "breast-explorer," the principle 
of which, now termed "auscultation," was known by Hippocrates, and by Robert Hooke, 
1681. 

STETTIN (Pomerania), an ancient city, formerly held by the Sidini and Venedes ; was 
taken by Boleslas of Poland in 1121. After being conquered by the Swedes, Russians, and 
Erench, it was awarded to Prussia in 18 14. 

STEWARD OF England, Lord High. The first grand officer of the crown. This 
office was established prior to the reign of Edward the Confessor, and was formerly annexed 
to the lordship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the family of Montfort, earls of 
Leicester, who were, in right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but Simon de Mont- 
fort, the last earl of this family, having raised a rebellion against his sovereign Henry III., 
was attainted, and his estate forfeited to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is 
now revived only pro hdc vice, at a coronation, or the ti-ial of a peer. The first afterwards 
appointed was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for the trial of a peer was 
Edward, earl of Devon, on the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 14CX). The last 
was lord Den man at the trial of the earl of Cardigan, 16 Feb. 1841. The duke of Hamilton 
was lord high steward at the coronations of William IV. and Victoria. 

STEWARD OF THE Household, Lord (an ancient office), has the sole direction of 
the king's house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant of his office, but receives his charge 
from the sovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white wand, the symbol of his office, 
says, "Seneschal, tenez le baton de notre maifon." This officer has been called lord steward 
since 1540 ; previously to the 31st of Henry VIII., he was styled grand master of the house- 
hold. His function as a judge was abolished in 1849. 

STICKLESTADT (Norway). Here Olaf II., aided by the Swedes, was defeated in his 
endeavours to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Denmark, and slain, 29 July, 1030. 
He was afterwards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. 

STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES, see Magistrates. 

STIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. Gracchus fitted the highways with stones 
to enable the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections on their spears for the same 
purpose. Stirrups were used in the 5th century, but were not common even in the 12th. 

STOCKACH, a town in Baden, near which the Austrians, nnder the Archduke Charles, 
defeated the French, 25 March, 1799. 

STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden (built on holmcn, or islands), was fortified by Berger 
Jarl about 1254. Here the Swedish nobility was massacred by Cliristian II. in 1520 ; see 
Sweden. 
Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great | Russia, in favour of the duke of Holstein- 



Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which 
the former acquired the duchies of Bremen 
and Verden as elector of Brunswick 20 Nov. 1719 
Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and 



GottoiiJ 24 March, 1724 

Another between England and Sweden 3 March, 1813 
And between England, France, and Sweden, 

21 Nov. 1855 



STOCKINGS of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
Elizabeth was presented with a pair of knit black silk stockings, by her silk-woman, 
Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. He adds, "Henry VIII. 
wore ordinary cloth hose, except there come from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk 



STO 



700 



STO 



stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a 
pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and the present was 
then much taken notice of. Idem. Others relate that William Rider, a London apprentice, 
seeing at the house of an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, 
made a pair like them, the first made in England, which he presented to the earl of 
Pembroke, 1564. Stow, The art of weaving stockings in & frame was invented in England 
by the rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty- iive years after he had learnt to knit 
them with wires or needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1 730 ; see Cotton. 

STOCKPORT (in Cheshire) has become eminent on account of the cotton trade. 
Heaton Norris, in Lancashire, is united to it by a bridge over the river. Here the Man- 
chester blanketeers were dispersed, II March, 1817 ; and here was a serious religious riot, 
when two Roman catholic chapels were destroyed, and the houses of many Roman catholics 
gutted, and their furniture and other contents smashed or burnt, 29 June, 1852. 

STOCKS, in which drunkards were placed. The last in London was removed from 
St. Clement's Danes, Strand, 4 Aug. 1826. 

STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, about 11 73, and was intro- 
duced into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise 
in 1690. 

Act to prevent stoclc-johbing passed March, 1734 ; 

repealed i860 

The foundation of the Stock Exchange, in 

Capel-court, the residence of the lord mayor, 

sir Wni. Capel, in 1504, was laid on 18 May, 

1801. It was stated on the first stone that 

the public debt was then 552,730,924^. 
The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for 

which lord Cochrane, the celebrated admiral 

Johnstone, and others were convicted, 22 

Feb. 1814. Lord Cochrane was in consequence 

expelled the house of commons. His inno- 
cence was afterwards proved, and he was 

restored to his rank by king William IV. , and 

to the honours belonging to it by queen 

Victoria. 
Stock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire 

II Feb. 1816 



The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted 

to 337,481. 
Three per cent, annuities created 
Three per cent, consols created . . . . 

Three per cent, reduced 

Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South 

Sea-house ' 

Three-and-a-half percent, annuities created 

Long annuities 

Four per cent, consols 

Five per cent, annuities . . . 1797 and 
Five per cents, reduced to four . . . . 
Old four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half 

in 

Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 

1841, and 1844 ; the maximum being now 

three per cent. 



1726 

1731 
1746 

1751 
i75» 
1761 
1762 

1802 
1822 

1824. 



By a return of the average price of the public 
of the national debt, it appears that Consols {i. 
per annum) averaged in the year — 



funds by the commissioners for the reduction 
. e. , consolidated annuities, paying 3 per cent. 



1749 . . £100 


1798 . . . £59 10 


1820. 


. £68 12 


1845 . . . £93 2 6 


1780 . . . 63 13 6 


1800. . . 66 3 3 


1825 


. . 90 8 


1848 . . . 86 15 


1785 . . 68 6 6 


1805 , . . 58 14 


1830. 


• 89 IS 7 


1850. . . 96 lo a 


1790 . . . 71 2 6 


1810. . . 67 16 3 


1840 


. . 89 17 6 


1852 . . . 99 12 6 


1795 . . 74 8 6 


181S . . . 58 13 9 




The price of £100 stock varied in 




1853, from £101 to £90! 


1857, from £9sJ to £86* 


1861, 


from £94^ to £89^ 


1864, from £915 to £87^ 


1854, „ 96 „ 85| 


1858, „ 98! „ 94 


1862, 


>, 94S ., 9of 


1865, „ 875 „ £86i 


185s, „ 93I » 86| 


1859. „ 97f » 89 


1863, 


J. 94 .. 90 


1866, average, 88. 


1856, „ 96J „ 872 








1867, „ 93. 



STOICS, disciples of Zeno, the philosopher (about 290 B.C.) ; obtained the name because 
they listened to his instructions in a porch or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. 
Zeno taught, that man's supreme happiness consisted in living agreeably to nature and 
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. Stanley. 

STOKE, East (near Newark, Nottinghamshire). Near here, on 16 June, 1487, the 
adherents of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl of "Warwick, and claimed the 
crown, were defeated by Henry VI I. John De la Pole, the earl of Lincoln, and most of the 
leaders were slain ; and Simnel, whose life was spared, was afterwards employed in the king's 
household. 

STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, 670. A stone bridge was built 
at Bow, in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said 
to have been built in 860 ; see Bridges. The first stone building in Ireland was probably 
a round tower ; see Building. Stone china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Arti- 
ficial stone for statues was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 
1776. Stone paper was made in 1776 ; see Ransom's Artificial Stone, and Lithotomy, 



STO 



701 



STO 



STONEHENGE (on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire) is said to have been erected on the 
counsel of Merlin, by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 Britons, who were murdered by 
Hengist the Saxon about 450. Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a sepulchral monument 
of Ambrosius, 500. Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which the Druids 
officiated. Br. Stukcley. The Britons had annual meetings at Abury and Stonehenge, 
where laws were made, justice administered, and heinous crimes punished. 

STONEWALL BRIGADE, see United States, 1862, note. 

STORMS, see Meteorology, and Cyclones. The following are among the most memo- 
rable : — 

In London a storm raged ■whicli destroyed 1500 

houses, 944. 
In several parts of England, the sky being very 

dark, the wind coming from the S.W. ; many 

churches were destroyed; and in London 500 

houses fell, 5 Oct. 109 1. 
On the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais and 

several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to 

assist king John against the barons, perished, 

1215. Holinslied. 
It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of 

rain aud vfind, 1233. 
Storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed 

through a chamber where Edward I. and his 

queen were conversing, did them no damage, but 

killed two of their attendants, 1285. Hoveden. 
Violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which 

fell on the army of Edward III. then on its march. 

The hail was so large that the army and horses 

suffered very much, and Edward was obhged to 

conclude a peace, 1339. MaM. Paris. 
When Richard II.'s queen came from Bohemia, on 

her setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, 

and her ship and a number of others were dashed 

to pieces in the harboiu-, Jan. 1382. Holinslud. 
Kichard's second queen also brought a storm with 

her to the English coasts, in which the king's 

baggage was lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. 

Eolinsked. 
Hurricane throughout Europe, which did very con- 
siderable damage, on 3 Sept. 1658, the day that 

Cromwell died. Mortimer. 
Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and 

coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1696. 
The " Great Storm," one of the most terrible that 

ever raged in England. The devastation on land 

was immense ; and in the harbours and on the 

coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was still 

greater, 26-27 Nov. 1703. The loss sustained in 

London alone was calculated at 2, ooo,oooJ. sterhng. 

The number of persons drowned in the floods of 

the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of 

Holland, and in ships blown from their anchors 

and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have 

been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, vTith more than 

1800 men on board, were lost vsdthin sight of their 

own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 

17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone 

light-house was destroyed, and in it the ingenious 

contriver of it. Win Stanley, and the persons who 

were with him. The bishop of Bath and Wells 

and his lady were killed in bed in their palace in 

Somersetshire. Multitudes of cattle were also 

lost : in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. 
Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is 

said, perished upon the mountains, in their march 

to attack Drontheim, 1719. 
One in India, when many hundreds of vessels were 

cast away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, 

and some ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, 

II Oct. 1737. 
Dreadful hxuricane at the Havanah: many public 

edifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 

inhabitants perished, 25 Oct. 1768. 
Awful storm in the north of England, in which many 

vessels were destroyed, and four Dublin packets 

foundered, 29 Oct. 1775. 
One at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of 

the inhabitants, 22 April, 1782. 



One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid 
waste in France, 1785. 

One general throughout Great Britain : several 
hundred sail of shipping destroyed 'or damaged, 
6 Oct, 1794. 

One which did vast damage in London, and through- 
out almost the whole of England, 8 Nov. 1800. 

A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and 
Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and 
many ships wrecked, 16-17 Dec. 1814. 

An awful gale, by which a great numlDer of vessels 
were lost, and much damage was done to the 
shipping in general on the English coast, 31 Aug. 
1816. 

Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, 
from the 20th to 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of 
St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 

Great storm along the coast from Durham to Corn- 
wall ; many vessels lost, Nov. 1821. 

In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dublin, 
many houses were thrown down, and vast num- 
bers unroofed, 12 Dec. 1822. 

Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels 
lost, and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Ply- 
mouth alone, 12-13 Jan. 1828. 

At Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de- 
stroyed, 18 Feb. 1828. 

Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where 
immense property was lost, 16 July, 1831. 

A hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood, 
which did great damage to the buildings, but 
without the destruction of human life, though 
many serious accidents occurred, 38 Oct. 1838. 

Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in 
Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, 
Staffordshire, and Warwickshire ; 20 persons were 
killed in Liverpool, by the falling of buildings, 
and 100 were drowned in the neighbourhood ; the 
coast and harbours were covered with wrecks ; 
the vahie of two of the vessels lost being nearly 
half-a-miUion sterling. In Limerick, Galway, 
Athlone, aud other places, more than 200 houses 
were blown down, and as many more were bvu-nt, 
the winds spreading the fires. DubUn suffered 
dreadfully ; London and its neighbourhood scarcely 
sustained any damage, 6-7 Jan. 1839. 

[The winter of 1852-3 (Deo. and Jan.) was one of 
storms, many of which were very destructive, 
particularly to shipping.] 

Great storm in the Black Sea, 13-16 Nov. 1854, 
causing much loss of life, shipping, and stores 
sent for the allied armies in the Crimea. 

Great storm on N. coast of Europe, &c., 31 Dec. 
1854. 

Great storm on N.E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fisher- 
men lost, 23 Nov. 1857. 

Dreadful storm on the night 25-26 Oct : the Boyal 
Charter totally lost, and many other vessels; 
another storm, 31 Oct. and i Nov. 1859. 

Great storm in the channel, causing much loss of 
Ufe and property, i Jan. i860. 

Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, 26, 27, 28 Feb. ; 
28 May ; and 2 June, i860. 

Great storm : part of the Crystal Palace blown down ; 
Chichester cathedral steeple fell, 20-21 Feb. i86r. 

Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, 28 May, 
1861. 

Storm on the norta-east ; 50 wrecks, 13-14 Nov. 



STO 702 STR 



STORMS, continued. 

At Market Laverton, &c. ; hail six and seven feet 

deep; much damage to crops, 2 Sept. 1862. 
Storm on British coasts ; very many wrecks, 19, 20 

Oct. 1862. 
There were severe gales, doing much damage and 

loss of life, 19 Jan. &c. 1863 ; and 14 Jan. &c. 

1865 (see under Wrecks). 



Dreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean, <fec. (see 

Cyclone, Calcutta), 5 Oct. 1864. 
Hurricane at Lisbon, causes much damage, worst 

for many years, 13 Dec. 1864. 
Severe gales; manyvessels and lives lost (see Wrecks), 

6-11 Jan. 1866; 2-4 Dec. 1867; 22 Jan. and 31 Jan. 

and I Feb. 1868. 



STORTHIJSTG, the ISTorwegian parliament, said to liave been first held at Bergen by 
Hacho V. in 1223. 

STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet 
do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of the room, the roof being open. 
Apartments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves on this old principle, improved, con- 
tinue in use in many houses and public establishments in England, and generally on the 
continent. Dr. Franklin and count Rumford pointed out the waste of fuel in our open fires ; 
and Dr. Neil Arnott patented his "improvements in the production and agency of heat," 
14 Nov. 1821 ; see Chimneys, and Cottager's Stove. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, including Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and 
Singapore, were made a separate dependency of the British crown in 1853, and placed under 
the governor-general of India. They were separated from India, and constituted an inde- 
pendent settlement by an act passed 10 Aug. 1866, and took effect AprQ, 1867. Governor, 
sir Harry St. George (3rd, 1867. 

STRALSUND (Pomerania), a strong fortified Hanse-town, built about 1230. It resisted 
a fierce siege by Wallenstein in 1628 ; it was taken by Frederick "William, of Brandenburg, 
in 1678, restored to the Swedes, and re-captured by the Prussians and their allies, in 1715. 
It surrendered to the French under Brime, 20 Aug. 1807 ; but in 1815 was awarded to 
Prussia. 

STRAND (London). Houses were first built upon the Strand about 1353, at which 
period it was the court end of the town, or formed the communication between the two 
cities of London and AYestminster, being then open to the Thames and to the fields. 
Somerset and other palaces were erected 1549- 1605. Stow. The Strand bridge was com- 
menced II Oct. 1811 ; see Waterloo Bridge. The Strand improvements were commenced in 
1829. 

STRASBURG, the Roman Argentoratum, the capital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated 
the Allemanni, 357. This town, formerly Imperial, was taken by Louis XIV. in 1681. 
The citadel and fortifications, w^hich he constructed, have been so much augmented, that 
Strasburg may be considered one of the strongest places in Europe. It was confirmed to 
France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Strasburg is remarkable for its magnificent cathe- 
dral and lofty tower. An attempt at insurrection in the city was made 30 Oct. 1836, by 
prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of the French republic, and now emperor), 
aided by two ofiicers and some privates. It was instantly suppressed by their arrest. The 
prince was then shipped off to America by the French government ; see France. 

STRATFORD-UPON-AVON (Warwickshire), see Shakspeare. 

STRATHCLUYD, a kingdom formedj.by the Britons, who retired northward after the 
Saxon conquest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to Cumberland. The Britons in it 
submitted to Edward the Elder, in 924. 

STRATHFIELD-SAYE, a parish partly in Berkshire and Hampshire, in which is situate 
the estate bought of lord Rivers by the nation for 263,000?., and presented to the duke of 
WeUtngton, 1817. An act to provide a suitable residence for his grace and his heirs was 
passed 11 July, 1815. 

STRATHMORE ESTATES. Miss Bowes, of Durham, the then richest heiress in 
Europe, whose fortune was 1,040,000?. with vast additions on her mother's death, and 
immense estates on the demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, 25 Feb. 1766. 
Having, after the earl's death, married Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him 
and other armed men, 10 Nov. 1786. She was brought up to the King's Bench by habeas 
corpus and released, and he committed to prison, 23 Nov. The lady recovered her estates, 
which she had assigned to her husband under the influence of terror, in May, 1788. 

STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Cornwall, 16 May, 1643, between the royal army 
under sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the parliament under the earl of Stamford. The 
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded. 

STRAWBERRY, see Fruits. 

STRAWBERRY-HILL, the Gothic villa of Horace Walpole, erected by him, 1753-76, at 



STR 703 sue 

Twickenham, near Loudon. In April and May, 1842, his collection of pictures, and articles 
of taste and virtii, were sold by auction for 29,615?. 8s. gd. 

STEEET-MUSIC. An act was passed in 1864 for the better regulation of street-music in 
the metropolitan police districts. 

STREET RAILWAYS, previously established by Mr. Train in New York, were opened 
by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, 30 Aug. i860, and at Bayswater, London, 23 March, 1861 ^ 
see Ireland, 1868. A street railway bill was rejected by the house of commons in April, 
1861, Several of these railways existed for a time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, 
but were aU taken up in 1862. 

STRELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, established by Ivan IV. about 1568. Becoming 
frequently seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the Great ; great numbers were put to death, 
many by the czar's own hand, 1697- 1 704. 

STRIKES, see Prestoi, &u(i Loiidon, 1859-61. 



The tailors of London struck for increase of 
wages ia April, 1834 

The strike of the calico-printers of Glasgow, 
lasted nine months in ,, 

The strike of the amalgamated engineers took 
place in 1852 : and of the London cabmen, 

27-30 July, 1833 

A strike among the silk-workers at Coventry- 
came to an end . . . -30 Aug. i860 

An imsuccessful attempt to get up a strike in 



the building trade began . . 23 March, i86r 
A strike of the puddlers in the iron trade 'oc- 
ciured in the spring of (see Iron, and Rail- 
ways) 1865 

Strike of London west-end tailors (about 2000), 

lasted 22 AprU-Oct. 1867 

Great strike of colliers near St. Helens, April, 
1867 ; about 40,000 men on strike . AprU, 1868 

See Trials, Aug. 1867. 



STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of strontia was discovered at Strontian, in Argyle- 
shire, in 1787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtained from it the metal strontium in 1808. 

STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 181 8 by Pelletier and 
Cavantou in the seeds of the strychnos Ignatia and nux vomica, and also in the upas poison. 
It is so virulent that half a grain blown into the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four 
minutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. Much attention was given to strychnia 
in 1856, during the trial of William Palmer, who was executed for the murder of Cook, 14 
June, 1856. 

STUART, House of, see Scotland, p. 659, and England, p. 276. 

STUCCO-WORK was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly 
by the Romans, who excelled in it. A bbe Lenglet. It was revived by D'Udine, about 1550 ; 
and in Italy, France, and England in the i8th century, 

STUHM (W. Prussia). Here Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden defeated the Poles, 1628. 

STUTTGART (Wurtemberg), first mentioned in 1229, was made his residence by count 
Eberhard, 1320 ; enlarged by Ulric, 1436 ; and made capital of the state, 1482. It has 
been greatly adorned during the last and present centuries. 

STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-year to be once in 
four years, and the month Sextilis to be called Augustus, 8 b. c. ; see N&w Sti/le. 

STYLE Royal, see Majesty, and Titles. The styles of the English sovereigns are given 
in the later editions of Nicolas' s " Chronology of History. " 

STYLITES, see MmiacMsm. 

STYRIA (Austria), part of the ancient Noricunr and Pannonia, was held successively by 
the Romans, Ostragoths, and Avars. It was conquered by Charlemagne, and divided 
among his followers, styled counts, among whom the count of Styria, about 876, was the 
most powerful. The count became margrave about 1030; and Ottocar VI., in 1180, was 
made duke. At his death, 1192, Styria was annexed to the duchy of Austria. In 1246 it 
was acquired by Bela IV. of Hungary ; in 1253 by Ottocar II. of Bohemia ; after whose 
defeat and death, at ilarchfeld, in 1278, it reverted to Rudolph of Austria, aud was an- 
nexed to his possessions. 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, see Telcgrai)h (under Electricity). 

SUBSIDIES to the kings of England were formerly granted in kind, particularly in 
wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the war with France, 1340. 
Anderson. Subsidies were raised upon the subjects of England by James I. 1624 ; but they 
were contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies were granted to 
Charles II. in 1663.* 

SUCCESSION ACTS, see Settlement. 

SUCCESSION, Wak, of (1702-1713), distinguished by the achievements of the duke of 

* England granted subsidies to foreign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the 
revolutionists of France, and against Bonaparte. 



canal the whole distance between the two 
seas Feb. 1865 

Delegates from the British chambers of com- 
merce visited the works, and reported that 
the success of the scheme was only an affair 
of time and money . . . 17 April, ,, 

The flood gates of the smaller Suez canal were 
opened, the fresh water of the IS ile admitted ; 
a coal vessel passed from the Mediterranean 
to the Red Sea .... 15 Aug. ,, 

The Prima, 80 tons burden, passed through the 
canal from the Mediterranean into the Red 
Sea 17 Peb. 1867 

A loan raised in France ,, 

M. de Lesseps expects the larger canal for 
ships will be ready in 1868 



sue 704 SUG 

Marlborougli and the earl of Peterborough, and their unprofitable results, arose on the 
question whether an Austrian prince or a French prince should succeed to the throne of 
Spain. The British court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies 
withdrew one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; see Spain, and Utrecht. 

SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict. c. 51), after much discussion, was passed 
4 Aug. 1853. By this act the legacy duty was extended to real estate, and was made 
payable on succession to both landed and personal property. 

SUDBURY, in Suffolk, was disfranchised for bribery in 1844. 

SUEVl, a warlike Gothic tribe, which with the Alani and the Visigoths, entered Spain 
about 408, were overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their kingdom about 584. 

SUEZ CAISTAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Eed Sea and the bay of 
Pelusium was brought forward by M. de Lesseps in 1852. He undertook to cut a canal 
through 90 miles of sand, to run out moles into the Mediterranean ; to deepen the shallow 
waters ; to create ports to receive the ships from India and Australia, and to adapt the canal 
to irrigation. The consent of the Egyptian, Turkish, Eussian, French, and Austrian govern- 
ments was gradually obtained, but not that of the British. A company has been formed for 
the purpose, and the work commenced in 1858, The cost was estimated at 8,000,000^. 

M. Delacour, a French engineer, after viewing 
the works which were "employing 25,000 
men in the desert," expressed his conviction 
that this important work will be completed 
in four or five years ... 7 Nov. : 

The waters of the Mediterranean have been ad- 
mitted into a narrow channel communicat- 
ing with Lake Timsah ; a very insignificant 
part of the work .... Dec. 

The works were visited by the sultan and by 
Mr. Hawkshaw : 

The company compelled by the Egyptian go- 
vernment to give up the employment of 
compulsory labour, and litigation ensued 

Aug. 

M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel contain- 
ing 30 persons had been tugged along the 

SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. Power to appoint them was given by parliament in 1534 to 
Henry Vlll. as head of the church ; see Supremacy. 

SUGAR.* {Saccharum officinarum) is supposed to have been known to the ancient Jews. 
Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 b. c. Sirabo. An oriental 
nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common beverage. Lucan. 
The best sugar was produced in India. Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. 
Brought into Europe from Asia, a.d. 625. In large quantities, I150. It was attempted to 
be cultivated in Italy ; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to 
America about 1510.+ Our chief importations of sugar are from the British West Indies, 
the East Indies, Mauritius, and Brazil. Sugar was first taxed by name, I James II. 1685. 
The previous customs duties upon sugar were repealed, and moderated duties substituted, 
by the act 9 & 10 Vict. c. 63, passed 18 Aug. 1846, by which act the same duties were 
levied upon the sugar of foreign countries as levied upon sugar the produce of British 
colonies: annually reduced until 5 July, 1851. The importations of sugar have in con- 
sequence considerably increased, and amounted in 1852 to upwards of 8,000,000 cwts., 
paying a duty exceeding 4,ooo,oooZ. sterling. Raw sugar imported in 1854, 9,112,364 
cwts. ; i860, 8,817,277 cwts. ; 1866, 10,639,085 cwts.J In 1855, the duty was increased; 
reduced in 1864 ; modified in 1867. Sugar was extracted from beet-root in France, by 
Achard, in 1 799, and has been since largely manufactured. 

* Sugar, long considered a neutral substance, without congeners, has of late years become the head of 
a numerous family, viz. : Cane-sugar {svcrose, from the sugar-cane; boiled with dilute acids it yields 
glucose) ; fruit-sugar (from many recent fruits); grape-sugar (glucose/ from dried fruits and altered starch) ; 
sugar of milk ; Melitose (from eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856) ; sorbin (frora the berries of the mountain 
ash, by Pelouze) ; inosite (from muscxilar tissue, Scherer) ; dnlcose (by Laurent) ; mannite (from manna, 
obtained from the fraxinus ornus, a kind of ash) ; quercite (from acorns) ; to these have been lately added 
mycose, by M. Mitscherlich, and melezeiose and trehalose, by M. Berthelot. 

t About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to 
Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sugar was introduced 
into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. "Whittaker, in the History 
of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance in 1497. A manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to lord 
Cobham, dated Calais, 6 March, 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for his lordship twenty- 
five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte pence a pounde." 

I In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., of which nearly 
four millions were for home consumption ; and the duty amounted to about five millions and a half sterl- 
ing. In 1850, the imports were 8,285,734 cwts. and the reduced duty amounted to 4,138,951;. ; in 1853, 



SUG 



705 



SUL 



SUGAR-REFINING was made known to Europeans by a Venetian, 1503, and was first 
practised in England in 1659, though some say tliatwe had the art a few years earlier. Dr. 
Scoft'ern's pi'ocesses were patented in 1848-50. 

SUICIDE (from sui, self: cccclere, to Icill), the slayer of himself. The first instances 
recorded in JeAvish history are those of Samson, about 1120, and Saul, 1055 B.C. The Greek 
and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the 
rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only instance recorded occurs 
in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, thinking themselves disgraced by being ordered 
to make common sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.C. Listances afterwards occurred, 
however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 46 B.C.* In the Roman catholic 
church, in the 6th century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be made in the 
Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesiastical law continued till the 
Reformation, when it was admitted into tlie statute law of England by the authority of 
parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suicide was 
directed to be buried in a cross-road, and a stake to be driven through it. 



1S14 
1S15 



182S 



1832 



MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF SUICIDE. 

Gen. Pichcgru 7 April, 1S04 

Miss Champaute . . . . 15 Aug. ,, 
Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland, 31 May, iSio 
Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent mercliaiit . „ 
Williams, murderer of the Marr family, 15 Dec. 

Lord French 9 Dec. 

Marshal Berthier . . . . i June, 

Samuel \Yhitbread, esq. . . .5 Sept. 

Sir Samuel Romilly .... 2 Nov. 1818 

Sir Kiehard Croft 6 Nov. ,, 

Christophe, king of Hayti . . 8 Oct. 1820 

Adm. sir George Camiabell . . 23 Jan. 1821 

Marquess of Londonderry . . .12 Aug. 1822 
Hon. colonel Stanhope ... 26 Jan. 1825 

Mr. Montgomery in Newgate (see Frussic Acid) 

4 July. 

Miss Charlotte Both .... 3 Jan. 

Lord Greaves 7 Feb. 

Colonel Brereton 13 Jan. 

Major Thompson .... 13 June, ,, 
Mr. Simpson, the traveller . . .24 July, 1840 
Lord James Beresford ... 27 April, 1841 
Gen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin . . i May, ,, 
The earl of Munster . . . 20 March, 1842 

Lord Congletoij. 8 June, ,, 

Lanian Blanchard .... 15 Feb. 1S45 

Colonel Gurwood 29 Dec. ,, 

Rear-admiral CoUard . . .18 March, 1846 
Haydon, the eminent painter . . 22 June, ,, 

Count Bresson 2 Nov. 1847 

Colonel King, in India . . .12 Jixly, 1850 
Walter Watts, lessee of Olympic theatre, 13 July, ,, 

Rev. Dr. Rice 20 Jan. 1853 

Lieut. -col. Layard .... 27 Dec. „ 
Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shak- 

spere's Cliff, Dover) ... 16 Aug. 1854 

Dr. Franks, late editor oifhe AUgemdiie Zeitung, 

after killing his son . . . 3 Nov. 1855 
John Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the trea- 
sury), by prussic acid ; on Ilampstead Heath. 
(He was found to have been guilty of enoi-- 
mous fi'auds upon the Tipperary bank, &c.) 

16 Feb. 1856 



A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from 
the whispering gallery in St. Paul's, 14 March, 1856 

Charles Russell, esq., late chairman of tireat 
Western Railway . . . -15 May, , 

Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old lied 
Sandstone (insane, through overwork) 23 Dec. , 

Major-gen. Stalker, C.B. of Indian army (14 
March), and commodore Ethersey, of the In- 
dian navy. (Both thi'ough physical and mental 
depression while on the expedition against 
Persia: see Bushire.) . . . 17 March, 1857 

Major AVarburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother 
of Eliot, lost in the Amazon . . 23 Oct. ,, 

Henry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at 
the Government School of Mines 19 June, 1858 

Dr. Sadleir, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, 
Dublin July, ,, 

Rev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of 
Exeter 27 Aug. i860 

Lord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . 8 Oct. 1861 

Wm. G. Prescott, banker . . -29 April, 1865 

Admiral Robert Fitz-Roy (see iVcw Zealand, and 
Meteorology) 30 April, „ 

Col. Hobbs (connected with the suppression of 
Jamaica outbreak) on his way to England 

9 May, 1867 

G. W. Green, merchant, jumped off Clifton 
Suspension bridge . . . 11 May, ,, 

Dr. A. W. Warder, murderer of his wife, at 
Brighton 12 July, ,, 

Thos. Lee, threw himself from north tower of 
the crystal palace . . . .18 Feb. 1868 

Theodore, emp. of Abj'ssinia (reported) 13 April, ,, 



1862 
1S63 



IKQL'ESTS ON SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 

56 gig males 

58 909 „ 

961 ,, 
g6i ,, 
938 „ 



97S 
1028 
975 



395 females 
366 ,, 

396 ,, 
363 „ 
346 ,. 
337 ,. 
359 .. 
369 ,, 
387 „ 



1314 
1275 
I3S7 
1324 



1385 
1337 
1397 
1360 



SUITORS' FUND (in the Conrt of Chancery), in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000?. As this 
money has no specific owner, a proposal was made by government to apply it to the building 
of new law-courts, payment of all legal claims being guaranteed, which was directed by the 
" Courts of Laws Fees " act, passed 20 Aug. 1867. 

SULPHUR has been known from the earliest times. Basil Valentine mentions its pro- 
duction from green vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), produced from the burning of sulphur, 

7,272,833 cwts. were retained for home coDsumption ; duty, 4,083,836^. ; in 1859, 8,641,920 cwts. wera 
retained for home con.sumption ; duty, 5,933,909^. ; in 1864, 8,937,798 cwts. were retained. 

* There have been three instances of self destruction by fire; that of the philosopher Empedocles, who 
threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 
1820, into the ci-ater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the 
year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from 
which they could not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree being issued 
that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should be drawn naked thi'ough the streets, a stop 
was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 

Z Z 



SUL 



foe 



SUN 



was introduced into England about 1720. Sulphur has been the object of research of many- 
eminent chemists during the present century, and many discoveries have been made, such as 
its allotropic condition,"&c. It is the inflammable constituent in gunpowder. — The sulphur 
mines of Sicily have been wrought since the i6th century, but the exportation was incon- 
siderable till about 1820; in 1838 the trade increased so much that Great Britain alone 
imported 38,654 tons. In that year the ]!Teapolitan government was induced to grant a 
monopoly of the trade to a French company ; but a firm remonstrance from the British 
o-overnraeut led to a discontinuance of this impolitic restriction in 1841, which, however gave 
a great and lasting impetus to the British srdphur manufacture. 

SULTAN, a Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying Jcing of Icings, and given to the 
o-rand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes, Angrolipez 
and Musgad, about 1055. VaUicr. It was first given, according to others, to the emperor 
Mahmoud, in the 4th century of the Hegira. 

SUMATRA, an island in the Indian ocean, called Java Minor by Marco Polo, and visited 
by jSTicoli di Conti prior to 1449. Mainly on account of the pepper trade, |the Dutch formed 
a settlement at Padang about 1649, and the British at Bencoolen about 1685. The Dutch 
possessions with Java were acquired by the British in 181 1 ; but were restored in 1816. In 
1824 the Dutch acquired all the British settlements in Sumatra, in exchange for Malacca 
and some possessions in India. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. The laws of 
Lycurgus were severe against luxury about 844 B. c. Those of Zaleucus ordained that no 
woman should go attended by more than one maid in the street, unless she were drunk ; 
and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act nn- 
chastely, 450 B.C. Diog. Laert. The Lex Orchia among the Romans (181 B.C.), limited 
the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment ; and it 
also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of 
every house should be left open. The English sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns of 
Edward III. and Henry VIII., were repealed in 1856 ; see Dress. 

SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.C. 
The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus, 
who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 280 B.C. Numerous theories were 
ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected till about A.D. 1200, when 
it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system 
was made known in 1530 ; see Co2')ernican System, and Solar System. Galileo and Newton 
maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed by 
Gassendi. 



By the oliservations of Dr. Halley on the spot 
which darkened the sun's disc in July and 
August, 1676, he estabhshed the certainty of 
its motion round its own axis. 

Parallax of the sun, Dr. HaUey .... 

Solar spots were first observed by Fabricius and 
Harriot in 1610. A macula three times the 
size of the earth passed the sun's centre, 
21 April, 1766, and frequently since. 

Herschel measured two spots, whose length 
together exceeded 50,000 miles . ig April, 



Since 1851 much attention has been given to the 
luminous protitberances observed on the edge 
of the sun's disc during a total eclipse. Mr. 
Warren De la Rue took two photographs at 
the time of total obscuration . 18 July, i860 

Mr. James Nasmyth discovers the lenticiilar- 
shaped objects on the sun (termed by him 
" willow - leaves," by Stone "rice-grains") 

28 Aug. „ 

"Solar physics " especially studied by Messrs. 
Warren De la Rue, Balfour Stewart, <&c. 1865-6 



SUNCION, Treaty of, between general Urquiza, director of the Argentine confedera- 
tion, and C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Paraguay, recognising the independence 
of Paraguay, 15 July, 1852. 

SUNDA ISLES, include Java and Sumatra {which see). 

SUNDAY or Lord's Day. Most nations have counted one day in seven holy. Sunday 
was the day on which, anciently, divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians 
it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's appearance 
on that day, after his resurrection. The first civil law that was issued for the observance of 
this day, combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath and other festivals {Eusehius, 
Life of Gonstantine), and it was followed by several imperial edicts in favour of this day, 
which are extant in the body of Roman law, the earliest being that of Gonstantine the 

* The estimated diameter is 882,000 miles, and the distance from the earth, till lately given as 95,000,000 
miles, has been recently corrected to 94,000,000, by the result of the experiments and calculations of N. M. 
Fizeau and Foucault (1864). "The error corrected corresponds to the apparent breadth of a human hair 
at 125 feet, or of a sovereign at 8 miles off." Herschel. The sun is now described as consisting of a solid or 
liquid nucleus, surrounded by a luminous envelope (photosphere) over which is a dense atmosphere, con- 
taining the vapours of various metals and other elements (1865); see Si^ecLrum. 



SUN 



707 



SUE 



Oreat, dated 7 March, 321. Corpus Juris Civilis ; see Sabbath; Sabbatarians; Sports, 
Book of, &c. — For Sunday Letter, see Dominical Letter. 

Act restraining amusements, 1 Charles I. . . 1625 
Act restraining the performance of servile 
■tt'orks, and the sale of goods except milk at 
certain hours and meat in public-houses, and 
works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture 
of five shillings, 29 Charles II. ... 1676 

The Sunday act passed 1781 

Lord Robert Grosvenor (since lord Ebury), in- 
troduced a bill to suppress Sunday trading. 
(It met with much opposition and was with- 
drawn) April-July, 1855 



The council of Orleans prohibited country 

labour 338 

The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy 

in England, from Saturday at three in the 

afternoon to Jlonday at break-of-day, 4th 

Canon, Edgar 960 

Act of parliament, levying one shilling on every 

person absent from church on Sundays, 3 

James 1 1606 

James I. and Charles I. authorised certain 

sport.s after divine service on Sundays ; see 

Sports. 

SUNDAY SCHOOLS were established in England about 1781, by Eobert Raikes, an 
eminent printer of Gloncester, conjointly M'itli Dr. Stock. The Sunday School Union was 
founded in 1802 ; in 1867 it supported 652 schools ; see Education, and Sabbath Schools. 

SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION, formed in 1718, arose out of a modification of 
the Stanhope ministry. After various changes, it was broken up in 1721. 



Charles, earl of Sunderland, j^rst lord of the treasury. 
Earl Cowper, lord chancellor. 



Earl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, secretaries. 
Mr. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, &c. 



SUN-DIALS, see Dials. 
SUNNITES, or Sonnites (which see). 

SUPERANNUATION ACTS for the Civil Service were passed in April, 1859, and 
Aug. 1866. 

SUPPER, see Lord's Supper. 

SUPREMACY over the church was claimed by Pope Gelasius I. as bishop of Rome, 494. 
On 15 Jan. 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 Hen. VIII. c. i, formally assumed 
the style of " on earth Supreme Head of the Church of England," which has been retained 
by all succeeding sovereigns. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord chancellor 
(sir Thomas More), and many others were beheaded for denying the king's supremacy in 
1535 ; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were 
executed at Tyburn for the same offence. 

SURAT (E. Indies). Before the English. East India Company obtained possession of 
Bombay, the jiresidency of their aftairs on the coast of Malabar was at Surat ; and they had 
a factory here established under captain Best in 161 1. The Great Mogul had here an officer 
who was styled his admiral. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, on the British factory, 
was defeated by sir George Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked in 1670, and 
1702, and often subsequently. The East India Company, in 1759, fitted out an armament, 
which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; and, soon after, the possession of this castle 
was confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Siu-at was vested in the British by treaty in 
1800 and 1803. 

SURGEONS, Royal College of. The first charter was granted by Henry VIII. 1540. 
Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, tmtil it was enacted that "no person using any 
shaving or barbery in Loudon shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter 
excepting only the drawing of teeth." The college obtained charters in 1745, 1800, and 
1843 (when it was styled the "Royal College of Surgeons of England"), 1852, and 1859. 
Since that period, various legislative and other importaut regulations have been adopted to 
promote their utility and respectability ; and no ^Jerson is legally entitled to practise as a 
surgeon in the cities of London and Westminster, or within seven miles of the former, who 
has not been examined at this college. The college in Lincoln's-inn-Fields was re-modelled 
in 1836, and the interior completed in 1837. The premises were enlarged in 1852-3. The 
museum began with the Hunterian collection, 1800 ; and the library was founded in 1801 ; 
see Medical Council. 

SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate 
stirdy from philosophy, &c., about 410 B.C. Hippocrates mentions the anibe, the ancient 
instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flourished about A.D. 17 ; 
Galen, 170 ; ^tius, 500 ; Paulus TEgineta, in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 
900 ; and in the i6th century a new era in the science began ; between these periods surgery 
was confined to ignorant priests and barbers. Anatomy was cirltivated under the illustrious 
Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons and doctors were exempted from 
bearing arms or serving on juries, 1513, atwhicli period there were only thirteen in Loudon ; 
see Physic. 

z z 2 



SUE 708 SWA 

SUKINAM (Dutch. Guiana). The factories established by the English in 1640 were 
occupied by the Portuguese, 1643 > ^Y the Dutch, 1654 ; taken by the British, 1804 : and 
restored to the Dutch, 1814. 

SURNAMES first began in the East. Jacob was named Israel, 1739 B.C. Gen. xxxii. 29. 
Surnames were introduced into England by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility 
aboiit 1 100. The old Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish 
used 0, for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnell. The Scottish Highlanders used Mac, as Mac- 
donald, son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. 
Many of the most common surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., 
were taken by Brabanters and other Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign of 
Henry VI., 1435. M. A. Lower's "Dictionary of English Surnames" was published 
in i860. 

SUEPLICES were first worn by the Jewish priests, and are said to have been first 
used in churches, 316, and encouraged by pope Adrian, 786. " Every minister saying 
public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves," Canon 58. The garb pre- 
scribed by stat. 2 Edw. VI. 1547; again, i Eliz. 1558; and 13 & 14 Ch.as. II. 1662; 
see Eiiualism. 

SURPtEY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS (near London) were established in 183 1, by Mr. 
Edward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie formerly at Exeter change. Various 
picture models have been exhibited here since 1837, viz. Vesuvius, Iceland, &c., accompanied 
by fireworks. In 1856, a company which had taken the gardens, erected a large yet elegant 
building for concerts ; the architect being Mr. Horace Jones. On 19 Oct. 1856, when the 
hall contained about 9000 persons, attending to hear the rev. C. H. Spiirgeon, seven were 
killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm of fire. Jn 1862 the hall was temporarily 
taken for the reception of the patients of St. Thomas's hospital. 

SURVEY, see Ordnance. 

SUSPENDING POWER, see Dispensing Power. 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES are ancient in China. The Hungerford (or Charing Cross) 
suspension bridge, opened May i, 1845, "^^^ removed to Clifton and opened there, 8 Dec. 
1864. Parliament empowered the commissioners of woods to erect (among other im- 
provements there) a suspension bridge at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges of 
similar construction have been erected in various parts of the kingdom. Lambeth and 
Westminster suspension bridge was opened 10 Nov. 1862 ; see Menai Strait, Hungerford, 
Clifton, &c. 

SUSPENSORY BILL, the name given to "a bill to prevent for a limited time [to 
I Aug. 1869] new appointments in the church of , Ireland'; and to restrain, for the same 
period, in certain respects, the proceedings of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for Ire- 
land." This bill was introduced into the commons by Mr. Gladstone, 14 May, and passed 
through committee, 5 June, 1868. 

SUSSEX, seeJBritain. 

SUTLEJ, a river in N.-W. India, on the banks of which were fought the desperate 
battles of Aliwal, 28 Jan., and Sobraon, 10 Feb. 1846 (wJiich see). 

SUTTEES, the burning of widows. This custom began in India from oiie of the wives 
of "Bramah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him 
in heaven. Seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and 
in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished in a year. The English government, after long 
discouraging suttees, formally abolished them, Dec. 1829 ; but they have since occasionally 
taken place. The wife of the son of the rajah of Beygoon thus perished, June, 1864. 

SWABIA, a province in S. Germany ; was conquered by Clovis, and incorporated into 
the kingdom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of rulers, it was made a duchy by 
the emperor Conrad I., in 912, for Erchanger ; according to some, in 916, for Burckhardt. 
The duchy became hereditary in the house of Hohenstaiifen in 1080. Duke Frederic III. 
became emperor of Germany as Frederic I. (usually styled Barbarossa, red beard), in 1152. 
Conradin, his descendant, was defeated at the battle of Tagliacozzo {ivhicJi see), in 1268, and 
beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the duchy gave rise to many of the small 
German states ; part of Swabia is included in Wurtemberg and Switzerland. Swabia was 
made a circle of the empire in 1387 and 1500. A league, composed of Swabian cities and 
states, about 1254, was the germ of the great Swabian league, formed for the preservation 
of the peace of Germany, under the auspices of the emperor Frederic, in 1488. 

SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT, see Western Aiostralia. 



SWE 



709 



SWE 



SWEABOEG, a strong fortress in Finland, 3^- miles south of Helsingfors ; it is situated 
on seven rocky islands ; the fortifications were commenced hy the Swedes in 1748, and 
were not comjjleted in 1789, when Finland was united to Eussia, by whose government the 
works were zealously continued. It is termed the Gibraltar of the north. On 6 Aug. 1855, 
the English and a part of the French fleet anchored off Sweaborg, and bombarded it by 
mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, causing the destruction of nearly all the 
prmcipal buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. But few casualties and no loss of 
life ensued in the allied squadron. Success could not be pursued for want of mortars. 

SWEARING ON THE Gospels, first used about 528, and introduced in judicial pro- 
ceedings about 600. Ra-pin. — Profane Swearing made punishable by fine ; a labourer or 
servant forfeiting is., others 2s. for the first offence ; for the second offence, 4s. ; the third 
offence, 6s. ; 6 Will. III. 1695 ; see Oaths. 

SWEATING SICKNESS, see Plague. 

SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern 
inhabitants of Finland ; a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory 011 the 
appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who haveever since been masters of Sweden ; 
see Scandinavia. The internal state of this kingdom is little known previously to the nth 
century. By the luiion of Calmar in 1397, Sweden became a province of Denmark, and 
was not wholly rescued from this subjection till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa recovered the 
kingdom from the Danish yoke. He became king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 
1809. The government of Sweden is a limited monarchy. The diet consists of four orders, 
the nobles, the clergj'-, the peasants, and the burghers, and meet every three years (last 
time, 15 Oct. 1865). The king is, as in Britain, the head of the executive. There are two 
universities, Upsal and Lund ; and Sweden can boast, among its great men, Linnaeus, 
Gelsus, Scheele, Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldsen, and Andersen. Population (1866) of 
Sweden, 4,160,677; of Norway, 1,701,478. 



Odin arrives in the north, and dies . .B.C. 70 

His son Skiold reigns 40 

The Skioldungs reign till Olaf the infant is 
baptised, and introduces Christianity among 

his people about a. d. iooo 

Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and 

destroys the pagan temples . . . . ii5S 
Stockholm founded .... . 1260 

Magnus Iiadulses establishes a regular form of 

government 1279 

The crown of Sweden, which had been here- 
ditary, is made elective ; and Steenchel Mag- 
nus, sumamed Smeek, or the foolish, king of 

Norway, is elected 1319 

Waldemar lays Gothland waste . . . . 1361 
Albert of Mecklenburg reigns .... 1363 
Ti-eaty or union of Calmar (which see), by which 
Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, 

under Margaret 1397 

University of Upsal founded .... 1476 
Christian II. "the Nero of the North," massa- 
cres the Swedish nobility, to fix his despotism 1520 
The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by 

the valour of Gustavus Vasa .... 152 1 
Gustavus Vasa is raised to the throne . . . 1523 
He introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty 1527 
Makes the crown hereditary .... 1544 
Gustavus Adolphus heads the protestant cause 
in Germany, 1628 ; takes Magdeburg and 

Munich 1630 

He is slain at Lutzen .... 16 Nov. 1632 
Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark . . 1648 

Abdication of Christina 1654 

Charles X. overruns Poland .... 1655 
Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . . 1660 
University of Lund founded .... 1666 
Charles XII. "the Madman of the North," be- 
gins his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; 
abolishes the senate, 1699 ; and defeats the 
Russians at Narva . . . .30 Nov. 1700 
Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated 

by the czar of Russia (see Pw/^ojoa) . . . 1709 
He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' 

protection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks 1713 
He is restored ; and after ruiiioiis wars, and 
fighting numerous battles, is killed at the 
siege of Fredei'ickshald . . . ri Dec. 1718 
Queen Ulrica abolishes despotism . . . .1719 



Royal Academy founded by Linnajus 

Conspiracy of counts of Brahe and Home, who 
are beheaded 

The Hatsand Caps(Frenchand Russian parties), 
i738"57: put down by Gustavus III. . . . 

Despotism re-established 

Order of the Sword instituted . . . . 

iVssassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- 
strom, at a ball, 16 March ; he expired 29 Mar. 

The regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
thongs three successive days ; his right hand 
was cut off, then his head, and his body im- 
paled 18 May, 

Gustavus IV. dethroned and the goveniment 
assumed by his uncle the duke of Suder- 
mania (Charles XIII.) . . .13 JIarch, 

Representative constitution established 7 June, 

Sweden cedes Finland to Russia . 17 Sept. 

Marshal Bemadotte, the prince of Pontc Corvo 
(one of Bonaparte's generals), chosen the 
crown prince of Sweden . . . 21 Aug. 

Gustavus IV. arrived in London . 12 Nov. 

Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon 9 Jan. 

Alliance with England ... 12 July, 

Sweden joins the grand alliance against Na- 
jioleon 13 March, 

Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of 
Kiel, 14 Jan. ; carried into effect . . Nov. 

Bemadotte king, as Charles John XIV. 5 Feb. 

Canals and roads constructed .... 

Treaty of Navigation between Great Britain and 
Sweden 19 May, 

Death of Charles John ; his son Oscar king 

8 March, 

Alliance with England and France . 21 Nov. 

Banishment decreed against catholic converts 
from Lutheranism Oct. 

Demonstration in favour of Italy . . 17 Dec. 

Increased religious toleration . . . May, 

The king visits England and France . Aug. 

Me is warmly received in Denmark . 17 July, 

Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed 14 June, 

Demonstration ni favour of Poland . April, 

Inaugiiration of free trade . . .1 Jan. 

Sweden protests against the occupation of Sles- 
wig by the allies .... 22 Jan. 

Excitement throughout the country ; March : 
preparation for war ; (no result) . April, 



1741 
1756 



1770 
1772 



ISIO 
l8l2 



18x4 
1818 
1822 

1826 



185s 

1857 
1859 
i860 
1861 
1862 

1863 



SWE 



710 



SWI 



SWEDEN, continued. 

Foundation of a " National Scandinavian So- 
ciety " at Stockholm to obtain by legal moans 
a confederal ion of the three kingdoms for 
military and foreign affairs, reserving inde- 
pendent interior administration . . Dec. 



New constitution passed by the chambers ; 

4-8 Deo. 1864 
Commercial treaty with France approved Feb. 1866 
Severe famine in North Sv^eden . Oct.-Dec. 1867 
New Ministry under M. Wachtmeister . June, 1868 



KINGS OF SWEDEN {200'eviouslij Kings of UpsaT). 



1026. 
1051. 
1056. 
1066. 
1090. 
1112. 
1118. 
1129. 
1155- 
1161. 
1 1 67. 
1199. 
1210. 
1 2 16. 
1222. 
1250. 

1275. 
1290. 
1319- 
1350. 
I359' 
1363- 



1397. 

1412. 
1440. 
1448. 
1471. 
1483, 
1502. 

1503- 
1512. 

IS20' 



Olaf Schotkonung, or Olif Schoetkonung the 
Infant, is styled king, 1015. Christianity 
introduced in this reign. 

Edmund Colbrenner. 

Edmund Slemme. 

StenkiU. 

Halstan. 

Ingo I. styled the Good. 

Philip. 

Ingo II. 

Swerker or Suercher I. 

St. Eric IX. 

Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor, 

Canute, son of Eric I. 

Swerker or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 

Eric X. 

John I. 

Eric XI. the Stammerer. 

Birger Jarl, regent. 

Waldemar I. 

Magnus I. Ladulses. 

Birger II. 

Magnus II. Smaek ; dethroned. 

Eric XII. 

Magnus restored ; deposed 1363. 

Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny causes a 
revolt of his subjects, who invite Margaret 
of Denmark to the throne. 

Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norway, now 
also of Denmark, and Eric XIII. 

[Union of Calmar, by which the three king- 
doms are united under one sovereign.] 

Eric XIII. governs alone ; deposed. 

Christopher III. 

Charles VIII. Canuteson, king of Sweden only. 

[Interregnum.] Ston Sture, Protector. 

John II. (I. of Denmark.) 

[Interregnum.] 

Swante Sture, Protector. 

Sten Sture, Prnteclor. 

Christiem, or Christian II., of Denmark, styled 
the " Nero of the North ;" deposed for his 
cruelties. 

Gustavus I. Vasa; bywhose valour the Swedes 
are delivered from the Danish yoke. 



1560. Eric XIV. son of Gustavus ; dethroned and 

slain by 
1568. John III. his brother. 
1592. Sigismund III., king of Poland, son of John 

III. ; disputes for the succession continued 

the whole of this reign. 
1604. Charles IX. brother of John III. 
1611. Gustavus II. Adolphus, the Great; f eU at the 

battle of Lutzen, 16 Nov. 1632. 

1632. [Interregnum.] 

1633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. 

Kesigned the crown to her cousin ; died at 

Rome in 1689. 
1654. Charles X. Gustavus, son of John Casimir, 

count palatine of the Rhine. 
1660. Charles XI. son of the preceding ; the arts and 

sciences flourished in this reign. 
1697. Charles XII. styled the "Alexander," and 

the "Madman of the !North;" killed at 

Prederickshald, 11 Dec. 1718. 
1718. Ulrica Eleanora, his sister, and her consort, 

Fredeijick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. 

Ulrica relinquishes the crown, and in 
1741. Frederick reigned alone. 

1751. Adolphus Frederick of Holsteln Gottorp, de- 
scended from the family of Vasa. 
1771. Gustavus III. Adolphus ; assassinated by 

count Ankerstrom at a masked ball. 
1792. Gustavus IV. Adolphus ; dethroned, and the 

government assumed by his uncle, the duke 

of Sudermania. 
1809. Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 

Treaty of Kiel ('1814), by which Norway falls 

under the sovereignty of Sweden. 
1818. Charles (John) XIV. £miadotte, the French 

prince of Ponte Corvo ; succeeded by his 

son, 
1844. Oscar, 8 March. 

1859. Charles XV. 8 July (born 3 May, 1826); the 
• PRESENT king of Sweden and Norway. 
Daughter, Princess Louisa, born 31 Oct. 1851. 
Heir presumptive : brother, prince Oscar, bom 

21 Jan. 182Q. 



SWEDENBORGIANS, call themselves "the Few Church," or "the ISTew Jerusalem 
Church ; " * and hold the opinions of baron Emanuel Swedenhorg (horn at Stockholm, 
1688 ; died at London, 1772). He stated that he began to receive spiritual manifestations, 
&c., in 1745, of which an account is given in his numerous works. The sect arose about 
1760, and began to spread in 1783 in England, where there were 50 congregations in 1851. 

SWEET-BAY, Laurus nohilis, was brought to these realms from Italy before 1548. 
Laurus indica, or Royal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. The Sweet-Eern bush, 
Comptonia asplenifolia, came from America, 17 14. Laxirus aggregata, or the Glaucous 
Laurel, came from China in 1806. 

SWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many haystacks and barns were fired in the rural 
districts of England, and attributed to an imaginary person named " Swing." Many persons 
were caught and punished. The probable cause was disputes between the farmers and their 
deluded labourers. 

SWITHIN'SDAY, ST., isJuly. St. Swithin lived in the 9th century ; and, having been the 
preceptor to king Ethelwulf, was made bishop of Winchester in 852. The tradition, that if 
it rain upon this day, it will rain forty days following, is supposed to have a shadow of 

* They do not receive the usual doctrine of the Trinity, but believe that the three persons are one in 
Christ ; they reject the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and the imputed righteousness of Chi'ist, 
and hold that salvation cannot be obtained except by faith and good works. They accept baptism and 
the Lord's Supper, and use a liturgy and hymns. 



SWl 



711 



SWI 



reason only from the circumstance of some constellations, which have the character of 
portending rain, rising cosniically about the time of St. Swithin's festival. 

SWITZERLAND, the ancient Helvetia, was conqiiered by the Romans, 15 e.g. ; and 
afterwards was successively subject to the Burgundians and Germans. Franks also settled 
here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving 
their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Ital}^ and were defeatetl by the Roman 
general JIarius ; after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 B.C. This canton lias given 
name to the whole confederacj''. — The present national council is elected every third year, 
at the rate of one member for 2000 persons.— Population (Dec. i860) 2,510,494. 



The Helvetians invading Gaul, severely de- 
feated by Julius Citsar . . . . B.C. 58 
The Helvetians converted to Cliristianity by 

Irish missionaries a.d. 612 

Helvetia ravaged by the Huns . . . . 909 
Becomes subject to Germany .... 1032 

Fribui-g built by Berthold IV 1179 

Berne built 1191 

Tyranny of Gessler, which occasions the memo- 
rable revolt under the patriot William Tell . 1306 
Confederation against Austria; declaration of 

Swiss independence 1307 

A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of 

Basle, 1 100 souls 1314 

Form of government made perpetual . .1315 
Leopold of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 

15 Nov. ,, 
Lucerne joins the confederacy .... 1335 
The canton of Zurich joins and becomes head 

of the league 1350 

Berne, Glai-is, and Zug join 1351 

Leopold II. of Austria defeated and slain at 

Sempach g July, 1386 

The Austrians defeated at Nafels ; make peace 

9 April, 1389 
The Orisons league (see Caddee) .... 1400 
Second league of the Grisons . . . . 1424 

The third league of the Grisons . . . . 1436 
Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle 
(1600 Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all 
killed, the enemy losing 10,000) . 26 Aug. 1444 
The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson, 

5 March ; and at Morat . . 22 June, 1476 
xVnd aid the dulce of Lorraine at Nancy, where 

Charles is slain .... 5 Jan. 1477 
Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, 

under Louis XI 1480 

Fribourg and Soleure join the confederation . 14S1 
Maximilian I. emperor acknowledges Swiss in- 
dependence 1499 

Schaffhausen and Basle join the union . . 1501 
The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French 

at Novara 6 June, 1513 

Defeated by them at Marig-nano 13, 14 Sept. 1515 
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France 
and other powers . . . . . . 1516 

The Reformation begins at Basle; the bi.shop 

compelled to retire 1519 

The Grison leagues join the Swiss confederacy 

as allies 1544 

Appenzel joins the other Cantons . . . . 1597 
Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by 
surprise, scales the walls, and jienetrates the 
town, but in the end is defeated . . . 1602 
[This circumstance gave rise to an annual 
festival commemorative of their escape from 
tyranny.] 
Independence of Switzerland recognised by the 

treaty of Westphalia (see Jri?.s<jj/ia/ia) . . 1648 
[From this period luitil Ihe French revolution 
the cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed 
only by the changes arising out of their 
v.arious constitutions.] 
Alliance with France ... 25 May, 1777 
Strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and 

democratic parties ; France interferes . . 178 1 
TOGO fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in Ire- 
land (see Geneva) 1782 

Swiss guards ordered to quit France . . . 1792 



Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjuga- 
tion by France 1798 

Helvetian republic formed „ 

Switzerland the seat of war . . . 1799-1802 

The munber of cantons increased to ig ; the 
federal government restored; and a lan- 
dammau appointed by France . 12 May, 1802 

Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate from 
the rei^ublic 13 July, „ 

Switzerland joins France with 6000 men 

24 Aug. 1811 

The allies entered Switzerland in the spring 
of , . . 1.814 

The number of cantons increased to 22, and the 
independence of Switzerland secured by the 
treaty of Vienna ; . 1815 

Revision of the constitution of the cantons . 1830 

Law to make education independent of the 
clergy 1839 

It leads to dissensions between the catholics 
and protostants 1840-4 

Di.spute about the convents of Aargau, 1844; to 
put education into the hands of the Jesuits, 
&c. ; opposition of the protestant cantons . 1846 

Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, 
Zug, and Valais (Roman catholic cantons), 
form a separate league (Sonderbund) to sup- 
port education by the Jesuits, &c. . . . ,, 

lusun-ection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; 
a temporary provisional government estab- 
lished 7 Oct. „ 

The diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and 
dissolves it, 20 July ; the seven cantons pro- 
test, 22 July ; the diet orders the expulsion 
of the Jesuits, 3 Sept. ; communal assemblies 
held to resist it, 26 Sept. ; 3, 10 Oct. . . 1847 

The diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 
4 Nov. : civil war ; the Sonderbund defeated ; 
submits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and 
the secularisation of monastic property 

ig-29 Nov. ,, 

New federal constitution . . 12 Sept. 1848 

Dispute about Neufchatel {irliich see) . . 1857 

Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian 
war 14 March, 1859 

Mutiny and puni.shraent of the Swiss merce- 
nary troops at Naples ; the confederation foi> 
bid foreign enlistment . . July and Aug. ,, 

Swiss government iirotests against the annexa- 
tion of Savoy to France . . 15 March, i860 

150 Swiss attempt to enter Savoy; stopped by 
Genevese government . . . 30 March, „ 

M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the na- 
tional shooting match at WimViledon July, ,, 

The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in 
foreign service without permission 30 J^ily, ,, 

Proposed European congress to preserve Swiss 
neutralitj', put off ... . July, ,, 

Glarus destroyed by fire ... 3 May, 1E61 

French troops occupy Vallfe des Dappos, 28 
Oct. ; the Swiss announce the violation of 
their territory .... 5 Nov. 

Treaty of Fviince settles the qtiestioii of tho 
Vallee dcs Dappes by mutual cession of terri- 
tory ; no military works to be constructed on 
territory ceded ; signed . . 8 Dee. 1862 

Serious election riots at Geneva, with blood- 
shed, 22 Aug. ; federal troops arrive, 23 Aug. 1864 

Federal troops quit Geneva . . 11 Jan. 1865 



SWI 



712 



SYR 



SWITZERLAND, continued. 

International Social Science Congress meets at 
Berne 28 Aug. 18 

Revision of the constitution ; deliberations 
begin 23 Oct. , 



Nearly all the revised articles of the federal 
constitution rejected by the vote of the Swiss 
burgesses 14 Jan. t866 

J. J. Stehlen elected president . . i July, 1867 



Schaflfhausen 


Solothurn 


Pays de Vaud 


Appenzel 


Basle 


Valais 


St. Gall 


Grisons 


Neufchatel 


Glarus 


Aargau 


Geneva 


Zug 


Thurgau 




Freiburg 


Tessins 





SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. 

Uri 1 first con- 

Schweitz )- federa- 

Unterwalden } tion. 

Zurich 

Berne 

Lucerne 

SWORDS were formed of iron taken from a mountain by tlie Chiiiese, 1879 B.C. Univ. 
Hist. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar 
are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at an English king's coronation by a 
king of Scotland, 1 194. Damascus steel swords are most prized ; the next the sword of 
Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to prociu'e the latter from the 
celebrated artificer named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew Ferraras. 
The broadsword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgli in 1724. 

SYBARIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded about 720 B.C. ; destroyed by the Croto- 
nians about 510 e.g. The people were greatly addicted to luxury, hence the term Sybarite. 

SYCAMORE TREE, called the Egyptian fig-tree. In Mrs. Jameson's "Memoirs of 
Female Sovereigns," we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France a little 
sycamore tree, which she planted in the gardens at Holyi,'ood, and that from this have 
sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, capital of New South Wales ; founded by governor Phillip, on a cove on 
Port Jackson, 26 Jan. 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally 
intended for Botany bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary for the colonies. A 
legislative council was first held, 13 July, 1829; the university opened, 11 Oct. 1852. 
Sydney was erected into a bishopric in 1836 ; afterwards into an archbishopric. It was 
lit with gas in May, 1841, the first place so lit in Australia. The Roman Catholic cathe- 
dral burnt, and valuable property destroyed, 29 June, 1865. It was visited by the duke of 
Edinburgh, Feb. 1868 ; and, at Port Jackson, he narrowly escaped assassination ; O'Farrell, 
a Fenian, who shot him in the back on 12 March, was convicted on 31 March, and. executed 
21 April following. The duke sailed for England on 4 April. See Australia, Nciv South 
Wales, Convicts, &c. 

SYMPIESOMETER, a species of barometer invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. 

SYNAGOGUE (literally an assembly), a congregation of the Jews, and the place where 
such assembly is held for religious purposes. When these meetings were first held is xm- 
certain ; some refer them to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 
480 synagogues. In 185 1 there were in London 10 synagogues, in England and Wales, 53. 
A magnificent sjmagogue was consecrated at Berlin, 5 Sept. 1866. 

SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian 
princes ; but the pope ultimatelj^ usurped this power, one of his legates usually presiding ; 
see Councils. The first national synod held in England was at Hertford, 673 ; the last was 
held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made milawful to hold synods but by royal authority, 
25 Hen. VIII. 1533 ; see Dort, and Thurles. 

SYRACUSE, S.-E. Sicilj', founded by Archias, 734 b,c. ; 732 B.C. EuseMiis ; 749 B.C. 
Univ. Hist. ; see Sicily. 



Gelon becomes supreme . . . .B.C. 

Succeeded by Hiero 

Eepublic established 

Becomes predominant in Sicily . . . . 
Athenian expedition against Syracuse, under 

Nicias 

Gylippus the Lacedaemonian succours Syracuse ; 

defeats Nicias 

Government of Dionysius the elder, 40S; he 

receives Plato well 

Dionysius, the younger, succeeds . . . . 
Opposed by Dion, 361 ; who is banished, and 

Plato, who endeavoured to reconcile them, is 

sold for a slave 

Dion returns with a Greek army and fleet, and 



expels Dionysius, 356 ; rules Syracuse, 355 ; 

assassinated by CalUppus . . . B.C. 353 
Dionysius recovers his authority, 347 ; but is 

banished to Corinth by Timoleon, 343 ; who 

governs well till his death .... 337 

Agathocles usurps power 317 

He is poisoned by Hicetas, and the republic 

restored . 289 

Hiero, praetor of Syracuse, 275 ; elected king, 

270 ; rules in peace till his death, 216 ; 

Hieronymus, his grandson, succeeds, 216; 

murdered 214 

Syracuse declares against Rome, 215 ; besieged 

by JIarcellus, 214, and taken; Archimedes, 

the illustrious mathematician, slain . . 2x2 



SYR 



713 



SYR 



SYRACUSE, continued. 

Syracuse taken by the Saracens . . a.d. 669 In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to 

Ret:\ken by count Roger, the Norman . . 1088 the Neapolitan troops ... 8 April, 
Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1693 ; 

and nearly destroyed ... 6 Aug. 1757 

SYREX, see Sirene. 

SYRIA. The capital was origiually Damascus ; but after tlie battle of Ipsus, Seleucus 
founded Antioch. 



AUiance of king David and Hiram king of 

Syria B.C. 1049 

Syria conquered by David 1040 

Liberated by Eezin 9S0 

Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the 

Jews 898 

Benhadad II.Treigns .... about 830 
Syria sxibjugated by Tiglath-pileser, king of 

AssjTria 740 

Syria conquered by Cyrus 537 

And by Alexander 333 

fc^eleucus Nicatoi- enters Babylon . . . 312 
JEva. oi the Selencid-^ (7chich see) . . . . ,, 
Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, de- 
feated by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus 301 

Thecity of Antioch founded 299 

Aiitiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with 
his father's queen, Stratonice, he pines away 
nearly to death ; but the secret being dis- 
covered, she is divorced by the father, and 

married by the son 297 

Battle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by 

Seleucus 281 

Seleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus ; 

Antiochus I. king 280 

Antiochus I. (Soter, or Saviour), defeats the 

Gauls 275 

Antiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians Theos 

(God) king 261 

Poisoned by Laodice 246 

Seleucus II. (king, 246) makes a treaty of 

alliance with Smyrna and Magnesia . . 243 
Seleucus III. Cei-aunus (or Thunder), king . . 226 
Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers 

Palestine, but is totally defeated at Raphia, 217 
Again conquers Palestine, 198 ; but gives it to 

Ptolemy 193 

Enters Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans 

at ThermopylPB, 191 ; and at Magnesia . . 190 
Makes peace with the Romans, giving up to 

them Asia Minor 1S8 

Seleucus Philopator king 187 

Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of 

Theos-EpipTianex, or the Illustrious God. . 175 
He sends Apollonius into Judea ; Jerusalem is 
taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabi- 
tants destroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves 168 
Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by 

Demetrius Soter, who seizes the throne . 162 
Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor 
Alexander Bala, 150 ; who is' also defeated 
and slain by Demetrius Nicator . . . 146 

Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) 
rules during the captivity of his brother 
Demetrius Nicator (after slayuig the usurper 

Trypho) 137 

Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and 
placates the Romans, 133 ; invades Parthia, 
129; and is defeated and slain . . . 128 

Demetrius Nicator restored ,, 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus 

with her o-wai hand 124 

Her son Antiochus VII. Gi-ypus (king, 125), 
whom she attempts to poison ; but he com- 
pels his mother to swallow the deadly draught 

herself 123 

Reign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus at Damas- 
cus, and of Grypus at Antioch . . .Ill 

Seleucus, king 95 

Antiochus Eusebes, king 94 

Dethroned by Philip 85 



75 



Tigranes, king of Armenia, acquires Syria 

Antiochus X. Asiatious, solicits the aid of the 
Romans 

Defeat of Tigranes by LucuUus, 69 ; he submits 
to Pompey, who enters Syria, and dethi-ones 
Antiochus Asiaticus. ..... 65 

Syria made a Roman province . . . . 63 
****** 

Syria invaded by the Parthians . . .a.d. 162 

By the Persians 256 

Violent earthquakes 341 

Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 ; by the 

Persians 607 

Conquered by the Saracens .... 638 
Conquest of Syria by the Patimite caliphs . . 970 
Revolt of the emu-s of Damascus . . . 1067 

The emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 

The crusades commence isee Crv.sailes) . . 1095 
Desolated by the Crusades (tt7«c7i sec) . 1096-1272 

Noureddin conquers Syria 1166 

Saladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty . . 1171 
The Tartars overrun all Syria .... 1259 
The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . . 1291 
Syria overrun by Tamerlane .... 1400 
Syria and Egypt conquered by the Turks 1516-17 
Syi-ia continued in possession of the Turks till 

the invasion of Egypt by the French i July, 1798 
Bonaparte defeats the Jlamelukes with gi-eat 
loss, 6 Aug. ; overruns the country, and takes 

Gaza and Jaffa ,, 

Siege of Acre ... 6 March to 27 May, 1799 
Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt, 

23 Aug. „ 
Egypt and Syria evacuated by the French army, 

10 Sept. 1801 
Mehemet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and 

overruns the whole of Syria . . . . 1831 
Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of 

the grand signior at Konieh . . 21 Dec. 1832 
Numerous battles and conflicts follow with 
various success : the European powers in- 
tervene, and peace is made . . .6 May, 1833 
The Turkish fleet aiTives at Alexandria, and 

deserts to Mehemet Ali • . .14 July, „ 
The war renewed. May ; Ibrahim defeats the 

Turks at Nezib .... 24 June, 1839 

The Five Powers unite to support the Porte, 

J"iy. „ 

Death of lady Hester Stanhope . 23 June, 1840 
Treaty of London (not signed by offended 

France) . .... 15 July, „ 

Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Fall of Beyrout (see Be7jrout) . . 10 Oct. „ 
Fall of Acre (see Acre) ... 3 Nov. „ 

Long negotiations ; the sult.an grants hereditary 

rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria Jan. 1841 
The Druses said to have destroyed 151 Christian 
villages and killed 1000 persons (see Druses), 

29 May to I July, i860 
The Mahometans massacre Christians at Da- 
mascus ; about 3300 slain ; many saved by 
Abd-el-Kader .... 9 July, &c. ,, 
The English and French government intervene ; 
a convention signed at Paris ; 12,000 men to 
be sent by France . . . .3 Aug. ,, 
Vigour of Fuad Pacha ; he punishes the Maho- 
metans implicated in the massacres at Da- 
mascus very severely; 167 of all ranks, in- 
cluding the governor, executed 20 Aug. et seij. ,, 
4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, 
land at Beyrout . . .22 Aug. ,, 



SYR 



714 



TAL 



SYRIA, continued. 

Lord Dufferin, the British commissioner in 
Syria, arrives at Damascus . . 6 Sept. iS6o 

The French and Turks advance against Le- 
banon ; 14 emirs surrendered . . Oct. „ 

Pacification of the country effected . Nov. „ 

The French occupation ceases . . 5 June, 1861 



Prince of Wales visits Syria . . . April, 1S62 
Insurrection of Joseph Karaman, Maronite, in 

Lebanon ; suppressed . . . March, 1866 
Another suppressed : Karaman iiies to Algeria 

31 Jan. 1867 



T. 

TABERNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israelites, till the erection of Solomon's temple, 
was constructed by Divine direction, 149 1 B.C. When the Jews were settled in Canaan, the 
tabernacle was set up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. It was replaced by the temple erected 
by Solomon, 10043.0.- — The chapel erected for George Whitefield in Mooriieldsin 1741, being 
of a temporary nature, received the name of Tabernacle, which was afterwards given to their 
chapels by the Calvinistic Methodists. VVhitefield's Tabernacle in Tottenham-court-road was 
erected in 1756, and enlarged in 1760. His lease expired in 1828 ; and the chapel was 
opened by the Independents in 1S30. A large metropolitan tabernacle, erected for the 
ministrations of Mr. C. H. Spurgeon, a Baptist, near the " Elephant and Castle," Kenning- 
ton-road, Surrey, was opened on 31 March, 1861. 

TABLES, see Decemvirs. 

TABLE TURlSriN^G. This delusion, which came from America, and was popular in 
1853, was attributed by Faraday and others to mechanical action. 

TABOR, in Bohemia, Avas founded by Zislca in 1420, aild became the chief seat of the 
Hussites ; see Hussites. 

TADMOR, see Pcdmyra. TAEPINGS, see China, 1851, note. 

TAFFETY, an early species of silken manufacture, more prized formerly than now, 
woven very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our elder queens, and was first made in 
England by John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. Stoufs Chron. 

TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, S. Italy, where, on 23 Aug., 1268, Charles 
of Anjou, the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made prisoner the rightful monarch, 
young Conradin (the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the emperor Frederic II.), 
who had been invited into Italy by the GhibeUine or Imperial party ; their opponents, the 
Guelfs, or papal party, supporting Charles. Conradin was beheaded, 29 Oct. following. 

TAGLIAMENTO, a river in Lombardy, N. Italy, near Avhich the Austrians, under the 
archduke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, 16 March, 1797. 

TAHERITES, a dynasty of Persia, 813-872. 

TAHITI. The French abbreviated name for Otaheite ; see Otaheite, 

TAILLEBOURG (W. France). Near here Henry III. of England was defeated and 
nearly captured by Louis IX. of France, 20 July, 1242. 

TALAVERA de la Reyiv^a (central Spain), was taken from the Mahometans by Ordorio, 
king of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought 27, 28 July, 1809, between the united British 
and Spanish armies under sir Arthur "Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and 
the French army (47,000) commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani. After a conflict 
on the 27th, both armies remained on the field during the night, and the French at break 
of day renewed the attack, and were again repulsed by the British with great slaughter. At 
noon Victor charged the -whole British line, was repulsed at all points, and retreated with a 
loss of 10,000 men and 20 pieces of cannon. The British lost 800 killed, and 4000 Avoiinded 
or missing ; and as Soult, Ney, and Mortier were in the rear, retired after the victory. 

TALBOT YPE, see Plwtocjraphy. 

TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its name from the French word tailler, to cut. 
A tally is a piece of wood written upon both sides, containing an acquittance for money 
received ; which, being cloven asunder by an ofiicer of the exchequer, one part, called the 
stock, was delivered to the person who paid, or lent, money to the government ; and the 
other part, called the counter-stock, or counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till 
called for, and joined with the stock. This manner of striking tallies is very ancient. 
Beatson. The practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. On 16 Oct. 1834, the 
houses of parliament were burnt down by too many of these tallies being used in heating the 
stoves in the house of lords ; see Exchequer. 

TALMUD. The ancient Jewish oral or unwritten law, as distinguished from the Penta- 
teuch or written law ; its origin is coeval with the return from the Babylonish captivity, 536 



TAN 715 TAR 

B.C. Its compilation in Hebrew was begun by the Scribes, and by their successors the work 
was carried on till 220 B.C. It is composed in prose and poetry, and contains two elements, 
legal and legendary ; divided into the Mischnah and the Gemara. After being almost uni- 
versallj'- condemned, and the MSS. often burnt, its defence was mainly undertaken by the 
German reformer Reuchlin, in the r6th century, and between 1520 and 1523, the "Tal- 
mud Babylonicum," in 12 vols. foL, and the "Talmud Hierosolytaiium," in i vol. foL, 
were printed at Venice. Its morality resembles that of the New Testament, and its 
philosophy is rather Platonic than Aristotelian. A discourse on the Talmud was given at 
the Royal Institution, 15 May, 1868, by Mr. Emanuel Deutsch, whose article in the 
"Quarterly Eeview," Oct. 1867, had attracted much attention. 

TANAGRA (Bojotia). Here the Spartans defeated the Athenians 457 B.C., but were 
defeated by them in 426, when Agis II. headed the Spartans, and Nicias the Athenians. 

TANDY ARREST. James Napper Tandy proposed a plan of reform in 1791. In the 
Fi'encli expeditiou against Ireland he acted as a general, Aug. 1798. After its failure he 
fled to Hamburg, and was there delivered up to the English, 24 Nov. ; for which Bonaparte 
declared war upon Hamburg, 15 Oct. 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace of Amiens 
in 1802. 

TANGIER (Morocco, N.W. Africa), besieged by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who 
was beaten and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by Alfonso V. of Portugal in 147 1, 
and given as a dower to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles II. of England, 
1662 ; who, in 1683, caused the works to be blown up, and the jilace abandoned. Tangiers 
afterwards became a piratical station. 

TANISTRY (in Ireland), the equal division of lands, after the decease of the owner, 
amongst his sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons died, his son did not 
inherit, but a new division was made by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. Davies. 

TANJORE (W. India). About 1678, Vencajee, a Mahratta chief, brother of the great 
Sevajee, made himself rajah. In 1749 a British expedition endeavoured to restore a deposed 
rajah without success ; the reigning prince bought them off by the cession of territories. 
Much intervention ensued. In 1799 the company obtained possession of the country, en- 
gaging to support the rnjah with nominal authority. The last is said to have died in 1855. 

TANNENBERG (E. Prussia). Here Ladislaus Y., Jagellon of Poland, defeated the 
Teutonic knights with great slaughter, the grandmaster being among the slain, 15 July, 
1410. The order never recovered from this calamit}'. 

TANNING leather with the bark of trees was early practised. It was introduced into 
these countries from Holland by William III. for raising orange-trees about 1689. It was 
discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first brought into England. Great 
improvements have been made in tanning by means of chemical knowledge. 

TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an American mineral by Hatchett, in 1801, and 
named by him columbium ; and in a Swedish mineral by Elceberg, who gave it its present 
name. WoUaston pointed out the identity of the two metals in 1809 ; and Berzelius 
prepared pure metallic tantalum in 1824. In 1S46 Rose discovered that tantalum was really 
a mixture of three metals, which he named tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. Gmdin. 

TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original 
workers in France were called Saraziaois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the 
date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. Guicciarclini. Manufactured in France under 
Henry IV. by artists invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by 
William Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir Francis 
Crane, 17 James I. 1619. Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much 
improved in France ; see Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are 
mentioned by the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is 
a revival of the art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda, queen of England, see Bayeux 
Tapestry. 

TAR. The chemist Becher first proposed to make tar from pit-coal — the earl of Dun- 
donald's patent, 1781. The mineral tar was discovered at Colebrook-dale, Shropshire, 1779; 
and in Scotland, Oct. 1792. Tar- water was first recommended for its medicinal virtues by 
the good Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, about 1744. From benzole, discovered in coal- 
tar, brilliant dyes are now produced ; see Aniline. 

TARA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where it is said a conference was held between the 
English and Irish in 11 73. Near here, on 26 May, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, 
defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. On 15 Aug. 1843, Daniel O'Connell 
held a monster meeting here (250,000 persons said to have been assembled). 

TARANTISM, see Dancing. 



TAR 716 TAV 

TARBES (S. France, near the Pj'renees). The French, under Soult, were forced from 
their position at Tarbes, with considerable loss, by the British army commanded by Wel- 
lington, 20 March, 1814. See Toulouse. 

TARENTUM (now Taranto, S. Italy), was fomided by the Greek Phalantns, B.C. 708. 
The people of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, supported a war which had 
been undertaken B.C. 281 by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered 
to their ships when near their harbours ; it was terminated after ten years : 300,000 pri- 
soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Ronae. Except the citadel, Tarentum 
was captured by the Carthaginians, 212, but recovered by Fabius, 209 e.g. Tarentum has 
shared in the revolutions of Southern Italy, and only ruins remain. 

TARGUMS or Explanations, names given to certain ancient Chaldee para]5hrases 
of the Old Testament. The most remarkable are those of Onkelos, Jonathan-ben-Uzziel, 
and Joseph the Blind. The Targum of Onkelos is referred by some writers to the ist cen- 
tury A.D. 

TARIFA (S. Spain), the ancient Joza and Julia Ti-aducta, where Muza landed when 
invading Spain, 712. It was taken from the Moors by Sancho IV. of Castile, 1291 or 
1292 ; and was relieved, when besieged by them, after a great victory over the kings of 
Morocco and Granada, by Alfonso XI. of Castile and Alfonso IV. of Portugal, 28 or 30 
Oct. 1340. The conflict is called the battle of Salado, being [fought on the banks of that 
river. Tarifa was taken by the French in 1823. 

TARIFF (said to have been derived from Tarifa, where duties were formerly collected), 
a book of duties charged on goods exported or imported. Our tariff in 1840 comprised 
1042 articles ; the number was reduced (by sir Robert Peel) in 1845 ^"^^ 1847. It com- 
prised 439 articles in 1857 ; the number was greatly reduced in i860. 

TARPEIAIST ROCK (Rome), owed its name to the tradition that Tarpeia, daughter of 
the keeper of the Roman citadel, was here crushed to death by the shields cast on her by 
the Sabines, whom she treacherously admitted, having bargained for the gift of what they 
wore on their left arms, meaning their bracelets ; about 750 b. c. 

TARRAGONA (IST.E. Spain), occupied as a naval station by the British before their 
capture of Gibraltar in 1 704. It was stormed and sacked by the French under Suchet, 
28 Jan. 181 1, and the inhabitants put to the sword. 

TARTAE" or Highland Plaid, the dress of the Scottish Highlanders, said to have 
been derived from the ancient Gauls, or Celtse, the Galli own hraecati. 

TARTARIC ACID is said to have been the first discoveiy of the eminent chemist, 
Scheele, who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar with lime, and in decomposing 
the tartrate of lime thus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1770. In 1859 Baron 
Liebig formed tartaric acid from other sources. 

TARTAR Y (Asia). The Tatars, or Tartars, or Mongols, or Moguls, were known in 
antiquity as Scythians. During the decline of the Roman empire, these tribes began to seek 
more fertile regions ; and the first who reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the 
ancestors of the modern Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country 
was the famous Genghis Khan. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
central Asia (1206-27), became one of the most formidable ever established; but it was 
split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, broke the 
power of the Turks in Asia Minor (1370- 1400), and founded the Mogul dynasty in India, 
which began with Baber in 1525, and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the close 
of the i8th century ; see Golden Horde. The Calmucks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled 
from China, settled on the banks of the Volga in 1672, but returned in 1771, and thousands 
j^erished on the journey. 

TASMANIA, the name now given to the Britisli settlement in Van Diemen's Land 
{whicJi see). 

TATTERSALL'S, see Baces. 

TAUNTON (Somerset), was taken by Perkin Warbeck, Sept. 1497 ; and here he was 
surrendered to Henry VII. 5 Oct. following. The duke of Monmouth was proclaimed king 
at Taunton, 20 June, 1685 ; and it was the scene of the "bloody assize" held by Jeffreys 
upon the rebels in August. 

TAVERNS may be traced to the 13th century. ' ' In the raigne of king Edward the Third, 
oiily three taverns were allowed in London : one in Cliepe, one in Walbrok, and the other in 
Lombard-street."* Spelman. The i?oar's ^e«c^, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry 

* Taverns were restricted by 7 Edward VI. 1552-3, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in 
Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in 
Cloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 
3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 



TAX 



717 



TED 



1 V. , and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspcare 
mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of Falstaff 's merriment. 
Shakspcare, "Henry IV." The Whita Mart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt in 
1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752. 

TAXES were levied by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 540 B.C. The first class of 
citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 55Z. of our money. Darius, the son of Hys- 
taspes, levied a land-tax by assessment, which was deemed so odious that his subjects styled 
Mm, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 B.C. D'Eon. Taxes in specie were first 
introduced into England by William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies 
in kind, as in wool, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession 
of Eichard II., 1377. Camden; see Revenue, a^nd Income Tax. 



1800 
180S 
1810 
181S 
1820 
1825 
1830 
183s 



Assessed Taxes. 



£3,468,131 
, 4,508,752 
, 6,233,161 
. 6,524,766 
6,311,346 
5,176,722 
, 5,013,40s 

■ 3,733.997 
3,866,467 



Land Tax. 

iSoo .... £1,307,941 

1805 1,596,481 

1810 .... 1,418,337 

1815 ..... 1,084,251 

1820 .... 1,192,257 

1825 1,288,393 

1830 .... 1,189,214 

183s 1,203,579 

1840 .... 1,298,622 



Assessed Taxes. — Gross Amount. 
1 85 1 (to Jan. 5) . .£4,365,033 
1855 (year end March. 31) 3,160,641 
1S60 ,, ,, 3,232,000 

1865 ,, ,, 3,292,000 

1866 ,, ,, 3,350,000 

1867 ,, ,, 3,468,000 
i863 ,, ,, 3,509,000 



TCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On 16 Aug. 1855, the lines of the allied army at 
this place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince Gortschakoff without success, being 
repulsed with the loss of 3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The brunt of the 
attack was borne by two French regiments under general D'Herbillon. The loss of the 
allies was about 1200 ; 200 of these were from the Sardinian contingent, which behaved with 
great gallantr}^, under the command of general La Marmora. The Russian general Read, and 
the Sardinian general Monte v^ecchio, were killed. The object of the attack was the relief of 
Sebastopol, then closely besieged by the English and French. 

TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. It is mentioned as having been used 
in England on very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 61. and even 10^. the pound. 



Samuel Pepys records his first "cup of tea" 

25 Sept. 1660 

A duty of Sd. was charged upon eveiy gallon of 
tea made for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13), 1660 ; the 
East India Company first import it . . 1669 

It was brought into England in 1666, by lord 
Ossory and lord j^rlington, from Holland : 
and being admired by persons of rank, it was 
imported from thence, and generally sold for 
60 shillings per pound, till our East Indian 
Company took up the trade. Anderson. 

Green tea began to be used 1715 

Price of black tea per lb. 13s. to 20s., of green, 
X2S. to 30s. ....... 1728 

The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767 : 
this tax occasioned the destruction of 17 
chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, Nov. 
1773, and ultimately led to the American war 
(see Boston). 

The tea-plant brought to England . . about 176S 

Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed 
up, announcing their sale of tea . Aug. 1779 

Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea 
from so to 12^ per cent, and taxing windows 
in lieu June, 1784 



" Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice, 
and ash-tree le.ives, are every j'ear mixed 
with Chinese teas in England." Report 0/ the 
House of Commons 

"The consumption of the whole civilised world, 
exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
pounds, while the annual consumption in 
Gi'eat Britain is 30,000,000." Evidence in 
House of Commons ...... 

The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of 
the exclusive pi-ivilcge of the East India 
Company took place in. Mincing-lane 

19 Aug. 

New duties were charged, 1796; the duty was 
96 and 100 per cent., made 2.s'. id. per pound 

The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 
amounted to 5,471,461;. : and the amount was 
5,902,433? in 

Various changes made in 1S54, 1855 . . and 

Duty of IS. 5'i. per pound begun . April, 

The duty upon tea gradually reduced from 
2S. 2\<L to IS. per pound ; reduced to 6d. per 
pound I June, 



1834 



1052 
1856 
1S57 



1865 



1726 
1766 
1792 

1800 
1 80s 



b. 700,000 


1810 


7,000,000 


1815 


. 13,185,000 


1820 


. 23,723,000 


1825 


. 24,133,000 


1830 



TEA IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND. 

lb. 25,414,000 I 183s . . lb. 44,360,550 [ 1858 . lb. 75,432,535 

. . 26,368,000 I 1840 . . 38,068,555 I86I . . . 96,577,383 

• 25,662,474 1845 . . 44,193,433 IS64 . . 124,359,243 

. . 24,803,66s \ 1S50 govt, reins. 50,512,384 i866 . . .139,610,044 

. 30,544,404 I 1856 . . . 86,200,414 1 1867 . . 128,026,807 



"TEARLESS VICTORY," Avas won by Archidamus III., king of Sparta, over the 
Arcadians and Argives, without losing a man, 467 B.C. 

TEA-ROOM MEETING of members of the house of commons, 8 April, 1867 ; see 
Reform, 1867. 

TE-DEUM, a song of praise used by the Romisli and English churches, beginniu"- 
'* Te Deum laudamus — We praise thee, God," supposed to be the composition of 
Augustin and Ambrose, about 390. 



TEE 718 TEM 

TEETOTALLER, a term applied to an abstainer from all fermented liquors, originated 
with Richard Turner, an artisan of Preston, who, contending for the principle at a temi^e- 
rance meeting ahout Sept. 1833, asserted "that nothing but fe-fe-iotaZ will do." The word 
was immediately adopted. He died, 27 Oct. 1846. These facts are taken from the " Staunch 
Teetotaller," edited by Joseph Livesey, of Preston (an originator of the movement in 
August, 1832), Jan. 1867 ; see Encratites, TcTnixrancc, and United Kingdom. 

TEFLIS, see Tifiis. 

TELEGRAPHS. Polj^bius (died about 122 B.C.) calls the different instruments used by 
the ancients for communicating information, pyrsicc, because the signals were always made 
by fire. In 1663, a plan was suggested by the marquess of Worcester, and a modern tele- 
graph was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the 
inventor of telegraphs about this period. M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used 
by the French in 1793, and two were erected over the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The 
semaphore was erected there 1816. The naval signals by telegraph enabled 400 previously 
concerted sentences to be transmitted from sliip to ship, by varying the combinations of two 
revolving crosses; see Electric Telegraph, under Electricity. Acts relating to telegraphs 
were passed in 1863 and 1866. 

TELESCOPES. Their principle was described by Roger Bacon about 1250, and Leonard 
Digges (who died about 1573) is said to have arranged glasses so that he could see very 
distant objects. 

Telescopes constructed by Jolin Lipperhey and 1 A telescope made in London for the observatory 

JZacharias Jansen, spectacle-makers of Mid- of Madrid, which cost ii,oooL, in . . . 1802 



dleburg, and James Metius of Alkmaer, about 1608 
Galileo (from a description of the above) con- 
structed telescopes (May, 1609), gradually 
increasing in power, till he discovered Jupi- 
ter's satellites, &c Jan. 1610 

The telescope explained by Kepler . . . 1611 
Huyghens greatly improved the telescope, and 
discovers the ring and satellites of Saturn, &c. 

i6s5-6 
Telescopes improved by Gregory, about . . 1663 
Beflecting telescope invented by Newton . . 1668 
Achromatic telescopes made by More Hall, about 

1723 ; re-invented by John Dollond . . 1758 
Sir Wm. Herschel (originally an organist at 
Bath) greatly improves telescopes, and dis- 
covers the planet Uranus (which see), 21, 
March, 1781, and a volcanic mountain in the 
moon, in 1783 ; he completes his forty-feet 
focal length telescope in 1789, and he dis- 
covers two other volcanic mountains ; he lays 
before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 
nebulae and clusters of stars .... 1802 



Telescopes improved by Guinand and Fraun- 
hofer 1805-14 

The great telescope taken down, and one of 
twenty-feet focal length erected by sir John 
Herschel (who afterwards took it to the Cape 
of Good Hope, and made with it his observa- 
tions) 1822 

The earl of Rosse erected at Parsonstown, in 
Ireland, a telescope (at a cost exceeding 
2o,oooi.) 7 feet hi diameter, and 52 feet in 
length ; it is moved with ease . . . 1828-45 

Mr. Lassell constructed a telescope by which 
he discovered the satellite of Neptune, 1846 ; 
and the eight satellites of Saturn . . . 1848 

One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (very im- 
perfect), completed at Wandsworth by the 
rev. John Craig 1852 

Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the 
national observatories at Greenwich and Paris i860 

M. Poucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting 
telescope, the mirror 31J inches in diameter ; 
the focal length 17I feet 1862 



TELLERS, see under Exchequer. 

TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural state containing small quantities of iron and 
gold, was discovered by Miiller at Reichenstein in 1782. 

TEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, often besieged by the Turks. On 10 
Aug. 1849, Haynau totally defeated the Himgarians besieging this town, and virtually ended 
the war. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary 
of war in America, in order to counteract the habitual use of ardent spirits among the 
people, prohibited them altogether in the United States' army, 1818. The first public 
temperance society in America was projected in 1825, and formed 13 Feb. 1826. Tem- 
perance societies immediately afterwards were formed in England and Scotland. In Ireland, 
the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published upon temperance in 1829-31 ; and Father Mathew, 
a Roman catholic clergyman, affirmed that in 1839, 1840, and 1841, he had made more than 
a million of converts to temperance. Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849, but 
was not so successful there. He died 8 Dec. 1856, aged 66. In England, the National 
Temperance Society was formed in 1842 ; the London Temperance League in 1851 ; and the 
United Kingdom Alliance for the legislative suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquors, 
I June, 1853 ; see Teetotcdler. 

TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights of the Temple was founded in 1 1 18 by 
Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The Templars were numerous in several coimtries, and 
came to England before 1 185. Their wealth having excited the cupidity of the French kings, 
the order was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and part of its revenues was bestowed 
upon other orders in 13 12. Numbers of the order were tried, condemned, and burned alive 



TEM 



719 



TES 



or hanged in 1308-10, and it suffered great persecutions throughout Europe : 68 wei'e burnt 
at Paris, 1310. The grand-master Molay was burnt alive at Paris, March, 1314. 

TEMPLE (Loudon), the dwelling of the Knights Templars, at the suppression of the 
order, was pui'chased by the professors of the common law, and converted into inns, 1340. 
They are called the Inner and iliddle Temple, in relation to Essex-house, which was also a 
part of the house of the Templars, built in 1 185, and called the Outer Temple, because it 
was situated without Temple-bar. 



The Temple Hall -was huilt ia 1572 

St. Marj'"s, or the Temple Church, situated in 
the Inner Temple, is an ancient Gothic stone 
building, erected by the Templars in 1240, 
and IS remarkable for its cu-cular vestibule, 
and for the tombs of the crusaders, who were 



buried here. The church was reoased with 
stone by Mr. Smirke in 18 

The new Middle Temple library was opened by 
the prince of Wales . . . .31 Oct. :8 

Temple bar was erected by sir Christopher 
Wren, and completed in 1672. It was re- 
ported to be in an unsafe condition in March, 18 



TEMPLES originated in the sepirlchres built for the dead. Eusebms. The Egyptians 
were the first who erected temples to the gods. Herodotus. The first erected in Greece is 
ascribed to Deucalion. ApoUoiiius. 

The temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012 B.C.; 
consecrated 1004; isillaged by Shishak, 971; re- 
paired by Joash, 856 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; re- 
stored by Hezekiah, 726 ; pillaged and fired by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 5S8, 587 ; rebuilt, 536 ; pillaged 
by Antiochus, 170 ; rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed 
by Titus, a.d. 70. 

The temple of Aijollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 
1200 B.C. ; burnt by the Pisistratidiu, 548 ; a new 
temple raised by the family of the Alcmajonida-', 
about 513. 

Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; 
planned by Ctesiphon, 544 B.C. ; fired by Hero- 
sti'atus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B.C.; to rebuild 



it employed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths, 

A.D. 260. 
The temple of Piety was built by Aciliu.=!, on the spot 

whei'e once a woman had fed with her milk her 

aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and 

excluded from all aliments. Val. Max. 
Temple of Theseus, built 4S0 B.C., is at this day the 

most perfect ancient edifice in the world. 
Most of the heathen temples were destroyed 

throughout the Roman empire by Constantino the 

Great, 331 ; see separate articles. 
The " Temple " at Paris, formerly an asylum for 

debtors, was made the site of a market in 1809, 

and rebuilt in 1S64. 

(See Temple.') 



TEiSTANT, see Rent. "Tenant-right" in Ireland has caused much discussion in that 
country recently. 

TEKASSERIM (KE. India), ceded by Burmah to the British, Feb. 1826. 

TENERIFEE (Canaries, KW. coast of Africa). The celebrated peak of Teneriffe is 
15,396 feet above the level of the sea. It was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi Smyth 
for astronomical observations. An earthquake in this island destroyed several towns and 
many thousands of people in 1704; see Santa Cruz, 

TEN" MINUTES' BILL, see Reform, 1867. 

TENNESSEE, a southern state of North America, was settled about 1760, and admitted 
into the union i June, 1796. An ordinance of secession from the union was passed— it is 
asserted illegally — on 6 May, 1861. On 23 Feb. 1862, the federal general Nelson entered 
Nashville, and in March, Andrew Johnson (afterwards the president of the United States) 
was made military governor over a large part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Rosencrans 
expelled the confederate government. The representatives of Tennessee were re-admitted to 
the congress, 5\\\y, 1866, 

TEN TABLES, see Decemvirs. TENTHS, see Tithes. 

TENUPtES, the mode in which land is held. Military tenures were abolished in 1660. 
Lyttelton's book on Tenures is dated 148 1. 

TERBIUM, a metal sometimes found with yttrium [which sec). 

TERCEIRA, see Azores. 

TERMS OF Law and Vacations. They were instituted in England from the Norman 
usage, the long vacation being suited to the time of the vintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079. 
Glanville dc Leg. Anglic. They Avere gradually formed. Bpclman. The terras were fixed 
by statute 11 Geo. IV. and i Will. IV. 22 July, 1830: Hilary Term to begin 11 Jan. and 
end 31 Jan. ; Easier, 15 April, to end 8 May ; Trinity, 22 May, to end 12 June ; Michaelmas, 
2 Nov. to end 25 Nov. This act was amended i Will. IV. 15 Nov. 1830. 

TERROR, see Reign of. 

TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and military, under government, to receive the 
sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against 



TES 720 THA 

transubstantiation, &c. ; enacted March 1673. The Test and Corporation acts were repealed 
by statute in 1828. 

TESTAMENT, see Bihlcs, and Wills. 

TESTER. Testone. A silver coin struck in France by Louis XII. 1513 ; and also in 
Scotland in the time of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, 1559. It was so called from 
the head of the king, stamped upon it. In England the tester was of \2cl. value in the reign 
of Henry y III., and afterwards of 6d. (still called a tester.) 

TESTE! (IST. France). Pepin d'Heristal, invited by malcontents, here defeated and cap- 
tured Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and established himself as duke, 687. 

TETTENHALL (Staffordshire). It was probably at this place, then named Testenheal, 
that the Danes were defeated by the Anglo-Saxons sent against them by Edward the Elder, 
6 Aug. 910. 

TETTJAN (Morocco) was entered by the Spaniards 6 Feb. i860, after gaining a decisive 
victory on 4 Feb. The general, O'Donnell, was made a grandee of the first class. 

TEUTONES (hence Deutsche, German), a people of Germany, who with the Cimbri made 
incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Eoman armies, 113 and 105 b.o. They were at 
last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. 
(see Gimbri), with whom authors commonly join the Teutones. The appellation came to be 
applied to the German nation in general. 

TEUTONIC ORDER, military knights established in the Holy Land about 1 191, through 
the humanity of the Germans (Teutones) to the sick and wounded of the Christian army in 
the Holy Land, irnder the celebrated Guy of Lusignan, when before Acre. The order was 
confirmed by a bull of pope Coelestine III. On their return to Germany, they were invited 
to subdue and christianise the country now called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which they 
gradually accomplished. Their territories were invaded, and their army was defeated, with 
great slaughter, near Tannenburg, in East Prussia, 15 July, 1410, when the grand master 
and many of the knights were slain. A large part of their possessions was incorporated into 
Poland in 1466, and into Brandenburg about 1521. In 1525, the grand master was made a 
prince of the empire, and the order was finally dissolved. Its remaining possessions were 
seized by Napoleon I. in 1809 ; see Prussia, &c. 

TEUTOBURG FOREST (the Teutoburgiensis saltus, Tacitus), probably situate between 
Detmold and Paderborn, where Hermann, or Arminius, and the Germans defeated the Romans 
under Yarns, with very great slaughter, A.D. 9. Varus and manj' of his officers preferred 
suicide to captivity. This defeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamity, and Augustus, 
in agony, cried, ' ' Varus, give me my legions ! " 

TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Edward lY. gained a decisive victory over the 
Lancastrians, 4 May, 1471. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI. and her son were 
taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry 
expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, as is generally supposed, murdered 
by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. The queen Avas ransomed in 1475 by the 
French king, Louis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses of 
York and Lancaster ; see Roses. 

TEXAS (N. America) was settled by the French, 1687, who were expelled soon after. 
It revolted from Mexico in 1835 ; was helped by the Americans in 1836. Its independence 
was acknowledged in 1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between Mexico and the 
United States. It was admitted into the Union by the latter in 1846 ; seceded from it in 
1861 ; submitted in 1865. 

TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Holland). Its vicinity has been the scene 
of memorable naval engagements. An engagement of three days' continuance between the 
English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, in 
which the latter were worsted and admiral Van Tromp was killed, Aug. 1653. Again, in the 
mouth of the Texel, when D'Etrees and Ruyter were signally defeated 11 Aug. 1673. The 
Dutch fleet vanquished by lord Duncan on 11 Oct. 1797; see Campardovm. The Dutch 
fleet of twelve ships of war and thirteen Indiamen surrendered to admiral Mitchell, who, 
entering the Texel, possessed himself of them without firing a shot, 28 Aug. 1 799. 

THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphuric-acid manufacture, discovered by Mr, 
"Wm. Crookes, by means of the spectrum analysis in March, 1861. 

*■ THAMES (London). The Roman Tamesis or Tamesa. It has been erroneously said 
that its name is Isis till it arrives at Dorchester, when, being joined by the Thame or Tame, 
it assumes the name of Thames. What was the origin of this vulgar error cannot now be 
traced : poetical fiction, however, had perpetuated the error, and invested it with a kind of 



THA 



THE 



classical sanctity. It was called Thames or Terns before it came near the Thames. Camden; 
see London, and London Bridge. 



The river rose so high at Westminster that the 
lawyers were brought out of the hall in boats 1235 



1791 



1489 
1624 



1862 



27 



It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 

The conservation of the Thames was given to 

the mayors of London 

The Thames was made navigable to Oxford 
It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658; 

again, thi-ee times in four hours, 22 March, 

1682 ; again, twice in three hours 24 Nov. 1777 
An act of parliament gave the conservation of 

the Thames to the corporation of London : 

twelve conservators were to be appointed — 

three by the government 1S57 

In consequence of the great contamination of 

the Thames bj- the influx of the sewage of 

London, and the bad odours emanating from 

it in the summer of 1858, an act was passed 

empowering the MetropoUtan Board of "Works 

{lohich see) to undertake its purification by 

constructing new drainage .... 1858 
The Thames Angling Preservation Society 

(estabhshed about 1838) is revived in. . . 1863 
Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, re- 
ported that "the river is dreadfully mis- 
managed from its source to its mouth," 

23 July, ,, 
The Thames navigation acts, appointing five 

more conservators, (fee, and prohibiting jjol- 

lutiou by sewage, &c., passed . . Aug. 1866 
The powers of the act extended up to Staines. 1867 
Thames Embankment : sir Christopher Wren 

recommended it in 1666. The corporation 

embanked a mile in 1767. It was further 

recommended by sir Fred. Trench, in 1S24; by 

the duke of Newcastle in 1844 ; and by John 

Martin the painter in 1856. In i860, the 

Metropolitan Board of Works recommended 

that the north bank of the Thames should 

be embanked ; whereby the bed of the river 

would be improved ; a low-level sewer 

coiild be easily constructed beneath a broad 

THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in England at the conqnest, npon the intro- 
duction of the feudal system, and in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl 
was adopted, 1057. 

THANET (Kent) was the first permanent settlement of the Saxons, about 448. The 
Danes held a part of it, 853-865, and ravaged it 9S0, 988 et seq. 

THAPSUS {N. Africa). Near here Julius Ctesar totally defeated the army of the party 
which supported the policy of Pompey, Peb. 46 B.C. The suicide of Cato followed soon after. 
THEATINES, a religious order, the first who assumed the title of regular clerks, fovmded 
by Caraffa, bishop of Theate, in oSTaples (afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress heresy. 
They first establislied themselves in France, according to the historian Hdnault, ia Paris, 
1644. The Theatines endeavoured, but vainly, to revive among the clergy the poverty of 
the apostles. Ashe. 

THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 B.C., was the first 
erected, Marcellus' theatre at Rome was begun by Ctesar, and dedicated by Augustus, 
12 B.C. Theatres were erected in most cities of Italy. Most of the inhabitants of Pompeii 
were assembled at a theatre on the night of 24 Aug. 79, when an eruption of "Vesuvius 
covered the city. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar Sienna, a.d. 
1533 ; '^se Drama, Plays, &c. 

THEATRES in England. The first royal licence for a theatre in England was in 1574, 

to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the 

Globe, Bankside ; see Gloha. But, long before that time, miracle plays were represented in 

the fields. The prices of admission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were — gallery, 2d. ; lords' 

rooms, IS. ; see Drama, Brurij Lane, and other theatres. 

The first play-bill was dated 8 April, 1663, and 

issued from Drury-lane ; it runs thus : " By 

his Majestic his company of Comedians at 

the New Theatre in Drury-lane, will be acted 

a comedy called the Humovrous Lievtenant '" 



roadway; docks to be constructed within 
the embankment wall ; the expense to be 
defrayed by the city duties on coal, and by 
means jirovided by government. The prin- 
ciple of this recommendation was approved 
by parliament, and a committee was ap- 
pointed, which sat for the first time 30 April, i 

An act for " embanking the north side of the 
Thames from Westminster bridge to Black- 
friars bridge, and for making new streets in 
and near thereto," passed 7 Aug. ; the work 
begun in Nov. 

Mr. J. W. Bazalgette presented a report, vsdth a 
plan for embanking the south side of the 
Thames, 6 Nov. 1S62 ; act for carrying it out 
passed 28 July, 1863 

First stone of the northern embankment laid 

"' by Mr. Thwaites near Whitehall-stairs 20 July, 1864 

First stone of the southeni embankment laid 
at Stangate by Mr. Wm. Tite . . 28 July, 1866 

Thames Tunnel.— Projected by Mr. I. K. 
Brunei, to form a communication between 
Rotherhithe and Wapping. The bill received 
the royal assent, 24 June, 1S24. The shaft 
was begun in 1825 ; the first brick was laid 
by Mr. Smith, 2 March ; the excavation com- 
menced, I April ; and the first horizontal 
excavation in Dec. 1825 

At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first 
irruption took place . . . 18 May, iT 

The second irruption, by which six workmen 
perished 12 Jan. il 

The tunnel was opened throughout for foot- 
passengers, 25 March, 1843. [The length of 
the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; 
height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, 
including foot-path, about 14 feet ; thickness 
of earth between the crown of the tunnel and 
the bed of the river, about 15 feet.] 

The Thames Timnel Company was dissolved in i 



After detailing the characters, it concludes 



thus: "The play wiU begin at three o'clock 

exactly" 8 April, 1663 

Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened . . . 1695 
Acts for licensing plays and play-houses (10 

Geo. II. c. 28) 1737 

Act for regulating theatres (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68) 

22 Aug. 1843 
3 A 



THE 



722 



THE 



THEATRES in England, continued. 

Marionettes or Puppets produced at the Ade- 
laide Gallery 1852 

Several of the theatres first opened on Sunday- 
evenings for religious worship, and filled, 

Jan. i860 

DRURY LANE. 

Killigrew's patent . . . .25 April, 1662 
Opened . . . . . . 8 April, 1663 

Nell Gwynn performed 1666 

Theatre burnt down with 60 houses . Jan. 1672 
Rebuilt by sir C. Wren, and opened 26 March, 1674 

Gibber, Willces, Booth 1712 

Garrick's debut here 1742 

Garrick and Laoy's tenure (revival of Shak- 

speare) 1747 

Interior rebuilt by Adams ; opened 23 Sept. 1775 
Garrick's farewell . ... 10 June, 1776 

Sheridan's management „ 

Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick . . 1777 
Mrs. Siddons' dibut as a star . . 10 Oct. 1782 
Mr. Kemble's debut as Hamlet . . 30 Sept. 1783 
The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re- 
opened 12 March, 1794 

Charles Kemble's first appearance (as Malcolm 

in Macbith) 21 April, ,, 

Dowton's first appearance (as Sheva in the Jai>) 

II Oct. 1796 
Hatfield fired at George III. . .11 May, 1800 

The theatre burnt 24 Feb. 1809 

Rebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a pro- 
logue by lord Byron ... 10 Oct. 1812 
Ed. Kean's appearance (as Shyloch) 26 Jan. 1814 

Mr. EUiston, lessee 3 Oct. 1819 

Madame Vesti-is's first appearance . 19 Feb. 1820 
Real water introduced in the Cataract of the 

Ganges 27 Oct. 1823 

Mr. Price, lessee .... July, 1826 

Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante) 23 Sept. ,, 
Charles Kean's appearance (as Norval) i Oct. 1827 
Mrs. Nisbett's fiirst appearance (as the M'idoio 

Cheerly) g Oct. 1829 

Mr. Alexander Lee's and captain Polhill's 

management 1830 

Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee 1831 

Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as Spartacus) 

17 Oct. 1836 
Mr. Hammond's management .... 1839 
German operas commenced here . 15 March, 1841 
Mr. Maoready's management . . . . ,, 

Mr. Bunn, again lessee 1843 

Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, 14 Dec. ; 

and died .16 Dec. 1844 

Mr. Anderson's management . . . . 1S49 

Mr. Macready's farewell . . . 26 Feb. 1851 
Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager . . . . 1852 

Mr. E. T. Smith 1853-9 

English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyne) . 1858 

Italian opera 1859 

Opened by Mr. E. T. Smith . .15 Oct. i860 
Suddenly closed .... 20 April, 1861 
Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) 27 Oct. ,, 
[Drowned in. \h& London; see Wrecks, 11 Jan. 1866.] 

Mr. Falconer Dec. 1862- 1865 

Messrs. Falconer and Chattertou, managers 

Jan. 1866 
Sole lessee and manager, F. B. Chatterton ; 

opened 22 Sej)t. 1866 

Opened by Mr. Mapleson with Italian opera 
company 28 March, 1868 

COVENT GARDEN. 

(The Duke's Theatre) sir William Daven ant's 

patent 25 April, 1662 

The theatre opened by Rich . . 7 Dec. 1732 
Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and 

Lambert . 1735 

Theatrical fund instituted 1765 

Mr. Harris's tenure 1767 



Lewis's first appearance in the character of 

Belcnur 15 Sept. 1773 

Miss Reay killed by Mr. Hackman, coming from 

the house 7 April, 1779 

Jack Johnstone's first appearance in Irish 

characters 3 Oct. 1783 

Munden's appearance ... 2 Dec. 1790 

Fawcett's first appearance (as Caleb) 21 Sept. 1791 
G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III.) 

31 Oct. 1800 
Braham's appearance . . . .9 Dec. 1801 
Mr. Kemble's management .... 1802 

Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Roscius 

1 Dec. 1803 
Lewis's last appearance (as the Co'irper Captain) 

28 May, 1808 
Theatre burnt down ... 20 Sept. „ 
Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and re-opened 

with Macbeth . . . . 18 Sept. 1809 
The O. F-Jiiot (which see) 18 Sei^t. to 10 Dec. ,, 
Horses first introduced ; in Bluebeard 18 Feb. 1811 
The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense 

house) 29 June, 1812 

[Mrs. Siddons, however, performed once after- 
wards, in June, 1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. 
Kemble's benefit.] 
Miss Stephens's first appearance (as Mandane) 

7 Sept. 1813 
Miss Foote's appearance here (as Amanthis) 

, 26 May, 1814 

Miss O'Neill's appearance here (as Juliet) 6 Oct. ,, 
Miss Kelly fired at by George Baniet, in the 

house 7 Feb. 1816 

Mr. Maoready's first appearance (as Orestes) 

16 Sept. ,, 
Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Coriolanus) 

23 June, 1817 
Henry Harris's management .... 1818 
Charles Kemble's management . . . . 1823 
Miss Fanny Kemble's appearance (as Juliet) 

S Oct. 1829 
Mr. Fawcett's farewell . . .21 May, 1830 
Charles Young's farewell . . 30 May, 1832 
Mr. Macready's management .... 1837 
Madame Vesti'is's management . . . . 1839 
Miss Adelaide Kemble's appearance (as Norma) 

2 Nov. 1841 
Charles Kemble again . . .10 Sept. 1842 
Mr. Laurent's management . . 26 Dec. 1844 
Opened for Italian opera . . .6 April, 1847 
Destroyed by fire (during a bal masqud, con- 
ducted by Anderson the Wizard) 5 March, 1856 

New theatre (by Barry) opened by Mr. P. Gye 

(Les Huguenots) .... 15 May, 1858 

English opera (Miss Pyne and Mr. Harrison) 

Oct. 1859 
All principal actors perform parts of plays for 

the benefit of the Dramatic College, 29 March, i860 
Balfe's Bianca brought out . . 6 Dec. „ 

Italian opera (jVIr. Gye) .... April, 1861 
Last appearance of Grisi ... 3 Aug. ,, 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) 21 Oct. „ 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . . April, 1862 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) 25 Aug. ,, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gj'e) ... 7 April, 1863 

Gounod's Faust July, ,, 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison) 12 Oct. ,, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1864 
English opera, (fee. (Opera Company, Limited) 

17 Oct. „ 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . .28 April, 1865 
Becomes the property of a company, Mr. Gye, 

manager Aug. „ 

Re-opened (Mr. Gye) April, 1866 ; 2 April, 1S67; 

31 March, 1868 

ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE, or QUEEN'S 
THEATRE. 
Opera-house opened. Pennant. (See Opera- 
house) 1705 

The theatre was enlarged 1720 



THE 



723 



THE 



THEATRES in England, continued. 

Burnt down 17 June, 1789 

Rebuilt, and re-opened . . 22 Sept. 1791 

Exterior improved by Mr. Nash . . . 1818 

The rilicvo by Mr. Bubb 1821 

Madame Rachel's appearance . . 10 3Iay, 1841 

Mr. Lumley's management 1842 

Jenny lind's first appearance . . 4 May, 1847 
Association formed for conducting financial 

affairs of the house 1852 

Jullien's concerts .... Oct. 1857 

Festive parformances on the marriage of the 

princess royal Jan. 1859 

Macfarreu's iiodiii flood brought out 11 Oct. i860 

[Not opened in 1861.] 
Italian opera (Mr. Mapleson) . 26 April, 1862-67 
Burnt dovsm ; great loss . . . 6 Dec. 1867 

HAYMARKET. 

Built 1702 

Opened by French comedians . 29 Dec. 1720 

Fielding's Mogul company . . . 1734-S 

A French company prohibited from acting by 

the audience 1738 

Mr. Foote's patent 1747 

The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (see BotUe Con- 
juror) 16 Jan. 1748 

The theatre rebuilt 1767 

Mr. Oolman's tenure ... .1 Jan. 1777 
Miss Farren's appeai-ance here (afterwards 

countess of Derby) ,, 

Royal visit— great crowd — 16 persons killed and 

m.any wounded 3 Feb. 1794 

Mr. ElUston's ddbut here . . -24 June, 1796 
First appearance of Mr. Mathews (as Liiigo) 

i5 May, 1803 

Mr. Morris's management 1805 

Appearance of Mr. Liston (as Slieepface), 8 June, ,, 

The tailors' riot 15 Aug. ,, 

Appearance of Mr. Young (as Hamlet), 22 June, 1807 
Of Miss F. Kelly (as Fiorttta) . 12 June, 1810 

Theatre rebuilt by Nash ; opened . 4 July, 1821 
Miss Paton's (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as 

Susannah) 3 Aug. 1822 

Mr. Webster's management . . 12 June, 1837 
Mr. Charles Kean's appearance here . . . 1839 
Mr. Webster's management (16 years) termi- 
nated with his farewell appearance, 14 March, 1853 
First appearance of Oar American Cousin (said 
to be by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 
800 times in America), Mr. Sothcrn, Lord 
Dundreary (played 496 nights) . 11 Nov. 1861 
Mr. Buckstone's management . . . 1853-68 

ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE, or LYCEUM. 
Built by Dr. Arnold .... . 1794-5 

Winsor experiments with gas-lighting . 1803-4 

Opened as the Lyceum in 1809 

Appearance of Mr. Wrench (as .Bfkour) 7 Oct. ,, 
Re-opened with an address spoken by Miss 

Kelly 15 June, i8i5 

House destroyed by fire . . 16 Feb. 1830 

Re-built, and re-opened . . .14 July, 1834 
Equestrian performances . . .16 Jan. 1844 
Mrs. Keeley's management . . 8 April, ,, 
Madame Vestris and Mr. C. Mathews' manage- 
ment ....... Oct. 1847-56 

Retirement of Mr. C. Mathews . March, 1855 
Appearance of Madame Ristori . . June, 1856 
Taken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for forty 

nights 14 April, 1857 

Opened for English opei-a by Miss Louisa Pjme 

and Mr. Harrison . . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Balfe's opera, Rose of Cn stile, produced . Oct. ,, 
Mr. G. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; 

closed April, 1859 

Opened by Madame Celeste, "Nov. 1859, and Oct. i860 
The "Savage Club" perform before the queen 

and prince 7 Mai-ch, ,, 

Italian opera 8 June, 1861 

Mr. Falconer, manager (EngUsh comedy) 

19 Aug. „ 



Peep o' Day brought out . . .9 Nov. 1861 
Mr. Fechter .... 10 Jan. 1863 ei Keq. 
Jajiancse troupe Spring, i868 

THE ADELPHI THEATRE. 

Formerly called the Sans Pared, opened under 
the management of Mr. and Miss Scott 

27 Nov. 1806 

Under Rodwell and Jones, who gave it the pre- 
sent nanie 1820-1 

Terry and Yates 1825 

Messrs. Mathews and Yates' management join 
(Mathews at Home) 1828 

New front 1840 

iVladame Celeste's management . . 30 Sept. 1844 

Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrange- 
ments 27 Dec. 1858 

Colhen Bawn represented . . 10 Sept. i860 
[Immense run ; above 360 nights.] 

Miss Bateman appears as Leak, 1 Oct. 1863, to 

11 June, 1864 

Mr. B. Webster, lessee and manager . 1844-68 



of French 
22 Jan. 



22 Oct. 



Nov. 



183s 

1840 

1R44 
1852 
854-5 
1857 

1858 
1859 



PRINCE'S, LATE ST. JAMES'S. 
This theatre was built by, and opened under 

the management of Mr. Braham . 14 Dec. 
German operas performed here under the 

management of Mr. Bunn 
Mr. Mitchell's tenure ; performance 

plays 

German plays 

Mrs. Seymour's tenure 

French plays 

Neapolitan buSo-opera 

Italian plays 

French operas Jan. 

French plays May, 

English comedy, under Mr. F. Chatterton, 

manager Oct. ,, 

French plays 28 May, i860 

English plays 12 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Wigan, manager 1860-2 

French plays . . . 20 5Iay, 1861, May, 1868 

PRINCESS'S THEATRE, OXFORD STREET. 

First opened 1840 

Sold for i6,4ooZ g Sept. 1841 

Mr. Bartley's farewell here . . iS Dec. 1852 
Mr. Charles Kean's management, 1850 ; closed 

29 Aug. 1859 
Mr. A. Harris's management; opened, 29 Sept. ,, 
Zouave Crimean company . . 23 July, i860 
Mr. Fechter appears (as Hamlet) 20 March, 1861 

Mr. Harris, lessee 1860-1 

Mr. Lindus, manager ... 20 Oct. 1862 

Mr. G. Vining, lessee and manager . May, 1863-66 

OLYMPIC. 

Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened 

with horsemanship . . . 18 Sept. 1806 
Here the celebrated Ellistou (1813), and after- 
wards Madame Vestris, had managements; 

the latter until 1839 

Mr. George Wild's tenure 1840 

Miss Davenport's tenure . . . 11 Nov. 1844 

Mr. Watts's management 1848 

The theatre destroyed by fire . . 29 March, 1849 
Rebuilt and opened — Mr. Watts resumes his 

management 26 Dec. ,, 

Mr. William Farren's management . . . 1850 
Lessee and manager, Mr. A. Wigan 17 Oct. 1853-7 
Messrs. Robson and Embden's management 

Aug. 1837-62 
Mr. Horace Wigan, manager . . . 1864-68 
Lessee, Mr. B. Webster 1868 

STRAND THEATRE. 
First opened — Mr. Rayner and Mrs. Waylett . 1831 
Mr. William Farren's management . . . 1849 
Lessee, Mr. F. Allcroft; managei-, Mr. T. Payne 1855, 
Lessee, Miss Swanborough . . . 1858-61 

3 A 2 



THE 



724 



THE 



THEATRES in England, continued. 

Mr. Swanborongh, sen Dec. 1862 

Mrs. Swanborough .... . 1865-68 

ASTLEY'S AMPHITHBATRB. 
Built by Philip Astley, and opened . . . 1773 
Destroyed by fire, witli numerous adjacent 

houses 17 Sept. 1794 

Rebuilt 1795 

Burnt again, with forty houses . . i Sept. 1803 
Ducrow's management . . . . . . 1825 

Again destroyed by fire . . . 8 June, 1841 
Rebuilt and re-opened by Mr. Batty 17 April, 1843 
Lessee and manager, Mr. W. Cooke . 1855-60 

Mr. W. Cooke's farewell benefit . 30 Jan. i860 
A man killed by a lion . . . .7 Jan. 1861 

Opened by Mr. Batty ... 6 Dec. ,, 
Opened by Mr. Boucicault, as the Theatre 

Royal, Westminster ... 26 Dec. 1862 
Horsemanship and opera (under Mr. E. T. 

Smith) June, 1865 

Sold by auction 1868 

CIRCUS, NOW SURREY THEATRE. 
[Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, 

under Mr. Hughes] .... 4 Nov. 1782 
Opened for perforroances . . .4 Nov. 1783 
Destroyed by fire .... 12 Aug. 1805 

Mr. EUiston's management i8og 

Mr. Elliston again .... 4 June, 1827 

Mr. Davidge's tenure 1833 

Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers, 

] 2 Sept. 1863-5 
Destroyed by fire, 31 Jan. ; rebuilt and opened 

26 Dec. 1865 
Re-opened (Shepherd and Creswick) . 8 Sept. 1866 

COBURG, NOW VICTORIA.- 
[The erection was commenced under the pa- 
tronage of the late princess Charlotte and the 
prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg] . . . 1816 
The house was opened . . '. . . . 1818 
Messrs. Egerton and Abbott had the manage- 
ment in 1833 

Mr. Osbaldiston's tenure 1840 

Alarm of fire, sixteen persons killed 27 Dec. 1858 

SADLER'S "WELLS. 

Opened as an orchestra . . . „ . 1683 

Present house opened 1765 

Eighteen persons trampled to death on a false 

alarm of fire 15 Oct. 1807 

Management of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps 

20 May, 1844-59 

Management of Mr. Josephs . . 25 March, 1861 

Re-opened by Mr. Phelps ... 7 Sept. ,, 

Lessee, Miss C. Lucette . . 27 Sept. 1862 

Miss Marriott, manager, 5 Sept. 1863—20 May, 1S64 

Miss C. Lucette, for opera 1865 

Miss Marriott, legitimate drama (with intervals)i865-8 

Miss Menken, horsemanship . . May, 1868 

OTHER THEATRES. 
Queen's Theatre, Tottenham-court-road . . 1828 
Garrick Theatre, Goodman's-fields . . . 1830 

Bower Theatre, Lambeth * * * 

City Theatre, JNoi-ton-Folgate .... 1837 
Miss Kelly's Theatre (since named &oho and 

New Royalty) 1840 

Marylebone, opened 1842 

Standard Theatre built 1854 

Pavilion Theatre biu-nt ... 23 Feb. 1856 
New Royalty (Soho) . . . 31 Aug. 1863 
Holborn Theatre opened ... 8 Oct. 1S66 
Standard Theatre, Shoreditch, burnt 21 Oct. „ 
Royal Amphitheatre (for horses, &c.), Holborn, 

opened 25 May, 1S67 

New East London, opened . . 32 Oct. ,, 

"New Queen's Theatre," formerly St. Martin's 

hall, opened by Alfred Wigan . 24 Oct. „ 

St. George's Opera-house, Langham-place, 

opened by Mr. German Reed . 18 Dec. „ 



DUBLIN THEATRES. 
Werburg-street, commenced 
Orange-street, now Smock-alley 
Aungier-street ( Victor) 
Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock 
Crow-street Music-hall 
Rainsford-street Theatre . 
Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt 
Fishamble-street Music-hall 
Capel-street Theatre 
Crow-street, Theatre Royal 
Ditto, Mr. Daly's patent 
Ditto, Mr. Fred. Edw. Jones's patent 
Peter-street, Theatre Royal . 
Hawkin's-street, Theatre Royal 
Ditto, Mr. Abbott, lessee 
Ditto, Mr. Bunn, lessee 
Ditto, Mr. Calcraft, lessee 
Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street . 



1635 
1662 
1728 
1733 
1731 
1732 
173s 
1741 
174s 
1738 
1786 



1827 
1830 
1844 



BDINBUR&H THEATRES. 

Theatre of Music 1672 

Allan Ramsay's 1736 

Theatre, Shakspeare-square 1769 

The Caledonian Theatre 1822 

Adelphi Theatre burnt down . 24 May, 1853 

Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost) 

13 Jan. 1865 

FIRST OE LAST APPEAEANCES. 

Quin's first appearance 1716 

Macklin at Lincoln's-inn -fields .... 1725 
Garrick's at Goodman's-fields, as Richard III. 

19 Oct. 1741 
Miss Farren (afterwards countess of Derby) 

first appears at Liverpool 1773 

Garrick's last appearance . . .10 June, 1776 
Mrs. Robinson, Perdita : her last appearance 

24 Dec. 1779 
Braham's first appearance at the Royalty 

20 April, 1787 
Madame Storace ; her first appearance in 

London 24 Nov. 1789 

Incledon's first appearance .... 1790 

Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Lydia 

Lanc/uish 31 Jan. 1795 

Listen's first appearance in London . i June, 1805 
Romeo Coates appears as iofAcM'io 10 April, 1811 
Mrs. Jordan's last appearance, as Zady Teazle} 

I June, 1 8 14 
Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath, as 

Romeo 29 Dec. ,, 

Booth's first appearance . . 12 Feb. 1817 

W. Farren's first appearance .... 1818 
Munden's last appearance . . 31 May, 1824 
Fanny Kemble's first appearance . 5 Oct. 1829 

Edmund Kean's farewell 1833 

Liston's last appearance . . .31 May, 1838 
Adelaide Kemble's first appearance . 2 Nov. 1841 
Jenny Lind's first appearance . . 4 May, 1847 
Mrs. Glover's farewell . . . 12 July, 1850 
Mr. Eartley's farewell ... 18 Dec. 1852 

Mr. AV. Farren's farewell 1855 

Clara Novello's farewell . . .21 Nov. i860 
Miss Bateman appears as Leah . . i Oct. 1863 
Her farewell at H.M.'s theatre . . 22 Dec. 1865 
Madlle. Nilsson, first appearance at H.M.'s 

theatre g June, 1867 

Miss Kate Terry's last appearance (Juliet at the 

New AdeliJhi) 31 Aug. „ 

Madlle. Kellogg's debut at Drm-y-lane 2 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Bandmann's d^b^lt ... 17 Feb. 1868 

Mr. Paul Bedford's farewell at New Queen's 

theatre 16 May, ,, 

MEMOEANDA. 

David Garrick died 1779 

Charles Macklin died 1797 

Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool 

2 Aug. 1798 
Bannister retired from the stage . . . . 1815 



THE 



THE 



Madame Vestris died . . . . 8 Aug. 1856 
Madlle. Rachel died .... 4 Jan. 1858 
Mrs. Nisbett (lady Boothby) died 16 Jan. „ 

Louis Lablache (buffo .singer) died . 23 Jan. ,, 
John Pritt Harley died ... 22 Aug. ,, 
Plcxmore, celebrated clown, died 20 Aug. i860 

Mrs. Yates died 3° Oi^t- » 

Alfred Bunn died .... 20 Dec. ,, 

William Parren died .... 25 Sept. 1861 
Mr. Vandenhoff died .... 4 Oct. „ i 
M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died . . Feb. 1862 

Subscription testimonial (value 2000^.) pre- 
sented to C. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone in the 

chair 22 March, „ 

Sheridan Knowles died ... 30 Nov. „ 
Mrs. Wood (once Miss Baton) died 21 July, 1864 

Mr. F. Robson died . . . 11 Aug. ,, 

Madame Pasta died, aged 66 . .1 April, 1865 
Charles J. Kean died . . . 23 Jan. 1868 



THEATRES in England, contimiecl. 

John P. Kemble died 1823 

Talma died in Paris 1826 

Weber came to London . . . Feb. ,, 

The Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight 
of a newly-erected roof, and numbers of per- 
sons were wounded and some killed, 29 Feb. 1S2S 

Sarah Siddons died 1831 

Edmund Kean died 1833 

Madame Malibran died at Manchester, 23 Sept. 1836 

Paganini died .... 29 May, 1840 

Power lost in the President steamer, about 

13 March, 1841 

Rlton lost in the Pegasus . . 18 July, 1843 

Theatres' Registry Act passed . . 22 Aug. ,, 

Madlle. Mars died at Paris . . 23 Mju-ch, 1847 

Madame Catalini died at Paris . . 13 June, 1849 

Alexander Lee died . . . .9 Oct. 1851 

Mrs. Warner died .... 5 Sept. 1854 

C. Kemble died 5 Nov. ,, 

John Braham died .... 17 Feb. 1S56 

THEATRICAL FUl^DS. The Theatrical fund of Coveut Garden was established in 
1 765 ; that of Drury Lane in 1776. They grant pensions to their members and their families. 
The General Theatrical fund was established in 1839. 

THEBAN LEGIOIST, according to tradition, was totally composed of Christians, and 
consequently submitted to martyrdom rather than attack their brethren during the persecu- 
tion of the emperor Maximiu, or sacrifice to the gods, about A.D. 286. Theii" leader Maurice 
was canonised. 

THEBES or LuxoK, in Egypt, called also Hecatompylos on account of its hundred gates, 
and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time of its splendour (1600-800 B.C.) it 
extended above thirty-three miles, and upon any emergency could send into the field, by 
each of its hundred gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by 
Cambyses, king of Persia, 525 B.C., and by the foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C. ; it re- 
belled and was taken by Ptolemy Lathyrus, 86 B.C., and few traces of it were seen in the 
age of Juvenal ; see Memnoncium. After centuries of neglect, it has been greatly visited 
since the explorations of Belzoni, 1817. — Thebes (the capital of the country successively 
called Aonia, Messapia, Ogygia, Hyantis, and BcEotia) was called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, 
its founder, 1493 B.C. It became a republic about 11 20 B.C., and flourished under Epa- 
minondas 378-362 B.C. Its seven gates are mentioned by Homer ; see Bteotia, and Greece. 

THEFT was punished by heavy fines among the Jews ; by death at Athens, by the laws 
of Draco ; see Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished theft with death, if above 
i2d. value ; but the criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9tli of Henry I. 
this power of redemption was taken away, 1 108. The punishment of theft Avas very severe 
in England, till mitigated by Peel's acts, 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The laws respecting theft 
were consolidated in 1 862. 

THEISTS [Theos, God), a name given to deists about 1660. Bean Martin. 

THELLUSSON'S WILL, one of the most singular testamentary documents ever 
executed. Mr. Peter Isaac Thellusson, a Genevese and an affluent merchant of London, left 
ioo,oooZ. to his widow and children ; and the remainder, amounting to more than 6oo,oooZ., 
he left to trustees, to accumulate during the lives of his three sons, and the lives of their 
sons ; then the estates, directed to be purchased with the produce of the accumulating fund, 
were to be conveyed to the eldest lineal male descendant of his three sons, with the benefit 
of survivorship. Should no heir then exist, the whole was to be applied, by the agency of 
the sinking fund, to the discharge of the national debt. Mr. Thellusson died on 21 July, 
1797. His will incurred much public cens^u'e,* and was contested by the heirs-at-law, 
but finally established by a decision of the house of lords, 25 June, 1805. The last surviving 
gi-andson died in Feb. 1856. A dispute then arose whether the eldest male descendant or 
the male descendant of the eldest son should inlierit the property. The question was de- 
cided on appeal by the house of lords (9 June, 1859), in favour of the latter, lord Rendles- 
ham, and Charles S. Thellusson, confirming the decision of the Master of the Rolls in 1858. 
In consequence of the legal expenses the property is said not to exceed greatly its value in 
the testator's lifetime. 

THEOCRACY, government by God, existed among the Israelites till Saul was made 
king, about 1095 b.c. (i Sam. viii. 7). 

* In 1800 an act of parliament was passed, preventing testators devising their property for purposes of 
accumxilation for longer than 20 years after their death. 



THE 



726 



THE 



THEODOLITE, an instrument for measuring horizontal angles, used in surveying, con- 
sists of a telescope and a divided circle. It was probably first constructed in the 17th 
century. Jesse Kamsden, in 1787, completed the great theodolite employed in the tri- 
gonometrical siu'vey of England and Wales by general Hoy. 

THEODOSIAN CODE, see Codes. 

THEOLOGY (from the Greek Thcos, God), the science which treats of the nature and 
attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner in which they may be 
discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. i. Inspired, including the Holy 
Scriptures, their interpretation, &c. 2. Natural ; which lord Bacon calls the iirst part of 
philosopliy. — Butler's "Analogy of Keligion" ( 1736) and Paley's "NaturalTheology " (1802) 
are eminent books on the latter subject. — The "Summa Totius Theologiee " by Thomas 
Aquinas (born about 1224), a standard Eoman catholic work, was printed with commen- 
taries, &c., in 1596. 

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS (lovers of God and man), a sect formed in France in 1796 ; 
and headed by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in 1797, was dissolved in 1802. 

THERMIDOR EEVOLUTIOK On the 9th Thermidor of the 2nd year (27 July, 
1794), the Convention deposed Robespierre, and on the next day he and twenty-two of his 
partisans were executed. 

THERMO-ELECTRICITY, see under Electricity, and Heat. 

THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific 
persons, all about the same time. Freezing point : Fah. 32° ; R. 0° ; C. 0°. Boiling 
point : Fall. 212°, R. 80, C. 100. 



The mode of consti-uction by substituting quick- 
silver for spirits was invented some years sub- 
sequently. 

Halley proposed it in 1697. 

Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer 
in Sept. 1 86 1. It registers degrees of cold by 
means of mercury. 



Invented by Galileo, before 1597. Libri. 

Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 1609. Boerhaave. 

Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgentio, 

Invented by Sanctorio in 1610. BoreUi. 

Fahrenheit's thermometer invented about 1726 ; 
Eeaumur's and Celsius's (the latter now termed 
ceutigTade) soon after. [Fahrenheit's scale is usu- 
ally employed in England, and Reaumur's and the 
centigrade on the continent.] 

THERMOPYLiE (Doris, K Greece). Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 
Thespians, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstood the whole force of the Persians during 
three days, 7, 8, 9 A;ig. 480 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the 
enemy by a secret path up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus 
placed between two assailants, perished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. One 
Greek only returned home, and he was received with reproaches for having fled. Here 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated by the Romans, 191 B.C. 

THERMUM, Theemus or Theema (Greece), a strong city, the Acropolis of MioWa., 
IS. Greece, was captured and ravaged by Philip V. of Macedon, 218 and 206 B.C., on ac- 
count of its favouring the Romans. 

THESPI.^, a city of Boeotia, N. Greece. 700 of its citizens perished with Leonidas at 
Thermopylee, Aug. 480 B.C. It suffered much through the jealousy of the Thebans, who 
destroyed its walls in 372 B.C. 

THESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in Macedonia, N. Greece, originally Therma, 
but rebuilt by Cassander, and said to have been named after his wife, Thessalonica, daughter 
of Philip, after 315 B.C. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to the church here he addressed two 
epistles in 54. In consequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of the inhabitants took 
place in 390, by order of the emperor Theodosius. Thessalonica partook of the changes of 
the Eastern empire. Thessalonica was taken by the Saracens, with great slaughter, July or 
Aug. 904 ; by the ISTormans of Sicily, 15 Aug. 1185 ; and after various changes was taken 
from the Yenetians by the Turks under Amurath, 1430. 

THESSALY (N. Greece), the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. 
The first king of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from 
whom his subjects were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all Greeks. From 
Thessaly came the Achseans, the iEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The two most 
remarkable events in the early history of this country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1548, B.C., 
and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. ; see them severally. Thessaly long aimed at 
neutrality in Grecian afi'airs, but became involved through its rulers, the tyrants of Pherse ; 
Lycophron, about 404 b.c. ; his son Jason, 374, assassinated 370 ; Alexander, the most 
eminent, defied Athens and Thebes ; assassinated 359. Philip of Macedon, after a defeat 
{353 B.C.), gained a victory over the tyrants, 352 ; and subjugated the country wholly, 343. 



THE 727 THO 

The Eomans gave a nominal freedom to Thcssaly after their victory at Cynoscephalaj, 197. 
It is now included in the kingdom of Greece. 

THETFORD (ITorfolk), the Roman Sitomagus, and an important Saxon town, was a 
bishopric from 1075 to 109 1, when the see was removed to Norwich. It was made a 
suffragan bishoimc by Henry VIII. by the power given him in 1534. 

THIBET or Tibet (central Asia), is said to have been a kingdom 313 B.C., conquered by 
Genghis Khan 1206, and gradually subdued byand annexed to Chma, 1255-1720. Buddhism 
became the dominant religion about 905 ; and the Lamas have absolute power in religious 
affairs. 

THIEVES' ISLAiSTD, see Ladrones. 

THIMBLES are said to have been found at Herculaneum. The art of making them was 
brought to Enghind by John Lofting, a mechanic, from Holland, who set up a workshop at 
Islington, near Loudon, and practised the manufacture in various metals with x^rofit and 
success, about 1695. Anderson. 

THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, see Articles. 

THIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the governors of Athens, in 404 B.C., who Avere 
expelled by Thrasybulus, 403 ; and also to the numerous aspirants to the imperial throne of 
Rome during the reigns of Gallienus and Aurelian, a.d. 259-274. 

THIRTY YEARS' "WAR, in Germanj', between the catholics and protestants. It 
began with the latter in Bohemia in 1618, and ended with the peace of Westphalia in 1648. 
It is renowned for the victories of Wallensteiu and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, and for 
its histor}' by Schiller, published 1790-93. 

THISTLE,* Ordeii of the, Scotland, founded by James V. 1540. It consisted 
originally of himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in imitation of Christ and his twelve 
apostles. In 1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, about the time of the 
Reformation. The order was renewed by James VII. of Scotland and II. of England, by 
making eight knights, 29 May, 16S7 ; increased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703 ; to 
sixteen by George IV. in 1827. The original knights of 1687 were 



James, eaii of Perth ; attainted. 
Kenneth, earl of Seaforth ; attainted. 
George, earl of Dumbarton. 
John, earl of Melford ; attainted. 



George, duke of Gordon. 

John, marquess of Athol. 

James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Hamilton ; 

killed in a duel, 171 2. 
Alexander, earl of IVIoray. 

THISTLEWOOD'S CONSPIRACY, see Cato-street Conspiracy/. 
_ THOMAS'S HOSPITAL, ST. (Southwark), was founded as an almshouse by Richard, 
prior of Bermondsey, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1538. In 155 1 the mayor 
and citizens of London, having purchased of Edward VI. the manor of Southwark, including 
this hospital, repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 poor, sick, and helpless 
objects ; upon which the king, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Bethlehem, St. 
Bartholomew's, &c. It was rebuilt in 1693. In 1862, the site was sold to the south-eastern 
railway company, and the patients were removed to the Surrey music hall. The foundation 
stone of the new hospital, erected at Stangate, near the Surrey side of Westminster bridge, 
was laid by the queen 13 May, 1868. 

THOMAS, ST., see Virgin Isles. THOMISTS, see Scotisfs. 

THOMITES or Tomites, a body of enthusiasts who assembled at Broughton, near 
Canterbury. A Cornish publican named Thorn, or Tom (religiously insane), assumed the 
name of sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of Jerusalem, and incited the rabble 
against the Poor Law act. On 31 May, 1838, a farmer of the neighbourhood, whose servant 
had joined the crowd which attended Thom, sent a constable to fetch him back ; but on his 
arrival on the ground he was shot dead by Thom. The military were then called out, and 
lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the murderer into custody ; but Thom advanced, and, 
firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. One of the soldiers fired at Thom, and 
laid him dead by the side of lieut. Bennett. 'The people then attacked the militarj', Avho 
were compelled to fire, and several persons were killed before the mob dispersed. 

THORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a horse, by Eustachius, about 1563; in the human 
body, by 01. Rudbec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas Bartholine, of Copenhagen, and 
Dr. Joliffe, of England, also discovered it about 1654 ; see Lacteals. 

* Some Scottish historians make the origin of this order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it 
was instituted by Achaius I. of Scotland, 809, when that monarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, 
and then took for his device the thistle. It is stated that the king Hungus, the Pict, had a dream, in which 
St. Andrew made a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory over his foes, the Northumbrians; and 
that the next day St. Andrew's Cross ( x ) appeared in the au% and the Northumbrians were defeated. On 
this story, it is said, Achaius framed the order more than 700 years before James V. 



THO 728 THU 

THOE.INUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray powder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 
THORN (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded hy the Teutonic Knights in 1231. Here 
they acknowledged themselves to be vassals of Poland in 1466. Thorn was taken by 
Charles XII. of Sweden, in 1703. Many protestants were slain here (after a religious riot) 
at the instigation of the Jesuits, in 1724. Thorn was acquired by the Prussians in 1793, 
•and taken by the French in 1S06 ; and was restored to Prussia at the peace in 18 15. 

THRACE (now jRoumelia, in Turkey) derived its name from Thrax, the son of Mars. 
Aspin. The Thracians were a warlike people, and therefore Mars was said to have been 
born and to have had his residence among them. Euripides ; see Odrysce. 
Byziiiitium, the capital, founded by the Mega- 

rians, about b.c. 675 

Invasion of Darius I. 513 ; Thrace subdued by 

Megabazus 508 

Xerxes marches against Greece through Thrace, 

and retreats 4S0 



Other Greek colonies established . . 450-400 

Wars between Macedou and the OdrysEB (w/iicA 
see) . . ••.,.• • • • 429-343 

Philip II. acquires Amphipohs, 358 ; and gradu- 
ally all the Greek colonies . . . 357-341 

Death of Alexander ; Thrace allotted to Lysi- 
machus, 323 ; who builds Lysimachia . . 309 

Lysiniachus defeated and slain by Seleucus at 
Corupedion 281 

Thrace overrun by the Gauls . . . . 279 

Lysimachia and the chief towns seized by the 
fleet of Ptolemy Euergetes .... 247 



Eecovered by Philip V. of Macedon . B.C. 205-200 

Lost by him to the Romans 196 

Seized by Antiochus III. of Syria, who is de- 
feated at Magnesia, 190; and surrenders 

Thrace 188 

Perseus defeated in his attempt to regain 

Thrace 171-168 

The Thracian kings rule nominally under the 

Romans 148 et seg. 

RebelUon of Vologsesus quelled . . .14 

Rhoemetalces II. last king . . . a.d. 38 

Thrace made a Roman province, about . . 47 

Invaded by the Goths 255 

Settled by Sarmatians .... 334-376 
Conquered by the Turks, who made Adrianopie 

their capital 1341-53 

Constantinople captured by Mahomet II. 

29 May, 1453 



THRASHHSTG-MACHIKES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use for 
thrashing corn. The Romans used a machine called the irihulum, a sledge" loaded witli 
stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted in 
modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 ; Andrew 
Meikle invented a machine in 1776. Many improvements have been since made. 

THRASYMEISTE or Trasimene (N. Italy). A most bloody engagement took place near 
the Trasimene lake between the Carthaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under 
Flaminius, 217 B.C. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 
10,000 taken prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of 
Hannibal was about 1500 men. About 10,000 Romans made their escape, all covered with 
wounds. Livy ; Polybius. On the same day, an earthquake occurred, which desolated 
several cities in Italy. 

THREATENING LETTERS. Sending letters, whether anonj^monsly written, or with 
a fictitious name, demanding money, or threatening to kill a person, or fire his house, was 
made punishable as a felony, without benefit of clergy, by the Blaclc Act, in 1 722. Persons 
extorting money by threatening to accuse others of such off"ences as are subjected to death, 
or other infamous punishments, were to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or trans- 
portation, by 30 Geo. II., 1756 ; and other acts, the latest, 10 & 11 Yict. c, 66, 1847. 

THREE DENOMINATIONS, see Denominations. 

THUGS, organised secret fanatical murderers in India, who considered their victims 
to be sacrifices to their gods. The English commenced suppressing them about 1810, 
but did not succeed till about 1830, when a plan for the purpose was adopted by lord "Wm. 
Bentinck. 

THUMB-SCREW, an instrument used in the first stages of torture by the Spanish 
inquisition. In England, the rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it, before 
the privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. 
After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was presented to him by the council. King 
William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; 
but, at the third turn, he cried out "Hold — hold! doctor: another turn would make me 
confess anything." 

THUNDERING LEGION. During a contest with the invading Marcomanni, the 
prayers of some Christians in a Roman legion are said to have been followed by a storm of 
thunder, lightning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit the enemy ; and hence the 
legion received the name, A.D. 174. 

THURII or Thurium, a Greek city, S. Italy, founded after the fall of Sybaris, about 452 
B.C. It suffered from the incursions of the Lucanians, by whom the Thurians were severely 
defeated, 390 B.C. It became eventually a dependent ally of Rome ; and was ravaged by the 
troops of Hannibal, 204 ; was established as a colony by the Romans, 194 ; and was captured 
by Spartacus in the Servile war, who levied upon it heavy contributions, 72. 



THU 729 TIF 

THURINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom in central Germany, was overrun hj Attila and 
the Huns, 451 ; the last king, Hermanfried, was defeated and slain by Thierry, king of the 
Franks, who annexed it to his dominions, 530. It formed two duchies, 630-717, and 849- 
919 ; a margraviate, 960-1090 ; landgraviate and county, 1 130-1247 ; and was, after various 
changes and many conflicts, absorbed into Saxony in the iftli century. In 1815 it was 
surrendered to Prussia. 

THURLES (S. Ireland). Here was held a synod of the Eoman catholic archbishops, 
bishops, inferior clergy, and religious orders, under the direction of archbishop CuUen, the 
Eoman catholic primate, 22 Aug. 1850. It condemned the Queen's Colleges, and recom- 
mended the foundation of a Roman catholic university, 10 Se-pt. following. The acts were 
forwarded to Rome for approval of the pope, Pius IX. 

THUROT^S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish commodore in the French service, by his 
courage and daring became a terror to all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had the 
command of a small armament, and landed 1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and 
plundered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and was overtaken by Captain Elliot, 
with three frigates, Avho engaged his little squadron, which was taken, and the commodore 
killed, 28 Feb. 1760. Thurot's true name was O'Farrell. His grandfather had followed the 
fortunes of James II. ; but his mother being of a family of some dignity in France, he 
assumed her name. Bums. 

THURSDAY, the fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero worshipped by 
the northern nations, particularly bj'- the Scandinavians and Celts. His authority was said to 
extend over the winds, seasons, thunder and lightning, &c. He is said to have been the 
most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, 
and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday is in Latin dies Jovis, or 
Jupiter's day. 

THYATIRA (Asia Minor), the place assigned for the battle at which the rebel Proco- 
pius was defeated by the army of the emperor Valens, 366 ; see Seven Churclics. 

THYMBRA (Asia Minor). Here Cyrus the Great defeated the confederate army aiding 
Croesus, and obtained supremacy in Asia, 548. 

TIARA, head ornament of the ancient Persians. The name is given to the triple crown 
of the pope (anciently called regnum), indicative of his civil rank, as the keys are of his 
ecclesiastical jm-isdiction. The right to wear a crown is said to have been granted to the 
bishops of Rome by Constantine the Great, and by Clovis, founder of tlie French monarchy. 
Their ancient tiaru was a high round cap. Pope Damasus II. first caused himself to be 
crowned with a tiara, 1048. " Boniface VIII. encompassed the tiara with a crown ; 
Benedict XII. added a second ; and John XXIII. a third." Rccs. 

TIBERIAS, a city in Palestine, built by Herod Antipas, and named after the empei'or 
Tiberias, 39. Near it Guy de Lxrsignan, king of Jerusalem, and the crusaders, Avere defeated 
by Saladin ; and Jerusalem fell into his hands, 1187. 

TIBET, see Thibet. 

TIBUR (now Tivoli), a Latin town more ancient than Rome, and frequently at war with 
it. The Tiburtines were defeated 335 B.C., and the subjection of all Latium followed; for 
which Furius Camillus obtained a triumph and an equestrian statue in the forum. 

TICINO or Tessin, a Sv^iss canton south of the Alps, conquered bji'the Swiss early in the 
i6th century; made a separate canton in 1815. It suffered by internal disputes 1839 and 1841. 

TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal defeated the Romans, 217 B.C. 

TICKETS OF LEAVE, see Transportation, and Crime. 

TICONDEROGA (N. America). The French fortress here was unsuccessfully besieged 
by Abercromby in July, 1758 ; taken 26 July, 1759. The Americans took it in 1775, but 
retired from it in July, 1777. The British retired from it shortly after. 

TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of 
Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 B.C. ; and Csesar 
speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic war. The theory of the tides was first 
satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 1598 ; bat the honour of a complete explanation of them 
was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about 1683. 

TIEN-TSIN, see China, June, 1858-Jan. 1861. 

TIERRA DEL FUEGO, see Missions, note. TIERS ETAT, see States-General. 

TIFLIS (Asiatic Russia), built about 469 by Vakhtang ; became the capital of Georgia. 
It was taken by Genghis Khan in the 12th century; by Mustapha Pacha, 1576; by the 
Persians, 1796; and bv the Russians, 1801. 



TIG 



730 



TIM 



TIGRANO-CERTA, capital of Armenia, built by Tigraiies the Great, and taken by 
Lucullus and tlie Romans, after a gi-eat victorj'', 69. 

TIGRIS, a river forming the eastern boundary of Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities 
founded on its banks : Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Bagdad. It was explored by an 
English steamer in 1838. 

TILBURY (Essex). The camp formed here in 1588 to resist the Spanish invasion was 
visited by queen Elizabeth. 

TILES are said to have been first made in England about 1246. They were taxed in 
1784. The number of tiles taxed in England in 1820 was 81,924,626 ; and in 1830, 
97,318,264. The tax was repealed in 1833. 

TILSIT (on the Niemen), on which river, on a raft, the emperors of Erance and Russia 
met, 25 June, 1807. By a treaty concluded between France and Russia, signed 7 July, 
Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and Russia recognised 
the Confederation of the Rhine, and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, 
Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and "Westphalia. 

TILTS, see Tournaments. 

TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, 
or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which 35 will stand on an acre ; in peace, 
32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A 74 gun ship consumed 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, 
the produce of 57 acres in a centiiry. Hence the whole navy consumed 102,600 acres, and 
1026 per annum. Allnut. Iron is now used in preference to timber. In 1843 "^'^ imported 
1,317,645 loads of timber (cut and uncut) ; in 1857, 2,495,964 loads ; in 1866, 3,638,344 
loads. In 1866, we imported 53,458 tons of mahogany. The duties on timber were modi- 
fied in 185 1. ' 

TIMBER BENDING. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by Mr. T. Blanchard, 
of Boston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. A 
company was formed for its apjjlication in this country in 1856. 

TIMBUGTOO (N. Africa), a city built hy Mansa Suleiman, a Mahometan, about 1214, 
and frequently subjugated by the sovereigns of Marocco. Since 1727 it has been partially 
independent. 

TIME. Our ideas in regard to time have been of late greatly extended. The distant 
planet Neptune, discovered by Adams and Le Terrier in 1846, requires above 900 of our 
years for a single revolution ; and the coal measures in Wales, a thickness of strata of more 
than twelve miles, would require for its deposition hundreds of thousands of years ; while 
other formations could only be estimated in millions of years. Phillips ; see Clock, Sun- 
dials, Walches, &c. 

TIMES NEWSPAPER. On 13 Jan. 1785, Mr. 'John Walter published the first number 
of the Daily Universal Register, price 21/1., printed on the logographic system (invented by 
Henry Johnson, a compositor), in which "types containing syllables and words were employed 
instead of single letters. 

for libel (in the case Bogle v. Lawson). The jury 
found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of 
one farthing damages, but the judges refused costs. 
Subscriptions were set on foot in all parts of 
Europe to reimburse the proprietors for the 
imaiense outlay in defending the action. This 
they firmly declined ; and the money was expended 
in establishing Times Scho!ar.ihips at Oxford and 
Cambridge, and at Christ's Hospital, and other 
schools ; marble tablets also, commemorating the 
event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in 
other places. These were the greatest honours 
ever conceded to a newspaper. 

In Oct. 1845, the Times express was for the first time 
conveyed to India overland, by the agency of lieut. 
Waghorn. 

Of the number of the Times containing the life of 
the duke of Wellington for 19 Nov. 1852, 70,000 
were sold — the ordinary number being then 36,000 ; 
the present circulation is stated to vary from 
50,000 to 60,000 (1S68). 

In 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as 
their special correspondent to the seat of war in 
the Crimea ; in 1857 to India, and in 1861 to the 
southern states of North America. 

Times Fund. — On the 12th of Oct. 1854, sir Robert 
Peel originated by a letter in the Times a subscrip- 
tion for the sick aud wounded in the Crimean war 



On I Jan. 17SS, the paper was named the Times. 

In 1803, when Mr. Walter gave up the paper to his 
son, the circulation was about 1000 ; that of the 
Morning Post being 4500. 

Dr. Stoddart (satirised as Dr. Slop by Moore the 
poet) became editor in 1812, but iive years after 
retired and set up in opposition the Neio Times, an 
unprofitable speculation. Thomas Barnes became 
next editor. He died 7 May, 1841. The succeeding 
editors were William F. A. Delane, who died in 
1858, and John Thaddeus Delane (his son). 

On 28 Nov. 1814, the Times was first printed by steam 
power (the invention of F. Konig), 1200 per hour, 
afterwards increased to 2000 and 4000. 

The powerful articles contributed by Edward Stir- 
ling gained the paper the name of the Thunderer. 

On 19 Jan. 1829, the first double number appeared. 

In July, 1834, an attack of Mr. O'Counell in the 
house of commons on the correctness of the re- 
ports of the debates in the Times was signally 
defeated. 

Shortly after began the convenient summary of 
the debates, written in the first instance by Mr. 
Horace Twiss. 

In 1841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and 
exposing a scheme organised by a company, to 
defraud by forgery all the influential bankers of 
Europe. This brought on the proprietors an action 



TIM 731 TIT 

TIMES NEWSPAPER, continued. 

and in less than a fortnislit is,oooJ. were sent to i of the houseless poor of London; and in a few 
tho Times' office to be tlaus appropriated. Mr. ' days 8ooot. were subscribed for tbeir relief. 
Macdonald (the i^resont manager) was sent out by | In 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold ; in 1857, 
the proprietors as special connnissioner to ad- 16,100,000; in 1859, 16,900,000; in i860, 16,670,000. 
minister the fund, from which large quantities of In i860, 16,400 copies per hour were printed, 
food and clothing were supplied to the suiferers, ' On 21 June, 1861, the Times consisted of 24 pages, 
with inestimable advantage ; see Scutari, and , containing 4076 advertisements (about 1810 it cou- 
Nightimale. I tained 150 advertisements). 

In Dec. 1858, the Times drew attention to the state ; 

TIN. The PlicEiiicians traded with England for this article for more than 1 100 years 
before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them commercial importance 
in the ancient Avorld. Under the Saxons, our tin mines appear to have been neglected ; but 
after the coming in of the Normans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of 
Cornwall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. A charter and various immunities 
were gi-anted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the Stannary laws (loJiich 
see), laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. Edward III. confirmed the 
tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he invested his 
son, Edward the Black Prince, 1337. Since that time the heirs-apparent to the crown of 
England, if eldest sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered in 
Germany, which lessened tho value of those in England, till then the only tin mines in 
Europe, 1240. Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640; in India, 1740; in New Spain, 
1782. In 1857, 9783 tons, in i860, 10,462 tons, in 1864, 10,108 tons, in 1865, 10,039 tons, 
of metallic tin were prociu'ed from British mines. Of tin plates we exported in value, in 
1847, 484, 184^. ; iu 1854, i,o75,53lZ. ; in i860, 1,500,812^. ; in 1864, 1,263,246^. ; in 
1866, 1, 896, 341 Z, 

TINCHEBRAY (N.W. France), where a battle was fought between Henry 1. of England 
and his brother Robert duke of Normandy. England and Normandy were reunited under 
Henry, at the decease of William Rufus, who had already possessed himself of Normandy by 
a moi-tgage from his brother Robert, at his setting out for Palestine. Robert, on his return, 
recovered Normandy by an accommodation with Henry : but the two having afterwards 
quarrelled, the former was defeated by the latter in the battle of Tinchebray, 28 Sept. 1106, 
and Normandy was annexed to the crown of England. Renault. 

TIPPERMUIR (near Perth). Here the marquess of Montrose defeated the covenanters 
under lord Elcho, i Sept. 1644. 

TITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor in menakite, a Cornish mineral, iu 1791, 
and in 1 794 by Klaproth. 

TITHES or Tenths, were commanded to be given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 e.g. 
Lev. xxvii. 30. Abraham returning from his victory over the kings {Gen. xiv.), gave tithes 
of the spoil to Melchisedek, king of Salem, priest of the most high God (1913 B.C.). For the 
first 800 j^ears of the Christian cliurch they were given purely as alms, and were voluntary. 
Wichliffe. " I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though 
such a right certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish 
theocracy." Blackstonc. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800, 
and abolished 1789. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran councils, 12 15. Rarnailda.— 
The payment of tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustin, the first archbishop of 
Canterbury, and to have been allowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term ' ' God's 
fee," about 600. 

The first mention of them in any English written In 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of 2s. gd. in the 

law, is a constitutional decree made in a synod pound on rent; since then, many acts have been 

strongly enjoining tithes, 786. pa.'ised respecting them. 

Oflfa, kingof Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes The Tithe Commutation act, passed 13 Aug. 1836. It 

of all his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethel- was amended in 1837, 1840, and 1846. 

bert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused A rector is entitled to all the tithes; a vicar to a 

to be basely murdered, 794. small part only, frequently to none. 

Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a Several acts relating to tithes in Ireland have been 

general assembly held by Ethelwold, a.d. 844. passed in 1832-47, altering and improving the 
Henry. ' tithe system. 

TITHING. The number or company of ten men with their families knit together in a 
society, all of them being bound to the king for the peaceable and good behaviour of each of 
their society ; of these companies there was one chief person, who, from his office, wa.s 
called (toothingman) tithingman ; but now he is nothing but a constable, formerly called the 
headborough. Cowel. 

TITLES ROYAL. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and "My liege," 1399- 
Henry VI., "Excellent Grace," 1422. Edward IV., "Most High and Mighty Prince," 



TIV 732 TOL 

1461. Henry VII., "Highness," 1485; Henry VIII. the same title, and sometimes 
" Grace," 1509 et seq. But these two last were absorbed in the title of " Majestj'," being 
that with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520 ; 
see Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled 
"Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to "Majesty "the present "Sacred," or "Most 
Excellent Majesty. " " Majesty " was the style of' the emperors of Germany ; the first king 
to whom it was given was Louis XL of France, about 1463. 

TYVOLl, see Tihir. 

TOBACCO, Nicotiana tahacum, received its name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, 
New Spain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribbees ; others from Tobasco, 
in the gulf of Florida. It is said to have been first observed at St. Domingo, 1492 ; and to 
have been used freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was either first 
brought to England in 1565, by sir John Hawkins ; or by sir Walter Ealeigh and sir Francis 
Drake, in 1586. It was manufactured only for exportation for some years. Slovis Chron. 
The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is said to have been the first house in England where 
tobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was issued against it. James I. published 
" A Counterblaste against Tobacco," and the star-chamber ordered the duties to be 6s. lod. 
per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II., 1684. Act 
laying a duty on the importation was passed 1684. The cultivation was allowed in Ireland, 
1779. The tax was increased and put under the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe. Various 
statutes have passed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of 
tobacco in Ireland passed 2 "WiU. IV., Aug. 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in 
Ireland be purchased in order to its being destroyed, 24 March, 1832. The quantity con- 
sumed in England in 1791 was nine millions and a half of poimds, and in 1829 about fifteen 
millions of pounds. "VVe imported in 1850, 35, 166,358 lbs., imd 1,557,558 lbs. manufactured 
(cigars and snuft) : in 1855, 36,820,846 lbs., and 2,651,544 lbs. manufactured; in i860, 
48,936,471 lbs., and 2,110,430 lbs. manufactured; in 1864, 61,042,667 lbs., and 6,578,707 
lbs. manufactured; in 1866, 54,374,800 lbs., and 3, 171,906 lbs. manufactured. The tobacco 
duties were modified in 1863. 

TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Columbus in 1498 ; settled by the Dutch 1642. 
Taken by the English, 1672; retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was declared a neutral island; 
but in 1763 it was ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse 
in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, 14 April, 1793, but 
restored at the peace of Amiens, 6 Oct. 1802. The island was once more taken by the 
British under general Grinfield, i July, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 
Paris, in 1814. Population in 1861, 15,410. 

TOBITSCHAU (Moravia). In a sharp action here, on 15 July, 1866, the Austrians 
were defeated by the army of the crown prince of Prussia with the loss of 500 kiUed and 
wounded and 500 prisoners, and seventeen guns. 

TOISOlsT D'OE or Golden Fleece (which see). 

TOKENS, BANK, silver pieces issued by the Bank of England, of the value of 55.. 
I Jan. 1798. The Spanish dollar had a small profile of George III. stamped on the neck of 
the Spanish king. They were raised to the value of 5s. 6d. 14 Nov. 181 1. Bank tokens 
were also current in Ireland, where those issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser sums 
until 1 81 7. They were called in on the revision of the coinage. Tradesmen were permitted 
to issue tokens as small coins from 1648 till 16 Aug. 1672, when their circulation was pro- 
hibited by royal proclamation. These tokens are figured and described in a work by Wm. 
Boyne, 1858. 

TOLBIAC (now Zulpich), near the Ehine, where Clovis totally defeated the Allemanni, 
496. 

TOLEDO, the ancient Toletum (Central Spain), made capital of the Visigothic kingdom 
by Athanagild, 554 ; taken by the Saracens, 712. Toledo was taken after war, begun 1081, 
by Alfonso I. of Castile, 25 May, 1085. In 1088 the archbishop was made primate of Spain. 
The university was founded in 1499. Toledo sword-blades have been famed since the 15th 
centurj'. 

TOLENTINO (in the Papal states), where a treaty was made between the pope and the 
French, 19 Feb. 1797. Here Joachim Murat having resumed arms against the allies, was 
defeated by the Austrians, 3 May, 1815. 

TOLEEATION ACT, passed in 1689, to relieve Protestant dissenters from the church 
of England. Their liberties were, however, greatly||endangered in the latter days of queen 
Anne, who died on the day that the Schism bill was to become a law, i Aug. 17 14. 



TOL 733 TOK 

TOLERATION ACT, continued. 

The toleration gi-anted was somewhat limited. It I unlawful conventicles ; and it allowed the quakers 

exempted persons who took the new oath of alle- i to substitute an affirmation for an oath, but did 

glance and supremacy and made also a declara- not relax the provisions of the Test act {zokich 

tion against popery, from the penalties incurred see). The party spirit of the times checked the 

by absenting themselves from church and holding | king in his liberal measures. 

TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the Stacle on the Elbe, 1 109. They were first 
demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341 ; see Stade, and Soimd. Toll- 
bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon that passed 
through a certain manor ; and the first regular toll was collected a few years after for mending 
the road in London between St. Giles's and Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- 
ways of Holborn-inn-lane and Martin's lane (now Aldersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gates or 
turnpikes were set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near London were removed by 
parliament ; 81 turnpikes and toll-bars ceased on the north of London on i July, 1864 ; and 
61 on the south side, ceased on 31 Oct. 1865 ; and many others on the Essex and Middlesex 
roads ceased on 31 Oct. 1866 ; see Wales, 1843. 

TOLOSA. On the plain named las ISTavas de Tolosa, near the Sierra Morena, S. Spain, 
Alfonso, king of Castile, aided by the kings of Arragon and Navarre, gained a great victory 
over the Moors, 16 July, 12 12. This conllict is sometimes termed the battle of Muradal. 

TONNAGE, see Tunnage. 

TONOMETER, a delicate apparatus for tuning musical instruments, by marking the 
number of vibrations, was invented by H. Scheibler, of Crefeld, about 1834. It received 
little notice till M. Kcenig removed some of the difficulties opposed to its successful use, and 
exhibited it at the International Exhibition of 1862. 

TONQUIN, South Asia, part of the kingdom of Anam. Here a French missionary 
bishop, Melchior, was murdered with great barbarity 27 Jirly, 1858 : the abbe Neron was 
also miu'dered, 3 Nov. i860 ; see Ana7n. 

TONSURE, the clerical crown, adopted, it is said, in imitation of St. Peter, was disap- 
proved of in the fourth century as pertaining only to penitents, and not made essential till 
the end of the fifth or beginning of the sixth century. 

TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, invented by 
Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to reconcile the people to 
cardinal Mazarin's government, by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, 
1653. Voltaire. Tonti died in the Bastille after seven years' imprisonment. A Mr. Jennings 
was an original subscriber for a looZ. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor 
of the shareholders, his share produced him 3000?. per annum. He died, aged 103 years, 
19 June, 1798, worth 2,1 15, 244Z. 

TOPLITZ (Bohemia). Here were signed, in 1813, two treaties — one between Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, 9 Sept. ; and one between Great Britain and Austria, 3 Oct. 

TORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. Gillespie, of TorbanehiU, granted a lease of all the 
coal in the estate to Messrs. Russell. In the course of working, the lessees extracted a 
combustible mineral of considerable value as a source of coal-gas, and realised a lai-ge profit 
in the sale of it as gas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral was coal, and disputed 
the riglit of the lessees to work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great array of scientific 
men and practical gas engineers, and the evidence was most conflicting. One side maintained 
the mineral to be coal, the other that it was bituminous scliist. The judge set aside the 
scientific evidence, and the juiy pronounced it to be coal. The authorities in Prussia 
have since pronounced it not to be coal. Perey. 

TORDESILLAS (near Valladolid). Here was signed, in 1494, a treaty modifying the 
boundary line which pope Alexander VI. had assigned, in 1493, in his division of the new 
world between Spain and Portugal. 

TORGAU (Saxony, N. Germany), the site of a battle between Frederick II. of Prussia and 
the Anstrians, in which the former obtained a signal factory ; the Austrian general, count 
Daun, a renowned warrior, being wounded, 3 Nov. 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained a great 
victory over the Prussian king. Torgau was taken by the allies in 1814; and given to 
Prussia, 181 5. 

TORIES, a term given to a political party about 1678 ; see Wliig. Dr. Johnson defines 
a Tory as one who adheres to the ancient constitution of the state, and the apostolical 
hierarchy of the Church of England. The Tories long maintained the doctrines of " divine 
hereditary indefeasible right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prerogative," &c. Boling- 
hrohe ; see Conservatives. For the chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perceval, Liverpool, 
Wellington, Peel, Derby, and Disraeli. 



TOR 734 TOU 

TORONTO, the capital of Canada "West, founded in 1794 as York ; it received its present 
name in 1834. It was made a bishopric in 1839. 

TORPEDO SHELLS, a name given to explosives placed under ships, an invention 
ascribed to David Bushnell, in 1777. Torpedo shells ignited by electricity were employed 
in the war in the United States, 1861-5. On 4 Oct. 1865, Messrs. M'Kay & Beardslee tried 
them at Chatham before the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, the Terpsichore, 
was speedily sunk. The preliminary arrangements are considered rather complicated. 
Magneto-electricity was employed. Torpedoes, made by professor E. Abel, of Woolwich, 
were tried in May, 1866. 

TORRES STRAIT, dividing Australia from Papua or New Guinea, was discovered by 
Torres, a Spaniard, in 1606. 

TORRES VEDRAS (a city of Portugal). Near here Wellington, retreating from the 
French, took up a strong position, called the Lines of Torres Vedras, 10 Oct. 1810. 

TORTOLA, see Virgin Isles. 

TORTURE was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was 
applied to heretics by the Roman catholic clergy, and was used in England so late as 1640 
(when Archer, who took part in an attack on Laud's palace, was racked), and in Scotland 
until 1690. The trial bj'- torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by Louis XVI., 
in 1789 ; and in Sweden, by Gustavus III., 1786. General Picton was convicted of applying 
the torture to Louisa Calderon, in Trinidad, at his trials, 21 Eeb. 1806, and 11 June, 1808. 

TOTAL ABSTINENCE, see Teetotaller. 

TOTNES (Devon) : thought to be the Roman Ad Durium Amnem. It was held by 
Judhael de Totneis, who built the castle about 1085. It was disfranchised for gross corrup- 
tion and bribery, by the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. 

TOULON (S. France), an important military and naval port. It was taken by the 
constable of Bourbon, 1524, and by the emperor Charles Y. in 1536. In 1707 it was bom- 
barded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to 
a heap of ruins, and several ships burned ; but the allies were at last obliged to raise the 
siege. It surrendered 27 Aug. 1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took possession 
both of the town and shipping, in the name of Louis XYIL, under a stipulation to assist in 
restoring the French constitution of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and 
French forces, when the latter were repulsed, 15 Nov. 1793. Toulon was retaken by 
Bonaparte, 19 Dec, when great cruelties were exercised towards such of the inhabitants as 
were supposed to be favourable to the British. — A naval battle off this port was fought 
II Feb. 1744, between the English under Mathews and Lestock, against the fleets of France 
and Spain : in this engagement the brave captain Cornewall fell. The victory was lost by a 
misunderstanding between the English admirals. • Mathews was afterwards dismissed for 
misconduct. 

TOULOUSE, the ancient Tolosa (S. France), founded abou.t6i5 B.C. ; was the capital 
of the Yisigothic kings in A.D. 419 ; and was taken by Clovis in 508. The dukes of 
Aquitaine reigned here, 631-761. A university was established here, 1229, and a parlia- 
ment, 1302. The inquisition was established here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The 
troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their origin about 850, and consisted of a 
fraternity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to the Italian 
and French poetry ; see TrouMdours. The allied British and Spanish army entered this 
city on 12 April, 1814, immediately after the Battle of Toulouse, fought between the 
British Peninsular army under lord Wellington, and the French led by marshal Soult, 
10 April, 1814. The French were forced to retreat, after twelve hours' fighting. Neither 
of the commanders knew that Napoleon had abdicated the throne of France. 

TOULOUSE. The county was created out of the kingdom of Aquitaine by Charlemagne, 
in 778. It enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of the Albigenses {which see), when 
the count Raymond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort became count. At his death, 
in 1218, Raymond VII. obtained his inheritance. His daughter Jane and her husband, 
Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of France), dying without issue, the county of Toulouse was 
imited to the French monarchy in 1271. 

TOURAINE, the garden of France, was conquered by the Visigoths about 480. It was 
ceded to Geoffrey count of Anjou, 1044, and thus became the property of the Plantagenet 
kings of England. It was seized by Philip Augustus in 1203, and was made a duchy by 
John 1360. It was finally united to the crofrn at the death of the duke of Anjou, 1584. 

TOURNAMENTS or Jousts, were martial sports of the ancient cavaliers. Tournament 
is derived from the French word tourner, "to turn round." Tournaments were frequent 
about 890 ; and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about 919. The Lateran council 



TOU 735 TRA 

published au article against their continuance in 1136. One was held in Sniithfield so late 
as the I2th century, when the taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in 
a tilt with the count of Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the 
king's death in a few days, 29 June, 1559. Tournaments were then abolished in France. — 
A magnificent feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archibald, earl of Eglintoun, 
took place at Eglintoun castle, 29 Aug. 1839, and the following week : many of the visitors 
(among whom was the present emperor of the French) assumed the characters of ancient 
knights, lady Seymour being the "Queen of Beauty." Among the festivities at the 
marriage of prince Humbert, at Turin, was a tournament, 24 April, 1868. 

TOURNAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing till it was ravaged by the barbarians in the 
5th century. It h;is sustained many sieges. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the 
house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison 
in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under general La Bour- 
donnaye, 8 Nov. 1792. Several battles were fought near Touruay in May, 1793, and 
May, 1794. 

TOURNIQUET (from iourner, to turn), an instrument for stopping the flow of blood into 
a limb, by tightening the bandage, employed in amputatious, is said to have been invented 
by Morelli at the siege of Besanjon, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, invented the screw 
tourniquet in 1718, 

TOURS, an ancient city, central France, near which Charles Martel gained a great 
victory over the Saracens, and saved Europe, 10 Oct. 732, and from which he acquired the 
name of Martel, signifying hammer. This conflict is also called the battle of Poitiers. 

TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar 
{Gen. xi.), 2247 B.C. ; see Bahcl. The Tower of the Wiuds at Athens, built 550 B.C. The 
Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 B.C. The round toioers in Ireland were the only structures 
of stone found at the arrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings in the maiitime 
towns founded by the Danes. These towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but 
narrowing towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with 
conical roofs. Fifty-six of them stdl remain, from 50 to 130 feet high ; see Pisa. 

TOWER OF LoNnoN-. The tradition that Julius C.iesar founded a citadel here (about 
54 B.C. ) is very doubtful. A royal palace, consisting of no more than Avhat is now called the 
White Tower, which appears to have been first marked out by William the Conqueror, 1076, 
was commenced in 107S, and completed by his son, William Rufus, who, in 1098, 
surroimded it with walls and a broad deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions 
to it, and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638, the White Tower was rebuilt ; and 
since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a gi-eat number 
of additional buildings made to it. Here are the Arraourjr, Jewel-office, and various other 
divisions and buildings of peculiar interest ; and here took place many executions of 
illustrious persons, and many murders (king Henry VI., 147 1 ; king Edward V. and his 
brother, 1485 ; sir Thomas Overbary, 1613). The armoury and 280,000 stand of arms, &c., 
were destroyed by fire, 30 Oct. 1841'. The "New Buildings " in the Tower were completed 
in 1850 ; see Blood. 

TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British Museum, were purchased in 1805 apd 18 14. 

TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary battle was fought, 29 March, 146 1, between 
the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter of whom it was 
fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and 
the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner, and confined in the 
Tower ; his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders. 

TOXOPHILITES (from toxon, a bow, and jMlos, a lover), a society established by sir 
Aston Lever in 1781. In 1834 they took grounds in the inner circle of Regent's-park, and 
buUt the archery lodge. They possess a very curious piece of ])late, given by Catherine, 
queen of Charles II., to be shot for by the Finsbury archers, of whom the Toxophilites are 
the representatives. 

TRACT SOCIETIES. The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was founded in 
1698; the Religious Tract Society, London, in 1795 ; and other similar societies since. 

TRACTARIANISJI, a term applied to certain opinions on church matters propounded in 
the "Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were publi-shed, 1S33-41. The 
principal writers were the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, 
and I. Williams— all of the university of Oxford ; see Puscyism. 

TRACTION-ENGINES were used on common roads in London in i860, but afterwards 



TRA 736 TRA 

restricted. In Aug. 1862 one of Bray's traction-engines conveyed through, the city a mass 
of iron, which would have reqirired 29 horses. 

TRADE AND PLANTATIONS, Board of. Cromwell seems to have given the first 
notions of a board of trade : in 1655 he appointed his son Richard, with many lords of his 
council, judges, and gentlemen, and aboiit tAventy merchants of London, York, Newcastle, 
Yarmouth, Dover, &c., to nrieet and consider by what means the trade and navigation of the 
republic might be best promoted. Thomas's Notes of the Bolls. Charles IL, on his restora- 
tion, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole commerce of the 
nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations which was re- 
modelled bj'- William I IL This board was abolished in 1 782 ; and a new council for the 
affairs of trade on its present plan was appointed, 2 Sept. 1786. 

TRADES' MUSEUMS. The formation of one was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the 
commissioners of the Great Exhibition of 185 1, and the Society of Arts. The animal depart- 
ment was opened 17 May, 1855, when a paper on the mutual relations of trade and manu- 
factures was read by professor E. Solly. The contents of this miTseum Avere removed to the 
South Kensington Museum, which was opened 24 June, 1857. The French " Conservatoire 
des Arts et Metiers" Avas established 1795. 

TRADES' UNIONS. By 6 Geo. IV. c. 129 (1825), the combination laws were repealed, 
and other provisions made. As trades' unions formed for maintaining the rate of Avages, &c., 
are not recognized by laAV, a commission (including lord Elcho, Thomas Hughes, and others, 
Avith sir Wm. Erie as chairman) Avas appointed to inquire into their constitution, 14 Feb. 
1867, and an act to facilitate their proceedings was passed 5 April foUoAving. Their 
reports Avere issued during the year, disclosing the existence of murderous practices, with 
great intimidation ; see Sheffield, and Manchester. 

TRAFALGAR (Cape S. Spain), off Avhich a great naval victory was gained by the 
British, under Nelson, against the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by 
admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals, 21 Oct. 1805. The enemy's force was 
eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line : that of the British, twenty- 
seven ships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve and the other admirals Avere taken, and 
nineteen of their ships captured, sunkj or destroyed. Nelson Avas killed, and admiral Col- 
lingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship A\-as the Victory; and his last signal 
Avas, " England expects every man Avill do his duty ;" see Nelson. 

TRAFFIC in the metropolis is now regulated by the Metropolitan Streets act, passed 20 
Aug. 1867. 

TRAGEDY, see Drama. 

TRAINING SCHOOLS, one of these useful establishments was founded at Batter- 
sea in 1840, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. Tufnell ; the latter, who was 
then in the Poor LaAv Commission, devoting a year's salary towards the expenses. 
Mr. Mann stated, in 1855, that there were about forty of these schools in different parts 
of the country. 

TRAJAN'S COLUMN (in Rome), erected 114, by the Roman senate and people, to 
commemorate his victories, and executed by ApoUodorus. It Avas built in the square called-^ 
the Forum Homanum ; it is of the Tuscan order, and from its base, exclusive of the statue 
and pedestal, is 1274 feet high. 

TRAM-ROADS, an abbreA'iation of Outram-roads, derived the name from Mr. Benjamin 

■ Outram, who, in 1800, made improvements in the system of raihvays for common vehicles, 

then in use in the north of England. The iron tram-road from Croydon to Wandsworth was 

completed on 24 July, 1801. Mr. Outram Avas father of the late sir James Outram, the 

Indian general. Chamhers. 

TRANQUEBAR (East Indies), the Danish settlement here, founded in 161 8, Avas pur- 
chased by the English in 1845. 

TRANSFIGURATION. The change of Christ's appearance on Mount Tabor, in the 
presence of Peter, James, and John, a.d. 32 (Matt. xvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, 
kept on 6 Aug., was instituted by pope Calixtus II. in 1455. 

TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD, see Blood. TRANSIT, see Venus. 

TRANSLATION to Heaven. The translation of Enoch to heaven for his faith at the 
age of 365 years, 3017 B.C. The prophet Elijah was translated to heaA'en in a chariot of fire, 
896 B.C. — The possibility of translation to the abode of eternal life has been maintained by 
some extraA'agant enthusiasts. The Irish house of commons expelled Mr. Asgill 
from his seat, for his book asserting the possibility of translation to the other world Avithout 
death, 1703. 



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TRANSPADANE EEPUBLIO, comprising Lombardy and part of the Venetian terri- 
tories, was established by Bonaparte after his victory at Lodi, lo May, 1796. With the 
Cispadane republic, it merged into the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 1797. 

TRANSPOETATIOISr, see Banishincnt. Judges were given the power of sentencing 
offenders to transportation "into any of his majesty's dominions in North America," by 
18 Charles II. c. 3 (1666), and by 4 Geo. I. c. 11 (1718). Transportation ceased in 1775, but 
was revived in 1786. The reception of convicts was successfully refused by the Cape of 
Good Hope {in 1849) and by the Australian colonies (1864). Transportation, even to West 
Australia, where labour is Avanted, is to cease in a few years, through the fierce opposition 
of the eastern colonies. In consequence of the recent difficulty experienced in transporting 
felons, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, namely, penal servi- 
tude, empowering her maj esty to grant pardon to offenders under certain conditions, and 
licences to others to be at large : such licences being liable to be revoked if necessary ; and 
many have been. These licences are termed "tickets of leave." The system was much 
assailed in Oct. and Nov. 1862, on account of many violent crimes being traced to ticket-of- 
Icavers ; see Crime. 



John Ejrre, esq. , a man of fortune, was sentenced 
to transportation for stealing a few quires of 
paper. Phillips . . . . i Nov. 

The Rev. Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of 
Chesterfield, was transported for forging a 
frank (lorf. postage) ... 9 Sept. 

The fii-st transportation of felons to Botany Bay 
was in ilay, 17S7 ; where governor Phillip 
arrived with, about 800 on 20 Jan. 1788 ; con- 



victs were afterwards sent to Van Diemen's 
Land, Norfolk Island, &c. 

Returning from transportation was punishable 
with death until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug. 1834, 
when an act was passed making the offence 
punishable by transportation for life. 

The last shipment of convicts was to West Aus- 
tralia (which had already received 10,000) in 
1867. 



TEANSCrBSTAlSTTIATIOlSr, the doctrine of the "real presence." That the bread and 
wine in the Eucharist are changed into the very flesh and blood of Christ by the consecra- 
tion, was broached in the days of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by Amalarius and Ead- 
burtus (about 830), but rejected byEabanus Maurus, Johannes Scotns Erigena, Berengarius, 
Wickliffe, and others. In the Lateran council, held at Eome by Innocent III., the word 
" Transubstantiation " was used to express this doctrine, which was decreed to be incontro- 
vertible ; and all who opposed it were condemned as heretics. This was confirmed by the 
council of Trent, 18 Jan. 1562. John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other martyrs of the 
reformation, suffered for denying this dogma, which is renounced by the church of England 
(28th article), and by all protestaut dissenters.* The declaration against transubstantiation, 
invocation of the saints, and the sacri^ce of the mass, on taking any civil office, was abolished 
by an act passed 25 Jul}', 1867. 

TEANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, was part of the ancient Dacia (wJiich see). In 
1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of 
the Turks. His successors ruled with much difficulty till Jan. 1699, when the emperor 
Leopold I., by the treaty of Caiiowitz, finally incorporated Transylvania into the Austrian 
dominions. The Transylvanian deputies did not take their seat in the Austrian parliament 
till 20 Oct. 1863. A decree for the convocation of the Transylvanian diet was issued 12 Sept. 
1865. The inhabitants are about 1,100,000 ignorant Eoumans, 1,500,000 Saxon colonists, 
and 550,000 Magyars, the last being the ruling class. The union of Transylvania with 
Hungary in 1 848, which has caused mucli discontent, was ratified by the Transylvanian 
diet, 25 Dec. 1866. 



1526. John Zapoly. 

1540. John Sigismund. 

1571. Stephen Zapoly I. Bathori. 

1576. Christopher Bathori. 

1581. Sigisnnmd Bathori. 



PRINCES OF TRANSYLVANIA. 

1602. Emperor Rodolph. 

1605. Stephen II. Bottskai. 

1607. Sigismund Ragotzski. 

1608. Gabriel I. Bathori. 

1613. Gabriel II. (Bethlem Gabor). 



1631. George I. Ragotzski. 
1648. George II. Ragotzski. 
1660. John Kemin. 
1662. Michael I. Abafli. 
1690-99. Michael II. Abaffi. 



TEAPPISTS. The first abbey of La Trappe in Normandy was founded, in 1 140, by 
Retrou, comte de Perche. The present order of Trappists owes its origin to the learned Jean 
le Bouthillier de la Eance (editor of Anacreo7i when aged 14), who, from some cause not 
certainly known, renounced the world, and sold all his pi'operty, giving the proceeds to the 
abbey of La Trappe, to which he retired in 1662, to live there in great austerity. After 
several efforts he succeeded in reforming the monks, and in establishing a new rule, which 
commands silence, prayer, reading, and manual labour, and which forbids study, wine, fish, 
&c. Ranee was born in 1620, and died in i7oo.t 

* Luther maintained the doctrine of con-sulstantiation, viz., that after consecration the body and blood 
of Christ are substantially present in the bread and wine. He was opposed by Bucer, Carlstadt, Zwingle, 
and others (termed saoramentarians), who asserted that the Lord's supper is only a commemorative rite. 

t A number of these monks, driven from France in the revolution of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, 

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TEASIMENE, see Thrasymene. 

TRAUTENAU (Bohemia). On 27 June, 1866, the Jirst corps of the army of the crown 
prince of Prussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and repulsed by the Austrians under 
Gableiaz : on tlie 28th, the Prussians defeated the Austrians with great loss. 

TRAVELLERS' CLUB (Pall-mall), established in 1815. A member must have "travelled 
out of the British islands to a distance of at least 500 miles from London, in a direct line. " 

TRAVELLIK'G in England. In 1707 it took in summer one day, in winter nearly two 
days, to travel from London to Oxford (46 miles). In 181 7 the journey was accomplished 
in six or seven hours. By the Great Western Railway express (63 miles) it is done in i^ 
hour. In 1828, a gentleman travelled from Newcastle to London (273 miles) inside the 
best coach in 35 hours, at an expense of 6^. 15s. 31^. or 6d. per mile (including dinner &c.). 
In 1857, the charge of the Great Northern railway (2 75 J miles) first-class express (6 hours) 
was 50s. <)d. 

TREAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, to raise water for the irrigation of the 
fields. The complicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons of Great Britain is the 
invention of Mr. (afterwards sir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It was erected at Brixton 
gaol, 1 81 7, and soon afterwards in other large prisons. 

TREASON, see High Treason. Petty Treason (a term abolished in 1828, defined by 
the statute of 25 Edw. III. 1352) was a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder 
of his master ; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior. 

TREASON-FELONY. By the Crown and Government Security Act, 11 Vict. c. 12 
(1848), certain treasons heretofore punishable with death were mitigated to felonies, and 
subjected to transportation or imprisonment. The Fenians in Ireland were tried under 
this act ; see Trials, 1865. , 

TREASURER of England, Loed High, the third great ofiicer of the crown, a lord hj 
virtue of his oflB.ce, having the custody of the king's treasure, governing the upper court of 
exchequer, and formerly sitting judicially among the barons. The first lord high treasurer 
in England was Odo, earl of Kent, in the reign of William I. This great trust is now confided 
to a commission, and is vested in five persons, called "lords commissioners for executing the 
office of lord high treasurer," and of these the chancellor of the exchequer is usually one ; 
the first lord being usually the premier ; see Administrations, for a succession of these ofiicers. 
The first of this rank in Ireland was John de St. John, Henry III. 121 7; the last, William, 
duke of Devonshire, 1766 ; vice-ti'easurers were appointed till 1789 ; then commissioners till 
1816, when the revenues of Great Britain and Ireland were united. The first lord high 
treasurer of Scotland was sir Walter Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, in 
1641, John, earl of Traquair, when commissioners were appointed. 

TREASURER of the Chamber, formerly an oflBcer of great cousideration, and alwaj's 
a member of the privy council. He discharged the bills of all the king's tradesmen, and had 
his ofl&ce in Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the royal palace. His duties were transferred 
and the office suppressed at the same time with the oflB.ces of master of the great wardrobe 
and cofferer of the household in 1782. Beatson. 

TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made in England with any foreign 
nation was entered into at Kingston between Henry III. and the dauphin of France (then in 
England and leagued with the barons), 11 Sept. 121 7. The first commercial treaty was with 
Guy, earl of Flanders, 2 Edw. 1274 : the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308. Anderson. 
The chief treaties of the nations of Europe will be found described in their respective places : 
the following forms an index ; see Coalitions, Leagues, &c. 

Arras 1482 

Augsburg, league of . . 1686 
Austria with England, con- 
vention ; the latter agrees 
to accept 2,500,000?. as 
a composition for claims 
on Austria, amoimting to 
30,000,000?. sterling . . 1824 
Baden, peace . . 7 Sept. 1714 
Bagnalo (Venice, Naples, <&o.) 1484 
Balta Liman . 1838 and 1849 
Barcelona (France and Spain) 1493 
Barrier treaty . 15 Nov. 17 15 
Barwalde (France & Sweden) 1631 



Abo, peace . . 7 Aug. 1743 
Adrianople, peace 14 Sept. 1829 
Aix-la-C'hapelle . 2 May, 1668 

Aix-la-Chapelle, peace . . 1748 
Akermann, peace 4 Sept. 1826 
Allahabad (Bahar, &c. , ceded 

to E. I. Company) . . . 1765 
Alt Eadstadt, peace 24 Sept. 1706 
America, peace . 3 Sept. 1783 
Amiens, peace . 25 Mar. 1802 

Antwerp, truce . 4 April, 1609 
Armed NeutraUty, conven- 
tion . . 16 Dec. 1800 
Arras . . .22 Sept. 1435 



Basel, peace (Prance & Spain) 

22 July, 179s 
Bassein (Great Britain and 

Mahrattas) . . . . 1802 
Bayonne . . 5 May, 1808 

Belgrade, peace 18 Sept. 1739 

Berlin, peace . 28 June, 1742 
Berlin decree . 29 Nov. 1806 

Berlin, peace (Prussia and 

Saxony) . . .21 Oct. 1866 
Berlin convention 5 Nov. 1808 
Beyara . . .31 Aug. 1839 
Breda, peace . 25 July, 1667 

Bretigny, peace . 8 May, 1360 



of Lulworth, Dorsetshire, who gave them some land to cviltivate and a habitation, where they remained 
till 1815. This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy in France, and sixty-four English and 
Irish Trappists were shipped by the French government at Paimbceuf, ig Nov., and were landed from the 
Hebi, French frigate, at Cork, 30 Nov. 1831. They established themselves at Mount Melleray, county of 
Waterford. 



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TREATIES, continued. 

Bucharest . . 28 May, 1812 
Cambray, league 10 Dec. 1508 

Cambray, peace . 5 Aug. 1529 
Campo Formio . .17 Oct. 1797 
Capua, convention 20 May, 1815 
Carlowitz, peace . 26 Jan. 1699 
Carlsbad, congress of i Aug. i8ig 
Chateau-Cambresis, peace . 1559 
Chaumout . . i Mar. 1814 
Chunar, India . . . . 1781 
Cintra, convention 22 Aug. 1808 
Closterseven, convention 

8 Sept. 1757 
Coalition, first, agnst. France 

26 June, 1792 
Coalition, second 22 June, 1799 
Coalition, tliird 8 Sept. 1805 

Coalition, fourth 6 Oct. 1806 

Coalition, fifth 9 April, 1809 

CoaUtion, sixth i March, 1813 
Commerce (Great Britain and 

Turkey) ^ . 16 Nov. 1839 
Commerce (Great Britain and 

the Two'Sicilies) 25 June, 1845 
Concordat, -with Fr. 15 July, 1801 
Couflans . . . -1465 

Constantinople, peace, 16 Apl. 1712 
Constantinople 8 July, 1833 

Constantinople 8 May, 1854 

Copenhagen, peace 27 May, i56o 
Copenhagen (composition for 
Sound dues) 14 March, 1857 

Crecy i544 

Dresden, peace 25 Dec. 1745 

Egypt, viceroy and admiral 
Codrington, convention 

6 Aug. 1828 
Eliot conventionr . AprU, 1835 
England, convention -with 
Austria, Russia, Prussia, 
and Turkey, for settlement 
of the East . 15 July, 1810 
England and United States, 

convention . 13 Nov. 1826 

Evora Monte . 26 May, 1834 
Family Compact 15 Aug. 1761 
Fontainebleau, peace, 2 Sept. 1679 
Fontainebleau . 8 Nov. 1785 
Fontainebleau, concordat 

25 Jan. 1813 
France and England, conven- 
tion respecting the slave 
trade . . 29 May, 1845 

France and Italy, convention 
respecting the occupation 
of Rome . . 15 Sept. 1864 
French commercial treaty 

23 Jan. i860 
Friedwald . . 5 Oct. 1551 
Fuessen, peace . 23 April, 1745 
Gastein convention, 14 Aug. 1865 
Ghent, pacification 8 Nov. 1576 
Ghent, peace (America) 

24 Dec. 1814 
Golden Bull . , . .1356 
Grand Ejliance . 12 May, 1689 
Hague . . .21 May, 1659 
Hague . . 7 May, 1669 

Halle 1610 

Hamburg, peace 2 May, 1762 

Hanover . . 3 Sept. 1725 

Hanover (fe England, 22 July, 1S34 
Holy alliance . 26 Sept. 1815 
Hubertsburg, peace, 15 Feb. 1763 
"Interim" . . 15 May, 1548 
Jay's treaty . 19 Nov. 1794 



Japan and Great Britain 

26 Aug. 1858 
Kaynardji, or Koutschouc- 

Kaynardji . 21 July, 1774 
Kiel ... 14 Jan. 1814 
Lay bach, congress 6 May, 1821 
League, holy . . . . 1576 
Leipsic, alliance . April, 163 1 
Leoben, peace . . . 1797 
Lisbon, peace . . 13 Feb. 1668 
London (settlement of Greece) 

6 July, 1829 
Londou (separating Belgium 

from Holland) 15 Nov. 1831 

London, convention respect- 
ing Belgium 19 April, 1839 
London (Turkey and Egypt) 

15 July, 1840 
London (succession to crown 

of Denmark) . . . 1852 
London (neutrality of Lux- 
emburg settled) II May, 1867 
Lubeck, peace . 22 May, 1629 
Luneville, peace 9 Feb. 1801 

Madrid, concord . . . 1526 
Methuen treaty . . . 1703 
Milan decree . . 17 Dec. 1807 
Milan (Austria and Sardinia) 

6 Aug. 1849 
Munster, peace . 24 Oct. 1648 
Nankin, peace . 29 Aug. 1842 

Nantes, edict . . 13 April, 1598 

Naumbei'g 1554 

Nice 1518 

Nimeguen, peace 10 Aug. 1678 
Noyon . . 16 Aug. 1516 
Nuremberg . . 2 Aug. 1532 
Nystadt . . 30 Aug. 1721 

Oliva, peace . . 3 May, 1660 
Paris, peace {Pans) 10 Feb. 1763 
Paris . . 20 June, 1784 

Paris . . .15 May, 1796 
Paris, peace (Sweden), 6 Jan. 1810 
Paris . . II April, 1814 

Paris . . . 10 June, 1817 
Paris .... April, 1856 
Paris (settlement of Neuf- 

chatel affair) . 26 May, 1857 
Partition, first . . 11 Oct. 1698 
Partition, second . . . 1700 
Passarowitz, peace 13 Mar. 1718 
Passau . . 12 Aug. 1552 

Pekin, peace . . 24 Aug. i860 
Persia, peace . 3 March, 1S57 
Petersburg, St. , peace, 5 May, 1762 
Petersburg, St. . 5 Aug. 1772 
Petersburg, St. . 8 April, 1805 
Peterswald, convention 

8 July, 1813 
Pilnitz, convention, 20 July, 1791 
Poland, partition 25 Nov. 179s 
Pragmatic sanction . . 1438 
Pragmatic sanction, 17 April, 1713 
Prague, peace . 30 May, 1635 
Prague (peace between Aus- 
tria and Prussia) 23 Aug. 1866 
Presburg, peace 26 Dec. 1805 

Public good, league for the . 1464 
Pyrenees, peace . 7 Nov. 7659 
Quadruple alUance 2 Aug. 171 8 
Radstadt, peace 6 March, 1714 
Rad.stadt, congress 9 Dec. 1797 
Batisbon, peace. . 13 Oct. 1630 
Eatisbon. . . i Aug. 1806 
Reichenbach, treaties, June, 1813 
Religion, peace of . . . 1555 



Rhine, confederation, i Aug. 1806 
Ryswick, peace 20 Sept. 1697 

St. Cloud, convention, 3 July, 1815 
St. Germains, peace . . 1570 
St. Germain-en-Laye, peace 

29 June, 1679 
St. Ildefonzo, alliance, 19 Aug. 1796 
Siorod, peace . . . . 1613 
Sistowa, peace . 4 Aug. 1791 
Smalcald, league 31 Dec. 1529 

Spain, pacification, 22 April, 1834 
Spain, convention, satisfying 

British claims 26 June, 1828 
Stettin, peace . 13 Dec. 1570 

Stockhohn, peace 20 Nov. 1719 
Stockholm . . 24 March, 1724 
Stockholm . 3 March, 1813 

Stockholm, ti-eaty of (^Sweden 

and allies) . 21 Nov. 1856 

Suncion . . 15 July, 1852 
Temeswar, tr\ice 7 Sept. 1664 

Teschen, peace . 12 May, 1779 
Teusin, peace . 18 May, 1595 

Tien-Tsin, China, peace 

26 June, 1858 
Tilsit, peace . . 7 July, 1807 
Tolentino . . .19 Feb. 1793 
Toplitz. . . 9 Sept. 1 81 3 
Triple alliance . 28 Jan. 1668 
Triple alliance . . 4 Jan. 1717 
Troppeau, congress, 20 Oct. 1820 
Troyes . . .21 May, 1420 
Turua (cession of Savoy and 

Nice) . . 24 March, i860 
Turkmauchay, peace, 22 Feb. 1828 
Ulm, peace . . 3 July, 1620 
Unkiarskelessi . . 8 July, 1833 
Utrecht, union . 22 Jan. 1579 
Utrecht, peace . 11 April, 1713 
Valengay . , 8 Dec. 1813 
Verona, congress 25 Aug. 1822 
Versailles, peace . 20 Jan. 1783 
Vienna . . .30 April, 1725 
Vienna, alliance 16 March, 1731 
Vienna, peace . 18 Nov. 1738 

Vienna, peace . 14 Oct. 1809 
Vienna, convention, 28 Sept. 1814 
Vienna, 25 March; 31 May; 

9 June, 181S 
Vienna (Austria and Prussia), 

commercial . . 19 Feb. 1853 
Vienna ... 30 Oct. 1864 
Vienna (Austria and Great 

Britain,commercial)i6Dec. 1865 
Vienna (peace between Aus- 
tria and Italy) 3 Oct. 1866 
Villa Franca (preKm.), 12 July, 1859 
Vossem, peace . 16 Jan. 1673 
Warsaw, aUiance 31 March, 1683 
Warsaw . . .24 Feb. 1768 
Washington, reciprocity treaty 
between Great Britain and 
the United States, respect- 
ing Newfoundland fishery, 
commerce, &c. . 2 July, 1854 
Westminster, peace, 19 Feb. 1674 
Westminster (with Holland) 1716 
Westphalia, peace 24 Oct. 164S 
Wilna, treaty of . . . .1561 
Wurms, edict of . . . 1521 
Wurtzburg league . . . 1610 
Zurich, convention 20 May, 1815 
Ziu-ich (Austria, France, and 
Sardinia) , . 10 Nov. 1859 



TREBIA, now Treblia, a river in IsTorth Italy, near wliicli HanuiLal defeated the Roman 
consul Semproniu.s, 218 b.c. ; and Suvarrow defeated the French marshal Macdonald and 
compelled him to retreat, 17-19 June, 1799. 

3 B 2 



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TEEBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in the Black Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and 
became subject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self-government under the Roman 
empire, and when the Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became the seat of an empire 
which endured till 1461, when it was conquered by the Turks under Mahomet I. 





EMPEEORS OF TREBIZOND. 




1204. Alexis I. Comnenus. 


1285. John II. 


1344. Michael. 


1222. Andronious I. 


1297. Alexis II. 


1349. Alexis III. 


1235. John I. 


1330. Andronious III. 


1390. Manuel III 


1238. Manuel I. 


1332. Manuel II. 


1417. Alexis IV. 


1263. Andronious II. 


„ Basil. 


1446. John IV. 


1266. George. 


1340. Irene. 


1458-61. David. 


1280. John II. 


1341. Anna. 




1285. Theodora. 


1343. John III. 





TRECENTO, see Italy, note. 

TREES OF LIBERTY were planted in Paris and other parts of France during the 
revolutionary eras, 1790 and 1848. These trees were cut down in Paris in Jan. 1850, when 
riots ensued, put down by the military. 

TRENT (the ancient Tridentum), in the Tyrol, belongs to Austria. The council held 
here is reckoned in the Roman catholic church as the i8th or last general council. Its 
decisions are implicitly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that 
church. It first sat 13 Dec. 1545, and continued (with interruptions) under pope Paul III., 
Julius III., and Pius IV. to 4 Dec. 1563; its last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee in relation 
to this council was celebrated in June, 1863. Trent was several times taken during the 
French war. 



At this council was decreed, with anathemas : the 
canon of scripture (including the apocrypha), and the 
church its sole interpreter ; the traditions to be equal 
with scripture ; the seven sacraments (baptismi, con- 



firmation, the Lord's su pper, penance, extreme unc- 
tion, orders, and matrimony); transubstantiation ; 
pui'gatory ; indulgence s ; celibacy of the clergy ; 
auricular confession, &c . 



TRENT STEAMER, see United States, Nov. -Dec. 1861. 

TREVES, the Roman Treviri, in Rhenish Prussia, was a prosperous city of the Gauls 
12 B.C. The emperor Gallienus held his court here a.d. 255. Treves was made an electorate 
in the 14th century, and became subject to the archbishop in 1585. The archbishopric is 
said to have been founded before the 7th century and to be the oldest in Germany. After 
various changes, Treves was acquired by Prussia in 1815. In 1844 much excitement was 
occasioned by miracles said to have been wrought by a " Holy Coat." 

"TRI A JUNCTA IN UNO" (three joined in one), the motto of the knights of the 
military order of the Bath, signifying "faith, hope, and charity ;" see Bath. 

TRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials were made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of 
Kent, about 673 to 680. Alfred the Great is said to have begun trial by jury ; but there is 
good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at Hawarden, nearly a 
hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed too 
by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the name of Corbyn of the Gate, still 
preserve their name and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. PJiillips ; 
see Appeal. 



REMARKABLE TRIALS. 

King Charles I. : 20 Jan. ; convicted, 29 Jan. 1649 
Oates's Popish Plot : Edward Coleman, con- 
victed, 27 Nov. ; Wm. Ireland and other 

priests 17 Dec. 1678 

Bobt. Green and others, 10 Feb. ; Thos. 

Whitbread and other Jesuits, 13 June ; 
Eiohard Langhorue, counsellor, 14 June; 

convicted 1679 

Sir George Wakeman, the queen's physician ; 

acquitted 13 July, ,, 

Viscount Stafford : convicted 30 N0V.-7 Dec. 1681 
RyeHousePlot : convicted ; William, lord Eussell, 

13 July ; Algernon Sidney . . 21 Nov. 1683 
The Seven Bishops ; acquitted . 29 June, 1688 
Captain Porteous, for murder, see Forttous, 

6 July, 1736 
Jenny Diver, for felony, executed 18 March, 1740 
William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, 
but who came to life when about undergoing 
dissection at Surgeons' Hall . 24 Nov. ,, 
Lords Kilmarnock and Balmeriao for high 

treason 28 July, 1746 

Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 

14 wives 7 Oct. ,, 



Lord Lovat, 80 years of age, for high treason ; 

beheaded 9 March, 1747 

Freney, the celebrated Irish robber, who sur- 
rendered himself . . . . 9 July, 1749 
Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder 

of her husband . . . . s Nov. 1750 
Miss Blandy, the murder of her father (hanged) 

3 March, 1752 
Ann Williams, for the murder of her husband, 

burnt alive 11 April, 1753 

Eugene Aram, for murder at York ; executed 

13 Aug. I7S9 
Earl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; 

executed 16 April, 1760 

Mr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder 

of Miss Knox 8 Dec. 1761 

AnnBedingfield, forthe murder of her husband ; 

burnt alive 6 April, 1763 

Mr. Wilkes, alderman of London, for an obscene 

poem ("Essay on Woman") . 21 Feb. 1764 

Murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, 

mate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl 

of Sandwich, at sea ... 3 March, 1766 
Elizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of 

her female apprentices ; hanged 12 Sept. 1767 • 



TRI 



in 



TRI 



TRIALS, continued. 

Lord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female 
accomplices, for rape . . 28 March, 176S 

Great cause between the families of Hamilton 
and Douglas 27 Feb. 1769 

Great Valencia cause in the house of peorsi, in 
Ireland iS March, 1772 

Cause of Somerset the slave (see Slavery) 

22 June, ,, 

Elizabeth Herring, for the murder of her hus- 
band : hanged, and afterwards b>u-nt at 
Tyburn 13 Sept. 1773 

Messrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery; 
hanged • 17 Jan. 1776 

Duchess of Kingston, for marrying tvio hus- 
bands ; guilty ; (see Kingston) . 15 AprU, „ 

Dr. Dodd, for forging a bond of 4200J., in the 
name of the earl of Chesterfield, 22 Feb. (see 
Forgtry) ; executed ... 27 June, 1777 

Admiral Keppel, by court martial ; honourably 
acquitted 11 Feb. 1779 

Mr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay, 
when coming out of the theatre-royal, 
Covent-garden .... 16 April, ,, 

Lord George Gordon, on a charge of high trea- 
son ; acquitted .... 5 Feb. 17S1 

Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated piinter, for a libel 
on lord Loughborough, afterwards lord chan- 
cellor 10 Nov. 1786 

Lord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of 
France ; guilty .... 28 Jan. 1788 

Mr. Wan-en Hastings : a trial which lasted 
seven years and three months (see Hastings, 
Trial of), commenced . . 13 Feb. ,, 

The Times newspaper, for a libel on the prince 
of Wales; guilty .... 3 Feb. 1790 

Renwick Wilhams, called the Monster, for 
stabbing women in the streets of London 
(see Monster) .... 8 July, ,, 

Barrington, the pickpocket, most extraordi- 
nary adept; transported . . 22 Sept. ,, 

Thomas Paine, political writer and deist, for 
libels in the i?if/Ws o/ilian; guilty 18 Dec. 1792 

Louis XVI. of France (see France) . 1792-3 

Archibald Hamilton Rowan, for libel ; impri- 
soned and fined .... 29 Jan. 1794 

Mr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roper 
in a duel ; acquitted ... 14 Aug. „ 

Mr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Edinburgh, 
for treason 3 Sept. „ 

Messrs. Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and 
Joyce, for high treason ; acquitted 29 Oct. ,, 

Earl of Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. SeiTaan ; 
guilty 6 Dec. ,, 

Major Semple, alias Lisle, for felony 18 Feb. 1795 

Redhead Yorke, at York, libel . . 27 Nov. „ 

Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; 
damages, io,oooL ... 4 March, 1796 

Lord Valentia v. Mr. Gawler, for adultery ; 
damages, 2oooi 16 June, ,, 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, for Ubels on kingly govern- 
ment; guilty .... 8 July, ,, 

Sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for 
adultery; damages, 6000J. . . 27 Feb. 1797 

Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, caUed admi- 
ral Parker (see J/wi'Mias) . . 27 June, ,, 

Boddington v. Boddington, for crhn. con. ; 
damages, io,oooi S Sept. ,, 

WilUam Orr at Carrickfergus, for high treason ; 
executed 12 Oct. ,, 

Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, murderess 9 Dec. ,, 

The murderers of colonel St. George and Mr. 
Uniacke, at Cork ... 15 April, 1798 

Arthur O'Conner and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, 
for treason ; latter hanged . . 21 May, ,, 

Sir Edward Crosbie and others for high trea- 
son ; hanged .... i June, ,, 

Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for 
high treason . . . . 21 June, ,, 

Two Messrs. Sheares, at Dubhn, for high trea- 
son ; executed . . . .12 July, ,, 



Theobald Woulffe Tone, by court-martial (he 
committed suicide, died on the 19th) loth Nov. 1798 

Sir Han-y Brown Hayes, for carrying off Miss 
Pike of Cork .... 13 April, 1800 

Hatfield, for shooting at George III. ; see Hat- 
field 26 June, ,, 

Mr. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con. ; 
damages, io,oooi 2 Dec. ,, 

Mutineers at Bantry Bay; hanged; see Bantry 
Bay 8 Jan. 1802 

Charles Hayes, for an obscene hbel . 9 Jan. „ 

Governor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty 
years before (tried under 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23) 
(see Goree) 20 Jan. „ 

Crawley, for the murder of two females in 
Peter's-row, Dubhn . . .6 March, „ 

Colonel Despard and his associates, for high 
treason; hanged on the top of Horsemonger- 
lane gaol (see Despard) ... 7 Feb. 1803 

M. Peltier, for hbel on Bonaparte, first consul 
of France, in VAmbigue : guilty . 21 Feb. ,, 

Robert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, 
for embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the 
bank, 320,000^. ; found not guilty, on account 
of the invalidity of the bills . 18 July, „ 

Robert Emmett, at Dubhn, for high treason ; 
executed next day ... 19 Sept. ,, 

Keenan, one of the murderers of lord KU warden ; 
hanged 2 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Smith, for the murder of the supposed 
Hammersmith Gliost ... 13 Jan. 1804 

Lockhart and Laudon Gordon, for can-ying off 
Mrs. Lee 6 March, „ 

Rev. C. Massy v. marquess of Headfort, for 
crim. con. ; damages, 10,000?. . . 27 July, „ 

William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for 
offences against females . . 17 April, 1805 

General Picton, for applying the torture to 
Louisa Calderon, to extort confession, at 
Trinidad tried (under 42 Geo. HI. o 85) in 
the court of King's Bench ; guilty [new trial, 
same verdict, 11 June, 1808J . 24 Feb. 1806 

Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin ; pleaded the king's 
pardon i July, „ 

Judge Johnson, for a hbel on the earl of Hard- 
wicke ; giiilty .... 23 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Patch, for the murder of his partner, Mr. 
Bligh 6 April, „ 

Lord Melville, impeached by the house of 
commons ; acquitted . . . 12 June, ,, 

The Warrington gang, for unnatural ofiences ; 
executed 23 Aug. ,, 

Palm, the bookseller, by a French military 
commission at Brennau . . 26 Aug. ,, 

Lord Cloncurry v. sir John B. Piers, for crim. 
con. ; damages, 20,000/. . . 19 Feb. 1807 

HoUoway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. 
Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death 
at their execution, at the Old Bailey, 20 Feb. „ 

Sir Home Popham, by court-martial ; repri- 
manded 7 March, „ 

Knight V Dr, Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for 
crim. cnn 27 June, „ 

Lieut. BeiTy, of H.M.S. Hazard; for an un- 
natural offence .... 2 Oct. ,, 

Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; 
damages, 10,000/ 22 Dec. „ 

Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, 
at Hoddesdnn .... 4 March, ,, 

Sir Arthur Paget, for crim. con. with lady 
Bon-ington 14 July, ,, 

Major Campbell, for killing captain Boyd in a 
duel ; hanged .... 4 Aug. ,, 

Peter Finnerty and others, for a hbel on the 
duke of York g Nov. ,, 

The duke of York, bj' inquiry in the house 
of commons, on charges preferred against 
him by colonel Wardle, from 26 Jan. to 

20 March, 1809 

Wellesleyi). lord Paget, tor crim. con. ; damages, 
2o,oooJ 12 May, „ 



TEI 



742 



TEI 



TRIALS, continued. 

The king v. Valentine Jones, for breacli of 
duty as commissary-general . . 26 May, j 

The earl of Leicester r. Morning Herald, for a 
libel ; damages, loooL . . 29 June, 

Wright V. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann 
Clarke's furniture ... 1 June, 

William Cobbett, for a libel on the German 
legion ; convicted .... 9 July, 

Hon. captain Lake, for putting Eobert JefEery, 
a British seaman, on shore at Sombrero ; 
dismissed the service (see Sombrero) 10 Feb. : 

Mr. Perry, for libels in the Morning Chronicle ; 
acquitted 24 Feb. 

The Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences ; 
guilty 20 Sept. 

Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; 
judgment 31 Jan. ] 

The king v. Messrs, John and Leigh Hunt, for 
libels ; guilty 22 Feb. 

Ensign Hepburn, and White the drummer ; 
both were executed . . .7 March, 

Walter Cox, in Lublin, for libels ; he stood in 
the pillory 12 March, 

The king v. W. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted 

15 June, 

Lord Louth, in Dublin; sentenced to imprison- 
ment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a 
magistrate 19 June, 

The Berkeley cause, before the house of peers, 
concluded 28 June, 

Dr. Sheridan, physician, ou a charge of sedition ; 
acquitted 21 Nov. 

Gale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous 
libels ; convicted . . . .26 Nov. 

William Cundell and John Smith, for high 
treason (see High Treason) . . 6 Feb. : 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, on a charge of blasphemy ; 
convicted 6 March, 

Bellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, 
prime minister .... 15 May, 

The king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for 
libel ; guilty .... 19 Nov. 

Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the 
Sxaminer : convicted ... 9 Dec. 

Marquess of Sligo, for concealing a sea-deserter 

16 Dec. 

The murderers of Mr. Horsf all ; at York; 
executed .7 Jan. 

Mr. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's 
History of the Penal Laws . . .6 Feb. 

The divorce cause against the duke of Hamilton 
for adultery .... n April, 

Mr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the 
Evening Post ; guilty ... 26 July, 

Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
hanged 21 Aug. 

Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding; executed 

7 Oct. 

The celebrated Mary Ann Clarke, for a libel on 
the right hon. Wm. Vesey Fitzgerald, after- 
wards lord Fitzgerald . . 7 Feb. 

Lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, 
Butt, and others, for frauds in the pubUc 
funds, 22 Feb. ; convicted (see Sioclcs) 8, 9 June, 

Admiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in 
ship letters 18 Aug. 

Colonel Quentin, of the loth hussars, by court- 
martial I Nov. 

Sir John Henry MUdmay, bart., for cHm. con. 
with the countess of Roseberry : damages, 
15,000;. 5 Dec. 

George Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of 
Covent Garden theatre . . . 8 April, 

Captain Hutchinson, sir Eobert Wilson, and 
Mr. Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of 
count Lavalette (see Zavalette) . 24 April, 

" Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber at 
Maryborough . . . . 16 Aug. 

Yaughan, a police oflBcer, Mackay, and Browne, 
for conspiracy to induce men to commit felo- 
nies to obtain the reward ; convicted, 21 Aug. 



Colonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Cambray, 
in Prance 23 Sept. 1816 

Cashman, the intrepid seaman, for the Spa- 
fields riots, and outrages on Snowhill ; con- 
victed and hanged (see Spajields) 20 Jan. 1817 

Count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the 
queen of Westphalia ... 2 May, „ 

Mr. R. J. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice 
EUenborough 23 May, ,, 

Mr. Wooler, for libels on the government and 
ministers 6 June, ,, 

Thistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, 
for treason 9 June, „ 

The murderers of the Lynch family at Wild- 
goose-lodge, Ireland ... 19 July, ,„ 

Mr. Roger O'Connor, on a charge of robbing 
the mail : acquitted ... 5 Aug. ,, 

Brandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for 
high treason .... 15 Oct. ,, 

Hone, the bookseller, for parodies ; three trials 
before lord EUenborough : extemporaneous 
and successful defence . 18, 19, 20 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Dick, for the abduction and rape of Miss 
Crockatt 21 March, iSiS 

Appeal of murder case, Ashford, the brother of 
i\jai-y Ashford, against her murderer, Abraham 
Thornton (see Battle) . . .16 AprU, ,, 

Rev. Dr. O'Halloran, for forging a frank (see 
Transportation) .... g Sept. ,, 

Robei-t Johnston, at Edinburgh; his dreadful 
execution 30 Dec. ,, 

Sir Manasseh Lopez, for bribery at Grampound 
(see Bribery) .... 18 March, 1819 

Mosely, Woolfe, and other merchants, for con- 
spiracy and fraud . . . .20 April, ,, 

Carlile, for the publication of Paine's Age of 
Reason, <fec 15 Oct. ,, 

John Scanlan, at Limerick, for the murder of 
Ellen Hanly .... 14 March, 1820 

Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious 
libel 23 March, ,, 

Henry Hunt, and others, for their conduct at 
the Manchester meeting ; convicted (see 
Manchester Reform Meeting) . 27 March, „ 

Sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for 
sedition; guilty . . . 10 April, ,, 

Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, 
for conspiracy to murder the king' s ministers ; 
commenced (see Caio-s^reet) . . 17 April, ,, 

Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke 
de Berri 7 June, ' „ 

Lord Glerawley v. John Bum, for crim. con. 

18 June, „ 

Major Cartwright and others at Warwick, for 
sedition 3 Aug. ,, 

"Little Waddington," for a seditious libel; 
acquitted 19 Sept. „ 

Lieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, 
by court-martial . . . -19 Sept. ,, 

Caroline, queen of England, before the house of 
lords, for adultery, commenced 16 Aug. ; it 
terminated (see Queen Caroline's Trial) 10 Nov. ,, 

The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in 
Dublin ; hanged .... i May, 1821 

David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a 
man of singularly eventful life, at Edinburgh, 
for the murder of a turnkey . . g June, , „ 

Samuel D. Hayward, the favourite man of 
fashion, for bvirglary . . . .8 Oct. „ 

The mm-derers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland ; 
convicted and hanged . . . 17 Dec. ,, 

Cussen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction 
of Miss Gould . . . . 2g July, 1822 

Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of 
Elizabeth Florence . . . .23 Sept. ,, 

Cuthbert v. Browne, singular action for "deceit 

28 Jan. 1823 

The famous " Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, 
by ex-officio 23 Feb. „ 

The extraordinary " earl of Portsmouth's case " 
commenced .... 18 March, „ 



TEI 



743 



TRI 



TRIALS, continued. 

Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murderers of Mr. 

Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence ; 

afterwards hanged for horse-stealing (see 

Execution)) 5 Jan. 

Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for 

forgery ; hanged . . . -30 Oct. 
Foote V. Hayne, for breach of promise of 

marriage ; damages, 3000/. . 22 Dec. 

Mr. Henry Savary, a banker's sou at Bristol, 

■ lor forgery 4 April, 

O'Keefe and Bourke, the murderers of the 

Franks family . . . . 18 Aug. 

John Grosset Muirhead, esq., for indecent 

practices 21 Oct. 

The case of Mr. Wellesley Pole, and the Jlisses 

Long ; commenced . . . .9 Nov. 
Captain Bligh v. the hon. Wm. TVeUesley Pole, 

for adultery 25 Nov. 

Fisher v. Stockdale, for a libel in Harriette Wilson 

20 March, 
Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for 

abduction of Miss Turner . . 24 March, 
Rev. Robert Taylor for blasphemy; found 

guilty 24 Oct. 

Richmond SojTnour, esq., and Macklin, for an 

unnatural crime . . . .12 March, 
Richard Gillam, for the murder of Maria 

Bagster, at Taunton . . .8 April, 
Mr. Montgomery, for forgery; he committed 

suicide in prison on the morning appointed 

for his execution ... 4 July, 

Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford 

by a kick 16 July, 

William Corder, for the murder of JIaria 

Marten ; executed . . . .6 Aug. 
Joseph Hunton, a qviaker merchant, for 

forgery ; hanged .... 28 Oct. 
Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Burkingmurders ; 

Hare, his accomplice, became approver (see 

Burking) 24 Dec. 

The king v. Buxton, and others, for a fraudu- 
lent marriage .... 21 March, 
Jonathan Martin, for setting fire to York- 
minster 31 March, 

Stewart and his wife, noted murderers, at 

Glasgow : hanged . . . 14 July, 
Reinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for his murders 

of women 4 Aug. 

Captain Dickenson, by court-martial, at Ports- 
mouth: acquitted . . . 26 Aug. 
Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning JourmU, 

for libels on the duke of Wellington ; con- 
victed 10 Feb. 

Cluue, &c., at Bnnis, for cutting out the 

tongues of the Doyles . . 4 March, 
Mr. Comyn, for burning his house in the 

coimty of Clare ; hanged . . 6 March, 
Mr. Lambrecht, for the murder of Mr. Clayton, 

in a duel 2 April, 

Captain Moir, for the murder of William 

Malcolm : hanged . . . .30 July, 
Captains Smith and Markham, for killing Mr. 

O'Grady in a duel . . . .24 Aug. 
Captain Helsham, for the murder of lieut. 

Crowther in a duel ... 8 Oct. 
Mr. St. John Long, for the manslaughter of 

Miss Cashin ; see Quacks . . -30 Oct. 
Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of 

France (see France) . . . 2: Dec. 
Carlile, for a seditious libel, inciting to a riot ; 

guilty 10 Jan. 

Mr. D. O'Connell, for breach of proclamation ; 

pleaded guilty .... 12 Feb. 
St. John Long, for manslaughter of Jlrs. 

Lloyd (see Quacks) . . . .19 Feb. 
Mr. Luke Dillon, for the violation of Miss 

Friscell ; convicted . . . 14 April, 
Major Dundas, for the seduction of Miss 

Adams; damages, 3000?. . . .26 May, 
Mr. Cobbett, for a "seditious libel ; the jury 

could not agree .... 7 July, 



1S24 



1826 
1827 



1S28 



1S29 



Rev. Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting 
distinction of "the Devil's Chajdain"), for 
reviling the Red eemek; convicted 6 July, 1831 

Jlr. and Mrs. Dcacle v. Mi\ Bipgham Baring, 
M.P 14 July, ,, 

Bird, a boy of 14 years of age, for the murder 
of a child ; hanged .... i Aug. ,, 

The great cause, earl of Kingston v. lord 
Lorton; commenced . . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Bishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian 
boy (see Burkiiui) ... .3 Deo. ,, 

Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. 
Oldham 17 Dec. ,, 

Elizabeth Cooke, for the murder of Mrs. Walsh, 
by "Burking" 6 Jan. 1832 

Colonel Brereton, by court martial, at Bristol 
(see Briftol) 9 Jan. ,, 

The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, 
county of Clare 28 Feb. ,, 

William Duggan, at Cork, for the murder of his 
wife and others . . . .26 March, ,, 

Mr. Hodgson (son of the celebrated Miss Astonj 
V. Greene 26 July, ,, 

Mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the 
Bristol riots 26 Oct. ,, 

Rev. Mr. Irving, by his own (the Scots) church, 
for heresy 13 March, 1833 

Lord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for 
swindling ; guilty .... 10 May, „ 

Attorney - general v. Shoi-e (lady Hewley's 
charity, which is taken from the Unitarians) 

23 Dec. ,, 

Captain Wathen, 15th hussars, by court-martial, 
at Cork ; honourably acquitted ; his colonel, 
lord Brudenell, cashiered . . . Jan. 1834 

Pi'oprietors of the Trv^ Sun, for hbels ; guilty, 

6 Feb. i, 

Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, 
at Bristol 10 April, 1835 

Sir John de Beauvoir, for perjury; acquitted, 

29 May, ,, 

Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the 
king, Louis Philippe, by exploding an infernal 
machine (fee Fieschi) ... 30 Jan. 1836 

Hon. G. C. Norton v. lord Melbourne, in Court 
of Common Pleas, for crim. con. with the hon. 
Mrs. Norton; verdict for defendant, 22 June, ,, 

Lord de Roos v. Gumming, for defamation, 
charging lord de Roos with cheating at 
cards ; verdict in favour of Mr. Gumming 

10 Feb. 1837 

James Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder 
of Hannah Browne ; Greenacre convicted 
and hanged ; Gale transported . 10 April, ,, 

Francis Hastings Medhurst, esq., for killing 
Mr. Joseph Alsop ; guilty . . 13 April, 1839 

Bolara, for the murder of Mr. MiQie ; verdict, 
manslaughter 30 July, „ 

Rev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflamma- 
tory language . . . . 15 Aug. ,, 

John Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, for 
high treason ; guilty : sentence commuted to 
transportation (see Newport) . . 31 Dec. ,, 

Courvoisier, for the murder of lord William 
Russell ; hanged . . . iS-20 June, 1840 

Gould, for the murder of Mr. Templeman ; 
transported 22 June, ,, 

Edward Oxford, attempted the life of the 
queen ; adjudged insane, and confined in 
Bethlehem (see Oxford) . . 9, 10 July, „ 

JIadame Lafarge, in France, for the nuirder of 
her husb.and ; guilty . . . 2 Sept. ,, 

Prince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon 
France (see France) ... 6 Oct. „ 

Captain R. A. Reynolds, nth hussars, by court- 
martial ; guilty : the sentence excited great 
popular displeasure against his colonel, lord 
Cardigan 20 Oct. ,, 

Lord Cardigan before the house of peers, 
capitally charged for wounding captain 
Harvey Tucket in a duel ; acquitted, 16 Feb. 1841 



TEI 



744 



TRI 



TEIALS, continued. 

The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having 
wilfully caused the destruction of the ship 
Dryad at sea, to defraud the under-writers ; 
transpoi'ted .... 4 March, 

Josiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. 
Maokreth ; guilty . . -23 March, 

Bartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the 
nmrder of Mrs. Cook . . .5 April, 

Earl of Waldegrave and captain Duff, for an 
aggravated assault on a police constable ; 
guilty : judgment, six months' imprisonment, 
and fines of 2cx>l. and 2oZ. . . .3 May, 

Madame Lafarge agaia, for robbery of diamonds 

7 Aug. 

The great case, Allen Bogle v. Mr. Lawson, 
publisher of the Times newspaper, for an 
allsged libel, in stating the plaintiff to be 
connected with numerous bank forgers 
throughout Europe in their schemes to 
defraud Messrs. Glyn and Company, 
bankers of London, by means of fictitious 
letters of credit : damages, one farthing. 
This exposure, so honourable to the Timeb, 
■■ led to the Times Testimonial . . 16 Aug. 

Mr. Mac Leod, at Utica, America, for taking 
part in the destruction of the Caroline, com- 
menced : acquitted after a trial that lasted 
eight days 4 Oct. 

Robert Blakesley, for the murder of Mr. 
Burdon, of Eastcheap; hanged . 28 Oct. 

Mr. Beaumont Smith, for the forgery of 
Exchequer bills to an immense amount ; he 
pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to trans- 
portation for life 4 Dec. 

Sophia Darbon v. Rosser ; breach of promise of 
marriage ; damages i6oo^ . . 8 Dec. 

Mr. John Levick and Antonio Mattel, principal 

and second in the duel in which lieut. Adams 

was killed at Malta : both acquitted 

10 March, 

Vivier, courier of the Morning Hei-ald, at 
Boulogne, for conveying the Indian mail 
through France, for that journal, contrary to 
the French regulations . . -13 April, 

Daniel Good, for the murder of Jane Jones ; 
the memorable Boehampton murder ; found 
guihy, and sentenced to be hanged 13 May, 

John Francis, for attempting to assassinate the 
queen (see Francis) ... 17 June, 

Thomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, the 
policeman ; hanged .... 4 July, 

Nicholas Suisse, valet of the late marquess of 
Hertford, at the prosecution of that noble- 
man's executors, charged with enormous 
frauds ; acquitted .... 6 July, 

M'GiU and others, for the abduction of Miss 
CrelltQ ; guilty .... 8 Aug. 

Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and 
again acquitted .... 24 Aug. 

Bean, for pointing a pistol at the queen : 18 
months' imprisonment . . 25 Aug. 

The rioters in the provinces, under a special 
commission, at Stafford . . . i Oct. 

The Cheshire rioters, under a special com- 
mission, before lord Abinger . . 6 Oct. 

The Lancashire rioters, also under a special 
commission 10 Oct. 

Alice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord Frank- 
fort ; acquitted 31 Oct. 

Mr. Howard, attorney v. sir William Gosset, 
Serjeant, at- arms .... 5 Dec. 

Mr. Egan, in Dublin, for the robbery of a bank 
parcel ; acquitted ... 17 Jan. 

Rev. W. Bailey, LL.D., for forgery; guilty: 
transportation for life . . . i Feb. 

Mac Kaughten, for the murder of Mr. Drum- 
mond, secretary to sir Robert Peel : acquitted 
on the ground of insanity . . 4 March, 

The Rebeecaites, at Cardiff, under a special 
commission 27 Oct. 



i?4i 



Samuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; sentenced 
to transportation for life . . 29 Nov. 1843 

Edward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at 
South wark; guilty . . . i Dec. ,, 

Mr. Holt, of the Age ; libel on the duke of 
Brunswick; guilty ... 29 Jan. 1844 

Lieut. Grant, second to lieut. Munro, in his 
duel with col. Fawcett ; acquitted 14 Feb. ,, 

Eraser v. Bagley, for crim. con: verdict for 
the defendant 19 Feb. ,, 

Lord William Paget v. carl of Cardigan for 
crim. con. ; verdict for Defendant 26 Feb. ,, 

Mary Purley, for the murder of her child in an 
agony of despair . . . . 16 April, ,, 

The fwill-forgers, William Henry Barber 
(since declared innocent), Joshua Fletcher, 
Georgiana Dorey, William Sanders, and 
Susannah his VTif e : all found guilty, 15 April : 
sentenced 22 April, ,, 

[In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with 
a free pardon, and an acknowledgment of his 
innocence by his prosecutors : he was re- 
admitted to practise as an attorney; and 
on the 3rd of August, 1859, in conformity 
with the recommendation of a select com- 
mittee of the house of gommons, the sum 
of 5oooJ. was voted him "as a national 
acknowledgment of the wrong he had 
suffered from an erroneous prosecution. "] 

Crouch, for the murder of his wife ; found 
guilty, 8 May ; hanged . . .27 May, ,. 

Messrs. O'Connell, sen., O'Connell, jun., Steele, 
Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duffy, and rev. Thomas 
Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : 
the trial commenced 15 Jan., and lasted 
twenty-four days : all the traversers were 
found guilty, 12 Feb. Proceedings on 
motions for a new trial, &c., extended the 
case into Easter term ; and sentence was 
pronounced upon all but the clergyman, on 
whom judgment was remitted . 30 May, „ 

Augustus Dalmas, for the murder ^-of Sarah 
Macfarlane ; guilty ... 14 June, ,, 

Wm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction of 
Miss Wortham ; guilty . . 17 June, ,, 

Bellamy, for the murder of his wife by prussic 
acid ; acquitted . . . .21 Aug. „ 

John ' Tawell, for the murder of Sarah Hart ; 
hanged . . . . 13, 14 March, 1845 

Thomas Henry Hocker, for the murder of 
James Delarue . . . .11 April, ,, 

Joseph Connor, for the murder of Mary 
Brothers 16 May, ,, 

The Spanish pirates, for the murder of ten 
Englishmen at sea ... 26 July, ,, 

Rev. Mr. Wetherell, for crim con. with Mrs. 
Cooke, his own daughter . . 16 Aug. ,, 

Capt. Johnson, of the ship Tory, for the murder 
of several of his crew . . . . 5 Feb. 1846 

Miss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of 
promise of marriage . . . 18 Feb. ,, 

Lieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, 
in a duel ; acquitted . . . 16 July, ,, 

Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted 
fraud on Miss A. Burdett Coutts 27 Feb. 1847 

Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported 
for 143'ears (see /retoici) . . 26 May, 1848 

Wm. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and other con- 
federates ; sentenced to death ; the sentence 
afterwards commuted to transportation 
(pardoned in 1856) .... 9 Oct. ,, 

Bloomfield Rush, for the murder of Messrs. 
Jermy, at Norwich ; hanged . 29 March, 1849 

Gorham v. the bishop of Exeter ; ecclesiastical 
case ; judgment given in the court of Arches 
against the plaintiff .... 2 Aug. ,, 

[The bishop had refused to institute the rev. 
Mr. Gorlaam in the living of Brampton- 
Speke, in Devonshire, alleging want of 
orthodoxy in the plaintiff, who denied that 
spiritual regeneration was conferred by bap- 



TRl 



7it 



TRI 



TRIALS, coniinued. 

tism ; the court held that the charge against 
the plaintitf of holding false doctrine was 
proved, and that the bishop was justified in 
his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to the 
Judicial Committee of the Privy Coimcil, 
which pronounced its opinion (8 March, 1850) 
that " the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was 
not contrary ,or repugnant to the declared 
doctrine of the church of England, and that 
Mr. Gorham ought not, by reason of the doc- 
trine held by him, to have been refused 
admission to the vicarage of Brampton- 
Speke." This decision led to subsequent 
proceedings in the three courts of law, suc- 
cessively, for a rule to show cause why a 
prohibition should not issue directed to the 
judge of the Arches court, and to the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, against giving effect to 
the judgment of her majesty in council. 
The rule was refused in each court, and in 
the end Mr. Gorham was instituted into the 
vicarage in question, 7 Aug. 1850.] 

Manning and his wife, for the murder of 
O'Connor ; guilty : death . . 27 Oct. 

Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, 
for forgery, &.c 10 May, 

Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault 
on the queen . . . . 11 July, 

The Sloancs, man and wife, for starving their 
servant, Jane Wilbred . . .5 Feb. 

The Board of Customs v. the London Dock 
Company, on a charge of defrauding the 
revenue of duties; a trial of 11 days ended 
in a virtual acquittal ... 18 Feb. 

Sarah Chesham, for the murder of her husband 
by poison : she had murdered several of her 
children and others by the same means ; 
hanged 6 March, 

Thomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Denny : 
hanged 7 March, 

Doyle V. Wright, concerning the personal 
custody of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman 
catholic ward of chancery, before the lord 
chancellor ; protracted case . 22 March, 

The murderers of the rev. George Edward 
Holiest, of Frimley, Surrey ; guilty, 31 March, 

Miller v. aid. Salomons, MP., for voting as a 
member without having taken the requii-ed 
oath ; verdict against the defendant, 19 April, 

The case "Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. 
Gladstone :" judgment of the Arches court 
against the defendant . . .10 June, 

AchilU V. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord 
chief justice Campbell in the Queen's Bench : 
verdict for the plaintiff . . 31 Jan. 

Lord Frankfort, for scandalous and defamatory 
libels ; guilty 3 Dec. 

Richard Bourke Kirwan, for the murder of his 
wife ; guilty .... 10 Dec. 

Eliot Bower, for the murder of Mr. Saville 
Morton, at Paris ; acquitted . . 28 Dec. 

Henry Horler, for the murder of his wife ; 
hanged at the Old Bailey . . 15 Jan. 

James Barbour, for the murder of Robinson ; 
hanged at York .... 15 Jan. 

George Spai-kes and James Hitchcock, for the 
murder of WilUam Blaokmore at Exeter; 
guilty 19 Jfarch, 

Five Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for 
the murder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel 
at Egham ; verdict, manslaughter, 21 March, 

Moore and Walsh, for the murder of John 
Blackburn, at Stafford ; hanged 21 March, 

Saunders, for the murder of Mr. Tolcr ; hanged 
at Chelmsford .... 30 March, 
The Stackpole family, four in number; two 
of them females, and wives to the others, for 
the murder of their relative, also a Stackpole ; 
hanged at Enuis .... 28 Ajsril, 

Case of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, de- 
cided against rev. earl of Guildford i Aug. 



i8s3 



Smyth V. Smyth, ended in the plaintiff being 
committed on a charge of forging the will on 
which he grounded his claim 8, 9, 10 Aug. 1853 

The Braintree case respecting liability to 
church-rates, decided by the house of lords, 
against the rate 12 Aug. „ 

Case of Lumley v. Gye, respecting Madlle. 
Wagner ; decided . . . .22 Feb. 1854 

Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted 
of perjury 2 March, ,, 

Duchess of Manchester's will case . April, ,, 

Mr. Garden for the abduction of Miss E. 
Arbuthnot, and assault upon John Smith- 
wlck ; convicted ... 28, 29 July, ,, 

Mary Anne Brough, for murdering her six 
children ; not guilty (insanity) . 9 Aug. ,, 

Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount 
Mountgarret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus 
came into a peerage, the defendant being 
proved illegitimate .... Aug. ,, 

Courts-martial on Ueuts. Perry and Greer ; sen- 
tences reversed by lord Hardinge, 29 July- Aug. , , 

Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, captain 
McClure, (fee, for abandoning their ships in 
the Arctic regions ; acquitted . . Oct. ,, 

Emanuel Barthelemy, for murder of Charles 
Collard and Mr. Moore (executed) ; 4 Jan. 1855 

Handcock v. Delacour, otherwise De Burgh 
(cruelty of Mrs. Handcock, and charges 
against lord Clanricarde) ; compromised . „ 

Earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside) 

3-10 April, ,, 

Luigi Bai-anelli, for murder of Joseph Latham 
(or Lambert) ; (executed 30 April) 12 April, ,, 

Charles King, a great thief- trainer ; transported 

13 April, ,, 

David M. Davidson and Cosmo W. Gord.on, for 
frauds and forgeries of securities, <fcc. ; con- 
victed 24 May, ,, 

Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Bir- 
mingham gaol; acquitted . . 3 Aug. ,, 

Sir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and 
Robert M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of 
their customers' securities (to the amount of 
ii3,625(.): convicted . . . 27 Oct. ,, 

Joseph Wooler, on charge of poisoning his wife ; 
acquitted 7 Nov. ,, 

Westerton v. Liddell (on decorations, &c., in 
church in Knightsbridge ; decision against 
them) s Dec. „ 

[Decided again by privy council, partly for both 
parties ; each to pay his own costs, 21 March, 

1857-] 
Celestina Sommers, for murder of her children ; 

convicted (but reprieved). . . 6 March, 1856 
Wm. Palmer, for murder of J. P. Cook by 

poison (execiited) . . . 14-27 May, „ 
[He was executed at Stafford on 14 June, in the 

presence of 50,000 persons. If he had been 

acquitted, he would have been tried for the 

murder of his wife and brother.] 
Wm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed 

9 Aug.) 19 July, „ 

Ditcher v. archdeacon Denison, respecting the 

doctrine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, 

and appeal disallowed . . . [22 Oct. „ 
W. S. Hardwicke and H. AttweU ; convicted of 

forgery 31 Oct. „ 

Wm. Robson, for frauds of Crystal Palace 

Company (to the amount of about 28,000^.); 

transported for twenty years . i Nov. ,, 
Earl of Luoan v. Daily Jfews for libel ; verdict 

for defendant 3 Dec. ,, 

Pearce, Burgess, and Tester ; see Gold Robbeiij, 

14 Jan. 1857 
Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount 

of 150,000/.) upon Great Northern Railway 

Company: trausisorted for life . 16 Jan. ,, 
Miss Madeline Smitli, on charge of poisoning 

Emile L'Angelier, at Glasgow ; not proven, 

30 June-g July, , , 



TPJ 



746 



TEI 



TRIALS, continued. 

Tlios. Fuller Bacon, for poisoning his mother, 
convicted 25 July, 1857 

[He was acquitted on a charge of murdering 
two children, 13, 14 May, same year. His 
wife confessed the murder, but appeared to 
be insane.] 

James Spollen, on charge of murder of Mr. 
Little, near Dublin ; acquitted . 7-1 1 Aug. ,, 

Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), 
"Wm. Anderson, and others, convicted of 
extensive forgery of bankers' cheques, 5 Mar. „ 

W. Attwell and others, convicted of stealing the 
countess of Bllesmere's jewels (value 15,000^.) 
from the top of a cab . . . 15 Dec. ,, 

Strevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging 
the plaintiff with complicity in the murder 
of his aunt, Mrs. KeUy; damages 6d. 

31 Dec. ,, 

The directors of the British Bank, Humphry 
Brown, Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, alder- 
man R. H. Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James 
Stapleton, and Hugh Innes Cameron, for 
fraud (see Banks, p. 76); convicted 13-27 Feb. 1858 

Rev. S. Smith and his wife, for murderous 
assault on John Leech ; convicted, 6-7 April, „ 

Edw. Auchmuty Glover, M.P., for false declara- 
tion of qualification of M. P. . 9 April, (fee. ,, 

Simon Bernard, as accessory to the conspiracy 
against the life of the emperor Napoleon ; 
acquitted .... 12-17 April, „ 

The earldom of Shrewsbury case; earl Talbot's 
claim allowed . . . . i June, ,, 

James Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy ; 
convicted (and executed) . . 23 July, ,, 

The Berkeley peerage case . . 23 July, „ 

Patience Swynfen v. F. H. Swynfen ; a will 
case ; the will affirmed . . 27 July, „ 

[The plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of 
Henry John Swynfen, son of the testator, 
Samuel Swynfen. Her husband died 15 June, 
1854, and his father on 16 July following, 
having made a will 19 days before his death, 
devising the Swynfen estate (worth about 
60.000Z.) to his son's wife; but leaving a 
large amount of personal estate undisposed 
of. The defendant, F. H. Swynfen, son of 
the testator's eldest half brother, claimed 
the estate as heir-at-law on the ground of the 
testator's insanity. The issue was brought to 
trial in March, 1856 ; but proceedings were 
stayed by Mrs. Swynfen's counsel, sir F. 
Thesiger, entering into anagreementwith the 
opposite counsel, sir Alexander Cockburn, 
without her consent, and in defiance of her 
instructions. After various proceedings, the 
court of chancery ordered a new trial. She 
gained her cause, mainly through the energy 
of her counsel, Mr. Chas. R. Kennedy, to 
whom she had promised to pay 2o,oooi. for 
his extraordinary services. Mrs. Swynfen, 
however, married a Mr. Broun, and repudi- 
ated Mr. Kennedy's claim. The latter, in an 
action against her, obtained a verdict in 
his favour on 29 March, 1862, which was, on 
appeal, finally reversed in Feb. 1864. Mrs. 
Swynfen was non-suited in an action brought 
against her counsel (afterwards lord Chelms- 
ford and lord chancellor), in July, 1859, 
and June, i860.] 

Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of ex- 
tensive frauds .... 10 Nov. ,, 

Marchmont v. Marchmont; a disgraceful di- 
vorce case, begun ... 30 Nov. „ 

W. H. Guernsey, for stealing Ionian despatches 
from the Colonial Oflice ; acquitted 15 Dec. ,. 

Kvans v. Evans and Rose, divorce case Dec. ,, 

Lieut. -col. Dickson ■!;. earl of Wilton, for libel; 
verdict for the plaintiff . . 14 Feb. 1859 

Black V. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- 
wash sold by defendant ; damages 1400'. 

23 Feb. ,, 



Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank 
forgers ; convicted . . . 13 May, 

Earl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott, and others ; 
the earl gains the Shrewsbury estates, 3 June, 

TheUusson will case decided (see Thellusson) 

9 Jane, 

T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. 
Eicke, convicted of illegal sale of army con- 
missions ..... 29 June, 

Thomas Smethurst, a surgeon, for the murder 

by poison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had 

married during his wife's lifetime ; convicted 

15-19 Aug. 

[He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient 
evidence; but was tried and found guilty of 
bigamy, 16 Nov. 1859. On 11 Nov. 1862, he 
proved Miss Bankes's will and obtained her 
property.] 

Oakley 1). the Moulvie Ooddeen, "ambassador 
of the king of Oude." Verdict for the defen- 
dant, who seems to have fallen among bill- 
sharpers 17 Dec. 

David Hughes, an attorney, convicted of gross 
frauds \ipon his cUents . . . Jan. 

Eugenia Plumraer, aged 11 years, convicted of 
perjury against rev. Mr. Hatch . 14 May, 

Nottidge V. Prince (see Agapemone) . 25 July, 

Thomas Hopley, a schoolmaster, convicted of 
manslaughter of Reginald Cancellor, by 
flogging , 23 July, 

Mr. Edward Leafcham, M.P., convicted of 
bribery at Wakefield . . • ^9 July, 

Rev. J. BonweU, of Stepney, degraded for im- 
morality 29 Aug. 

James Mullens, convicted for the murder of 
Mrs. Elmsley ; by endeavouring to inculpate 
one Ems, he led to his own conviction 

25 Oct. 

Miss Shedden v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably 
pleaded her own cause when the case was 
opened ; her object, to prove the legitimacy 
of her father, was not attained) g Nov. et seq. 

Hooper v. Ward ; disgraceful profligacy of a 
magistrate ; verdict for plaintiff 19, 20 Dec. 

Brook V. Brook ; see Marriage with Wife's Sifter. 
The house of lords on appeal decided against 
the validity of such marriages, even when 
celebrated in a foreig-n country 18 March, 

Thelwall'y. hon. major Telverton. The plaintiff 
sued for expenses incurred by defendant's 
wife ; the major denied the validity of his 
marriage with Miss Longworth, having since 
married the widow of professor Edward 
Forbes, the eminent naturaUst. The court 
in Dublin, supported the first marriage 

21 Feb. to 4 March, 

[Miss Longworth endeavoured to establish her 
marriage. On appeal, the Scotch court an- 
nulled the marriage, July, 1862, and this 
judgment was affirmed by the house of lords, 
28 July, 1864, and again finally, 30 July, 1867.] 

Reade v. Lacy ; the dramatising a novel re- 
strained 17 April, 

Beamish v. Beamish ; the lords on appeal decide 
that a clergyman cannot perform the cere- 
mony of marriage for himself . 22 April, 

Emperor of Austria v. Day ; verdict for plaintiff. 
The defendant had printed 100 millions florin 
notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis 
Kossuth. The notes were ordered to be de- 
stroyed within one month, 6 May ; judgment 
affirmed 12 June, 

Cardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church 
minister, was expelled for drunkenness and 
misconduct, May, 1858. The Glasgow synod 
and the general assembly of the free church 
afiSrmed the sentence. He appealed to the 
court of session, which set aside the decree 
(which involved temporaUties), asserting that 
the assembly had only spiritual authority 

July, 



1859 



TRI 



747 



TRI 



TRIALS, continued, 

W. B. Turnbull v. Bird, secretary of protes- 
tant alliance ; libel ; verdict for defendant 
8-IO July, 

J. C. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery 
at the Wakefield election . . 20 July, 

Baron de Vidil ; convicted of wounding his son ; 
the latter refused to give evidence against his 
father 23 Aug. 

Vincent Collucci : convicted of obtaining money 
on false pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 

23 Oct. 

John Curran, a Dublin cabman ; convicted of a 
violent assault on Miss Jolly, who hei-oioally 
defended herself .... 25-30 Oct. 

Patrick MoCaifery ; shot col. Crofton and capt. 
Hanham, at Preston ; convicted . 13 Dec. 

Inquiry into sanity of Wm. Fred. Wyndham (on 
behalf of his relatives), with a view of an- 
nulling an injudicious marriage ; trial lasted 
34 days : 140 witnesses examined ; verdict 
sane mind (see Lunacy) 16 Dec. 1861, and 

30 Jan. 

[Each party adjudged to pay its own costs, 
March, 1862.] 

Capt. Robertson, by court-martial ; convicted 

of submitting to ungentlemanly conduct from 

his brother officers : — 30 daj's' inquiry : ended 

24 Mai'ch, 

[The court was much blamed by the public and 
the sentence was annulled.] 

Mrs. A. C.Vyse for poisoning her two children ; 
acquitted as insane . . . . g July, 

Eonpell V. Waite ; during the trial, W. Roupell, 
M.P. , a witness, confessed himself guilty of 
forging a will, and other frauds 18, 19 Aug. 

Jessie McLachlan ; convicted for the murder of 
Jessie Macpherson, at Glasgow ; she con- 
fessed to being accessary after the murder, 
which she imputed to Mr. Fleming, a gentle- 
man 80 or 90 years old . . . 17-20 Sept. 
[She was respited 27 Oct. 1862.] 

Wm. Roupell, M.P., for forgery; convicted on 
his own confession . . . -24 Sept. 

Catherine Wilson, convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
Soames in 1856 . . , . 25-27 Sept. 

27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage 
personal outrages in the streets of the metro- 
polis during the month . . . Novt 

Wm. Digby Seymoux-, M.P., v. Butterworth; 
libel ; verdict for plaintiff, damages 40.?. 

3 Dec. 

Hall V. Semple ; verdict for plaintiff, who had 
been consigned to a lunatic asylum through 
his wife's getting the defendant to sign a 
certificate of lunacy with culpableuegligence ; 
damages 150? 10 Dec. 

George Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Richd. Brewer, 
and James Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, 
printed on paper stolen from the paper-mill 
at Laverstoke ; convicted . .7-12 Jan. ] 

Clare v. The Queen ; petition of right for in- 
fringement of a patent ; verdict for defendant 

2-6 Feb. 

Rev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer 
of a libel in Saturday Review) : verdict for 
plaintiff 27 Feb. 

Queen on appealof earl of Cardigan v. col. Cal- 
thorpe for libel, charging the earl with de- 
serting his men at Balaclava, 25 Oct. 1855 : 
verdict for defendant (who, however, ad- 
mitted his error) . . . 9, 10 June 

Attorney-general v. SUlim and others, for 
having built the Alexandra for the Confeder- 
ates, against the Enlistment act ; verdict for 
defendants 25 June 

[Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house 
of lords, 6 April. 1864.] 

Col. Lothian Dickson v. viscount Combermere, 
earl of Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy 
to expel him from the army ; verdict for de- 
fendants . . . .27 June, et. seq. 



Morrison (Zadkiel) v. sir Edward Belcher ; libel ; 
verdict, 20s. damages . . .29 .June, 

Richard Roupell v. Haws: arising out of 
Roupell forgeries ; no verdict . 16-24 July 

Woolley V. Pole for Sun Fire Office ; verdict for 
plaintiff, awarding him his claim for 29,000^. 
for his insiirance of Campden-house ; burnt 
23 March, 1862 . . . .29 Aug. 

George Victor Townley, for murder of Miss 
Goodman, through jealousy ; convicted 

12 Dec. 

[He escaped execution through a certificate of 
insanity, too hastily signed : and committed 
suicide in prison 12 Feb. 1865.] 

Lieut. -col. Crawley, by court-martial at Alder- 
shot, for alleged oppression and cruelty to 
sergeant-major John Lilley, in consequence of 
a court-martial at Mhow, in India ; honour- 
ably acquitted. . . . 17 Nov. -23 Dec. 

Fraiiz Muller, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a 

railway carriage, g July ; convicted, 

27-29 Oct. 

Gedney v. Smith, a supposititious child de- 
tected and deprived of much property 

10 Nov, 

E. K. Kohl, for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop ; 
convicted n, 12 Jan. 

Queen v. Wm. Rumble, for infringement of 
Foreign Enlistment act, in equipping the 
Rappahannock for the Confederate govern- 
ment ; acquitted .... 4 Feb. 

Woodgate 0. Ridout (for Morning Post), for libel 
respecting the great will case of the earl of 
Egremont v. Darell; verdict for plaintiff, 
loooi. 10 Feb. 

Bishop Colenso's appeal to privy council 
against decision of bishop of Capetown, 
deposing him, which is annulled 21 March 

Roberts, Jeffery, Casely, and others, for 
jewel robberies in London ; convicted 

13 April 

J. _W. Terry and Thos. Burch, for misdemeanor 
in connection with the Unity Bank ; acquitted 

April 

Edw. Wm. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his 
wife and her mother, by poisoning ; guilty 

3-7 J'liy 

Charlotte Winsor, a child murderer, ouvicted 
on the evidence of an accomplice July, 

[On account of legal irregularities in her trial, 
her execution was long deferred, and her 
sentence was commuted to life-imprisonment, 
23 May, 1866.] 

Trials of Fenians for treason-felony; Thos. 
Clarke Luby, convicted and sentenced to 20 
years'penalservitude, 28Nov.-iDec. ; O'Leary 
and others convicted ; O'Donovan Rossa (pre- 
viou.«ly convicted) sentenced to imprisonment 
for life, 13 Deo. ; others convicted at Cork 

Dec. 

Stephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey), for 

murder of hia wife and children : guilty 

2D-2I Dec. 

Other Fenians convicted at Dublin (see Fenians) 

Jan. 

Breadalbane peerage ; succession decided in 
favour of Campbell of Glenfalloch 26 Jan. 

Ryves and Ryvcs v. the attorney-general ; an 
endeavour to prove the marriage of king 
George III. with Hannah Wilmot, and that 
of his brother Henry, duke of Cumber- 
land, with Olive Wilmot; the jury decided 
that the claim was not made out, and that 
OUve Serres, the alleged mother of Mrs. 
Ryves, was not the legitimate daughter of 
the duke of Cumberland, and that the 82 
documents brought iu evidence were forged 

13 June 

Banda and Kirwce prize case (Indian mutiny) ; 
court of admiralty decide that 700,000^ are 
to be divided between the soldiers com- 



1863 



i864 



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TE.I 



TRIALS, continued. 

manded by generals Whitelocke, Eose, Ro- 
berts, and others ... 30 June, 1866 

Bishop Colenso ■;;. Gladstone and others, trus- 
tees of colonial bishopric fund (for •with- 
holding his stipend); yerdict for plaintiff, 
with costs 6 Nov. ,, 

Hunter v. Sharpe (Pall Mall Gazette), for libel ; 
(charging him with quackery) ; one farthing 
damages gained by plaintiff . . i Dec. ,, 

James J. Wilkinson, manager of joint stock 
bank, convicted of fraud . 9, &c. Jan. 1867 

Bryant v. Foot ; decision against prescriptive 
right of a rector to claim a marriage-fee 

23 Jan. „ 

C. W. Lee Webb, Lionel Holdsworth, and 
others, convicted of fraud (scuttling a ship, 
and claiming insurance) . . 4 Feb. , , 

C. Anderson, a Swede ; convicted of murdering 1 

a mulatto, from superstition . 12 April, 

Breadalbane peerage ; Wm. J. Campbell de- 
clared heir, on appeal to house of lords 
16 July, 

Smith V. Tebbitt and others ; a will case, dis- 
posing of upwards of 400,000^. ; verdict for 
defendants, annulling the will of Ann 
Thwaites, who is declared of unsound mind, 
after a long trial, in April and May; judg- 
ment given 6 Aug. 

Oakes v. Turquand, and others ; appeal case, 
house of lords ; decision affirming liabUity of 
shareholders of the company of Overend, 
Gurney, and Co. (limited) . .15 Aug. 

Geo. Druitt, M. Lawrence, and John Anderson, 
leaders of the operative tailors' association, 
convicted of a misdemeanor (organising the 
system of "picketing," .or watching men on 
strike ; and intimidating non-unionists ; 
which began 24 April, 1867) . 21 Aug. 

13 tailors convicted of "picketing" 22 Aug. 

Fenian trials at Manchester, Allen, &c. (see 
Fenians) .... 30 Oct. -12 Nov. 

Frederick Baker convicted of brutal murder of 
a chUd 6 Dec. 

TRIBUISrES OF THE People [Trihuni Plebis), magistrates of Eoine, first clioseu from 
among the commons to represent the people, 494 B.C., at the time the people, after a quarrel 
with the Senators, had retired to Mons Sacer. The first two were C. Licinius and L. 
Albinus : but their number was soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which 
number remained fixed. Their o£Eice was annual, and as the first had been created on the 
4th of the ides of December, that day was chosen for the election. In a.d. 1347, Nicolo di 
Eienzi assumed absolute power in Eome as tribune of the people, and reformed many abuses ; 
but committing many extravagances, he lost his popularity and was compelled to abdicate. 
He returned to Eome and was assassinated, 8 Sept, 1354. 

TEICHINIASIS, a fatal disease, occasioned by eating raw or underdone pork containing 
a minute worm named Trichina spiralis. Professor Owen discovered these worms in cysts, 
in human muscle, in 1832. The trichinae are thoroughly destroyed by proper cooking. The 
disease excited much attention in 1865, and was the subject of a lecture by Dr. Thudichum 
at the Society of Arts on i8 April, 1866. 

TEICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given to a number of French republican females, who 
zealously attended political meetings and executions in 1792, knitting at intervals. 

TEIENNIAL PAELIAMENTS. On 15 Feb. 1641, an act was passed providing for 
the meeting of a parliament at least once in three years. This law was broken by the Long 
Parliament, and was repealed in 1664. Another triennial bill, passed in 1694, was repealed 
by the Septennial act, 1716 ; see Parliaments, and Septennial Parliaments. 

TEIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port by the emperor Charles 
VI., 1719, confirmed by Maria Theresa in 1750. It was held by the French in 1797 and 
1805. Since the establishment of the overland mail to India, it has risen to great com- 
mercial importance. After various changes of rulers it was restored to Austria in 1814 ; see 
Lloyd's, note. 

TEIGONOMETEICAL SURVEY, see Ordnance. 

TRIMMER, a term applied to Charles Montague, earl of Halifax, and others who held 



Mr. Rigby Wason v. Walter (for publication of 
an alleged libel in the Times ; viz., a correct 
report of a debate in the house of lords, (&c.) ; 
verdict for defendant, settling that such a 
report is privileged. . . 18-20 Dec. ] 

Martin -v. Mackonochie (for ritualistic prac- 
tices) ; before dean of arches, 4 Dec. 1867, and 
14 days ; recommenced, close . 18 Jan. ; 

Flamank v. Simpson ; similar case ; began 5 
Feb. ; verdict condemning elevation of sacra- 
ment, use of incense, and mixture of water 
with the wine in the communion service 
28 March, 
Trial of Fenians for Clerkenwell outrage (see 
i<'miams), began 20 April ; all acquitted except 
Michael Barrett . . . 20-27 April, 
Lyon V. Home (the celebrated spiritual me- 
dium). The plaintiff, a widow, sought to re- 
cover 6o,ooot. stock, given to Home at the 
alleged command of her deceased husband's 
spirit, between Oct. 1866 and Feb. 1867 ; suit 
instituted 15 June 1867 ; trial, 2iAprilto i May, 
1868 ; verdict given for plaintiff, by the vice- 
chancellor, sir G. M. Giflard . 22 May, 
[The judge, in concluding, said, regarding 
spiritualism, that " the system, as pre- 
sented by the evidence, is mischievous 
nonsense; well calculated on the one 
hand to delude the vain, the weak, the 
foolish, and the superstitious ; and on 
the other, to assist the projects of the 
needy, and the adventurer.] 
Bichard Burke (alias Geo. Berry, &c.), Theo- 
bald Casey, and Henry Shaw (alias MuUady), 
Fenians, for treason-felony, at Old Bailey; 
Burke and Shaw convicted, Caseyacquitted ; 
28-30 April, 
Momington v. Wellesley, and WeUesley v. Mor- 
nington, a 29 years' suit in chancery, de- 
cided (costs above 30,000^.) ; 22,000^. awarded 
to the countess of Mornington . 7 May, 

(&Qe Executions.) 



TRI 



749 



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similar political opinions, midway between those of the extreme Whigs and Tories, about 
the latter part of the 17th century. He assumed the title as an honour, asserting that it 
could be rightly given to the British constitution and church. Macaulay says that Halifax 
was a Trimmer on principle, and not a renegade. He died in 1715. 

TRINCOMALEE (Ceylon), was taken from the Dutch, by the English, in 1782 ; it was 
retaken by the French the same year ; but was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1783. 
It surrendered to the British, under colonel Stewart, 26 Aug. 1795, and was confirmed to 
England by the peace of Amiens, in 1802 ; see Ceylon. Of a series of actions off Trinco- 
malee between sir Edward Hughes and the French admiral Suffrein, one was fought 18 Feb. 
1782, the enemy having eleven ships to nine ; on 12 April following, they had eighteen stiips 
to eleven, aud on 6 July, same year, they had fifteen ships to twelve. In all these conflicts 
the French were defeated. 

TRINIDAD, an island in the "West Indies, was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was 
taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it from the 
English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the line, and a military force 
under command of sir Ralph Abercromby, to whom the island capitulated, 18 Feb. 1797 ; 
they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in the harbour. This possession 
was confirmed to England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes 
occurred 4 Jan. 1832. Population in 186 1, 84,438. Governor, Hon. Arthur H. Gordon, 1866. 

TRINITY AND Trinitarians. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the 
2nd century, was the first who used the term Trmity, to express the three sacred persons in 
the Godhead. His "Defence of Christianity" was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. 
Watkins. An order of the Trinity, termed Mathurins, was founded about 1198 by John de 
Matha and Felix de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was insti- 
tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. The act to exempt from penalties persons deny- 
ing the doctrine of the Trinity (such as Unitarians aud Swedenborgians) passed in 18 13. 

TRINITY COLLEGES, see Cambridge, and Oxford. Trinity College, Dublin, called 
the University : grant of the Augustine monastery of All Saints within the suburbs for 
erecting this college, conferred by queen Elizabeth, 1591. First stone laid by Thomas Smith, 
mayor of Dublin, i Jan. 1593. New charter, 1637. Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689. 
Burns. The principal or west front erected, 1759. Library erected, 1732. 

TRINITY HOUSE, London, founded by sir Thomas Spert, 1512, as an "associatioa 
for piloting ships," was incorporated in 15 14, and re-incorporated in 1604, 1660, and 1685. 
The present Trinity House was erected in 1795. By their charter the brethren of the Trinity 
House have the power of examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and of erecting beacons 
and lighthouses, aud of placing buoys in the channels and rivers. Spert, the first master, 
died 8 Sept. 1541. — Trinity Houses, origiually guilds or fraternities, founded at Deptford, 
Hull, and Newcastle, were incorporated by Henry VIII., 1536-41. 



RECENT MASTERS. 

"William Pitt . 
Earl Spencer 
Duke of Portland . 
Earl Camden 



1790 



Earl of Liverpool . 
Marquess Camden 
Duke of Clarence . 
Marquess Camden 



. 1815 
. 182S 
. 1829 



Duke of Wellington . . 1836 
The Prince Consort . . . 1852 
Viscount Palmerston, 16 June, 1862 
Duke of Edinburgh, 15 Mar. i865 



TRINITY SUNDAY, that following Whitsunday. The festival of the Holy Trinity 
was instituted by pope Gregory IV. in 828, on his ascending the papal chair, and is ob- 
served by the Latin and protestant churches on the Sunday next following Pentecost or 
Whitsuntide, of which, originally, it was merely an Octave. The observance of the festival 
was first enjoined in the council of Aries, 1260. It was appointed to be held on the present 
day by pope John XX. in 1334. Trinity Sunday in 1868, 7 June ; 1869, 23 May ; 1870, 
12 June; 1871, 4 June. 

TRINOBANTES, a British tribe which occupied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in 
opposing the invasion of Julius Caisar, 54 B.C. ; but soon came to terms with the Romans. 

TRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between the States-General and England against 
France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the 
league, it was known as the Triple Alliance, 23 Jan. 1668. — Another Triple Alliance was 
that between England, Holland, and France against Spain, 1717. 

TRIPOLI (three cities). I., in S}a-ia, comprised tlirec quarters built by the Tyrians, 
Sidonians, and Aradians ; was taken by the Crusaders 1 109, and made a county for 
Raymond of Toulouse. It was conquered by the Egyptians in 1832 ; restored to the Porte 
1835 ; surrendered to the British 1841. II., a Turkish province, N. Africa, comprised the 
cities Sabrata, CEa (the pi-esent Tripoli, the capital), and Leptis (the ancient Tripolitana), 
after having been held by Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Saracens, was conquered and 



TRI 



750 



TKU 



annexed by the Turks 1551. Hamet Bey, pacha in 1741, made himself independent, and 
the government remained in his family till 1835, when Tripoli was restored to nominal sub- 
jugation to the sultan. 

TEIPOLITZA (Greece), was stormed hy the Greeks, who committed dreadful cruelties, 
5 Oct. 1821 ; retaken by the Egyptians, 1825 ; given up to the Greeks, 1828. 

TRIEEMES, galleys with three banks of oars, are said to have been invented by the 
Corinthians, 784 b. c. 

TRIUMPHS were granted by the Roman senate to generals of armies after they had won 
great victories. They were received into the city with great magnificence and public 
acclamations. There were the great, called the Triumph ; and the less, the Ovation ; 
see Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRATES, Roman. The first, 60 B.C., consisted of Julius Ceesar, Pompey, and 
Crassus, who formed a coalition to rule the state. Their union lasted ten years, and the civil 
war ensued. The second triumvirate, 43 B.C., was formed by Octavius C«sar, Mark Antony, 
and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Lepidus was expelled 
in 36 ; Antony subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself absolute in Rome ; see Rome. 
In Feb. 1849, a triumvirate was appointed at Rome, consisting of Joseph Mazzini, Armel- 
lini, and Saffi, which resigned on i July, 1849, when the city was taken by the French. 

TROPPAU, CoNGEESS OF, in Austrian Silesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and 
Alexander of Russia met at Troppau, 20 Oct. 1820. The conference between them and the 
king of Prussia, against Naples, took place 10 Nov. ; and the congress was transferred 
to Laybach, as nearer to Italy, 17 Dec. 1820 ; see Layhach. 

TROUBADOURS and TrouvJiees (from troubar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets 
of the middle ages (from the ,iith to the 15th century).' The former flourished in the 
south of France and north of Spain, and used the Langue d'oc (that is, oc for oui, yes) ; the 
latter flourished in the north of France, and used the Langue d'oil (that is, o'il for oui). Tlie 
Troubadours produced romances, yet excelled chiefly in lyric poetry ; the Trouveres excelled 
in romances, several of which are extant ; as, the Bntt d' Angleterre, and the Hon, by Wace ; 
the "romance of the Rose," by Guillaume de Lorris, and Jean de Meung. The Troubadours 
were usually accompanied by Jongletcrs, who sang their masters' verses, with the accompani- 
ment of the guitar. Histories of these French poets, and specimens of their works, have 
been published in France. These poets, although frequently very licentious, undoubtedly 
tended to promote civilisation during those warlike times. 

TROY or Ilium, capital of the Troas, Asia Minor ; see Homer. 

Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia. Blair. B.C. 1546 
Teucer succeeds his father 1502 



Dardanus succeeds ; builds Dardania . . . 1480 

Beign of Erichthonius 1449 

Reign of Tros ; from whom the people are called 

Trojans, and the city Troas . . . . 1374 

Ilus, his son, reigns ; the city called Ilium . 13 14 

Keign of Laomedon 1260 

Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione de- 
livered from the sea monster. Blair ; Usher 1225 
War of Hercules and Laomedon .... 1224 

Beign of Priam or Podarces „ 

Eape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of 
Priam, 20 years before the sacking of Troy. 
Homer's Iliad, book xxiv. .... 1204 



Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks 
to recover Helen B.C. 

Troy taken and burnt in the night of the nth 
of June, i.e. 23rd of the mionth Thargelion. 
Parian Marbles. 408 years before the first 
Olympiad. Apollodorus, Hales, and Clinton, 
1183 ; others 

.^neas arrives in Italy. Lenglet 

[Some time after the destruction of Troy, anew 
city was built with the same name, about 
thirty stadia distant from the old site. It 
was favoured by Alexander the Great in his 
Asiatic expedition, but never rose to much 
importance, and in the age of Strabo was 
nearly in ruins. Priestley. '\ 



TROY WEIGHT. The Romans introduced their oimce, our avoirdupois ounce, into 
Britain. The present ounce was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of 
the Crusades, 1095, and was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name. 
It is used to weigh gold, silver, and precious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, was esta- 
blished by James VI. (our James 1.) in 1618 ; see Standard. 

TROYES (Central France), where a treaty was concluded between England, France, and 
Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of 
Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and, after the death of Charles, should inherit the 
crown, 21 May, 1420. Troyes was taken by the allied armies, 7 Feb. ; retaken by Napoleon, 
23 Feb. ; and again taken by the allies, 4 March, 1814. 

TRUCE OF GOD {Frera or Treuga Dei), a term given to a cessation of the private 
feuds and conflicts so general during the middle ages all over Europe, said to have been first 
proposed by the bishop of Aquitaine, in 1032. The clergy strenuously exerted their influence 
for the purpose. A synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that none should attack his enemy 
between Saturday evening (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar 



TRU 751 TUG 

regulations were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen 
for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of the church, especially 
the Lateran Council, in 1 1 79. 

TRUCK SYSTEM of paying workmen's wages, in goods instead of money, was pro- 
hibited by parliament in 1837. 

TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the 
Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, but not at 
the time of the Trojan wai'. First torches, then shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were 
the signals in primitive wars. Potter. The Jewish feast of trumpets was appointed 1490 
B.C. [Lev. xxiii. 24). Offa, king of Mercia, is said to have liad trumpets soimded before 
him when travelling, about A.D. 790. The speaking trumpet is said to have been used by 
Alexander the Great in 335 e.g. ; improved by Kircher in a.d. 1652 ; by Salland, 1654 ; 
and philosophicallj'' explained by Moreland, 1671. 

TRUMPET-FLOWER, Bignonia racUcans, was brought hither from North America, 
about 1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera sempervirens, came from North America 
in 1656. The Bignonia cajpcnsis was brought to England from the Cape in 1823. The 
Large-flowered Trumpet-flower, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from China in 1800. 

TRUSS. A transverse spring truss for ruptures was patented by Robert Brand in 1771, 
and by many other persons since. The National Truss Society, to assist indigent persons, 
was established in 1786 ; and many similar societies since. 

TUAM (W. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son of Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon 
as the first founder of the cathedral of Tuani, though the abbey is said to have been founded 
in 487. The church was anciently called Tuaim-da-Gualand. In 1151, Edan O'Hoisin was 
the first archbishop, at least the first who had the use of the pall, for some of his predecessors 
are sometimes called bishops of Connaught, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish historians. 
The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 1559. Tuam is valued in the king's books, by an 
extent returned anno 28 Eliz., at 50Z. sterling per annum. Beatson. It ceased to be 
archiepiscopal, conformably with the statute 3 &4 Will. IV., 1833 ; and is now a bishopric 
only, to which Killala and Achonry, a joint see, has been added ; see Archbishops. 

TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the most 
wonderful enterprise in engineering iu the world, was constructed, 1846-50 (Mr. R. Stephen- 
son and Mr. Fairbairn, engineers), about a mile southward of the Menai Strait Suspension 
Bridge. * 

these tubes to their places was a most gigantic 
operation, successfully performed, 27 June, 1849 
The first locomotive passed through, March, 1850 
The Conway tubular bridge, a miniature copy of 
the Britannia (principal engineers, Mr. Robt. 
Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn), erected . . 1S46-8 
At Chepstow, a railway tubular bridge . . 1852 
A bridge or viaduct on the tubular principle 
(called the Albert viaduct) over the river 
Tamar at Plymouth, opened by the prince 

consort 2 May, 1859 

The most stupendous tubular bridge in the 
world is that over the St. Lawrence, Canada ; 
see Victoria Bridge. 



On the Britannia rock, near the centre of the 
Menai Strait, the surface of which is about 
ten feet above low water level, is built a 
tower two hundred feet above high water 
(commenced building, May, 1846), and on 
which rests two lines of tubes or hoUow 
girders strong enough to bear their weight 
and laden trains in addition, the ends resting 
on the abutments on each shore ; each tube 
being more than a quarter of a mile iu length. 
The height of the tube within is thirty feet 
at the Britannia tower, diminishing to twenty- 
three feet at the abutments. The lifting of 



TUDELA (N. Spain). Near here marshal Lannes totally defeated the Spaniards, 
23 Nov. 1808 ; see Ebro. 

TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Martis, the day of Mars, the third day of the week, so called 
from Ticisto, Tiw, or Titesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped on this day. Tuisto is mentioned 
by Tacitus ; see Week Bays. 

TUGENDBUND ("league of Virtue"), fonned in Prussia soon after the peace of Tilsit, 
June, 1807, for relieving the sufferers by the late wars, and for the revival of morality and 
patriotism, gradually became a formidable secret political society, opposed to the French 

* The Britannia tubular bi-idge was intended to supply the place of one of the finest bridges in the 
kingdom ; and the railway, of which the tubular bridge forms a part, is in like manner a substitute for 
one of the finest mail-coach roads ever constructed. The road from London to Holyhead has been long 
regarded as the highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the late Mr. Telford wa'^ applied to 
by the government to perfect this route by the London and Holyhead maU-coach road, which he did by 
erecting a beautiful suspension bridge over the river Conway and over the >Ienai Strait ; commenced in 
July, 1818, and finished in July, 1825. AVhen Chester became a centre of railway commimication, it was 
considered that a through route to Holyhead would be more conveniently established from that point than 
from Shrewsbury, which lies in the route of Telford's road. Accordinglj' the Chester and Holyhead rail- 
way was constructed ; and in its course, both the Conway and the Menai had to be crossed ; and hence 
were formed the present tubular bridges. 



TUI 752 TUB, 

predominance in Germany. Its head-quarters -were at Konigsberg. It excited the jealousy 
of Napoleon, who demanded its suppression in 1809. It was dissolved at the peace in 181 5. 

TUILERIES (Paris), the imperial palace of France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, 
after the plans of Philibert de I'Orme, 1564 ; continued by Henry IV. ; and finished by 
Louis XIV. This palace was stormed by the mob, 10 Aug. 1792; and ransacked in the- 
revolutions of July, 1830, and Feb. 1848. Louis i^apoleon made it his residence in 185 1, 
and has since greatly renovated it . 

TULIPS came to England from Vienna about 1578. It is recorded in the register of 
Alkmaer in Holland, that in 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; 
and that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders ! The States stopped this, 
ruinous traffic. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tidip-ifera, was brought to England from 
America, about 1663. 

TUNBRTDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs were discovered, it is stated, by Dudley, 
lord JSTorth, who, in the last stage of consumption, was restored to health by the use of its 
waters, 1606. The wells were visited by the queens of Charles I. and II. The place sooa 
became fashionable. 

TUNGSTEIT (also called wolfram and scheelium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From 
tuugstate of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, whence the brothers De Luyart in 
1786 obtained the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a new kind of steel. 

TUNIS (N. Africa) stands near where Carthage was built. The territories of both, 
formed part of the Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by the Eomans after the 
third Punic war, 148 B.C. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX., of France, who died near it 
25 Aug. A.D. 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for Solyman 
the Magnificent. Taken with great slaughter, and Barbarossa expelled, by the emperor 
Charles V., when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The country was 
recovered by the Turks under Selim II. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 
1570. Tunis was redirced by admiral Blake, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British 
captives, 1655. In July, 1856, the bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. The 
bey died 22 Sept. 1859 ; and his successor Sidi Sadok took the oath of fidelity to the consti- 
tution. An insurrection broke out 18 April, 1864, and in May the European powers sent 
ships of war to protect their subjects. 

TUNNAGE AND Poundage were ancient dutiesleviedoneverytunof wine and pound of 
other goods, imported or exported, and were the origin of our "customs." They commenced 
in England about 1346. They were granted to the kings of England for life, beginning with 
Edward IV. At the beginning of his reign Charles I. gave great offence by levj'ing them on 
his own authority. They were granted to Charles II. for his lifetime, 24 June, 1660. By 
the act 27 Geo. III. c. 13, these and other duties w^re repealed, 1787, and a new arrange- 
ment of excise and customs was introduced. 

TUNJSTELS. The earliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed by M. Riguet, in 
the reign of Louis XIV. at Bezieres in France. The first in England was by Mr. Brindley, 
on the duke of Bridgewater's navigation, near Manchester, about 1766. Project of the 
Gravesend tunnel, 1800 — the report upon it, 1801. The Thames Tunnel was projected by 
Mr. Brunei in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, 25 March, 1843 ! see Thames Tunnel. 
In 1857 M. Thom^ de Gamond proposed the making a submarine tunnel from France to 
England ! Innumerable tunnels have been made for railways. The railway tunnel at 
Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, lit up with gas, and exhibited once a week. 
On the London and Birmingham railway there are eight tunnels (the Primrose-hill,. 
"Watford, Kilsby, &c. ), their total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It was computed by 
Mr. Fowler, that there were 80 miles of tunnels in the United Kingdom in 1 865, which cost 
about 6,500,000?., at the average of 45?. a yard ; see Alps, and Thames. 

TURIN, the ancient Aiigusta Taurinorum in Piedmont, capital of the Sardinian States, 
and of the kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was superseded by Florence. Its importance 
dates from the permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. The French besieged this 
city ; but prince Eugene defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege, 
7 Sept. 1706. In 1798, the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the 
strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to 
the island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Aiistrians and 
Russians ; but shortly afterwards the citj"- and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 
1814, it was delivered up to the allies, who restored it to the king of Sardinia ; see Italy, 
1864, and Treaties. Here prince Humbert was married to his cousin Margherita amidst 
great rejoicing, 22 April, 1868. 

TURKESTAN, Independent Tartarj--, the original country of the Turks, in Central 



TUR 



753 



TUR 



Asia, was reached by Alexander, 331 B.C. The Russians are gradually encroaching on this 
country ; and on 14 Feb. 1865, a new province, Turkestan, was created by decree. 

TURKEY. The Turks were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by incorporation with the 
peoples they have conquered, they must be regarded as a mixed race. About 760, they 
obtained possession of a part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. They afterwards 
gradually extended their power ; but in the 13th centuiy, being harassed in their new 
possessions by other Tartar tribes, they returned to Asia Minor. The Tui-kish empire com- 
prehends the almost independent principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Sevvia, and 
Montenegro, and the hereditary vice-royalty of Egypt. The population of the empire 
is estimated at 40,590,367, 



Othman, an emir of the sultan of Iconium, 

founded the Ottoman empire at Prusa, 

Bithynia, by policy and conquest, in . . 1299 
The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take 

Adi-ianople 1361 

Amurath I. institutes the Janissaries, a guard 

composed of young Christian slaves, trained 

as Mahometans 1362 

Bajazet I. ovei-runs the provinces of the Eastern 

empire 1389 et seq. 

He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopohs 

28 Sept. 1396 
He besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted 

by the approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), 

by whom he is defeated and made prisoner, 

at Ancyra 28 July, 1402 

Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at 

Varna by Amurath ... 10 Nov. 1444 

Amurath defeats John Huniades at Kossova 

Oct. 1448 
The Turks, invading Hungary, are repelled by 

Huniades 1450 

Constantinople taken by the Turks under 

Mahomet II., which ends the Eastern Roman 

empire 1453 

Belgrade relieved by Huniades' victory over 

the Turks Jiily> 1456 

Greece made subject to the Mahometans (see 

Greece) 1458-60 

The Turks penetrate into Italy, and take 

Otranto, which diffuses terror throughout 

Europe 1480 

Selim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; 

he murders his father, brothers, &c. . .1512 
He takes the islands of the Ai-chipelago . . 1514 

He overruns Syria 151S 

Gains Egypt by defeat of Mamelukes Aug. 1516 
Solyman takes Belgrade, Aug. 1521 ; and Rhodes 

Dec. 1522 
Defeats Himgarians at Mohatz . . 29 Aug. 1526 
Repulsed before Vienna . . . Oct. 1529 

Cyprus taken from the Venetians . Aug. 1571 
Great battle of Lepanto (which see) . 7 Oct. ,, 
Treaty of commerce with England . . . 1579 
Turks driven out of Persia by Shah Abbas . 1585 
Great fire in Constantinople .... 1606 
War with the Cossacks, who take Azof . . 1637 
The Tvu-ks defeat the Persians and take the 

city of Bagdad 1638 

The island of Candia, or Crete, taken from 

Venice, after a 25 years' siege . . . . 1669 
Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved 

by John of Poland .... Sept. 1683 

Peace of Carlovitz Jan. 1699 

Mustapha II. deposed 1703 

The Morea retaken by the Turks . . . . 1715 
The Turks defeated^t Peterwaradein . _ .1716 
They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines 171 7 
Peace of Brivan (with Persia) . . . . 1732 
Belgrade taken from Austria; and Russia 

reUnquishes Azof i739 

The Turks defeated at Kars . . ._ . . 1745 
Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the 

EngUsh and Russian fleets defeat the Turkish 1770 
The Crimea ceded to Russia . . _ Jan. 1784 
Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the 

Turks lose more than 200,000 men . . 1787-gi 
Cession of Oczacow 1791 



War with the French, who invade Egypt . 1798 

Insun-ection of Mamelukes at Cairo . . . 1803 
War against Russia and England . . . 1S07 
Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles 
effected by the British fleet, but with great 
loss ; see Dardanelles . . 19 Feb. ,, 

Murder of Hali Aga . . . -25 May, „ 
The Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined 

troops _ . . . . 180S 

The Russians defeated at Silistria . . . 1809 
Treaty of Bucharest (zchich see) . 28 May, 1812 
A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, returning 
from Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind 
in the deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved 9 Aug. ,, 
Subjugation of the Wahabees (which see) . 1818-9 
AU Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself 

independent 1820 

Insm-rection of Moldavia and Wallachia 

6 March, 1821 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Con- 
stantinople 23 April, ,, 

[For the events in connection with the inde- 
pendence of Greece, see Greece.} 
Horrible massacre at Scio (see Chios) 23 April, 1822 
Sea-fight near Mitylene ; Tm-ks defeated 

6 Oct. 1824 
New Mahometan army organised . 29 May, 1826 
Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constanti- 
nople; they are suppressed and massacred 

14-16 June, „ 
6000 houses burnt at Constantinople 30 Aug. „ 
Battle of Navai-ino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed 
by the fleets of England, France, and Russia 
(see Navarino) .... 20 Oct. 1827 

Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 

8s Russian settlers from the empire 5 Jan. 1828 
War with Russia . . . 26 April, ,, 

The czar Nicholas takes the field 20 May, ,, 

Capitulation of Brahilow . . 19 June, ,, 
Surrender of Anapa . . . .23 June, „ 
Eminences of Shumla taken by Russians 

20 July, „ 
The czar arrives before Varna . s Aug. ,, 

Battle of Akhalzic . . . .24 Aug. „ 
Fortress of Bajazet taken . . 9 Sept. „ 

The sultan proceeds to the camp with the 

sacred standard . . . .26 Sept. „ 
Dardanelles blockaded . . .1 Oct. ,, 

Surrender of Varna .... 15 Oct. „ 
Russians retreat from Shumla . 16 Oct. „ 

Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the 

French 30 Oct. „ 

Siege of Silistria raised by Russians 10 Nov. „ 
Victory of the Russians at Kulertscha, near 

Shumla 11 June, 1829 

Battle near Erzeroum ... 2 July, ,, 

Adrianople is entered by the Russians, 20 Aug. ; 

armistice agreed on . . . 29 Aug. ,, 

Treaty of peace at Adrianople . . 14 Sept. ,, 
Fire at Constantinople; extinguished by the 

menof H.M.S. .B(o7icZe . . 22 Jan. 1830 

The Porte acknowledges the independence of 

Greece 25 April, „ 

Treaty with America ... 7 May, ,, 
St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of 

Mehemet Ali . . . . . 2 July, 1832 
He defeats the army of the sultan at Konieh 
with great loss .... 21 Deo. „ 
3 C 



TUR 



754 



TUR 



TURKEY, continued. 

Ibrahim Pacha mai-ches within eighty leagues 
of Constantinople, and the sultan has re- 
course to the aid of Russia . . . Jan. 1833 
The Russians enter Constantinople . 3 April, ,, 
Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive 

8 July, ,, 
Office of grand vizier abolished . 30 March, 183S 
Treaty of commerce with England, concluded 

by loi-d Ponsonby, ratified . . 16 Aug. „ 
[For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to 

Syria; see Syria,'] 
Christians admitted to office in Turkey June, 1849 
The Turkish government refuses to surrender 
the Hungarian and Polish refugees on the 
joint demand of Russia and Austria 16 Sept. ,, 
[The Porte (countenanced by England) firmly 

resists this demand.] 
Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte 

12 Nov. ,, 
The British fleet, under sir W. Parker, anchors 
. in Besica bay . . . . .13 Nov. ,, 
Diplomatic relations between Russia and the 
Porte resumed, the latter sending the 
refugees to Konieh .... Jan. 1850 
Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion Jan. 1S51 
Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places 

(which see) 13 Feb. 1852 

Prince Menschikoff repairs to Constantinople 
as Russian negotiator, 28 Feb. ; his peremp- 
tory demands rejected . . ig April, 1853 
Reschid Pacha becomes foreign minister ; the 
ultimatum being rejected, Menschikoff quits 
Constantinople . . . .21 May, ,, 

Hatti-sherif issued, confirming the rights of 

the Greek Christians ... . 6 June, ,, 
Russian manifesto against Turkey 26 June, ,, 
Russian army crosses the Pruth . 2 July, ,, 
Grand national council — war to be declared if 

the principalities are not evacuated 26 Sept. ,, 
War declared against Russia . . 5 Oct. ,, 

[See Hiisso- Turkish War.} 

Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured 
by the Greek government at Athens — Hel- 
lenic empire proclaimed . . .27 Jan. i8s4 

Volunteers from Athens join it . 14 March, ,, 

Rupture between Greece and Turkey 28 March, ,, 
[Several conflicts ensue with varied suc- 
cess.] 

Osman Pacha storms Peta, the central point of 
the insurrection .... 25 April, „ 

English and French governments, after many 
remonstrances, send troops, which arrive at 
the Pirseus ; the king of Greece submits, and 
promises strict neutrality : the Greek volun- 
teers are recalled . . 25 and 26 May, ,, 

Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the in- 
trenched camp at Kolampaka, and the insur- 
rection shortly after ceases . 18 June, „ 

Reschid Paclia, having retired (3 June), re- 
sumes his office .... I July, ,, 

Convention between Turkey and Austria 

14 June, ,, 
The Russians retire from the principalities, 

which are thereupon occupied by the 

Austrians Sept. ,, 

Peace with Russia by treaty of Paris 30 March, 1856 
Austrians quit the principalities . March, 1857 
Misunderstanding among the aUied powers 
respecting Moldavian elections, which are 
annulled . . . . . . July, ,, 

Death of Reschid Pacha . . .7 June, 1858 

Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many years English 

ambassador at Constantinople, returned to 

England, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H. 

Lytton Bulwer ; accredited . 12 July, ,, 

Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the 

natives and the Turks . . . July, ,, 
Massacre of Christians at Jedda (which see) 

15 June, ,, 
Turkish financial reforms begun . Aug. ,, 



The first Turkish railway opened (from Aden to 

Smyrna) 19 Sept. 1858 

Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish 
coinage begun at Birmingham, is suppressed 

Oct. „ 
The alUed powers determine the Montenegrine 

boundaries '8 Nov. ,, 

Prince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of 

both Moldavia and "Wallachia 5 and 7 Feb. 1859 
[The Porte at first objects, but afterwards 

accedes to the double election.] 
Electric telegraph completed between Aden 
and Suez May, „ 

Great fire at Constantinople ; 1000 houses 
destroyed .... 10-14 Sept. ,, 

Conspiracy against the sultan, 17 Sept. ; his 
brother implicated; several condemned to 
die ; reprieved . . . Sept. and Oct „ 

Great agitation for financial reform . Oct. ,, 
Alleged iU treatment of Christians in Turkey ; 
proposed intervention of the great powers, 
5 May ; the Turkish government promises 
investigation and redress; all the powers 
satisfied except Russia . . 30 May, i860 

War between the Druses and Maronites in 
Lebanon ; massacres (see Druses) . June, „ 

Massacre of Christians at Damascus (see 
Damascus, and Suria) . . . 9-11 July, ,, 

Convention on behalf of the Great Powers at 
Paris ; armed intervention of the French 
agreed to ' 2 Aug. ,, 

Inundations at Galatz ; loss about 175,000^. 

24 Feb. 1S61 

Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by 
the Montenegrins .... March, ,, 

Great need of financial reform : the British 
ambassador, sir H. Lytton, proposes a scheme 

April, ,, 

Discussion respecting the French occupation of 
Syria ; it ceases .... 5 June, „ 

Death of the sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession 
of Abdul- Aziz, his brother . . 25 June, ,, 

Economical reforms begun ; Fuad Pacha made 
president of the council . . . July „ 

The late sultan's jewels sold in London Aug. ,, 

New order of knighthood Nishan (Osmanieh)to 
mclude civil as well as mihtary persons Sept. ,, 

Imperial guard re-organised . . Oct. , , 

Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . 22 Nov. ,, 

He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce 
with Sweden, Spain, &c. . . March, 1862 

ATurkish loan (8,000, ooo!.)taken up in London 

May, „ 

Secularisation of the property of the mosques, 
(value about 3,000,000^ ) said to be deter- 
mined on Oct. „ 

Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit : peace 
made with Montenegro . . .23 Sept. ,, 

Dispute with Servia (which see) settled 7 Oct. „ 

Ministerial crisis through the sultan's attempt 
at reaction ; Fuad Pacha and others resign, 
but resume office .... 7 Jan. 1863 

A new bank established . . .28 Jan. „ 

Fuad Pacha becomes seraskier . . 12 Feb. ,, 

Exhibition of the produce of the empire, 
opened in March ; closed . . 26 July, „ 

The sultan visits Egypt . . 7-17 April, ,, 

Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . i June, ,, 

Great iminigration of the Caucasian tribes April, 1864 

Financial reforms ; conversion and verification 
of the Turkish debt . . . Aug. 1865 

Cholera rages at Constantinople, nearly 50,000 
deaths, Aug. ; cholera subsides, Sept. ; great 
fire there, about 2500 buildings (mosques, 
dwellings, &c.) destroyed . . .6 Sept. „ 

Fuad Pacha proposes confiscation of the pro- 
perty of the mosques : opposition of the 
Sheikh-ul-Islam . . .21 Sept. ,, 

Lord Lyons, ambassador at Constantinople Oct. „ 

Revolt of the Maronites under Joseph Karam 

30 Dec. ,, 



TUR 



755 



TUR 



TURKEY, continued. 

The grand vizior, Fuad Paclia, superseded by 
Buchdi Mehemid All . . .5 June, i 

Eevolution in Bucharest (see DanvMan princi- 
palities). 

Insurrection in Candia {winch see) . Aug. 

International conference respecting cholera at 
Constantinople . . .13 Feb. -26 Sept. 

Eviropean Turkey very unsettled . Jan. ] 

Maronite revolt, under Joseph Karam, sup- 
pressed; his flight, Jan. ;Turksleave aSMarch, 

Ministerial changes : All Pacba becomes grand- 
vizier ; Fuad Pacha, foreign minister 1 1 Feb. 

The recommendation of the European powers 
to the sultan to give up Candia finally de- 
clined 31 March, 

Omar Pacha, commander-in-chief of the Tur- 
kish army A^jril, 



Destruction of the dockyards in the Golden- 
horn by fire 2 April, 1867 

The sultan, with his son and nephew, visits 
Paris, 1-12 July ; arrives at Buckingham- 
palace, London, 12 July ; entertained by the 
queen at Windsor, 13 July ; by the lord 
mayor, iS July; at a ball at New India 
House, 19 July ; gives 2500?. to the poor of 
London, 22 July ; sails from Dover, 23 July ; 
at Vienna, 27 July-i Aug. ; returns to Con- 
stantinople 7 Aug. „ 

Ministerial crisis ; Fuad Pacha resigns, but re- 
sumes his oflice .... Jan. i£68 

Meeting of the new council of state (including 
Jews and Christians), with legislative, but 
not executive, functions . . .18 May, ,, 



1299. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, retained the 

title emir, but ruled despotically. 
1326. Orchan, son, took the title " sultan." 
1360. Amurath (or Murad) I. : stabbed by a soldier, 

of which woimd he died. 
1389. Bajazet 1., son: defeated by Tamerlane, and 

died imprisoned. 
1403. Solyman I , son : dethroned by his brother. 
1410. Musa-Chelebi : strangled. 
1413. Mahomet I., son of Bajazet. 
1421. Amurath II., son. 

1451. Mahomet II., son: took Constantinople, 1453. 
1481. Bajazet II., son. 
1512. Selim I., son. 

1520. Solyman II., the Magnificent, son. 
1566. Selim II., son. 

Amurath III., son : on his accession he caused 

his five brothers to be murdered, and their 

mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 
Mahomet III., son: coramenoed his reign by 

strangling all his brothers, and drowning all 

his father's wives. 
1603. Ahmed (or Achmet) I. , son. 

1617. Mustapha I., brother : deposed by the Janis- 

saries, and imprisoned. 

1618. Osman II., nephew: strangled by Janissaries. 
1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the 



1574- 



I59S- 



TUEKISII EMPEKORS. 

1623. Amurath IV., brother of Osman II. 

1640. Ibrahim, brother : strangled by the Janis- 
saries. 

1648. Mahomet IV., son : deposed by 

1687. Solyman III., brother. 

1691. Ahmed (or Achmet) II., son of Ibrahim, 
nephew. 

1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. : 
deposed. 

1703. Ahmed (or Achmet) III., brother: deposed, 
and died in prison in 1736. 

1730. Mahmud I. (or Mahomet V)., son of Musta- 
pha II. 

1754. Osman III., brother. 

1757. Mustapha III., brother. 

1774. Abdul-Ahmed, brother. 

17S9. Selim III., son of Mustapha III. ; deposed by 
the Janissaries. 

1807. Mustapha IV. , son of Abdul- Ahmed ; deposed, 
and, with the late sultan Selim, murdered. 

1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI., brother. 
1839. Abdul-Medjid (son), July 2 (born 23 April, 

1823); died 25 June, 1861. 
1861. Abdul-Aziz (brother), 25 June (Ijorn 9 Feb. 
1830), the PRESENT sultan of Turkey. 
Heir presumptive : Murad (son of Abdul-Medjid), 
born 21 Sept. 1840. 



Seven Towers, and strangled. 

TURKEY TRADE, most lucrative at the time and long afterwards, commenced in tlie 
year 1550. The Turkey or Levant Comj)any of London was instituted by charter of 
Elizabeth, in 1579. 

TURKEYS AND Guinea Fowls, first brought to England about 1523, and to France in 
1570. Tui'keys are natives of America, and were consequently unknown to the ancients. 

TURKHEIM (E. France). Here the elector of Brandenburg and the Imperialists were 
defeated by the French under Turenne, 5 Jan, 1675. 

TURKISH BATHS, see Baths. TURKOMANS, see White Sheep. 

TURNER'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. Turner, one of the greatest of landscape 
painter.s, was born in April 1775, and died 19 Dec. 1S51. He bequeatlied to the nation all 
the pictures and drawings collected by him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- 
street, London, on condition that a .suitable gallery be erected for them within ten years ; 
and directed his funded property to be expended in founding an asylum at Twickenham for 
decayed artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but a compromise was made. The 
oil-paintings (100 in number) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by the nation, and the 
engravings and some other property were transferred to the next of kin. The drawings were 
cleaned and mounted under the careful superintendence of Mr. Ruskin, and the pictures 
were sent to Marlborough-house for exhibition. In 1861, the pictures were removed from 
the South Kensington Museum to the National Gallery. 

TURNING, see Lathe. In our dockyards, blocks and other materials for our ships of 
war are now produced by an almost instantaneous process, from rough pieces of oak, by the 
machinery of Mr. (afterwards sir Mark Isambard) Brunei (died 1849) ; see Blocks. 

TURNPIKES, see Tolls. 

TURPENTINE TREE, Pistacia TereUnthus, came from Barbaiy, before 1656. Spirits 

3 c 2 



TUR 



756 



TYB 



of turpentine were first applied, with success, to the rot in sheep ; one-third of the spirit 
dihited with two-thirds water, 1772, Annual Register. 

TURRET SHIPS, see Navy of England. 

TUSCAN ORDER of Architecture, a debased Doric, used in Tuscany for buildings, 
in wliich strength is principally intended, without regard to ornament or beauty. Wotton. 

TUSCANY, formerly a grand duchy in Central Italj'-, the northern part of the Ancient 
Etruria {which see). It formed part of the Lombard kingdom ; at the conquest of which by 
Charlemagne, it was made amarquisate for Boniface about 812 or 828. His descendant, the 
great Countess Matilda, bequeathed the southern part of her domains to the pope (11 15). In 
the northern part (then called Tuscia), the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c., gradually 
became flomishing republics. Florence became the chief under the government of the Medici 
family; s&& Florence. The duchy in that family began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in 
1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, Tuscany was given by the treaty of 
Yienna (1738) to Francis, duke of Lorraine (married to Maria Theresa of Austria in 1736), 
who had ceded his hereditary states to France. Population in i860, 1,826,830. 



The French enter Florence . 28 March, 1799 

The grand-duke is dispossessed, and his do- 
minions given to Louis duke of Parma Cof the 
royal house of Spain), with the title of king 

of Etruria iSoi 

Tuscany incorporated with the French empire 1807 
The grand-duchy given to EUza, sister of Napo- 
leon . 1808 

Ferdinand III. restored . . . . . . 1814 

Lucca united to Tuscany 1847 

Leopold II. grants a free constitution . Feb. 1848 
Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; 

the duke flies 11 Feb. 1849 

He is restored by the Austrians , . July, 1850 
Prosecution of the Madiai * . . May, 1852 

The Tuscan army demand alliance with the 
Sardinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and 
departs to Bologna ; the king of Sardinia is 
proclaimed dictator, and a provisional govern- 
ment formed . . .27 April, 1859 
The king assumes the command of the army, 
but declines the dictatorship . 30 April, ,, 



The Sardinian commissary Baoncompagni in- 
vested with the powers of government 

II May, 1859 

Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, ad- 
dresses the Tuscans, and erects his standard 

23 May, „ 

The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour 
of his son Ferdinand . . . 21 July, ,, 

Tuscan constituent assembly meets 11 Aug. ,, 

It declares against the house of Lorraine, and 
votes for annexation to Sardinia . Sept. „ 

Pi-ince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected 
governor-general of central Italy ; he de- 
clines : but recommends Buoncompagni, 
Nov. ; who is accepted by the Tuscans 

8 Dec. ,, 

Annexation to Sardinia voted by universal 
suffrage, 11, 12 March; decreed 22 March, i860 

Prince Eugene appointed governor 26 March, ,, 

Florence made the capital of Italy, by decree 

published 11 Dec. 1864 

(See Italy, and Florence.) 



SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 



KTNGS OF ETRTJKIA. 

1801. Louis I., duke of Parma. 

1803. Louis 11. n 

GRAND-DUCHESS. 

1808-14. EUza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, 
made prince of Lucca). 

GRAND DUKES. 

1814. Ferdinand III. restored. 
1824. Leopold II., 18 June (born 3 Oct. 1797; abdi- 
cated, 21 July, 1859). 
1859. Ferdinand IV., 21 July (born 10 June, 1835). 



GRAND-DUKES. 

1569. Cosmo I., Medici. 

1574. Francis I. 

1587. Ferdinand I. 

1608. Cosmo II. 

1621. Ferdinand II. 

1670. Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an 

account of his travels). 
1723. John Gaston (last of the Medici). 
1737. Francis II. (duke of Lorraine), became emperor 

of Germany in 1745- 
1765. Leopold I. (emperor in 1790). 
1790. Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I.); 

expelled by the French in 1800. 

TUSCULUM (now Frascati), a city of Latium (S. Italy). The Tusculans supported 
Tarquinius Superbus against the Romans, by whom they were totally defeated, 497 B.C. 
The Tusculans, on account of their friendship with Rome, suffered much from the other 
Latins, who took their city, 374, but were severely chastised for it. Here Cicero during his 
retii'ement wrote his "Tusculanse Disputationes," about 46 e.g. 

TWELFTH-DAY, the church festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to 
the Gentiles, 6 Jan. ; see Epiphany. 

TWELVE TABLES, see Decemvirs. 

TYBURN" (W. London), at the west end of Oxford-road (now street), the place in London, 
for the execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant (who died 1798) remembered Oxford- 

* Much interest and sympathy were excited in England and other protestant countries of Europe, by 
the imprisonment at Florence of the Madiai (husband and wife), who had embraced the EngUsh reformed 
religion, and read the Bible in due conformity with the teaching of their new faith. For this " crime " 
they were separately incarcerated in loathsome dungeons, and subjected to all the rigours of the Romish, 
ecclesiastical law, May, 1852. A protestant deputation from England, headed by the earls of Shaftesbury 
and Boden, proceeded to Florence in October, 1852, with the view to their release from confinement ; but 
the grand-duke refused to receive them. The Madiai were set at liberty, by the interposition of the British, 
government, in March, 1853. An annuity of looi. was provided for them by subscription. 



TYB 757 UKR 

street as "a deeji, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here and there a ragged house, the 
lurking-place of cut-throats." 

"TYBURNIA" (a KW. suburb of London), was built between 1839 and 1850, on the 
green fields and nursery grounds in Paddingtoii belonging to the see of London. 

TYLER'S INSURRECTIOjST arose in opposition to the poll-tax imposed on all persons 
above 15, 5 Nov. 1380. One of the collectors acting with indecent rudeness to Wat Tyler's 
daughter, the father struck him dead June, 13S1. His neighbours took arms to defend him, 
and in a short time almost the whole of the population of the southern and eastern counties 
were in a state of insurrection, extorting freedom from their lords, and plundering. On 12 
June, 1381, they gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. On 14 June 
they murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, and sir Robert Hales, the royal 
treasurer. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley, which took place on the 15th at 
Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a menacing manner, now and again lifting 
up his sword. On this the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, 
and one of the king's knights dispatched him. Richard temporised with the multitude 
by promising a charter, and thus led them out of the city, when sir R. Knollys and 
a band of knights attacked and dispersed them with much slaughter. The insurrection 
in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop of Norwich, and 1500 of the rebels 
were executed. 

TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES, see under Printing, 1842-62. 

TYPE-FOUNDING, ^temifiev Printing, 1452, 1720. 

TYRANT. In early Greek history, the term was applied to any man who governed with 
irresponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and chose the name Archon (ruler), 594B.C. 
The earliest tyrants Avere those at Sicyon, beginning with Cleisthenes, in the 7th century B.C. 
Tyranny declined in Greece about 490 B.C., and revived after the close of the Pelopouuesiau 
war, 404 B. c. ; see Thirty Tyrants. 

TYRE (Phcenicia), a great city, said to have been first built by Agenor. Another city was 
biult 1257 (about 2267, Hales) B.C. It was besieged by the Assyrians, who retired from 
before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 B. c. Taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B.C., 
and the city demolished, when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, and buUt a new 
and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, after a siege of seven 
months, July, 332 B.C. He joined the island to the continent by a mole. Strabo. Tyre was 
captured by the Crusaders, 7 July, 1 1 24 ; by the French, 3 April, 1 799 ; and by the allied 
fleet, during the war against Mahomet Ali, 1841. 

TYRE, Era of, began on 19 Oct. 125 B.C., with the month of H3'-perberetfeus. The 
months were the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian 
year. To reduce this era to ours, subtract 124; and if the given year be less than 125, 
deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. 

TYROL, the eastern part of ancient Rhsetia, now a province of the Austrian empire, was 
ceded to the house of Hapsburg in 1359 by Margaret, the heiress of the last count. The 
province became an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial house, which 
came to the throne in the person of Maximilian II., in 1618. The French conquered the 
Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria ; but in 1809 an insui'rection broke out, headed by 
Andrew Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, thorouglily defeated 
some French detachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of Vienna. He was 
subsequently accused of corresponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to Mantua, 
and there shot by order of the French government (to its great disgrace) 20 Feb. 1810. 
The Austrian emperor ennobled his family in 1S19, and erected his statue in Inspruck in 
1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were very effective in the Italian war in 1859. 

TYRONE (near Ulster, N. Ireland), formerly the territories of the O'Neills, and the 
seat of the insurrection in 1641. 

TYRRHENI, included the ancient Etruscans, and other tribes, said to have come from 
Lydia, Asia Minor. 



U. 

UBIQUITARIANS, a small German sect, originated by John Brentius about 1560, who 
asserted that the body of Christ was present everywhere {ubiqii,e). 

UKRAINE (Polish for a ]rontier\ a vast fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks 



ULM 



758 



UNI 



by Poland in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. The conntry ■was divided, Poland 
having the "West side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The whole country was assigned 
to Russia by the treaty of partition in 1795. 

ULM, in Wurtemberg, S. Germany, where a peace was signed, 3 July, 1620, by which 
Frederick Y. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously). Ulni was taken by the 
French in 1796. After a battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, 
under general Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, Ulm surrendered with 
28,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, 17-20 Oct. 1805. 

ULPHILAS'S BIBLE, see Bihle. 

ULSTER, the N. division of Ireland. At the death of Strongbow, 1176, John de Courcy 
was made early of Ulster; Hugh de Lacy was earl, 1243; and Walter de Burgh, 1264; 
whose descendant, Elizabeth, married Lionel, son of Edward III., 1352. In 161 1, the British 
colonisation of the forfeited lands (termed the Ulster settlements) began, much land being 
gi-anted to the corporation of London. The rebellion of the Irish chieftains, Roger More, 
Phelim O'lSTeale, McGuire, earl of Inniskillen, and others, broke out on 23 Oct. 1641. 

ULTRAMOETANISTS (from ultra monks, beyond the mountains), a term originally 
applied in France to those who uphold the extreme authority of the pope in opposition to 
the freedom of the Galilean church, which had been secured by various bulls, and especially 
by the concordat of 15 July, 1801. Ultramontanists now are those who maintain the official 
infallibility of the bishop of Rome. 

UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries as " a portable pent-house to carry in a 
person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are very ancient, as they 
appear in the carvings at Persepolis. Niebuhr, who visited the southern part of Arabia, 
informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by 
some hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused 
a large umbrella to be carried by his side. Old chinaware shows the Chinese shaded by an 
umbrella. It is said that the iirst person who generally used an umbrella in the streets of 
London was the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1 786. 

For a long while it was not usual for men to carry 
them without being branded as effeminate. At 
first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept 
at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions — lent 
as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not 
commonly carried by the walkers. The Female 
Toiler advertises: "The young gentleman be- 
longing to the custom-house who, in fear of rain, 
borrowed the umbrella from Wiiks's coffee-house, 
shall the nest time be welcome to the maid's 
paMeiis." As late as 1778, one John Maodonald, a 
footman, who wrote his own life, informs us that 
he had "a fine silk umbrella, which he brought 
from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort to 
himself use it, the people calling out, 'French- 
man ! why don't you get a coach ? ' " The hack- 

LTJSrCTION", ExTEEME, see Anointing. 

UNDULATORY THEORY of Light, supposes a progressive wavelike motion between 
the eye and the luminous body seen. It was propounded by Robert Hooke and Huyghens, 
about 1672 ; opposed by Newton ; but coniirmed by Thomas Yoimg by experiments in 1801, 
and is now generally adopted ; see Emission. 

UNIFORMITY ACTS. That of 2 & 3 Edward VI., 15 Jan. 1549, ordained that the 
order of divine worship, drawn up by Cranmer and others, ' ' with the aid of the Holy Ghost, " 
should be the only one used after 20 May. The penalties for refusing to use it were fine and 
imprisonment. This act was re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The act of Uniformity, 14 
Charles II. c. 4, was passed in 1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and 
obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of worship, 
and same book of common praj'-er. Its enforcement on 24 Aug. 1662, termed Black Bar- 
tholomew's day, caused upwards of 2000 ministers to quit the church of England, and laid 
the foundation of the dissenting interest. The day was commemorated by dissenters in 1862. 

UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in France, "in a regular manner," by 
Louis XIV. 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted in the military 
service, but with little analogy to the modern dress. Ashe ; see under Navy. 

UNIGENITUS, see Bull. 

UNINFLAMMABLE SALTS. At the British Association, 15 Sept. 1859, MM. Vers- 
. mann and Oppenheim announced their discovery that fabrics steeped in solutions of tung- 
state of soda, or sulphate or phosphate of ammonia, burn without iiame. 



ney-coachmen and chairmen, with true esprit de 
corps, were clamorous against their portentous 
rival. The footman, in 1778, gives us some farther 
information: — "At this time there were no um- 
brellas worn in London, except iu noblemen's and 
gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one 
hung in the hall to hold over a lady, if it rained, 
between the door and her carriage." This man's 
sister was compelled to quit his arm one day, 
from the abuse he drew down upon himself and 
his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted 
for three months, till they took no further notice 
of this novelty. Foreigners began to. use theirs ; 
and then the English. Now it is become a great 
trade in London." Mew Monthly Magazine. 



UNI 759 UNI 

UNION OF Calmae, 1397 ; of Utrecht, 1579. 

UNION OF England and Scotland by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as 
James 1. of England, 24 March, 1603. The legislative nnion of the two kingdoms (as Great 
Britain) was attempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign of Anne, commissioners 
were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposition made by the 
Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, lirst in the house of 
commons, and afterwards by the peers, 22 July, 1706 ; was ratified by the Scottish parlia- 
ment, 16 Jan. 1707, and became law, i May, same year. 

UNION OF Great Britain and Ireland, proposed in the Irish parliament, 22 Jan. 
1799. Kejected by the commons of Ireland, 24 Jan. the votes being 105 for, to 106 against 
the union. The English house of commons on the same question divided, 140, 141, and 
149 for the union ; against it, 15, 25, and 28 respectively. Lord Castlereagh detailed his 
plan of the union, in the Irish house of lords, founded on the resolutions of the British 
parliament thereon, 5 Feb. 1800. Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 115, 
17 Feb. ; and again, 152 against 108, 21 Feb. The houses of lords and commons wait on the 
lord lieutenant with the articles of union, 27 March. The act passed in the British parlia- 
ment, 2 July, 1800. The imperial united standard was first displayed at the tower of 
London, and upon Bedford Tower, Dublin Castle, in consequence of the act of legislative 
imion becoming an operative law, I Jan. i8oi. For attempts to dissolve this union, see 
Eepeal. 

UNION JACK. The original flag of England was the banner of St. George, i.e., white 
with a red cross, which, 12 April, 1606 (three years after James I. ascended the throne) 
was incorporated with the banner of Scotland, i.e., blue with a white diagonal cross. This 
combination obtained the name of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with Scotland, 
and the word Jack may be considered a corruption of the word "Jacques," or James. This 
arrangement continued until the union with Ireland, i Jan. 1801, when the banner of St. 
Patrick, i.e., white AA'ith a diagonal red cross, was thus amalgamated with it, and forms the 
present Union flag. 

UNION CHARGEABILITY ACT, providing for the better distribution of the charge 
for relieving the poor in unions, was passed in Jime, 1865. One object of the act is the 
improvement of the dwellings of agricultural labourers. 

UNION EELIEF ACT, passed in 1862, contimredin 1863, to enable boards of guardians 
of certain unions to obtain temporarj- aid to meet the extraordinary expenditure for relief 
occasioned by the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. 

UNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ireland, see Eepeccl of the Union. 

UNIONS, see Poor, and Trades. 

UNIT, a gold coin, value 20s., issued by James I. in 1604. 

UNITARIANS, began with Michael Servetus, a learnedman, who printed a tract in dis- 
paragement of the doctrine of tlie Trinity. In 1553, proceeding to Naples through Geneva, 
Calvin induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy. Servetiis, 
refusing to retract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried 
into execution, 27 May, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those anatomists who made the 
nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established 
that doctrine. The Unitarians were numerous in Transjdvania in the 17th century; they 
came to England aboirt 1700, and many of the original English presbyterian churches be- 
came Unitarians about 1730. They were not included in the Toleration act till 1813. There 
were 229 congregations in England in 1851. Their tenets resemble those of the Arians and 
Socinians {which see). They believe in and worship one only self-existent God, in opposi- 
tion to those Avho worship the Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to have been a mere 
man ; and do not admit the need of an atonement or the complete inspiration of the 
Scriptures. The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, June 1827. In Dec. 1833, by a de- 
cision of the vice-chancellors the Unitarians (as sucli) lost the possession of lady Hewle3''s 
charity ; the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1842. 

UNITED BRETHREN, see Moravians. 

UNITED IRISHMEN, a political society which met secretly, was formed to establish a 
republic about 1795. Theobald Wolf Tone, the founder, was captured by sir John Warren 
in the Hoche, one of six frigates destined to support the rebellion, in Oct. 1798. He 
anticipated his punishment by suicide in prison Nov. 1798. 

UNITED KINGDOM. England and Wales were united in 1283 ; Scotland to both in 
1707 ; and the British realm was named the United Kingdom on the union with Ireland, 
I Jan. 1801 ; see Union. — The United Kingdom Alliance, for the total suppression of 
liquor traffic, was founded i June, 1853. 



UNI 



760 



UNI 



UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, in Scotland, was formed 13 May, 1847 ; see 
Burghers, and Relief Glmrch. 

UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Eriesland, Groningen, Overyssell, 
and Guelderland), the deputies of wliicli met at Utrecht, 23 Jan. 1579, and signed a treaty 
for their mutual defence ; see Holland. 

UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION, near Whitehall, London, was estahlished in 1830. 
Its museum contains many remarkable military and naval relics. The lectures given are 
reported in its journal, which first "appeared in 1857. 

UNITED STATES of AMERICA were so styled by the congress of the revolted 
British provinces, 9 Sept. 1776. Their flag was declared to be thirteen stripes, alternately 
red and white, and thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding with the then number of 
states of the union, 20 June, 1777. The government of the United States is a jjure 
democracy. Each of the states has a separate and independent legislature for the adminis- 
tration of its local afi"airs, but all are ruled in matters of imperial policy by two houses of 
legislature, the senate and the house of representatives, to which delegates are sent from the 
diiferent members of the confederacy. The president of the United States is elected every 
fourth year by the free voice of the people. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president 
on 4 Nov. i860, was followed by the secession of eleven slaveholding states, and led to the 
great civil war, 186 1-5 ; see Confederates. 



The thirteen states of the union at the declaration 
of independence in 1776 : the italics indicate the 
then slaveholding states ; those with a * prefixed, 
seceded from the federal government in 1S60 and 
1861, and were subdued in 1865 : — 



New Hampshire. Delaware. 

Massachusetts. Maryland. 

Ehode Island. * Virginia. 

Connecticut. *North Carolina. 

New York. '*South Carolina. 

New Jersey. I *6eorgia. 

Pennsylvania. | 

The following have been added : — 

Vermont (from New York) 1791 

^'Tennessee (from North Carohna) . . . . 1796 

Kentuclcij (from Virginia) 1792 

Columbia district (under the immediate govern- 
ment of congress) contains Washington, the 

seat of government 1790-1 

Ohio (created) 1802 

*Louisiana (bought from Prance in 1803) . . 1812 

Indiana (created) 1816 

*Mississip2n (from Georgia) 1817 

Illinois (created) 181 8 

Population. See Slavery in America.l 

Slaves. Total. Slaves. Total. 

. 2,614,300 1810. . 1,191,364 . 7,2'39,go3 
, 896,849 . 5,309,756 1830 . . 2,009,050 . 12,858,670 



^Alabama (from Georgia) 1819 

Maine (from Massachusetts) .... 1820 

Missouri (from Louisiana) 1821 

* Arkansas 1836 

Michigan . > 1837 

* Florida (ceded by Spain, 1820) ; made a state . 1845 

*Texas ,, 

Iowa 1846 

Wisconsin 1848 

California. 1850 

Minnesota (territory, 1849) ; state . . . 1858 

Oregon (territory, 1850) ; state . . . . 1859 

Kansas (territory, 1854) ; state .... 1861 

New Mexico (territory) 1850 

Utah (territory) ,, 

Washington (territory) 1853 

Nevada (territory, 1861); state .... 1864 

Colorado (territory, 1861) ; state . . . . 1866 

Dakota (territory) 1861 

Arizona (territory) 1863 

Idaho (territory) „ 

West Virginia (from Virginia) . . . . ,, 
Montana (territory) 



Nebraska (territory, 1854) ; state 



1776 
1800 



Slaves. 
3.204,313 
3,952,801 



1867 



23,191,876 
31,445,080 



The senate is composed of 2 members for each state, elected for 6 years. The representatives in con- 
gress were formerly elected for 2 years in the ratio of i in 93,423 persons (five slaves were counted as three 
persons) ; but this system ended with the abolition of slavery. 

Revenue. — Total receipts, i July, 1854, to 30 June, 1855 . . 65,003,930 dollars, 

ditto • I Jvily, 1858, to 30 June, 1859 . . 53,405,071 dollars, 

ditto I July, 1862, to 30 June, 1863 . . 888,082,128 dollars, 

ditto I July, 1865, to 30 June, 1866 . 1,273,960,215 dollars. 

Expenditure. — i July, 1854, to 30 June, 1855 . . 56,365,393 dollars. 

"" I July, 185S, to 30 June, 1859 . . 66,346,226 dollars. 

I July, 1862, to 30 June, 1863 . . 714,709,996 dollars. 

I July, 1865, to 30 June, 1866 . 1,141,072,666 dollars. 



ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

Public Debt.- 



-I June, 1S67, 2,515,615,936 dollars. 



Army. — That which achieved independence was disbanded at the end of the war. In 1789, a war 
department was established, and in 1790 the army consisted of 1216 men. In 1808, the militia was newly 
equipped. When war with Great Britain was declared on 18 June, 1812, 35,000 men were voted ; and this 
army was disbanded at the peace in 1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 and 1835, afterwards 
disbanded. 

In 185s, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72 vessels (2290 guns). 

In i860, the United States MiUtia were 3,070,987. The Fleet consisted of 92 vessels (of all kinds); in 
Oct. 1862, of 256 vessels of war. 

Federal Army, July 29, 1861, estimated at 660,971. In Dec. 1862, nearly 1,000,000 men. In April, 1865, 
about 1,500,000, at the end of the war, when the reduction began at once. Number of soldiers in 1867, 
54,890. Fleet, in July, 1S67, 261 vessels of all kinds, 2218 guns. 



UNI 



761 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 

Wasliington 



Act of tlie British parliament, imposing- new 

and heavy duties on imports ii March, 1764 

Obnoxious stamp act passed . 22 March, 1765 
Pii'st American congress held at New York, 

June; the stamp-act resisted , i Nov. ,, 
Stamp-act repealed . . . March, 1766 

British act, levying duties on tea, paper, 

painted glass, ifec. . . . 14 June, 1767 
Gen. Gates sent to Boston . . . Oct. 1768 
840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at 

Boston, and 17 chests at New York Nov. 1773 
Boston port bill (port rights annulled) 

25 March, 1774 
Deputies from the states meet at Philadelphia, 

5 Sept. ; Declaration of Rights issued 4 Nov. ,, 
First action between the British and Americans, 

at Lexington .... 19 April, 1775 
Act of pei-petual union between the States 

20 May, „ 
George Washington appointed commander-in- 
chief , May : battle of Bunker's-hiU 17 June, ,, 
America declared "free, sovereign, and inde- 
pendent " 4 July, 1776 

General Howe takes Long- Island, 27 Aug. ; 
New York, 15 Sept. ; victor at White Plains, 
29 Oct. ; takes Rhode Island . 8 Dec. , , 

The Hessians surrender to Washington 25 Dec. ,, 
La Fayette and other French officers join the 

Americans 1777 

Washington defeated at Brandy wine 11 Sept. ,, 
Lord CornwalUs takes Philadelphia Sept. ,, 

Burgoyne victor at Germantown, 3 Oct. ; sur- 
rounded ; capitulates at Saratoga 17 Oct. ,, 
A federal government adopted by congress 

15 Nov. ,, 
The States recognised by France . Dec. ,, 

Alliance with France ... 6 Feb. 177S 

The king's troof)s quit Philadelphia June, ,, 

Americans defeated at Brier's Creek, 3 March, 1779 
Charleston surrenders to the British, 13 May, 17S0 
CornwalUs defeats Gates at Camden, 16 Aug. ,, 
Major Andr^ hanged as a spy . . 2 Oct. ,, 
[Andr6 (bom 1751) was an adjutant-general in 
the British army, and was taken in disguise 
on his retiuii from a secret expedition to the 
traitorous American general Arnold, 23 Sept. 
17S0. He was sentenced to execution as a 
spy by a court of general Washington's officers 
at Tappan, New York, and suffered death, 
2 Oct. following. His remains were removed 
to England in a sarcophagus, 10 Aug. 1821, 
and interred in Westminster abbey. Impar- 
tial judges justify the severity of this pimish- 
ment.] 
American Academy of Arts and Sciences at 

Boston founded „ 

The federal government accepted by all the 

states, I March ; congress assembles, 2 Mar. 1781 
Comwallis defeats Green at Guildford, 15 
Mar.; Arnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw 

8 Sept. „ 
Surrender of lord Comwallis and his whole 
army of 7000 men to generals Washington 
and Roohambeau, at Yorktown 19 Oct. ,, 

Arrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace, 
5 May; provisional articles signed at Paris by 
commissioners .... 30 Nov. 17S2 
Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 3 

Sept. 1783; ratified by congress . 4 Jan. 1784 
Samuel Sealiury consecrated bishop of the epis- 
copal church in America ,, 

John Adams, first American ambassador's first 

interview with the king of England, i June, 1785 
The cotton plant introduced into Georgia . . 1786 
New constitution signed by a convention of 

States 17 Sept. 1787 

The same ratified 23 May 178S 

The quakers of Philadelphia emancipate their 

slaves I Jan. „ 

New government organised . . 4 March, 1789 



Present departments 
Death of Benjamin Franklin 



declared the first president 

6 April, 1789 
of state estabhshed 

27 July, „ 
17 April, 1790 
Bank instituted ; capital, 10,000,000 dollars 

7 June, 1791 
City of Washington chosen the capital of the 

States 8 July, 1792 

Eh Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives 

an immense impetus to the growth of 

American cotton i793 

Re-election of general Washington as president, 

4 March, 1793 ; resigns . . .17 Sept. 1796 
Washington dies amid universal sorrow 

14 Dec. 1799 
The seat of government removed to Washing- - -• ^ 

ton 1800 

Louisiana purchased from the French . . . 1803 
Discussion between England and America re- 
specting the rights of neutrals . . . 1807 
American ports closed to the British, July ; 

trade suspended .... 9 Dec. „ 

Slave trade abohshed .... Jan. 1808 
War with Great Britain (New England States 

opposed to it, threatened to secede) 18 June, 1812 
Action between the American ship Conslitulion, 

and the British frigate Guerriere, an unequal 

contest 19 Aug. ,, 

Fort Detroit taken .... 21 Aug. ,, 
The British sloop Frolic taken by the American 

sloop Wasp iS Oct. „ 

The ship United States of 54 guns, great calibre 

(commodore Decatur), captures the British 

frigate Macedonian .... 25 Oct. ,, 
Battles of Frenchtown (which see) 22-24 '^^.n. 1813 
The Hornet captures the British sloop of war, 

Peacock 23 Feb. „ 

Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the 

British 27 May, „ 

The American frigate Chesapeake captured by 

the Sliannon frigate, captain Broke i June, „ 
At Burlington Heights, Americans defeated 

6 June, „ 
H.M. sloop Pelican takes the sloop Argus, 

14 Aug. „ 
Buffalo town burnt by the British . . 9 Dec. ,, 
American frigate Essex taken by the Pha'be and 

Cherub 29 March, 1814 

The British defeat the Americans in a severe 

conflict 2 July, ,, 

[Several engagements with vaiious success 
followed.] 

The British, imder Ross, defeat the Americans 
at Bladensburg; the city of Washington 
is taken and the public edifices burnt 

24 Aug. „ 

The British sloop of war Avon sunk by the 
American sloop l^asp . . .8 Sept. „ 

The British squadron on Lake Champlain cap- 
tured . . . . . . n Sept. „ 

Attack on Baltimore by the British ; general 
Ross killed 12 Sept. „ 

Treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed at 
Ghent 24 Dec. ,, 

The British repulsed at New Orleans 8 Jan. 1815 

The British ship Endymion captures the Presi- 
dent ....... 15 Jan. ,, 

The Ghent treaty ratified . . 17 Feb. ,, 

Centre foundation of the capitol of Washuigton 
laid 24 Aug. 1S18 

The "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, 
regarding slavery, passed . . . Feb. 1820 

Spain cedes Florida to the United Statesj 

24 Oct. ,, 

The States acknowledge the independence of 
South America . . . . 8 March, 1822 

Treaty with Columbia . ... 3 Oct. 1S24 

Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and 



UNI 



762 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continwd. 



Jefferson, on the soth anniversary of the in- 
dependence of the American States 4 July, 1826 

Convention with Great Britain concerning in- 
demnities for war 1S12-14 . . 13 Nov. ,, 

American Tariff Bill imposing heavy duties on 
British goods .... 13 May, 1828 

General Jackson, president . . 16 Feb. 1829 

Treaty between the United States and the Otto- 
man Porte 7 May, 1830 

Ports re-opened to British commerce 5 Oct. ,, 

New Tariff laws .... 14 July, 1832 

Commercial panic ....... 

Great fire at New York, 647 houses and many 
public edifices burnt; loss estimated at 
20,000,000 dollars ; see New York 15 Nov. 1835 

National debt paid off . . . '. . . 1836 

In the Canadian insurrection, many Americans 
assist the insurgents . . Oct. to Dec. 1837 

The American steamboat Caroline is attacked 
and burnt by the British, near Schlosser, to 
the east of the Niagara, on the territory of 
the United States .... 29 Dec. ,, 

Proclamation of the president against American 
citizens aiding the Canadians . . 5 Jan. 1S38 

The Great Western steam-ship first arrives at 
New York 17 June, „ 

American banks suspend cash payments, Oct. 1839 

Affair of Alex. Mac Leod, charged with aiding 
in the destruction of the Caroline; true bill 
found against him for murder and arson 

6 Feb. 

The United States bank again suspends pay- 
ment 7 Feb. 

Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release 
of Mr. MacLeod .... 12 March, 

The case of Mac Lcod is removed to the supreme 
court at New York . . . . 6 May, 

A party of British volunteers from Canada 
carry off col. Grogan ... 9 Sept. 

Eesignation of all the United States ministers, 
with the exception of Mr. Webster 11 Sept. 

President's proclamation against lawless at- 
tempts of American citizens to invade British 
possessions, and to suppress secret lodges, 
clubs, and associations . . ,25 Sept. 

Grogan is restored to the Americans 4 Oct. 

Trial of MacLeod commences at Utica, 4 Oct. ; 
acquitted 12 Oct. 

Colossal statue of Washington placed in the 
capitol at Washington . . . i Dec. 

Affair of the Creole, which leads to a dispute 
with England Deo. 

[This vessel, an American, was on her voyage 
to New Orleans with a cargo of slaves : they 
mutinied, murdered the owner, wounded the 
captain, and compelled the crew to take the 
ship to Nassau, New Providence, where the 
governor, considering them as passengers, 
allowed them, against the protest of the 
American consul, to go at liberty.] 

Announcement of lord Ashburton's mission to 
the United States . . . . i Jan. 1842 

Arrest of Hogan, implicated in the Caroline 
affair 2 Feb. ,, 

Lord Ashburton arrives at New York 

I April, ,, 

Washington treaty, defining the boundaries 
between the United States and the British 
American possessions, and for suppressing 
the slave trade, and giving vip fugitive 
criminals; signed at Washington, by lord 
Ashburton and Mr. Webster . 9 Aug. ,, 

The tariff bill is passed . . . 30 Aug. ,, 

Lord Ashburton leaves United States s Sept. ,, 

Death of Dr. Channing .... 2 Oct. „ 

War declared against the United States by 
Mexico, on account of the proposed annex- 
ation of Texas .... 4 June, 1S45 

[Several actions are fought between the belli- 
gerents, adverse to Mexico.] 

Eesolution of the senate and house of repre- 



sentatives for terminating the joint occu- 
pancy of Oregon ... 20 April, 1846 

Annexation of New Mexico to the United 
States, after a protracted war . 23 Aug. „ 

Mexicans defeated by Taylor at Palo Alto 

8, 9, May, „ 

Treaty fixing the north-west boundary of the 
U. S. at the 49th parallel of latitude, and 
giving the British possession of Vancouver's 
island, the free navigation of the Columbia 
river, &c., signed ... 12 June, ,, 

The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at 
Bueno Vista . . . . 22, 23 Feb. 1S47 

Vera Cruz taken by storm, 29 March ; the 
Mexicans everywhere worsted. Great battle 
of Sierra Gorda; the Mexictms signally de- 
feated by gen. Scott . . . 18 April, ,, 

Treaty between Mexico and the United States, 
ratified 19 May, 1S48 

Riot at the theatre. New York, occasioned by 
the dispute between Mr. Forrest and Mr. 
Macready 10 May, 1S49 

Proclamation of the president against the 
marauding expedition to Cuba . 11 Aug. „ 

[Lopez, a Spanish adventurer, landed 600 men 
at Cuba ; after a short but obstinate struggle 
they took the town of Cardenas ; and soon 
after had a land engagement with some 
Spanish soldiers, in which many of them 
were killed lor taken prisoners ; the others 
embarked with Lopez in the Creole steamer, 
and thus escaped from a Spanish war steamer, 
the Pizarro, May, 1850.] 

The French ambassador dismissed from Wash- 
ington 14 Sept. ,, 

Treaty with England for a transit way across 
Panama (see Bulwer), 19 April ; ratified 

4 July, 1S50 

President Zachary Taylor dies ; death of Mr. 
Calhoun 31 March, „ 

California admitted a state . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Fugitive slave bill passed . . . Aug. „ 

President Fillmore issues a second proclamation 
against the promoters of a second expedition 
to Cuba, and the ship Cleopatra, freighted 
with military stores destined fur that island, 
is seized 25 April, 1851 

Census of the United States taken ; the popu- 
lation ascertained to amount to 23,347,884, in 
the whole union . . . 16 June, ,, 

Hen. Clay, American statesraan, dies, 29 June, ,, 

Failure of the second expedition against Cuba "" 
by Lopez and his followers ; they are all 
defeated and taken ; 5 1 are shot by the Cuban 
authorities, Lopez is garotted, and the rest 
are sent prisoners to Spain, where after 
some negotiation, they are mercifully set at 
liberty (see C«6a) . . . Aug. -Sept. ,, 

J. F. Cooper, American novelist, dies 14 Sept. ,, 

The president issues a proclamation against the 
sympathisers with the revolutionary move- 
ment in Mexico . . . .22 Oct. „ 

Part of the capitol of Washington, and the 
whole of the library of the United States con- 
gress, destroyed by fire . . 24 Dec. ,, 

M. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, arrives at 
Washington, on the invitation of the United 
States legislature . . . .30 Dec. ,, 

Publication of " Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. 
Stowe 20 March, 1852 

The dispute with England relating to the Fish- 
eries occurs about this time ; Mr. Webster's 
note upon the subject . . 14 July, ,, 

Lone Star Society (see Lone Star) . Aug. „ 

The United States Ship Crescent City boarded at 
Havannah, and not allowed to land her mails 
or passengers 3 Oct. ,, 

Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster 
in his 70th year .... 24 Oct. ,, 

Expedition to Japan . . . . • ., 

Address to the women of America on slavery. 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



adopted by the duchess of Sutherland and 
other ladies (signed afterwards by 576,000 
Englishwomen) .... 26 Nov. 1852 

Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koazta) 

21 June, 1853 

Crystal palace opens at New York . 14 July, ,, 

Duel between M. Soul^ (American minister at 
Madrid) and M. Turgot . . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Great fire at New York — Great- Republic clipper 
destroyed 26 Dec, ,, 

Aster Library, New York, opened . 9 Jan. 1854 

Wm. Walker proclaims the republic of Souora 
divided into two states — Sonora and Lower 
California 18 Jan. ., 

American steamer Black Warrior seized at Cuba 

28 Feb. ,, 

The Spanish government remitted the fine, but 
considered the seizure legal . . April, ,, 

Commercial treaty concluded between Japan 
and United States by commodore Perry (sent 
there for the purpose) . . 23 March, ,, 

Eeciprocity treaty between Great Britain and 
United States (respecting Newfoundland 
fishery, international trade, &c.) concluded 

7 June, ,, 

Captain HolUns in American sloop Cyane, bom- 
bards San Juan de Nicaragua . 13 July, ,, 

Negotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich 
Islands Oct. „ 

Dreadful election riots in Kansas, March and 

April, 1855 

Indian war : they are defeated 25, 29 April, ,, 

Dispute with British government on enlistment 
(see Foreign Legion) .... July, ,, 

Gen. Harney gains a victory over the Sioux 
Indians 3 Sept. ,, 

Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by 
senator Preston Brooks in the senate-house 
for speaking against slavery . 2 May, 1856 

Mr. Crampton, British envoy, dismissed, 28 May, ,, 

John C. Fremont nominated the "Eepublican" 
candidate for the presidency . 17 Jmie, ,, 

Battle in Kansas; the slavers (under capt. 
Reid) defeat Brown and the abolitionists 

30 Aug. „ 

James Buchanan elected president . 4 Nov. ,, 

The Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see 
Franklin) 12 Dec. „ 

Lord Napier appointed British envoy to United 
States (16 Jan.); wannly received, 18 March, 1857 

Central American question settled . March, ,, 

Judgment given in the " Dred Scott" case iu 
the supreme court. He was claimed as a 
slave in a free state : 2 judges declared for his 
freedom, 5 against it, which causes great dis- 
satisfaction throughout the free states, March, „ 

Disorganised state of Utah ; troops march to 
support new governor . May and June, „ 

Riots in Washington against Irish electors ; 
and in New York on account of changes in 
the pohce arrangements . . June, ,, 

Insurrection in Kansas quelled . . July, ,, 

Commercial panic in New York . .Aug. ,, 

Outrage at Staaten Island; quarantine house 
burnt ... . . 7 Sept. ,, 

Dispute respecting right of search, settled May, 1858 

Tranquillity restored in Utah . . June, ,, 

Great rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic 
telegraph (see Electnc Telegraph) . Aug. ,, 

Lieut. Moflfat seizes the America slave ship 
£cfto and takes her to Charleston . Sept. ,, 

Death of W. H. Prescott, the historian, 28 Jan. 1859 

Daniel Sickles, a goverment official, killing' 
Philip Barton Key, for adultery with his wife, 
is acquitted of murder . . 26 Feb. ,, 

The American commodore Tatnall assists the 
English at the Chinese engagement on the 
river Peiho, saying, " Blood is thicker than 
water" ..... 25 June, ,, 

Gen. Ward, the United States envoy, goes to 
Pekin, but does not see the emperor July, ,, 



Gen. Harney sends troops to San. Juan Island, 
near Vancoiiver's Island, "to protect the 
American settlers ; " modei-atiou of the 
British, who have a naval force at hand ; 
governor Douglas also sends troops, 27 July, 

InsuiTection at Harper's Ferry . 16 Oct. 

[John Brown, called captain Brown and old 
Brown, was a prominent leader in the vio- 
lent conflicts in Kansas, during the agitation 
respecting the question of its becoming a 
slave state. He was a monomaniac on the 
slavery question, and contended that all 
means for annihilating slavery were justi- 
fiable. He gathered together a band of des- 
perate characters, who so much annoyed 
Missouri and other slave states, that a re- 
ward was offered for his head. Ho had 
arranged for the successful issue of the in- 
surrection above mentioned, so far as to 
devise a provisional government and a new 
constitution. On 16 Oct, he and his band, 
aided by a mob, seized the arsenal at Har- 
per's Ferrj', a town on the borders of Vir- 
ginia and Baltimore, stopped tlie railway 
trains, and cut the telegraph wires ; a con- 
flict with the military ensued, when many 
of the insurgents were kUled. Temporary 
panic in southern states.] 

Gen. Harney superseded by gen. Scott at San 
Juan, who makes conciliatory overtures ; 
accepted by governor Douglas . Nov. 

Death of Washington living . 28 Nov. 

John Brown captured and tried; executed 

2 Dec. 

Great agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859; no 
speaker elected till . . . . i Feb. 

President Buchanan protests against a proposed 
inquiry into his acts ... 28 March, 

Companions of John Brown executed March, 

The national republican convention meet at 
Chicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candi- 
date for the presidency . . .16 May, 

Japanese embassy received by the president at 
Washington 17 May, 

Fresh disputes at San Juan, thi-ough general 
Harney, who is recalled . . . May, 

William Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies May, 

The national democratic convention meet at 
Baltimore ; a lai-ge number of delegates 
secede ; the remainder nominate Stephen 
Douglas as president : the seceders nominate 
John Breckinridge . . . .18 June, 

The Great F.aslern arrives at New York, 23 June, 

The prince of Wales arrives at Detroit in the 
United States, 20 Sept. ; visits Washington, 
3 Oct. ; Philadelphia, 9 Oct. ; New York, 
II Oct.; Boston, 17 Oct. ; emb;irks at Port- 
land 20 Oct. 

Abraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, 
elected president (see Southern Confederacy) 

6 Nov. 

[303 electors are appointed to vote for a presi- 
dent ; 152 to bo a majority. The numbers 
were, for A. Lincoln, iSo; John C. Breckin- 
ridge, 72 ; John Bell, 39 ; Stephen A. 
Douglas, 12.] 

Intense excitement at Charleston, South Caro- 
lina, and in other southern states Nov. 

South Carolina secedes from the union 20 Dec. 

Major Anderson, of United States army, occu- 
pies Fort Sumter in Carolina . 26 Dec. 

Delegates from South Cax-olina not received by 
the president .... 30 Dec. 

Vacillating policy of president Buchanan ; the 
secretaries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson 
resign Dec. 1860-Jan. 

New York and other northern states protest 
against the secession ; a general fast pro- 
claimed ; observed on . . .4 Jan. 

Vicksburg, Mississijii, fortified . 12 Jan. 

Kansas admitted a state . . .21 Jan. 



1859 



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764 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



Recession (by convention) of Mississipi, 8 Jan. ; 
Alabama, Florida, ii Jan. ; Georgia, 19 Jan. ; 
Louisiana, 26 Jan. ; Texas (by legislature), 

I Feb. 

Jefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding 
states, 8 Feb. ; is inaugurated president of 
the "southern confederacy," at Montgomery, 
Alabama 18 Feb. 

New (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits 
commerce with England) . 2 March, 

President Davis prepares for war (ioo,ocxd men 
to be raised) .... March, 

Abm. Lincoln, inaugurated president at Wash- 
ington, says, "the central idea of secession 
is the essence of anarchy " . .4 March, 

Southern commissioners not received by the 
president at Washington . . 12 March, 

■Gen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to president 
Lincoln, sets before him four courses : either, 
I. , to surrender to slavery half the territory 
acquired or to be acquired; II. , to blockade all 
revolted ports ; III., to say to seceding states, 
" Wayward sisters, go in peace ! " or IV., to 
conquer the south, which would require 
300,000 men and afterwards a resident army 
[the letter became public Oct. 1862] March, 

Oreat excitement at the operation of the new 
Morrill tariff, which begins . . i AprU, 

The war begins : Major Anderson refuses to 
surrender Fort Sumter, Charleston, when 
summoned, 11 AprU ; it is taken by the seces- 
sionists, after a bloodless conflict 13 AprU, 

President Lincoln summons the congress to 
meet on 4 July ; issues a proclamation calling 
on the states to furnish acontingentof 75,000 
men, &c 15 AprU, 

Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and 
other states zealously respond, with vigorous 
preparations for war ; Kentucky, North Caro- 
lina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, de- 
cidedly refuse, asserting the proposed coercion 
to be wicked, illegal, and unconstitutional 

AprU, 

The mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some 
Massachusetts regiments on their way to 
Washington; several persons kiUed in the 
conflict 19 April, 

President Davis issues letters of marque, 

17 April; president Lincoln proclaims the 

blockade of the ports of seceding states 

19 April, 

U. S. Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, fired 
by command, and 15,000 stand of arms 
destroyed, 18 April ; 9 ships of war and naval 
stores in the navy yard, Norfolk, Va., burnt 
to prevent them falling into the hands of the 
southern confederates, who occupy the place 
21 April, 

"Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- 
nance (the 8th state) ... 25 April, 

Lincohi calls for 42,034 volunteers for three 
years, 3 May, and informs foreign powers of 
his mtention to maintain the union by war 

4 May, 

The confederates under Beauregard and John- 
ston, in Virginia, threaten Washington, de- 
fended by the federals under generals Winfi eld 
Scott and George McCleUau . . May, 

The British queen commands her subjects to be 
neutral in the ensuing war . 13 May, 

The federals enter Virginia; Beauregard caUs 
on the Virginians to rise and expel them 

I June, 

FoiTnal secession of Arkansas, 6 May ; North 
Carolina, 20 May; Tennessee (gth, loth, and 
iith) 8 June, 

Several British vessels seized while endeavour- 
ing to break the blockade ; the southern 
privateer Savannah captured . . June, 

Neutrality announced by the French emperor, 

10 June, 



Fast-day in confederate states . . 13 June, 
Missouri. — Gen. Lyon raises a federal army, 
and defeats the state troops, 17 June; the 
fedei-als successful at Carthage, 5 July ; Fre- 
mont takes command in W. Missouri, 26 July ; 
federals victorious at Athens, 5 Aug. ; at 
Wilson's Creek (gen. Lyon killed), 10 Aug. ; 
Fremont proclaims martial law, and freedom 
to slaves or rebels, 31 Aug. ; Lexington sur- 
renders to confederates, J.20 Sept. ; Fremont 
blamed, retires ; succeeded by Hunter 

2 Nov. 

Virginia. — Federals defeated at Big Bethell, 

10 June ; occupy Harper's Ferry, evacuated 

by the confederates, 16 June ; col. Pegrim 

and 600 confederates surrender at Beverley 

13 July, 

[Very many skirmishes, with various results.] 

McCleUan defeats confederates at Rich Moun- 
tain, II July ; Paterson permits the junction 
of the confederates under Johnston and 
Beaxiregard near Manassas, 15 July; who are 
repulsed at Blackburn's Ford, near Centre- 
ville 18 July, 

Battle of BiUl Run (which see) or Manassas, 
Virginia ; the federals, seized with panic, flee 
in utter disorder . . . .21 July, 

Meeting of U. S. Congress, 4 July ; a loan of 
250 milUon doUars authorised . 17 July, 

Meeting of confederate congress at Richmond, 
Virginia 20 July, 

Passport system introduced into the northern 
states, and the liberty of the press greatly 
restricted Aug. 

The charges in the Morrill tariff greatly raised ; 
the confederates prohibit exportation of cot- 
ton except by southern ports . . Aug. 

McCleUan assumes command of the array of 
the Potomac 20 Aug. 

Federal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, N. 
Carolina (700 prisoners and 1000 stand of 
arms) 29 Aug. 

Fast-day in federal states . . .26 Sept. 

Garibaldi declines command in the federal 
army Sept. 

Battle, of Ball's BluS ; federals defeated and 
gen. Baker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; 
hundreds drowned . . . 21 Oct. 

The federals and confederates enter Kentucky; 

the governor protests ; many skirmishes 

Sept. -Dec. 

Resignation of lieut.-gen. Scott, 31 Oct. ; George 
McCleUan made commander-in-chief of the 
federal army i Nov. 

The federal general Sherman takes Port Royal 
forts, S. Carolina . . . 7, 8, Nov. 

Capt. Wilkes, of federal war steamer San Jacinto, 
boards the Royal British mail packet Trctit, 
and carries oflf Messrs. Mason and SlideU, 
confederate commissioners, and their secre- 
taries, 8 Nov., and conveys them to Boston 

19 Nov. 

Great rejoicings in the northern states at the 
capture of Mason and SUdeU . . Nov. 

McCleUan reviews 70,000 men . . 20 Nov. 

Capt. Pegram, of confederate steajner Nashville, 
burns the federal ship Harvey Birch, 19 Nov. 
and brings the crew on to Southampton 

21 Nov. 

A secession ordinance passed by a party in 
Missouri, 2 Nov. ; the same in Kentucky 

30 Nov. 

Dissensions increase between the republicans 
(abolitionists) and the democrats in New 
York, (fee Nov. 

Jefferson Davis elected president of confederate 
states for six years ... 30 Nov. 

President Lincoln states that the federal armies 
comprise 660,971 men ... 2 Dec. 

Meeting of congress, which votes thanks to 



i£6i 



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765 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA continued. 



capt. Wilkes, 2 Dec. ; the foreign envoys .it 
Washington protest against his act 3 Dec. 

The federals commence sinking hulks filled 
with stones to block up Charleston harbour, 
S. Carolina [it created much indignation in 
England] 21 Dec. 

Banks at New York, &c., suspend cash pay- 
ments 30 Dec. 

A firm despatch from the British government 
arrives, 18 Dec. 1861 ; Mason, (fee, surren- 
dered, sail for Europe . . . i Jan. 

Phelps' fruitless expedition to Ship Island, 
Mississippi Sound . . 3 Dec. i86i-Jan. 

Confederate gen. ZoUicoffer defeated by Thomas 
and slain at Mill Springs or Somerset, Ken- 
tucky ... ... 19 Jan. 

Tennessee. — The federals ('Grant) take Fort 
Henry, 6 Feb. ; Fort Donnelson, with 13,000 
prisoners, 16 Feb. ; and Nashville . 23 Feb. 

Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas 
6, 7, 8 March, 

Confederate ii'on-plated ship il/eiTiiaac destroys 

federal vessels Cumberland and Congress in 

Hampton roads, March 8 ; is repulsed by 

federal iron-clad floating battery Monitor 

9 March, 

McClellan and his army (100,000) cross the 
Potomac and find the confederate camp at 
Bull Run evacuated . . .10 March, 

McClellan resigns general command, and as- 
sumes that of the army of the Potomac 
only ; Fremont that of the Mountain depart- 
ment ; and Halleck that of the Mississippi 

II March, 

Bumside's expedition sails, 11 Jan. ; takes 
Roanoke, N. Carolina, 7, 8 Feb. ; Newbern 

14 March, 

Capt. Wilson (British) boldly rescues his vessel, 
Emihj St. Pierre, a merchantman, from the 
federals 21 March, 

[She was sailing from Calcutta to New Bruns- 
wick, and while attempting to inquire whe- 
ther a blockade existed, was captured off 
Chaiieston bar by a federal ship of war. Her 
captain, and his cook and steward, were per- 
mitted to remain on board on her voyage to 
Philadelphia. On 21 March, Wilson with his 
two associates succeeded, by stratagem and 
courage, in recovering the command of the 
vessel, overcoming two U. S. officers and 13 
sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. 
The owners of the ship gave him 2000 gui- 
neas, and the Liverpool merchants presented 
him with a magnificent testimonial of their 
admiration of his gallantry. The British 
government refused to restore the vessel 
when claimed by the Americans.] 

Confederates defeated at Winche.'ster, 23 March, 

General Bumside occupies Beaufort and Fort 
Macon i April, 

Slavery abolished in district of Columbia 

4 April, 

McClellan advances into Virginia, with the 
view of taking Richmond ; he besieges York 
town, held by 30,000 confederates 5 April, 

Correspondents of English newspapers ex- 
cluded from federal army . . 5 April, 

Great battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, 
near Corinth, Tennessee ; confederates vic- 
torious, but lose their able gen. Albert John- 
stone ; they I'etire . . . 6, 7 April, 

Treaty between Great Britain and the United 
States for the suppression of the slave trade 

7 April, 

Federals take Fort Pulaska, on the Savannah, 
II April ; and New Orleans . 25-28 April, 

Yorktown evacuated by confederates 3 May, 

The Seward-Lyons treaty between Great Bri- 
tain and the United States, for suppression 
of the slave trade, signed 7 April ; ratified 

20 May, 



Confederates repulsed at Williamsburg, 3 May ; 
their naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, sur- 
renders, 10 May; they biun the Merrimac 

II May, 

Commodore Farragut with a flotilla ascends the 
Mississippi May, 

Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals. May, 

Stonewall Jackson defeats Banks at Winchester 

18 May, 

McClellan takes Hanover court-house, 27 May, 

Skirmishes in Virginia ; success varying, May, 

Severe battles of Fair Oaks, before Richmond 
(indecisive) ... 31 May, i June, 

Beauregard and the confederates retreat from 
Corinth, Tennessee, 30 May; pursued by 
Halleck and the federals . . June, 

Memphis, on the Mississippi, taken 6 June, 

Federals defeated near Charleston 16 Jmie, 

Federal forces under Fremont, Banks, and 
McDowell, placed under Pope ; Fremont re- 
signs 27 June, 

Federals suffer through several severe engage- 
ments in Virginia . . . 25-30 June, 

General Butler excites great indignation by his 
military rigour at New Orleans, May <fe June, 

United States debt estimated at ioo,ooo,oooJ. 

June, 

Seven days' conflict on the Chickahominy 
before Richmond ; the confederate gen. Lea 
compels McCleUan to abandon the siege and 
retreat 17 miles, taking up a position at Har- 
rison's Landing, on James's river, 25 June 

-I July, 

The tariff still further raised . . July, 

Many conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and 
Tennessee, through confederate gxierlUa par- 
ties June and July, 

Lincoln visits and encourages the army of 
McClellan, and calls for 300,000 volunteers 

July, 

Lincoln's assent to a bill confiscating the 
property and emancipating the slaves of all 
rebels in arms after 60 days . 17 July, 

Halleck supersedes McClellan as commander- 
in-chief 25 July, 

Slow vokmteering ; many emigrations to Canada 
and Europe ; habeas corpus suspended ; the 
president ordains a draft if the volunteers 
are not ready by 15 Aug. . . July, 

Public debt of United States estimated at 
1,222,000,000 dollars . . . . i July, 

Pope takes command in Virginia . 14 July, 

Lincoln's proclamation of confiscation of pro- 
perty of rebels 26 July, 

Fierce attack of Breckenridge (confederates) 
on Baton Rouge ; the federals soon after retire 

5 Aug. 

Pope's troops ravage Virginia ; Banks, his 
subordinate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by 
gen. Thos. " Stonewall " Jackson 9 Aug. 

[According to some accounts he obtained the 
name by promising Beauregard, at the battle 
of Bull Run, that his brigade should stand 
Uke a "stone wall ;" others say that Beaure- 
gard gave the name himself.] 

McClellan retreats from Harrison's Landing (said 
to have lost 70,000 men, killed, wounded, 
prisoners, and deserters) . . 16 Aug. 

The federals surprised, and Pope loses his 
baggage 25 Aug. 

Jackson turns the flank of Pope's army, and 
attacks him at Groveton, 29 Aug. ; and when 
reinforced by Lee, defeats him and McDowell 
at Bull Run, 30 Aug. ; Pope retreats to 
Centreville i Sept. 

The remains of Pope's army flee behind the 
lines of Washington, 2 Sept. ; he is removed 
to the north-west to act against the Indian 
insurrection 3 Sept. 

McDowell superseded ; charged with treachery, 
he claims a trial Sept. 



1862 



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766 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



McClellan appointed commander-in-cliief, saves 
Washington, and marches against the con- 
federates under Lee, who have crossed the 
Potomac and entered Maryland 5, 6 Sept. 1862 

Severe conflicts at South Mountain Gap (or 
Middletown), 14-16 Sept. ; confederates, after 
a great fight near Antietam Creek and Sharps- 
burg road, I'etreat . . . 17 Sept. ,, 

Harper's Ferry surrendered to Jackson, 15 
Sept.; he crosses Potomac & joins Lee's army 

17 Sept. „ 

Federal cause declining in the west ; they 
lose Lexington, Aug. ; and MunsfordvLUe 

17 Sept. ,, 

Thanksgiving-day in southern states, 18 Sept. ,, 

Rosencrans defeats the confederates at luka 

19 Sept. ,, 

Confederates re-enter Virginialaden with stores 

22 Sept. „ 

Lincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the 
confederate states, on i Jan. 1863, if the 
states have not returned to the union 

22 Sept. ,, 

Secret convention of 16 governors of states at 
Altoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln's 
policy 24 Sept. ,, 

Draught of 40,000 men ordered in New York 
state by IS Oct Sept. ,, 

Lincoln suspends habeas corpus writ, and 
authorises severe measures against disloyal 
persons 25-27 Sept. „ 

Desperate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth, 
Tennessee, 3-5 Oct. ; and at Perryville, Ken- 
tucky 8 Oct. „ 

Confederate gen. Stuai-t crosses Upper Potomac, 
and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambers- 
burg and other places, carrying off horses, 
ammunition, &c. ; rides round the federal 
army, and returns to his camp 10, 13 Oct. ,, 

Gold at 29 premium at New York . . Oct. ,, 

Great democratic meeting at New York, con- 
demning the president's policy . 12 Oct. ,, 

At New Orleans Butler compels all persons who 
refuse to take the oath of allegiance to send 
in their names and register their pi'operty to 
the provost marshal . . . 12 Oct. ,, 

McClellan's head-quarters at Harper's Perry 

17 Oct. „ 

Raid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; 
he carries off 80 federal waggons of ammuni- 
tion, &c 18 Oct. ,, 

Ten confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by 
order of gen. McNeil in consequence of the 
disappearance of Abraham AUsman 18 Oct. ,, 

Rosencrans supersedes Buell in the west, 30 Oct. ,, 

M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French 
government, proposes joint mediation in the 
American conflict to Great Britain and Russia, 
30 Oct. ; declined byGortschakofif, 8 Nov. ; by 
earl Russell 13 Nov. ,, 

The confederate steamer Alabama, capt. Sem- 
mes, captures many U. S. vessels, and excites 
much alarm at New York . . Oct. -Dec. ,, 

Elections for next congress ; great majority for 
the democratic (opposition) candidates in New 
York and several other states . 4 Nov. , , 

McClellan, while advancing towards Richmond, 
is superseded by gen. Burnside, 5 Nov., who 
advances towards Richmond . 7 Nov. ,, 

President Davis threatens reprisals if general 
McNeil is not surrendered (see 18 Oct.) 

17 Nov. ,, 

Burnside summons Fredericksburg to surren- 
der ; confederate gen. Lee with about 80,000 
men near 22 Nov. ,, 

100,000 federal soldiers on the sick list Nov. ,, 

Great honour shown to McClellan ; he is pro- 
posed as the next president . . Nov. ,, 

The federal government orders release of dis- 
affected persons in prisons . . 25 Nov. ,, 

Annual session of U. S. congress ; the presi- 



dent recommends compensated emancipation 
of all slaves in the loyal states before the 
year 1900 i Dec. 1862 

Battle of Fredericksburg (which see) ; Burnside 
crosses the Rappahannock, 10 Dec. ; bom- 
bards Fredericksburg, 11 Dec. ; a series of 
desperate attacks on the confederates ; Bum- 
side totally defeated, 13 Dec. ; recrosses the 
river 15 Dec. ,, 

Engagements in Tennessee with varying results 

Dec. „ 

Discovery of frauds on the U. S. army financial 
accounts ; public dissatisfaction with the 
government; secretaries Chase and Seward 
resign, but resume office . . . Dec. „ 

Battles near Murfreesboro', or Stone River, be- 
tween Rosencrans and the federals and Brax- 
ton Bragg and the confederates : begin 29 
Dec. ; severe but indecisive, 31 Dec. ; battle 
continued, i Jan. ; Bragg defeated, retreats, 

2 Jan. 1863 

['■ There have been about 2000 battles and 
skirmishes since the commencement of the 
war." — American Alma7iac!c.] 

President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of 
slaves in the rebel states, except in parts 
held by the U. S. army . . .2 Jan. „ 

Burnside superseded by Joseph Hooker in com- 
mand of army of the Potomac . 26 Jan. ,, 

The French government's ofler of mediation, 
9 Jan. decliiied 6 Feb. ,, 

The George Griswold, a vessel containing pro- 
visions and other relief for the distressed 
cotton workers in Lancashire, arrives 9 Feb. „ 

A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) 
passed 25 Feb. ,, 

The congress authorises the suspension of the 
habeas corpus act, 3 March ; and establishes 
a National Academy of Sciences at Washing- 
ton 4 March, „ 

Confederate loan for 3,000,000?. well taken up 
in Europe March, ,, 

Charleston, South Carolina, attacked by moni- 
tors and gunboats ; the Keokuk, a monitor, 
sunk 7 AprU, „ 

Battle of ChancellorsviUe (lohich see); the 
federals under Hooker cross the Rappahan- 
nock, 28 April; defeated (gen. Stonewall 
Jackson is mortally wounded), 2-4 May; 
Hooker recrosses the Rappahannock s May, ,, 

Stonewall Jackson dies ... 10 May, „ 

Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee; 
he defeats the confederates imder Joseph 
Johnston at Jackson, 14 May; and under 
Pemberton at Champion HUls, 16 May ; and 
invests Vicksburg, Mississippi, which is 
strongly fortified, 18 May ; a dreadful assault 
on it repelled 22 May, ,, 

Great peace meeting at Norfolk . 5 June, ,, 

Confederate invasion under Lee ; invade Mary- 
land and Pennsylvania, and take various 
towns .... 14 June, et seq. „ 

The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George 
H. Meade 27 June, „ 

Meade advances against Lee; great battle of 
Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the confederates 
evacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland 

1-3 July, „ 

Vicksburg bombarded, 3 July ; surrendered by 
Pemberton to Grant and Porter . 4 July, ,, 

Port Hudson, a confederate fortress on the 
Mississippi, surrenders . . 8 July, ,, 

Fierce riots at New York against the conscrip- 
tion ; many negroes murdered, and much 
property destroyed . . . 13-16 July, „ 

The Sioux defeated, 7 Aug. ; gen. Pope reports 
that the Indian war is ended . . Aug. ,, 

New York rioters tried and convicted, 12 Aug. ; 
conscription going on peaceably 21 Aug. „ 

Siege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard — 



UNI 



7C7 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



attacks with -varied success, July ; Fort 
Sumter bombarded and destroyed (and so- 
called Greek fire employed) ; attacks on the 
ruins repulsed . . . . 21, 22 Aug. i: 

Kiioxville occupied by Barnside . 10 Sept. 

A Russian squadron warmly received at New 
York Sept. and Oct. 

Battles of Chickamauga, Tennessee; Roseucrans 
defeated by Bragg . . .19, 20 Sept. 

Mason, the confederate commissioner in 
England, protests against the mode of his 
reception, and quits ... 22 Sept. 
■ Confederates defeated at Blue Springs, Tennes- 
see ....... io Oct. 

Rosencrans' command of the federal army in 
Tennessee superseded by Grant and Thomas, 
and Sherman ig Oct. 

The steam rams El Tousson and El Monassir, 
buUt by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and sus- 
pected to be for the confederates, are placed 
under charge of a government vessel in the • 
Mersey 31 Oct. 

Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers 17 Oct. 

British consuls dismissed from the southern 
states Oct. 

Meade captures a part of Lee's army on the N. 
side of the Rappahannock . . 7 Nov. 

The chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and 
Thompson declare that the Conscription act 
is unconstitutional ... 12 Nov. 

Longstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him 
to retire into Knosville . . 14-17 Nov. 

Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chatta- 
nooga 23, 24 Nov. 

Longstreet's attack on Knoxville, defended by 

Burnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia 

29 Nov. and i Dec. 

The confederate general Bragg superseded by 
Hardee 2 Dec. 

Lincoln's message to congress warlike : he 
proffers amnesty to all except heads of 
governments, &c., 4 Dec. ; Davis's message : 
firm, but acknowledging reverses . 7 Dec. 

Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the 
confederate army in Georgia . . 27 Dec. 

President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men 
in 3 years i Feb. li 

Fedenil expedition into Florida; defeated at 
Olustee 20 Feb. 

Failure of attack of Kilpatiick and Dahlgren on 
Richmond ... 27 Feb. -4 March, 

Ulysses Grant made commander-in-chief, suc- 
ceeding Halleck . . . 12 March, 

(/Onfederate raids into the Western states 

March, 

Sherman's expedition against Mobile, 2 March ; 
defeated by Kir by-Smith . . 5 April, 

James E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate 
cavalry officer, killed . . .11 May, 

Campaign in Virginia ; the army of the Poto- 
mac crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee 
(now supported by Longstreet), 2 May ; severe 
battle in the " Wilderness " (near Chancellors- 
ville) ; indecisive, 5, 6, May; battle of Spott- 
sylvania ; the federals remain on the field ; 
much carnage .... 10-12 May, 

Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at 
Resacca, 14 May, and at Dallas . 28 May, 

Fugitive slave act repealed by the house of 
representatives . . . .13 June, 

After a succession of attacks on both sides. 
Grant compels Lee to retire gradually, and 
by a flank movement marches to the other 
side of Richmond, and faces Petersburg, 
IS June ; where, having taken the first in- 
trenchments after desperate assaults, he is 
repulsed with considerable loss . 18 June, , 

The confederate steamer Alabama (capt. 
Semmes) attacked and sunk by the U.S. cor- 
vette Xearsarge (capt. Winslow) near Cher- 
bourg, France .... 19 June ,, 



Mr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasury, re- 
signs ; succeeded by Mr. Fessenden July 

Part of Lee's army invades Maryland, i July ; 
defeats Wallace near Monocracy river, 9 July ; 
threatens Baltimore and Washington, and 
retreats 12, 13 July, 

Sherman's 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), 20, 
22 July ; victory remains with the federals 

28 July, 

Confederates again invade Mai'yland and 
PennsylYania, and destroy Chambersburg 

30 July, 

Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Peters- 
burg, whereby 250 confederates are killed : 
but the assault following is repulsed with 
great slaughter .... 30 July, 

The Tallahassee confederate steamer (built in 

Loudon) destroys many U. S. merchantmen 

July, Aug. 

Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley : the 
federals victors Aug. 

The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed 
by Farragut, 5 Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken 

8 Aug. 

McClellan nominated for the presidency by the 
" Democratic " Chicago convention i Sept. 

Sherman occupies Atlanta; the confederate 
general Hood retires . . . .1 Sept. 

Sherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta 

7 Sept. 

McClellan declares for maintaining the union ; 
the democratic party divided. . 13 Sept. 

Sheridan (federal) defeats Early at Wincb ester, 
in the Shenandoah valley, but with very 
great loss ig Sept. 

Longstreet replaces Early in the command of 
the confederates .... Oct. 

Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; 
Sheridan arrives, raUies his troops, and de- 
feats the confederates . . . igOct. 

St. Alban's Raid. — Between 20 and 30 armed 
men enter St. Alban's, Vermont ; rob the 
bank, and carry off horses and stores ; fire on 
and kiU several persons, and flee to Canada, 
19 Oct. ; where 13 of them are arrested 

21 Oct. 

Lincoln re-elected president ; McClellan re- 
signs his command in U.S. army . 8 Nov. 

Sherman destroys Atlanta, and begins his 
march through Georgia to Savannah 13 Nov. 

Hood's attack on Thomas (federal), at Franklin, 
repulsed with severe loss . . 30 Nov 

Lincoln's message to congress considei-ed 
"bold" 6 Dec. 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge 
Coursol ; general Dix issues au intemperate 
order for reprisals (disannulled by the presi- 
dent) 14 Dec. 

Hood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nash- 
ville 14-16 Dec. 

Sherman storms fort M'AlHster, 13 Dec. ; 
enters Savannah . . . .21 Dec. 

Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of gene- 
ral Butler and admiral Porter repulsed 
24, 25 Dec. 

The St. Alban's raiders recaptm-ed and com- 
mitted for trial ... 27 Dec. et seq. 

The federal congress abolishes slavery in the 
United States i Feb. 

Fruitless meeting of president Lincoln and 
secretary Seward with the confederate secre- 
tary Stephens, and 2 commissioners to treat 
for peace at Fort Monroe . . 2, 3 Feb. 

The Canadian government surrenders Burley, a 
raider, to the federals ... 3 Feb. 

Lee takes the general command of the con- 
federate armies : he recommends enlistment 
of negroes 18 Feb. 

Wilmington captured by Schofield ; Charleston 
evacuated by the confederates : retreat of 
Beauregard 22 Feb. 



i86s 



jjm 



768 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



The confederate congress decree the arming of 

the slaves 22 Feb. i 

Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson in- 
augurated as president and vice-president 
4 March 
A new stringent tariff comes into operation 

I April 
Three days' sanguinary conflict at Five Forks, 
began 31 March ; Sheridan turns Lee's front, 
and totally defeats him, i AprU; Lee re- 
treats 2 April 

Bichmond and Petersburg evacuated by the 
confederates and occupied by Grant 

2, 3 April 

Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Sailor's 

Creek, 6 April ; Lee surrenders with the 

army of Northern Virginia to Grant, at Appo- 

matox courthouse . . . . g April 

Mobile evacuated by the confederates 

12 April 
The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, 

Charleston 14 April . 

President Lincoln shot in the head at Ford's 
Theatre, Washington, about 11 o'clock, p.m., 
14 April, by Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Mr. 
Seward, the foreign secretary, and his son, 
wounded in his own house by an assassin 
about the same time; Lincoln dies at 7.30 
a.m., 15 April; Andrew Johnson, vice-presi- 
dent, sworn in as president . 15 April . 
The convention between Sherman and Johnston 
(favourable to confederates), 17 April, dis- 
avowed by the government, 21 April ; John- 
ston surrenders on same terms as Lee 
26 April , 
Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold 

captured, in a farmhouse . . .26 April , 
The confederate general Dick Taylor (near 

Mobile) surrenders ... 4 May, , 
President Jefferson Davis captured at Irwins- 

ville, Georgia ; imprisoned . . 10 May, , 
The confederate general Kirby Smith, in Texas, 

surrenders ; end of the war . . 26 May, , 
President Johnson proclaims a conditional 

amnesty 26 May, ,; 

President Johnson proclaims the opening of the 
southern ports, 22 May ; and an amnesty 
with certain exemptions . . 29 May, ,, 
Solemn fast observed for death of president 

Lincoln i June, ,. 

The armies on both sides rapidly disbanding ; 
fierce riots at New York between the whites 

and negroes June, ,, 

Galveston, Texas, the last seaport held by the 

south, surrendered by Kirby-Smith 5 June, ,, 
The British and French governments rescind 
their recognition of the confederates as 

belligerents 2, 6 June, ,, 

President Johnson, uniting with the demo- 
crats, and acting leniently towards the south ; 
reorganisation of the state governments 

June ,. 
Close of the long trial of the conspirators, 
29 June ; execution of Payne, Atzerott, 
Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. f Suratt 

7 July. )i 

The president declines recognition of the 
emperor of Mexico . . . 18 July, ,, 

All southern prisoners of war to be released on 
jparole on taking oath of allegiance 29 July ,, 

Federal debt declared 2,757,253,275 dollars 

31 July „ 

The confederate privateer Slienandoah (captain 
Waddell) captures and destroys many federal 
vessels (about 30) .... Aug. „ 

Pacific policy of president Johnson ; he declares 
himself opposed to centraUsation and in 
favour of state rights ; and is bitterly op- 
posed by the radicals . . . Sept. ,, 

Correspondence between earl Eussell and Mr. 
Adams (U.S. minister, London) respecting 



the Alabama, confederate privateer ; proposal 
of a commission to whora claims for repara- 
tion shall be referred . 7 April- 18 Sept. 1S65 
Alex. Stephens and other southern of&cials 

pardoned 11 Oct. ,, 

Great meeting of Fenians at Philadelphia ; 

the Irish republic proclaimed . 16-24 Oct. ,, 
Much public discussion respecting equal negro 

suffrage July-Oct. ,, 

The national debt stated to be 6oo,ooo,oooJ. 

Oct. „ 
General Robert Lee becomes president of 

Washington College, Virginia . 2 Oct. „ 
Several southern states pass ordinances an- 
nulling secession, abolishing slavery, and 
renouncing confederate debt Sept. Oct. Nov. „ 
National thanksgiving for the peace . 2 Nov. ,, 
Capt. Waddell arrives at Liverpool, 6 Nov. -; 
surrenders the Shenandoah to the British 
government, stating that he had not heard of 
the end of the war tiU. 2 Aug. ; he and his 
crew paroled, 8 Nov. : the vessel given up to 
the American consul ... 9 Nov. ,, 
Capt. Wirz, after a long mihtary trial, executed 
for cruelty to the federal prisoners at Ander- 

sonsvUle 10 Nov. ,, 

A Negro convention at Charleston, appeals for 

justice and generosity . . .25 Nov. „ 
Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justifica- 
tion Nov. „ 

Habeas corpus act restored in N. states i Dec. „ 
Close of correspondence between the British 
and U. S. governments respecting depreda- 
tions of Alabama, Shenandoah, &c. The earl 
of Clarendon maintains that "no armed 
vessel departed during the war from a 
British port, to cruise against the commerce 
of the United States " . . . 2 Dec. ,, 
Congress and government protest against the 

French intervention in Mexico Nov., 6, 16 Dec. ,, 
Opening of 39th congress ; president Johnson's 
message concihatory and firm (he requires 
from the southern states : repeal of their act 
of secession, abolition of slavery, and repu- 
diation of confederate debt) . . 4 Dec. ,, 
The radical party, opposed to the president, 
and to clemency to the south, predominate 
in the congress, and move violent resolutions 
agaihst restoration of southern states to the 

union Dec. ,, 

Estinsated federal debt, 600,000,000^ ; re- 
venue, 8o,ooo,oooi!. .... Dec. ,, 
85 memlaers for the southern states excluded 
from congress ; the conservative party 
support the president in his endeavours to 
reconstruct the union ; the radicals violently 
oppose his policy, requiring the south to 
undergo previously a severe probation ; the 
president has restored state government to 
all the southern states except Texas and 

Florida 29 Dec. ,, 

The radicals demand for the negroes, personal, 
civil, and pohtical rights, equal to those of 
the whites ; the president proposes gradual 
enfranchisement, in separate states Feb. 1866 
The president vetoes the Freedmen's Bureau bill 
21 Feb. ; and the biU for the civU rights of 

the blacks 27 March, ,, 

The president fiercely opposed by the radicals ; 
the conservatives and democrats unite to 

support him March, ,, 

He proclaims the rebelUon at an end 3 April, ,, 
The Civil Bights bill passed in spite of the veto 

g April, ,, 
The veto on the admission of Colorado as a 

state, 15 May; set aside . . . May, ,, 
Fenian raids in Canada . 31 May-7 June ,, 
The radical reconstruction clause termed the 
' ' constitutional amendment " (granting negro 
suffrage to be enforced by the different 
states ; the whites and the blacks to be equal 



UNI 



769 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



in the sight of the law, &c.), passed by the 
senate 13 June, 

Death of general 'Winfield Scott, aged So, 
13 June ; and of Lewis Cass, aged 83 17 June, 

Continued dissension between the president 
and the congress .... Jvily, 

The representatives of Tennessee re-admitted to 
the cungress (10 states still excluded) July, 

The Atlantic telegraph completed (see Electric 
TtUgraph) 27 July, 

The congress adjourns . . .28 July, 

Great meeting at Philadelphia of the Nation:\l 
Union Convention, consisting of delegates, 
the moderate men of all the parties, in every 
state, north and south, now termed the 
conservative party, whose object is to 
establish the national union, restore the 
south to its rights, and vindicate the 
president's policy . . . . 14 Aug. ,, 

Tour of the president : he visits Philadelphia, 
New York, Chicago, (fee. : he is very enthu- 
siastically received : and speaks warmly, and 
often injudiciously . . 2S Aug.-i8 Sept. „ 

Elections for congress go in favour of the re- 
publicans Oct. ,, 

[They demand that thr-ee-fifths of the blacks 
in the south shall be entitled to vote ; that 
where negi'O suffrage is not established, only 
whites shall count ; and that all persons who 
have taken any part in the rebellion shall be 
disqualified to vote.] 

Death of Martin Van Buren, ex-president 

Oct. „ 

Trial of Jefferson Davis deferred till spring 

Oct. „ 

Elections in all the states except Delaware and 
Maryland in favour of the radicals (about 
2,200,000 to i,8oo,oooj; two coloured depu- 
ties elected in Massachvisetts . Oct. -Nov. ,, 

Government policy declared to be "dead" Nov. ,, 

Meeting of congress ; president's message ; he 
declares that he adheres to his policy 3 Dec. „ 

Bills to provide territorial governments in 
southern states ; and restriction of presi- 
dent's appointing powers proposed 3 Dec. „ 

The president charged with being " silent and 
motionless " ; congress absorbs all the power 

Dec. „ 

A bill admitting negroes to the suffrage in dis- 
trict of Columbia passed . . 13 Dec., ,, 

Veto of president set aside . . . Jan.' 1867 

Supreme coui-t decides that congress has not 
power to appoint military tribunals . Jan. ,, 

Impeachment of president by a judicial com- 
mittee agreed to .... 7 Jan. ,, 

Division among the radicals ; Stevens success- 
fully opposed by Ashley . . 29 Jan. ,, 

Debt of the United States reported 2,543,000,000 
dollars i Feb. ,, 

Nebraska admitted as the 37th state, over pre- 
sident's veto 9 Feb. „ 

Bill for establishing militaiy government in 
the southern states, divided into five districts, 
discussed 13-15 Feb. ,, 

Modified and passed, 20 Feb. ; vetoed by the 
president 28 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Peabody gives 1,000,000 dollars to promote 
education in the soiith . . . Feb. ,, 

40th congress opened . . -4 March, ,, 

yupijlementary reconstruction bill for the south 
passed 20 March, „ 

E<issian America purchased for 7,000,000 dol- 
lars; treaty ratified by the senate 9 April, ,, 

" Protection " rife : taxation on British manu- 
factures 80 per cent. ; much smuggling ; pul> 
lie debt not diminishing ; many strikes 
amongst operatives . . . April, ,, 

Jefferson Davis released on bail, 13 Jfay ; pro- 
ceeded to New York, and thence to Canada 

20 May, ,, 

Long trial of John H. Suratt, for complicity in 



assassination of president Lincoln ; jury not 
agi-eed on verdict ... 10 Aug. 

lusubordmation of gen. Sheridan, favoured by 
Edwin Stanton, secretai-y of war, who re- 
fuses to resign at the i-equisition of the pre- 
sident, s Aug. ; compelled to resign ; suc- 
ceeded by geu. Grant . . . 12 Aug. 

Eemoval of gen. Sheridan from the govern- 
ment of Louisiana, and of Sickles from N. 
Carolina, for insubordination to the presi- 
dent Aug. -Sept. 

National cemetery at Antietam (which sec) dedi- 
cated in presence of the president 17 Sept. 

Sir Fred. Bruce, British ambassador, died at 
Boston . . . . . .19 Sept. 

Elections in the south give supremacy to the 
negroes ; in the north, great majorities for the 
democrats .... Oct. -Nov. 

President's message, maintaining his prin- 
ciples on reconstruction . . 3 Dec. 

Revenue of the states fallen off ; public debt 
about 52o,ooo,oooi. .... Dec. 

Pi'oposed impeachment of the president nega- 
tived in congress (108 to 57) . 8 Dec. 

Treaty for purchase of Danish West Indies 
(St. Thomas and St. John), for 7,500,000 dol- 
lars, signed Dec. 

Great general storm of snow and sleet ; many 
perish; many wrecks . . 11 -15 Dec. 

President Johnson censured ; and gen. Sheri- 
dan thanked by house of representatives (see 
Aug. 1867) 4 Jan. 

General Grant replaced by Stanton (by the 
senate) 14 Jan. 

The house of representatives declare that there 
is no valid government in the south; and 
transfer the jurisdiction from president 
Johnson to Grant, as general of the army 

21 Jan. 
Great commercial depression : Mr. Wells, the 

revenue commissioner, recommends "peace, 
retrenchment, and reform " . . Jan. 

The inland cotton tax repealed about i Feb. 

Edward Thornton, new British ambassador, 
and Charles Dickens, received by the pre- 
sident 7 Feb. 

Angrj- cori'espondence between the president 
and gen. Grant . . 28 Jan.-i4 Feb. 

President Johnson orders dismissal of Stanton, 
and appoints gen. Thomas secretary of war 

22 Feb. 
The impeachment of the president voted by 

house of reiDresentatives (126 to 47), 24 Feb. ; 
reijorted at the bar of the senate by Thad- 
deus Stevens and Bingham . . 25 Feb. 

Nine articles of impeachment (for issuing order 
for removal of E. M. Stanton from war-office, 
and following proceedings) adopted by repre- 
sentatives (126 to 47) . . .2 March, 

Bill of impeachment of Johnson sent up to the 

senate by the house of representatives 

4 March, 

Judicious speech of lord Stanley in the British 

house of commons on the Alabama claims 

6 March 

Trial of president Johnson comes before the 
senate 23 March, 

Impeachment opened by gen. Butler, 30 March, 

Mr. Dickens sails from New York, after most 
affectionate parting • . . .22 April, 

National republican convention at Chicago : 
announce their " platfoiTu" ; approving the 
congress reconstruction policy ; severely con- 
demning president Johnson ; denouncing re- 
pxidiation of the debt ; declaring for protec- 
tion ot naturaliztd citizens, iic, 20 May; 
and ijroposmg general Ulysses Grant as the 
next i^resident, and Mr. Colfax as vice- 
president 21 May, 

The senate reject the nth article of the im- 
peachment , .... 16 May, 
3 D 



1S67 



UNI 



770 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



Reject and. and 3rd articles ; and adjourn sine 
die: intense excitement among republicans 

26 May, 



Mr. Stanton resigns ; succeeded by Mr. Scho- 
field June, 



PRESIDENTS OP THE TJNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



184s 



1850. 
1853. 
1857. 



, John Tyler (formerly yice-president). 
, James Knox Polk. 4 March. 
General Zachary Taylor. 4 March. DiedgJvily, 

1850, succeeded by the vice-president, 
Millard Fillmore. 

General Franklin Pierce. 4 March. 
James Buchanan. 4 March. 
& 1865. Abraham Lincoln. 4 March. Assassi- 
nated 14 April ; died 15 April : succeeded by 
the vice-president, 
Andrev? Johnson. 15 April. 



1789. General George Washington, first president. 

Elected 6 April. 
1793. General Washington again; assumed ofSce, 

4 March. 
1797. John Adams. 4 March. 
1 801 & 1805. Thomas Jefferson. 4 March. 
1809&1813. James Madison. 4 March. 
1817 <fe 1821. James Monroe. 4 March. 
1825. John Quincey Adams. 4 March. 
1829 & 1833. General Andrew Jackson. 4 March. 
1837. Martin Van Buren. 4 March. 
1841. General William Henry Harrison. 4 March. 
Died 4 April, succeeded by 

UNIVERSALISTS, wlio believe in the final salvation of all men. This doctrine, 
declared in the Talmud, and ascribed to Origen, about 230, was advocated by other early 
fathers, but opposed by St. Augustin, about 420 ; and condemned by the 5th general council 
at Constantinople, May, June, 553. It was held by individuals from that time downward ; 
was received by the Unitarians in the 1 7th century, and avowed by numerous clergymen of 
the church of England. James Eelly, who published his "Union" in 1760, founded the 
sect of Universalists in Britain; and John Murray, in America, about 1770. The sect 
barely exists in Britain, but flourishes in America. , 

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE (PUbiscitum), one of the six points of the charter (see 
Chartists), was adopted by the French in their constitution of 1791 ; and used in the 
election of their president in 1851, and of their emperor in 1852 ; and by the Italian States 
in voting for annexation to Sardinia in i860, 1861, and 1866. 

UNIVERSITIES. The most ancient in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, 
Salamanca, and Bologna. In old Aberdeen was a monastery, in which youths were 
instructed in theology, the canon law, and the school philosophy, at least 200 years before 
the University and King's CoUege were founded. The following dates are generally those 
given by Bouillet. 



Aberdeen foim.ded 

Abo, Finland . 

Andrews, St., Scotland 

Angers, chiefly law . 

Anjou, 1349 : enlarged . 

Athens 

Basle, Switzerland 

Berlin 

Berne .... 

Besan<;on, Burgundy 

Bologna, Italy 

Bonn .... 

Bourdeaux . 

Bourges 

Bruges, French Flanders 

Brussels 

Caen, Normandy, 1436; re^ 
vived .... 

Cambridge, began about 630 
revived .... 

Cambridge, New England, 
projected 

Cologne, in Germany, 
founded 

Compostella, Spain . 

Coimbra, Portugal 

Copenhagen 

Cordova, Spain 

Corfu .... 

Cracow, Poland, 700 : revived 

Dijon, France 

Dillingen, Swabia . . 

Dole, Burgundy . 

Dorpat 

Douay, French Flanders 

Dresden, Saxony 

Drumcondra (catholic), Ire- 
land .... 



1494 
1640 
141 1 
■1364 

1836 
1460 
1810 

1834 
1676 
433 
1818 
1472 

1465 
1665 



915 
1630 

13S5 
1517 
1279 
1476 
968 
1823 
1364 
1722 
1565 
1422 
1632 
1568 
1694 



Dublin (see Trinity CoUege) . 
Edinburgh, founded by 

James VI 

Erfurt, Thuringia; enlarged 
Erlangen . . . ' . . 
Evora, Portugal 
Florence, Italy, enlarged 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder . . 
Franeker .... 
Fribourg, Germany . . . 

Geneva 

Glasgow 

Gottingen .... 
Granada, Spain . . . 

GrixDSwaid .... 
Groningen, Friesland . . 
Halle, Saxony 

Heidelbertf . . . . 
Helmstadt .... 
Ingolstadt, Bavaria . . 

Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 
Kiel, Holstein . . . . 
King's College, London {which 



Konjgsberg, Prussia . . 

Leipsic, Saxony 

Leyden, Holland . . . 

Libge 

Lima, in Peru . . . . 

Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to 
Coimbra .... 

London University (which see) 

Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; en- 
larged 

Lyons, France 

Marburg 

Mechlin, Flanders 

Mentz 



1S91 

15S2 
1390 
1743 
1533 
1439 
1506 

1585 
1460 
1368 
1450 
17.3s 
IS37 
1 547 
1614 
1694 
1386 
IS7S 
1573 
1558 
166s 



IS44 
1409 

IS75 
1816 
1614 

1391 
1826 

1426 
830 

1527 
1440 

1477 



Montpellier . . . .1289 
Moscow, 1754 ; again . . 1803 

Munich 1826 

Munster 1491 

Nancy 1769 

Nantes 1460 

Naples 1224 

Orange 1365 

Orleans, France . . . 1305 
Oxford (see Oxford) . . 8o2(?J 
Paderborn .... 1592 
Padua, Italy . . . . 122S 
Palenza, 1209 ; removed to 
Salamanca .... 1249 

Palermo 1394 

Paris, 792 ; renovated . . 1200 

Parma 1482 

Pau 1722 

Pavia, 1360 ; enlarged . . 1599 
Perpignan .... 1349 
Perugia, Italy . . . . 1307 
Petersburg, St., 1747; again 1819 
Pisa, 1343; enlarged . . 1552 

Poitiers 1431 

Prague 134S 

Queen's University (Ireland) 1850 
Rheims, 1145; enlarged . . 1548 

Rome 124s 

Rostock, Mecklenburg . . 1419 
Salamanca .... 1239 

Salerno 1233 

Salzburg .... 1623 

Saragossa, Aragon . . . 1474 

Seville 1504 

Sienna 1380 

Sig-uenza, Spain . . . 1517 
Sorbonne, France . . . 1253 
Strasbourg .... 1538 



UNI 



771 



USH 



UNIVERSITIES, continued. 



Stutgardt 1775 

Toledo, Spain . . . 1499 

Toulouse 1229 

Treves, Germany . . . 1473 

Tubingen, Wirtemberg . . 1477 

Turin 1405 



Vienna 1365 

Wittenburg . . . •. 1502 
Wurtzburg . . . . 1403 

Wilna 1803 

Zurich 1832 



Upsal, Sweden . . . . 1476 
Utrecht, Holland . . . 1636 
Valence, Dauphine . . . 1454 
Valencia .... 1209 

Valladolid 1346 

Venice 1592 

UNIVERSITY BOAT-RACE. The contest between the universities of Oxford and 
Cambridge, on the river Thames, began in 1829, and has been annual since 1856. In 1864, 
after so contests, the opposing parties were equal ; but, on 8 April, 1865, 24 March, 1866, 
13 April, 1867, and 4 April, 1868, Oxford won ; the last time being the 8th in succession. 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE (London), see London Uniuersitij, and Oxford. 

UNIVERSITY ELECTIONS, see Dodson's Act. 

UNKNOWN TONGUES, see Irvingites, note. 

UNLEARNED PARLIAMENT, see Parliament, 1404. 

UPSAL (Sweden). The Swedish rulers were kings of Upsal till looi. The university 
was founded in 1476, by Sten Sture, the "protector." 

URANIUM, a brittle grey metal discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral 
pitch-blende. It has lately been employed in the manufacture of glass for certain jDliiloso- 
phical purposes. 

URANUS, a planet with six satellites, was discovered by William Herschel, 13 March, 
1781, first called Georgium Sidus, after George III. ; next Herschel ; and, finally, Uranus. 
It is about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn. The anniversary of its first 
revolution (in 84 3'ears 7 days) since its discovery, was celebrated on 20 March, 1865. Its 
perturbations led to the discoveiy of Neptune, in 1846. Uranus has 8 satellites ; 6 disco- 
vered by Herschel, 2 in 1787, 2 in 1790, 2 in 1794 ; and i by Lassell, and i by Struve, 
in 1847. 

UEBANISTS, see Clementines, and Clare. 

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY, see Diffusion. 

UKICONIUM, see Wroxcter. 

URIM AND THUMMIM, Light and Perfection {Exodus xxviii, 30). It is conjec- 
tured that these words are in some way connected with the breastplate worn by the high- 
priest when he entered into the holy place, with the view of obtaining an answer from God 

(1490 B.C.). 

UESULINE NUNS (so called from St. Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela of 
Brescia, about 1537. Several communities existed in England; and some still exist in 
Ireland. 

UEUGUAY, Banda Of.ientale, a republic in South America ; declared its indepen- 
dence, 25 Aug. 1825 ; recognised 4 Oct. 1828 ; constitution proclaimed 18 July, 1830. 
The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, elected in 1856, was succeeded in i860 by 
B. P. Berro. A civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion of the ex-president, 
general Venancio Flores, 26 June, 1863. On i March, 1864, the vice-president Aguirre 
became president, who refused (in June) to modify his ministry according to the desire of 
general Flores, who marched towards the capital in June. In Feb. 1865, Flores became 
provisional president. F. A. Vidal was elected president on i March, 1866 ; on 4 Nov. 
1866, general Flores deferred the election of a president for a year. During an insurrection 
of the Blanco party (headed by Berro), at Montevideo, general Flores was assassinated. 
The troops remained faithful. Insurrection soon suppressed, and Berro shot, 19 Feb. 1868. 
Gen. Lorenzo Battle elected president, i March. Population in 1865, about 350,000. 

USHANT, an island near Brest, N.W. France, near which two naval battles were fought 
between the British and French fleets. 

(i.) On 27 July, 1778, after an indecisive action of 
three hours, the latter, under cover of the night, 
withdrew into the harbour of Brest. Admiral 
Keppel commanded the English fleet; the count 
d'Orvilliers the French. The lailure of a com- 
plete victory was attributed to admiral sir Hugh 
PaUiser's non-compliance with the admiral's sig- 
nals. Palliser prefei-red ai'ticles of accusation 
against his commander, who was tried and 
acquitted, and the charge against him declared 
to be "malicious and ill-founded." 



(2.) Lord Howe signally defeated the French fleet, 
taking six ships of the Une, and sinking one of 
larfte force, and several others, i June, 1794. 
While the two fleets were engaged in this action, 
a large fleet of merchantmen, on the safety of 
which the French nation depended for its means 
of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest 
harbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to 
claim the laurels of the day, notwithstandiag 
their loss in ships, and in killed and wounded, 
which was very great. The day was long termed 
the "glorious first of June." 

3 D 2 



USU 772 VAD 

USUKY from a stranger was permitted to the Jews, but forbidden from their brethren, 
1491 B.C. (Exod. xxii. 25, Deut. xxiii. 13.) This law was enforced by Nehemiah, 445 B.C. 
{Nell, v.") Usury was prohibited by the English parliament, 1341. Until the 15th century, 
no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and 
therefore often banished and persecuted ; see Jews. By the 37th of Henry VIII. the rate of 
interest was fixed at 10 per cent. 1545. This statute was repealed by Edward VI. but 
re-enacted 13 Eliz. 1570 ; see Interest for later legislation. 

UTAH, a western territory of North America, was organised 9 Sept. 1850. The capital, 
Great Salt Lake City, is the chief seat of the Mormonites (which see). 

UTICA (N. Africa), an ancient Tyrian colony, an ally of Carthage, named in the treaty 
with the Komans 348 B.C. Here Cato the younger, after the defeat of the partisans of 
Pompey at Thapsus, committed suicide, 46 B.C. Utica flourished greatly after the fall of 
Carthage, and was made a Eoman city Ijy Augustus on account of its favouring Julius Ctesar. 
It suffered by the invasion of the Vandals, 439 ; and of the Saracens, about 700. 

UTEAQUISTS, see Calixtins. 

UTRECHT (the Eoman Trajecttim ad Rhenum) was the seat of an independent bishopric, 
founded about 695. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria, weary of his turbulent subjects, 
sold his temporal government to the emperor Charles V. in 1528. The union of the Seven. 
United Provinces began here (see United Provinces) 1579. The treaty of Utrecht, which ter- 
minated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and France, 
and all the other allies, except the ministers of the empire, 11 April, 1713. This treaty 
secured the Protestant succession in England, the separation of the French and Spanish 
crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations 
in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht surrendered to the 
Prussians, 9 May, 1787; was acquired by the French, 18 Jan. 1795, and restored at the 
peace. 

UXBRIDGE ("W. Middlesex). On 30 Jan. 1645, commissioners met here to discuss 
terms of peace between Charles I. and the parliament; they separated without eff'ect, 22 Feb. 
The latter required absolute control of the army and navy, and the abolition of the 
episcopacy, liturgy, &c. 

V. 

VACCINATIOIST (from Variola Vaccina, the cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. 
He was born in 1749, and educated for the medical profession, partially under John Hunter. 
Having heard tliat milkmaids who have had the cow-pox never take the small-pox, he, about 
1780, conceived the idea of vaccination, which was then ridiculed by eminent physiologists. 
He made the first experiment by transferring to a healthy child, on 14 May, 1796, the 
fus from the pustule of a milkmaid who had caiight the cow-pox from the cows. He 
announced his success in a memoir published 1798, and vaccination became general in i799> 
having been introduced 21 Jan. in that year. Dr. Jenner received io,oooZ. from parliament 
for the discovery, 2 June, 1802, and 20,oooZ. in 1807. The first national institution for the 
promotion of vaccination, called the Eoyal Jennerian Institution, was foxmded 19 Jan. 1803. 
The emperor Napoleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly, that he 
liberated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, and subsequently whole 
families of English, making it a point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Vaccination, 
although much opposed on moral and religious grounds, was practised throughout all Europe 
previously to 1816. Dr. Jenner died in 1823.* The Vaccination Act, 3 & 4 Vict, passed 
23 Jul}"-, 1840. Vaccination Avas made compulsory in England in 1853, and in Ireland and 
Scotland in 1863. These laws were consolidated and amended by 30 & 31 Vict. c. 84, 
12 Aug. 1867; ^%e Small-pox, awdi Inoculation. An important blue-book, entitled "Papers 
on the History and Practice of Vaccination," edited by Mr. John Simon, was published by 
the board of health in 1857. 

VADIMONIS LACUS, the Vadimonian lake, Umbria, central Italy, near which the 
Etruscans were totally defeated in two severe engagements by the Eoman consuls : I, by 
Fabius Maximiis, 309 B.C. ; 2, by Cornelius Dolabella, 283. 

* Dr. Jenner died suddenly in 1823. A statue, subscribed for by all nations, was erected to his memory 
in Trafalgar-square, 30 April, 185S, in the presence of the prince consort. It was removed to Kensington 
in 1862. Another statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, and inaugurated 11 Sept. 1865. 



VAG 773 VAN- 

VAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to 
the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 1530. A vagrant a second 
time convicted to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 1535 ; and a third time 
convicted, death. A vagabond to be marked with a V, and be a slave for two years, 1327. 
Vagrants were punished by whipping, gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second 
offence, 1572. The milder statutes were those of 17 Geo. II. ; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. 
The present Vagrant Act was passed in 1824. There were about 33,000 ti-amps in England 
and Wales in 1865. 

VALDENSES, see Walde^ises. 

VALEN^AY, a chateau near Chateauroux, central France, where Napoleon I. imprisoned 
Ferdinand of Spain from 1808 to 1813. His kingdom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty 
signed 8 Dec. 1813. 

VALENCIA (E. Spain), the Valentia Echtanointm of the Romans, the capital of a Moorish 
kingdom. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in 
the 15th. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but submitted to the 
Bourbons after the unfortunate battle of Almanza, in 1707. It resisted the attempts made 
on it b}' marshal Moncey, but was taken from the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 
16,000 men, and immense stores, by the French under Suchet, 9 Jan. 1812. 

VALENCIENNES (N. France). This city (founded about 399 B.C.) Avas besieged from 
23 May to 28 July, 1793, when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke 
of York. It was retaken, together with Cond^, by the French, 27-30 Aug. 1794; on 
capitulation, the garrison and iioo emigrants were made prisoners, with immense stores. 

VALENTIA, a Roman province, including the country between the walls of Severus and 
Adrian, was reconquered from the Picts and Scots by Theodosius, and named after 
Valentinian I. the reigning emperor, 368. 

VALENTINE'S DAY (14 Feb.). Valentine is said to have been a bishop, who suffered 
martyrdom under Claudius II. at Rome ; others say under Aurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters 
passed through the post-office on 14 Feb. 1856. 530,300 is the estimated number of valen- 
tines delivered in 1864. The origin of the ancient custom of "choosing a valentine" has 
been much controverted ; see jjosi. 

VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a priest, who, on being disappointed of a 
bishoj^ric, forsook the Christian faith, declaring there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen 
of each sex, which he called iEones, or Ages. Pie taught in the 2nd century, and published 
a gospel and psalms : his followers added other errors. 

VALLADOLID (Spain), the Roman Pincia and the Moorish Belad "VValid : was recovered 
for the Christians by Ordono II., the first king of Leon, 914-23. It became capital of 
Castile in the 15th century. It was captured from the French by the English, 4 June, 1813. 
Here died Christopher Columbus, 20 May, 1506. 

VALMY (N.E. France). Here the French, commanded by Kellerman, defeated the 
Prussians, commanded by the duke of Brunswick, 20 Sept. 1792. The victory was of 
immense moral advantage to the republicans. 

VALOIS, a county (N. France) given by Philip III. to his younger son Charles, whose 
son Philip became king as Philip IV. in 1328 ; .see France, p. 315. 

VALPARAISO, principal port of Chili, South America, was bombarded by the Spanish 
admiral Mendez Nuiiez, on 31 March, 1866, when much property was destroyed. 

VALTELLINE (N. Italy), a district near the Rhtetian Alps, seized by the Grison league, 
1 5 12, and ceded to it, 1530. At the instigation of Spain, the catholics rose and massacred 
the protestants, 19-21 July, 1620. After much contention between the French and Austrians, 
the neutrality of the Valtelline was assured in 1639. It was annexed to the Cisalpine republic 
in 1797 ; to Italy, 1807 ; to Austria, 1814 ; to Italy, i860. 

VALVASOR or Vaa''ASSOE. The first dignity beneath a peer was anciently that of 
vidames, vicedomini, or valvasors. Valvasors are mentioned by our ancient laAvyers as viri 
magna dignitatis, and sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. Now, the first personal 
dignity after the nobility is a knight of the order of St. George or of the Garter. Blackstone. 

VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandinavian Venus), a metal discovered by Sefstrom, 
in 1830, combined with iron ore. A similar metal, discovered in lead ore by Del Rio in iSoi, 
and named Enithroniicm, was proved by Wtihler to be Vanadium. Vanadium was discovered 
in the copper- bearing beds in Cheshire, in 1865, by H. E. Roscoe, by whom its peculiarities 
were further studied, and published in 1S67-8. 



VAN 



774 



VAT 



VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North. Pacific ocean, near the main land. Settlements were 
made here by the English in 1781, which were seized by the Spaniards in 1789, but 
restored. By a treaty between the British government and that of the United States in 
1846, this island was secured to the former. It has become of much greater importance 
since the discover}'- of gold in the neighbouring main land in 1858, and the consequent 
establishment of the colony of British Columbia (which sec). Victoria, the capital, was 
founded in 1857. The island was united with British Columbia by act passed in Aug. 1866. 

VANCOUVEE'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman under captain 
Cook, and was appointed to command during a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence 
of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. He 
sailed 7 Jan. 1791, and returned 24 Sept. 1795. He compiled an account of this voyage of 
survey of the north-west coast of America, and died in 1 798. 

VANDALS, a Germanic race, attacked the Roman empire in the 3rd century, and began 
to ravage Germany and Gaul, 406-14; their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411 ; under 
Genseric they invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, 429, and took 
Carthage, Oct. 439. They were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They Avere driven out by 
the Saracen Moors. The dukes of Mecklenburg style themselves princes of the Vandals. 



429. Genseric (see Mecklenburg). 
i,T]. Humieric, his son. 



VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 

484. Gundamund. 
496. Thrasimuiid. 



523' 
531- 



Hilderic. 
Gelimer. 



VAN DIEMEN'S LAND (called Tasmania since 1853), was discovered by Abel Jansen 
Tasman, 24 Nov. 1642, and named after the governor of the Dutch East Indies. 



Visited by Fumeaux, 1773 ; Cook . . . 1777 
Proved to be an island by Flinders, who 

explored Bass's Straits 1799 

Taken possession of by lieut. Bower . . 1803 

Arrival of col. Collins, the iirst governor, with 

convicts ; Hobart Town founded . . . 1804. 



Bishopric of Tasmania established . . . 1842 

Transportation abolished 1853 

Visited by the duke of Edinburgh 7-18 Jan. 186S 
Population, 1857, 81,492 ; 1865, 95,201 (only 4 

remained of the aborigines). 
Present governor, col. Thos. Gore Browne . 1862 



VARENNES, a town in N.E. France, is celebrated by the arrest of Louis XVI., his queen, 
sister, and two children. They fled from the Tuileries on 21 June, and were taken here on 
the 22nd, 1 791, and conducted back to Paris, mainly through Drouet, the postmaster, at an 
Intel-mediate town, who recognised the king. 

VARIABLE STARS. The variation of brightness in certain stars is said to have been 
first observed in a small star of Cetus, or the "Whale, by Daniel Fabricius, 13 Aug. 1596. 
In Oct. of same year the star had vanished. Since then many similar variations have been 
observed by Goodricke, Herschel, and other astronomers ; and Mr. Pogson has constructed 
a table of 38 variable stars. No satisfactory explanation has j^et been given of the phenomena. 
Eng. Cyc. 

VARNA, a fortified town and seaport in Bulgaria, European Turkey. A great battle 
was fought near this place, 10 Nov. 1444, between the Turks under Amurath II. and the 
Hungarians under their king Ladislaus, and John Hunniades. The latter were defeated 
with great slaughter : the king was killed, and Hunniades made prisoner. The Christians 
had previously broken the truce for ten years, recently made at Segedin. The emperor 
Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, the head-quarters of his army, then besieging the 
place, 5 Aug. 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous attack on the besiegers, 7 Aug.; 
and another on the 21st, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered, after a sanguinary conflict, 
to the Russian arms, 11 Oct. 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829 ; its fortifications 
were dismantled, but have since been restored. The allied armies disembarked at Varna, 
29 May, 1854, and remained there till they sailed for the Crimea, 3 Sept. following. While 
at Varna they suffered severely from cholera. 

VASSALAGE, see Feudal Laws, and Slavery. 

VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the protestants at this place by the duke 
of Guise on i March, 1562, led to the civil wars which desolated France to the end of the 
century. 

VATICAN (Rome), the ancient Mons Vaticanus, a hill of Rome. The commencement 
of the palace is ascribed to Constantine, Liberius, and Symmachus. It became the residence 
of the pope at his return from Avignon, 1377. The palace is said to contain 7000 rooms, 
rich in works of art, ancient and modern. The library, founded by pope Nicholas V., 1448, 
is exceedingly rich in printed books and MSS. — Pistolesi's description of the Vatican, with 
numerous plates, was published 1829-38. — The phrase "Thunders of the Vatican" was first 
used by Voltaire, 1748.— The ancient Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in Greek 
was published at Rome in 1857. 



VAU 775 VEN 

VAUD, a Swiss canton, after liaviug been successively held by the rranks, kings of 
Burgundy, emperors of Germany, dukes of Zaliriugen, and dukes of Savoy, was conquered 
by the Bernese, Jan. 1536, and annexed, 15S4. Vaud was made independent in 1798, and 
joined the confederation in 1815. A new constitution was obtained in 1830, after much 
agitation. 

VAUDOIS, see Waldenscs. 

YxVUXHALL BRIDGE, constructed of iron under the direction of Mr. Walker, at an 
expense of about 150,000?. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone Avas laid 9 Maj', 1811, 
by prince Charles, eldest son of the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was opened on 

4 June, 1 816. 

VAUXHALL GARDENS (London), were so denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, 
Fox-hall, or Faukeshall ; but the tradition that this house or any other adjacent was the 
j)roperty of Guy Fawkes is erroneous. The premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 
1615, and the mansion-house was then called Stockden's. From her it passed through various 
hands, till it became the property of Mr. Tyers in 1 732. There is no certain account of the 
time when these premises were first opened for the entertainment of the public ; but the 
New Spring Gardens at Vauxhall are mentioned by Pepys 1665, Wycherley 1672, and in the 
Spectator 1711, as a place of great resort. The gardens were opened for a " Eidotto alfresco" 
7 June, 1732, by Jonathan Tyers, who spared no pains or expense to maintain his success. 
The greatest seasc^n of Vauxhall was in 1823, when 133,279 persons visited the gardens, and 
the receipts were 29,590?. The greatest number of persons in one night was 2 Aug. 1833, 
when 20,137 persons paid for admission. The member on the then supposed last night, 

5 Sept. 1839, was 10S9 persons. Vauxhall was sold by auction, 9 Sept. 1841, for 20,20oZ. 
The last performances at Vauxhall took place on 25 July, 1859. The ground has been 
sold for buildiijg purposes. 

VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in Sanskrit, were probably written about 
1000 B.C. Veda means knowledge. These books comprise hymns, praj^ers, and liturgical 
formula. The edition by professor Max Miiller, printed irnder the patronage of the East 
India Company, appeared in 1849-62. Four volumes of a ti'anslatiou by H. H. Wilson 
appeared in 1850-67. 

VEGETABLES for the table were brought from Flanders about 1520 ; see Gardening. 

VEGETARIAN SOCIETY, founded 1847, whose members restrict themselves to a 
vegetable diet, held their fifteenth anniversary in London, 4 Sept. 1S62. 

VEHMIC TRIBUNAL (Vehmgerichfc, Fehmgcrichtc, or Femgcrichte), secret tribunals 
established in Westphalia to maintain religion and the public peace, had their origin in the 
time of Charlemagne, and rose to importance in 1182, when Westphalia became subject to 
the Archbishop of Cologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were subjected to their deci- 
sions, being frequently seized, tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to suppress 
them, but did not succeed till the i6th century. The last court, it is said, was held in 1568. 
Su- W. Scott has described them in "Anne of Geierstein." A remnant of this tribunal was 
abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, in 181 1. 

VEII, an indej)endent Latin city near Rome. Between the Romans and Veientes 
frequent wars occurred, till Veil was utterly destroyed, after ten years' siege, 396 B.C. The 
Roman family, the Fabii, who had seceded from Rome for political reasons, were siu-j)rised 
and destroyed at the river Cremera, by the Veientes, 477 B.C. 

VELLORE (S.E. India) became the residence of the family of the dethroned sultan of 
Mysore, and was strongly garrisoned by English troops, 1799. The revolt of the sepoiJ-s, 
in which the family of the late Tippoo took an active part, took place 10 July, 1806. The 
insurgents were subdued by colonel GiUespie, and mostly put to the sword ; about 800 sepoys 
were killed. 

VELOCIPEDES, vehicles of German construction, first appeared in England in Apiil, 
1818, and obtained the name from being impelled by the feet with great celerity, the mover 
of the vehicle sitting astride upon it as upon a rocking-horse. 

VENAISSIN COMTAT, or Comtat (S. France), after various changes, was ceded to 
pope Gregory X. 1274 ; and retained by his successors till 1791, when, with Avignon, it was 
reunited to France. 

VENDEE, see La Vcndie. 

VENETI, maritime Gauls inhabiting Armorica, N.W. France, who rose against the 
Romans 57 B.C., and were quelled by Julius Caesar, who defeated theii" fleet, 56, and cruelly 
exterminated an active commercial race. 



VEK 



776 



YEN 



VENETIA, see Venice. 

"VENEZUELA, the seat of a South American republic. When the Spaniards landed 
here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in 
order to raise them above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them 
to give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1S14, declared in 
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, -which was recognised in 1818. It 
formed part of the republic of Columbia till 1831, when it separated from the federal union, 
and declared itself sole and independent. General D. T. Monagas was elected in 1855 
president, and continued so till March, 1S58, when a revolution broke out, and Don Jose 
Castro became president, who also was compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; and Dr. Pedro 
Gual assumed the government. A new constitution was promulgated in Dec. 1858. General 
Jos6 Paez was elected president, 8 Sept. 1861. He resigned on 17 June, 1863, and Juan 
E. Falcon succeeded him, 17 June. General Febres Cordero protested, and set up a rival 
government at Porto-CabeUo, which broke up in Oct. following. Marshal J. C. Falcon was 
pi;oclaimed president, 18 March, 1865. The population in 1859 was about one million and 
a half ; see Columbia. 

VENI, VIDI, VIOI, — "I came, I saw, I conquered;" see Zela. 

VENICE (N. Italy). The province of Venetia, held by the Veneti, of uncertain origin, was 
invaded by the Gauls about 350 B.C. They made an alliance with the Piomans, 215 B.C., who 
founded Aquileia, 181, and gradually acquired the whole country. Under the empire, 
Venetia included Padua, Verona, and other important places. Population of the city of 
Venice in 1857, 118,172. 

Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and 

Padua fleeing from Attila, about . a.d. 452 
First doge (or duke) chosen, Anafesto Paululio 697 

Bishopric founded 733 

The doge Orso slain; an annual magistrate 

(maestro di militi, master of the militia) 

appointed 737 



Diodato, son of Orso, made doge 

Two doges reign : JVIaurizio Galbaio, and his 

son Giovanni 777 

The Rialto made the seat of government . . 811 
Venice becomes independent of the eastern 
empire, and acquires the maritime cities of 

Dalmatia and Istria gg7 

Its navy and commerce increase . . looo-iioo 
The Venetians aid at the capture of Tyre and ac- 
quire the thu-d part, 1124; and ravage the 

Greek archipelago 1125 

Bank of Venice established 11 57 

Ceremony of wedding the Adriatic instituted, 

about 1177 

Zara captured by the Venetians . . 24 Nov. 1202 
The Venetians aid the crusaders with men, 

horses, and ships 

Crete purchased 1204 

Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constan- 
tinople, and obtains power in the East . 1204-5 
The four bronze horses by Lysippus, brought 
from Constantinople, placed at St. Mark's 
by the doge Pietro Ziani, who died . . . 
The Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negro- 

pont 

War with Genoa ] 

The Venetian fleet severely defeated by the 
Genoese in the Adriatic, 8 Sept. 1298; peace 
between them . 
Louis of Hungary defeated at Zara , i July, 13^6 
Severe contest with Genoa ... . 1350-81 
The doge Marino Faliero, to revenge an insult, 
conspires against the repubUe ; beheaded 

17 April, 1355 
The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia . . T358 
War with the Genoese, who defeat the Vene- 
tians at Pola, and advance against Venice, 
which is vigorously defended . ... 1377 
The Genoese fleet is captured at Chiozza . . 1380 

And peace concluded 13S1 

Venice flourishes under Antonio Vernieri, ^382-1400 
Venice takes an active part in the ItaUan war 

The city suffers from the plague . ^"^^1447 

War with the Turks ; Venice loses many of its 
eastern possessions 1461-77 



1229 

1263 
1293 



1299 



The Venetians take Athens, 1466 ; and Cyprus, 1475 

Venice helps to , overcome Charles VHX. of 
France 1495 

Injured by the discovery of America (1492), add 
the passage to the Indies 1497 

The Venetians excite the Turks against the 
emperor Charles V 1504 

And are nearly ruined by the league of Cam- 
bray , . 1508 

They assist in defeating the Turks at Lepanto 

7 Oct. 1571 

The Turks retake Cyprus ,, 

Destructive fire at Venice 1577 

The Rialto bridge and the Piazza di San Marco 
erected, about 1592 

Paul V.'s interdict on Venice (1606) contemptu- 
ously disregarded 1607 

Naval victories over the Turks; at Scio, 1651 ; 
and in the Dardanelles 1655 

The Turks take Candia, after 24 years' siege . 1669 

Venice recovers part of the Morea . . 1683-99 

But loses it again . . . . . . 1715-39 

Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, by the 
treaty of Campo Formio, gives part of its 
territory to Austria, and annexes the rest to 
the Cisalpine republic 1737 

The whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom 
of Italy by the treaty of Presburg . 26 Dec. 1805 

All Venice transferred to the empire of Austria 1814 

Venice declared a free port . . 24 Jan. 1830 

Insurrection begins 22 March, 1848 ; the city, 
defended by Daniel Manin, surrenders to the 
Austrians after a long siege . 22 Aug. 1849 

[During the Italian war in 1S59, the country 
was much disorganised, and many persons 
emigrated in 1 860-1.] 

Venetian deputies will not attend the Austrian 
parliament at Vienna . . . May, 1861 

Venetia was surrendered to Prance for Italy 
(by the treaty of Vienna, signed 3 Oct.), and 
transferred to Italy ... 17 Oct. 1866 

Plebiscitum : 651,758 votes for annexation to 
Italy; 69 against .... 21 Oct. „ 

Result reported by Venetian deputies, and the 
iron crown given to the king at Turin, 4 Nov. „ 

He enters Venice .... 7 Nov. ,, 
Master-piece of Titian ("Death of Peter 
Martyr") destroyed at the burning of a 

chapel 15 Aug. 1S67 

The remains of Daniel Manin (brought from 

Paris) buried in St. Mark's . . 23 March, 1868 
[Venice has had 122 doges: Anafesto, 697, to 
Luigi Manin, 1797.] 



VEK 777 VER 

VENLOO (Holland), surrendered to the allies, under Marlborough, 23 Sept. 1702 ; and to 
the French, under Pichegru, 26 Oct. 1794. 

VENNER'S INSURRECTION, see Anahaptists, 1661. 

VENTILATORS were invented by the rev. Dr. Hales, and described to the Royal Society 
of London, May, 1741 ; and the ventilator for the use of ships was announced by 
Mr. Triewald, in November, same year. The marquess of Chabaune's plan for warming and 
ventilating theatres and houses for audiences was applied to those of London about 1819. 
The systems of Dr. Reid (about 1834) and others followed. Dr. Arnott's work on this 
subject was published in 1838, A commission on warming and ventilation issued a report 
in 1859. 

VENTRILOQUISM (speaking from the belly). The phenomena are evidently described 
in Isaiah xxix. 4 (about 712 B.C.). Among eminent ventriloquists were baron Meugen 
and M. Saint Gille, about 1772 (whose experiments were examined by a commission of 
the French Academy); Thomas King (about 1716) ; Charles Mathews (1824); and M. 
Alexandre (1822). 

VENUS. Her transit over the sun on 24 Nov. 1639 was first ascertained by Horrox in 
1633. The astronomer-ro3ral Maskelyne observed her transit at St. Helena, 6 June, 1761. 
Capt. Cook made his first voyage in the Endeavour, to Otaheite, to observe a transit of Venus, 
3 June, 1769 ; see Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini 
in 1667. The transit on 9 Dec. 1874 may be observed in Eastern Europe and in Asia. 

VERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about 1600 ; was taken by the Americans in 1847, and by 
the allies on 17 Dec. 1861 during the intervention ; retaken by the liberals, under Juarez, 
27 June, 1867. 

VERCELLI, the ancient Vercellaj, Piedmont, near which Marius defeated the Cimbri, 
loi B.C. It was the seat of a reiDublic in the 13th and 14th centuries. It was taken by the 
Spaniards, 1630; French, 1704; and allies, 1706; and afterwards partook of the fortunes of 
Piedmont. 

VERDEN (Hanover). Here Charlemagne massacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled 
and relapsL'd into idolatry, 782. 

VERMANDOIS (N. France), a county given by Charlemagne to his second son Pepin, 
whose family held it till the nth century ; in 1156 it came, by marriage, to the counts of 
Flanders ; and in 1185 it was seized by Philip II., and incorporated with the monarchy in 12 15. 

VERMONT, a northern state in North America, was settled by the French, 1724-31 ; 
and ceded to Great Britain in 1763. It was freed from the authority of New York, and 
admitted as a state of the union in 1791. 

VERNEUIL (N.W. France), the site of a battle fought 17 Aug. 1424, between the 
Burgundians and JEnglish under the regent duke of Bedford, and the French, assisted by the 
Scots, commanded by the count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and Buchan, &c. The 
French at first were successful ; but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the English 
camp, commenced pillaging. Two thousand English archers came then fresh to the attack ; 
and the Fi-ench and Scots were totally defeated, and their leaders killed. 

VERNON GALLERY. The inadequate manner in which modern British art was repre- 
sented in the National Galler}' was somewhat remedied in 1847 by the niunificent pi'esent to 
the nation, by Mr. Robert Vernon, of a collection of 157 pictures, all but two being by first- 
rate British artists. They were first exhibited at Mr. Vernon's house in Pall-mall, next in 
the vaults beneath the National Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough House, and are now at 
the South Kensington Museum. In 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed Mr. Vernon's 
example ; see Bhccpshanks' Donations. 

VERONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls or Etruscans; see Campus Jlauditis. The 
amphitheatre was built by Titus, A.D. 82. Verona has been the site of many conflicts. It 
was taken by Constantine 312 ; on 27 Sept. 489 Theodoric defeated Odoacer, king of Italy. 
About 1260 Mastino della Scala was elected podest^, and his descendants (the Scaligeri) ruled, 
till subdueil by the Visconti, dukes of Milan. Verona was conquered by the Venetians 1405, 
and held by tliem with some intermissions till its capture by the French general Massena, 
3 June, 1796. Near to it Charles Albert of Sardinia defeated the Austrians 6 May, 1848. 
Verona is one of the four strong Austrian fortresses termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral, 
and here the empei'or Francis Joseph, on 12 July, 1S59, in an order of the daj'' announced to 
his army that he must yield to circumstances unfavourable to his policy, and thanked his 
people and army for their support. It was surrendered to the Italian government, 16 Oct. 
1866 ; and the king was received by 70,000 persons in the amphitheatre, 18 Nov. 1866. 

VERSAILLES (near Paris). In the reign of Louis XIII. Versailles was only a small 
village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built a hunting-seat aboiit 



VER 778 YIC 

1632. Louis XIV. between 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent palace, which 
became the nsual residence of the kings of France. By the treaty of peace between Great 
Britain and British North America, signed at Paris, the latter power was admitted to be a 
sovereign and independent state, 3 Sept. 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed at 
Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, 
with other possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and Trincomalee restored to the 
Dutch. Here was held the military festival of the royal guards i Oct. 1789, which was 
immediately followed (on the 5th and 6th) by the attack of the mob, who massacred th& 
guards and brought the king back to Paris. It was afterwards the residence of Louis- 
Philippe, and is still a royal palace. The historical gallery was opened in 1837. 

VERSE, see Poetry, Hexavieter, Elegy, Iambic, &c. Surrey's translation of part of VirgiVs 
Jlneid into blank verse is the first English composition of the kind, omitting tragedy, 
extant in the English language (published in 1547). The verse previously used in oui' grave 
compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the ottava rima (as adopted with the addition of 
one line by Spenser in his Faery Queene), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. 
Boccaccio introduced it into Italy in his Teseide, having copied it from the old French 
chansons. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer of blank verse among the 
moderns, about 1508. Vossius. 

VESERONGE (S.E. France), near Vienne. Here Gondemar, king of the Burgundians, 
defeated and killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and revenged the murder of his brother 
Sigismond and his family, 524. This conflict is called also the battle of Voiron. 

VESPERS, see Sicilian Vespers. In the house of the French ambassador at Blackfriars, 
in London, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three hundred persons in an upper 
room, the floor of which gave way with the weight, when the whole congregation was 
precipitated to the street, and the preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, chiefly 
persons of rank, were killed. This catastrophe, termed the Fatal Vespers, occurred 26 Oct. 
1623. Stow. 

VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 
29 March, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. 

VESTALS were priestesses of Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire consecrated to 
her worship. The mother of Romulus was a vestal. Numa, in 710 B.C., appointed four and 
Tarquin added two. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was entrusted 
with the care of them. Minutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin vow, 337 B.C. ; 
Sextilia, 273 B.C. ; and Cornelia Maximiliana, A.D. 92; see Chastity. 

"VESTIGES OF THE JSTatural HiSTORy op Ckeation," a work which upholds the 
doctrine of progressive development as a hypothetic history of organic creation, first 
appeared in 1844. 

VESUVIUS. By an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum 
{which sec) were overwhelmed A.D. 79, and more than 200,000 persons perished, among them 
Pliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous eraptions have occurred. In Dec. 1631 
the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and a great part of the surrounding country, 
were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, 
24 Nov. 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the 34th from the time of Titus. One in 
1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated 
land, and the town of Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain 
fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. Eruptions in May, 1855, 
May and June, 1858, and June, 1859, caused great destruction, and in the spring and summer 
of i860. A series of violent eruptions causing much damage occurred in Dec. 1861, and in 
Feb. 1865. Torre del Greco was again destroyed in Dec. 1861. Another eruption began 
12 Nov. 1867, and continued increasing in grandeur and danger, March, 1868. The phe- 
nomena were observed by professors Tyndall and Miller, sir John Lubbock, and other scientific 
men, in April, 1868. 

VETERINARY COLLEGE (London), was established at Camden-town, 1791 ; and 
Albert Veterinary College was opened in 1865. 

VICE, an instrument of which Archytas of Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is said to- 
have been the inventor, along with the pulley and other implements, 420 B.C. 

VICE-ADMIRALTY COURTS ACT, 1863, was extended and amended in 1867. 

VICE-CHANCELLOR of ENGLAND, an equity judge, appointed by parliament, first- 
took his seat 5 May, 1813. A new court was erected about 1816 contiguous to Lincoln's- 
inn-hall. Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed under act 5 Vict., Oct. 1841. 
The office of vice-chancellor of England ceased in August, 1850, and a third vice-chancellor 
was appointed in 1851, when two more equity judges, styled lords justices, were appointed. 



VIC 



779 



YIC 



VICE-CHANCELLOR of ENGLAND, continued. 



VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND. 

1813. Sir Thomas Plumer, 13 April. 

1818. Sir John Leach, 13 Jan. 

1S27. Sir Anthony Hart, 4 May. 

1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, i Nov. the last. 



VICE-CHANCELLORS. 

1852. Sir John Stnart. 

1853. Sir Wm. Page Wood, made a justice of ap- 

peal, 1868. 
1866. Sir Richard Malins. 
1868. Sir Geo. Markham GiSard. 



VICENZA (the ancient Vicentia, N. Italy) was the scat of a republic in the 12th century. 
It greatly suffered by the ravages of Alaric, 401, and Attila, 452. Having joined the 
Lombard league, it was sacked by Frederic II. 1236. After many changes it was subjected 
to Venice, and with it fell under the French domination, 1796 ; and was given to Austria in 
1814. Having revolted, it was retaken by Eadetzky, 11 June, 1848. It was annexed to the 
kingdom of Italj', Oct. 1866. 

VICE-PEESIDENT of the Board of Trade. This office was abolished in 1867, and 
a secretary with a seat in parliament substituted. 

VICKSBURG, see United States, 1863. 

VICTORIA, formerly Port Phillip (Australia), situated between New South "Wales and 
South Australia, the most successful colony in that region. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-boat, 
expedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbours ; and in 1802 Flinders sailed into Port 
Phillip Bay. 

Colonel Collins lands with a party of convicts 

with the intention of founding a settlement 

at Port Phillip, but afterwards removed to 

Van Diemen's Land 1804 

Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners 

from New South Wales, explore part of the 

country, but do not discover its great advan- 
tages 1824 

Mr. Henty imports some sheep from Van Die- 
men's Land 1834 

Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 

Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of 

land from the aborigines for a few gewgaws 

and blankets : he shortly after, with fifteen 

associates from Hobarton, took possession of 

600,000 acres in the present Geelong country 

May, 183s 
The Launoeston associates and Mr. John Pascoe 

Fawkener ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or ever- 
flowing) river, and encamp on the site of 

Melbourne ,, 

The colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000 

sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. 

Bourke, governor of New South Wales, visits 

the colony, determines the sites of towns, 

and causes the land to be surveyed and re- 
sold, setting aside many contending claims ; 

he appoints captain Lonsdale chief-magi- 
strate (see Melbourne) 1837 

The colony named Victoria 1839 

Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and 

induces much speculation and consequent 

embarrassment and insolvency . . 1841-2 
Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant-governor 

under sir G. Gipps 1839 

The province declared independent of New 

South »Wales ; a reward of 200?. offered for 

the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was 

soon after found near Melbourne, and was 

profitably worked .... Aug. 1851 

7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 

round Mount Alexander . . . Nov. ,, 
From 30 Sept. to 31 Dec. 1851, 30,311 ounces of 

gold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from 

29 Oct. to 31 Dec. 94,524 ounces from Mount 

Alexander — total 124,835 ounces. 



Immense immigi-atiou to Melbourne (see Mel- 
bourne) 1852 

A representative constitution granted . . 1855 
Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . . . 1856 
The parliament was opened . . 26 Nov. 1857 
Four administrations had been formed in 1 857-1 860 
Exhibition of the products of the colony opened 

by the governor i Oct. 1861 

Sir Charles Darling appointed governor. May : 

arrives 10 Sept. 1863 

Great opposition to reception of convicts in any 
part of Australia ; a ship containing them 

sent back Oct. 1864 

Important land act passed . 22 March, 1865. 

The assembly passes the new government tariff, 

Jan., which is rejected by the legislative 

council; the governor raises money for the 

public service irregularly . . . July, ,, 

The crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen 

proposed Oct. ,, 

Parliament prorogued .... Dec. „ 
Sir Charles Darhng recalled . . 26 Feb. 1866 
Ministerial difficulties : Mr. McCulloch becomes 

premier April, „ 

The assembly votes 20,000?. to lady Darling ; 

sir Charles departs .... May, ,, 

New governor, sir John H. T. Manners Sutton, 

arrived 13 Aug. ,, 

Intercolonial Exhibition opened . 25 Oct. ! „ 
Vote of 2o,oooL to lady Darling rejected by 

legislative council . . . .20 Aug. 1867 
Ministerial crisis ; dispute continues between 

the assembly and the council . . _ Oct. ,, 
Duke of Edinburgh arrives ; great rejoicings 

23 Nov. „ 
Parliament dissolved ... 30 Dec. ,, 

New parliament ; ministry resigned because 
the governor objected to insertion of the 
Darling grant in the appropriation bill 

12 March, 186S 
Population of the colony in 1836, 224 ; in 1841, 
11,73$; ill 1846, 32,879; in 1851, 77,345: 31 
Dec. 1852, about 200,000 ; in March 1857 there 
were 258,116 males and 145,403 females; in 
aU 403,519. In 1859, in all 517,366 ; in 1861, 
540,322; Dec. 1865, 626,639. 



The production was still very great . . . 1859 

VICTORIA, see Hong Kong, Vancouver's Island, WrccJcs 1852, and Docks. 

VICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, instituted to reward the gallantry of persons 
of all ranks in the army and navy, 5 Feb. 1856. It is a Maltese cross made of Russian- 
cannon from Sebastopol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 persons (of both services) 
on Friday, 26 June, 1857 ; and on many of the Indian army, 2 Aug. 1858. 

VICTORIA PARK (E. London) was originated by an act passed in 1841, which enabled 
her majesty's commissioners of woods and forests to purchase certain lauds for a royal park, 



VIC 780 VIE 

with the sum of 72,000?. raised by the same act, by the sale of York-house to the duke of 
Sutlierland. The act described the laud to be so purchased, containing 290 acres, situate 
in the parishes of St. John, Hackney ; St. Matthew, Bethnal-gi'een ; and St. Mary, Stratford- 
le-bow, at the east end of London. The park was completed and opened to the public in 
1845. Miss Burdett Coutts presented a handsome drinking fountain, and was present at its 
inauguration, 28 June, 1862. 

VICTORIA KAILW AY-BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St. Lawrence, 
Montreal, erected by Mr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephen- 
son and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and formally opened by the prince of 
"Wales, 25 Aug. i860. It forms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which connects Canada 
and the seaboard states of North America. The length is about sixty yards less than two 
English miles, and about 74 times longer than Waterloo bridge, and ten times longer than 
new Chelsea bridge ; the height sixty feet between the summer level of the river and the 
under surface of the central tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The cost was 1,700,000?. 
On 5 Jan. 1855, while constructing, the bridge was carried away by floating ice, but the 
stonework remained firm. 

VICTORIA REGIA, the magnificent water-lily brought to this country from Guiana by 
sir Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the queen. Fine specimens are at the 
Botanic Gardens at Kew, Regent's Park, &c. It was grown in the open air in 1855, by 
Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea. 

VICTORY, Man-of-War, of 100 guns, the finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, 
was lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, and its admiral, sir John Balchen, 
and 100 gentlemen's sons, and the whole crew, consisting of 1000 men, perished, 8 October, 
1744. — The Victory, the flag-ship of Nelson, at the battle of Trafalgar, 21 Oct. 1805, is kept 
in fine preservation at Portsmouth. 

VICTUALLERS, an ancient trade in England. The Vintners' company of London was 
founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. 

Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays 

from I o'clock till 3, and from 5 till 11 p.m. . 1828 
The prescribed time enlarged . . . . 1855 
127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, 
cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, pro- 
ducing a revenue of 304,688;. ; and 93,936 
licences for the sale of spirits : revenue, 

560,557^ 1858 

Licensed Victuallers' School established . . 1803 
Licensed Victuallers' Asylum established, 

22 Feb. 1827 

VICTUALLING OFFICE (London), managed the victualling of the royal navy ; was 
instituted Dec. 1663. The number of commissioners was five, afterwards seven, and 
then reduced to six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St. Katherine's, and Rother- 
hithe, were removed to Deptford in Aug. 1785, and the ofiice to Somerset-house, 1783. In 
1832 the ofiice of commissioners was abolished, and the victualling-ofiice made one of five 
departments under the lords of the admiralty. 

VIENNA (the Roman Vinclehona), was capital of the margraviate of Austria, 984 ; 
capital of the German empire, 1278 ; and since 1806 the capital of the Austiian dominions 
only. Population in 1857, 476,222 ; in 1865, about 560,000; see Austria. 



None shall sell less than one full quart of the 
best beer or ale for id. and two quarts of the 

smaller sort for id 1603 

The power of licensing public-houses was 
granted to sir Charles jVlompesson and sir 

Francis Mitchel 1621 

The number in England then was about 13,000 ,, 
In Great Britain about 76,000 pubUc-houses . 1790 
England, 59,335; Scotland, 15,081; Ireland, 
14,080; total, 88,496 in 1850 



Vienna made an imperial city in . . . 1136 

Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 
Richard I. of England, 40,000; 1194 

Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the 
Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men ; 
but he was forced to raise the siege with the 
loss of 70,000 of his best troops . . . 1529 

Besieged July, 1683 

The siege raised by .John Sobieski, kmg of 
Poland, who defeats the Turkish army of 
100,000 ...... 12 Sept. ,, 

Vienna taken by the French under prmce Murat 

14 Nov. 1805 

Evacuated 12 Jan. 1S06 



Again captured by the French . . 13 May, 1809 
Restored on the conclusion of peace 14 Oct. ,, 
Congress of sovereigns at Vienna . Nov. 1814 

Imperial Academy of Sciences founded . . 1846 
The revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection 

in Vienna 13 March, 1848 

The emperor retires, 17 May; returns Aug. ,, 
A second insuiTCction : count Latour, the war 

minister, is murdered ... 6 Oct. ,, 
The emperor again takes flight . . 7 Oct. ,, 
Vienna is bombarded by Windischgriitz and 

Jellachich, 28 Oct. ; its capitulation, 30 Oct. ,, 
Conferences respecting the Russo-Turkish war 

held at Vienna * 1853-S 



* A conference of the four great powers, England, France, Austria, and Prussia, was held 24 July, 
when a note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance to St. Petersburg and Constantinople, 31 July. 
This note was accepted by the czar, 10 Aug. , but the sultan required modifications, which were rejeotedby 
Russia, 7 Sept. The sultan's note (31 Dec.) contained four points : — i. The promjitest possible evacuation 
of the principalities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance of reUgious privileges to the communities 
of all confessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention respecting the holy places. It was approved 
by the four powers, and the conferences closed on 16 .Jan. 1854. — Anew conference of plenipotentiaries, from 
Great Britain (lord John Russell), France (M. Drouyn de I'Huys), Austria (count Buol), Turkey (Arif 



VIE 



781 



VIN 



4. Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis 
(II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria 
ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other 
teiTitories, which were shortly afterwards declared 
to be united to France under the title of the 
Illyrian Provinces, and engaged to adhere to the 
prohibitory system adopted towards England by 
France and Russia. 14 Oct. 1809. 

5. Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia, confirming the principles on which 
they had acted by the treaty of Chaumout, i Mar. 
1814. Signed 23 March, 1815. 

6. Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on 
the one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 
and Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlarfje- 
ment of the Dutch territories, and vesting the 
sovereignty in the house of Orantre. 31 May, 1815. 

7. Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pome- 
rania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauen- 
burg. 4 June, 1815. 

8. Commercial treaty for twelve years between Aus- 
tria and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, 19 Feb. 1853. 

9. Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey, bj' the 
representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, 
and Ru.ssia. Signed 9 April, 1854. 

10. Treaty between Austria and Prussia and Den- 
mark, by which Denmark ceded the duchies. 
30 Oct 1864. 

11. Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy; Ve- 
netia given up to Italy. 3 Oct. 1866. 



VIENi!^A, continued. 

The fortifications demolished, and the eity en- 
larged and beautified 1857-8 

The imperial parliament (Reichsrath) assem- 
bles here 31 May, i860 

The Pi'ussians encamp near Vienna ; state of 
siege proclaimed July, i366 

Visited by the sultan . . . .27 July, 1867 

TREATIES OF VIENNA. 

1. The treaty between the emperor of Germany and 
the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to 
each other such parts of the Spanish dominions 
as thej' were respectively possessed of ; and by a 
private ti-eaty the emperor engaged to employ a 
force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to 
Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender 
on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed 
the Pragmatic Sanction. 30 April, 1725. 

2. Treatyof alUancebetweenthe emperor of Germany, 
Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
the states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic 
Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to 
the Spanish succession terminated. ("Spain acceded 
to the treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 16 
March, 1731. 

3. Treaty of peace between the emperor Charles VI. 
of Germany and the king of France, Louis XV., by 
which the latter power agreed to guarantee the 
Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to 
France. Signed iS Nov. 1738 ; see Pragmatic 
Sanction. 

VIENISTE, the ancient Vienna AUobrogum (S.E. France). Here the emperor Valen- 
tinian II. was put to death by Arbogastes, 15 May, 392, and a short reaction in favour 
of paganism followed. Vienne was capital of the kingdom of Burgundy in 432 and 879, 
and sometimes gave its name to the kingdom. A general council was held here in 13 11. 
Vienne was annexed to the French monarchy, 1448. 

VIGO (N-W. Spain) was attacked and burned by the English, under Drake and Norris, 
in 15S9. Sir George Rooke, with the combined English and Dutch fleets, attacked the 
French fleet and the Spanish galleons in the port of Vigo, when several men of war and 
galleons were taken, and many destroyed, and abundance of plate and other valuable eff"ects 
fell into the hands of the conquerors, 12 Oct. 1702. Vigo was taken bj-- lord Cobham in 
1 719, but relinquished after raising contributions. It was again taken by the British, 
27 March, 1809. 

VILLA FRANCA. Near here, and Llerena, Spain, the British cavahy, under sir Sta- 
]ileton Cotton, defeated the French cavalry under marshal Soult, 11 April, 1812. — Villa 
Franca, a small port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought for a steam-packet 
station by a Russian company, about Aug. 1858, which caused some political excitement. 
— At Villa Franca, in Lombardy, the emperors of France and Austria met, ou 11 July, 
1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on 12 July sigued the preliminaries of peace, the 
basis of the treaty of Zurich {which sec). 

VILLA VICIOSA. I. in Portugal. Here the Portuguese, imder the French general, 
Schomberg, defeated the Spaniards, 1665. 2. in Castile, Spain. Here the struggle for the 
Spanish crown was decided in favour of Philip V. by Vendome's victory over Stareniberg 
and the Austrians, 10 Dec. 17 10. 

VILLAIN", see Slavery in England. 

VIMEIRA (in Portugal), where the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, defeated the 
French and Spanish forces, under marshal Junot, duke of Abrantes, 21 Aug. 180S. The 
attack, made with great bravery, was gallantly repulsed ; it was repeated by Kellerman at 
the head of the French reserve, which was also repulsed. And the French, being charged 
with the bayonet, withdrew on all points in confusion, leaving many pris<jners. 

VINCENNES, a strong castle near Paris ; a residence of the French kings from the 
12th to the 14th centuries. Henry V. of England died at the Bois de Vincennes, 31 Aug. 

Effendi), and Russia (count Gortschakoff), took place, March, 1854. Two points, the protectorate of the 
principalities and the free navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the proiiosals of the powers as to 
the reduction of the Russian power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the conference closed, 
5 June, 1855. The English and French envoys' assent to the Austrian propositions was not approved of 
by their governments, and they both resigned their official positions. 



vm 



782 



YIO 



1422. In the fosse of the castle, JLiOuis due d'Enghien was shot by order of Napoleon, after 
-a hasty trial, early on the morning of 22 March, 1804. 

VINCENT, Cai^e St. (S.W. Portugal). Admiral Eooke, with twenty men-of-war, and 
the Turkish fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly 
superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war, and 
eighty merchantmen, were taken or destroyed by the French, 16 June, 1693. Near here 
admiral Eodney destroyed several Spanish ships, 16 Jan. 1780; see Rodney's Victories. 
The celebrated battle was fought 14 Feb. 1797, between the Spanish and British fleets off 
the cape ; the latter commanded by admiral sir John Jervis, who took (after a well-fought 
battle) four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged the rest of the Spanish fleet, 
14 FelD. 1797. Two of the captured ships were of 100 guns each, and the other two each of 
74. From this cape the earl had his title. 

VINCENT, ST. ("West Indies), long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763, the 
French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter soon after 
engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to 
consent to a peace, by which they ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In 1779 
the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction of this island by the French, who, however, 
restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the 
Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption 
of the Scouffrier mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. Popu- 
lation in 1861, 31,755. 

VINCENT DE PAUL, ST.,* Charitable Society, founded in 1833, in France, by 
twelve young men. It extends its extremely beneficial operations even into Britain. Its 
power excited the jealousy of the French government, which suppressed its central committee 
at Paris, in Oct. 1861. 

VINE. The vine was planted by Noah, 2347 B.C. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine- 
dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in 
tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think that vines are abori- 
gines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the 
Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne, 
and part of Germany, by the emperor Probus, about a.d. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were 
planted iu Madeira in 1420. The vine was planted in England in 1552 ; and in the gardens 
of Hampton-court palace is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in 
Europe ; see Grapes, and Wine. The Tokay vines were planted in 1350. 



Vine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, 
of Margate, observed a fungus (since named O'idium 
Tiiclceri) on grapes in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, 
of Margate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally 
destroys the fruit. 

The spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries 
at Versailles in 1S47. The disease soon reached 
the trellised vines, and in 1S50 many lost all their 
produce. 

In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, 
and in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the cur- 



rants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of the 
usual amount. 

Through its ravages, the wine manufacture in Ma- 
deira ceased for several years.- 

Many attempts have been made to arrest the pro- 
gress of this disease, but without much effect. 
Sulphur dust is the most efficacious remedy. 

The disease had much abated in France, Portugal, 
and Madeira, in 1863. In 1862 Californian vines 
were introduced into the two latter. 



VINEGAK. Known nearly as early as wine. The ancients had several kinds of vinegar, 
which they used for drink. The Eoman soldiers were accustomed to take it in their 
marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for 
liis reapers {1312 B.C.), a custom, still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 

VINEGAE-HILL (near Enniscorthy, in Wexford, S. E. Ireland). Here the Irish rebels, 
headed by father John, a priest, encamped and committed many outrages on the surrounding 
country. They were gradually surrounded by the British troops, commanded by Lake, 
21 June, 1798, and after a fierce struggle, with much slaughter, totally dispersed. 

VINTNEES, see Victuallers. 

VIOL AND Violin. The lyre of the Greeks became our harp, and the viol of the middle 
ages became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early as 1200, in the legendary life of 
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. Straduarius 
(or Stradivarius) of Cremona was a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722), The eminent 
violinist Pagauini died 27 May, 1840. 

* He was born, 1576; established the congregation of Lazarists, or Vincentines, 1625; Sisters of 
Charity, 1634 ; a foundling hospital, 1648. He died 1660. 



VIE 



783 



VIV 



VIKGINIA, see Rome, 449 b. c. 

VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in North America, was discovered by John 
Cabot in 1497, and was taken possession of and named by Raleigh, after the virgin-queen 
Elizabeth, 13 July, 1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585. Two expeditions 
were formed by patent in 1606, and others in 1610. In 1626, it reverted to the crown ; and 
a more permanent colony was established soon afterwards. George "Washington was delegate 
for Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia seceded from the Union, 25 April, 
1861, but Western Virginia declared for the Union, 13 Feb. and elected a governor, 
20 Feb. 1861. Virginia was the chief seat of the war ; see United Slates, and Richmond. 

VIRGIN ISLANDS (West Indies), an eastern group (discovered by Columbus, 1494) : 
Virgin Gorda, Tortola, Anegada, &c., and the Danish Isles, St. Thomas and St. John. 
Governor of the British Isles, sir Carlo A. Rumbold, 1866. 



Tortola settled by Dutch buccaneers about 1648 ; 
expelled by the English (who have held it 
since) 1666 

St. Thomas settled by Danes 1672, and St. John 
a few years after ; held by the British 1801-2 ; 
1807-15; sold to the United States for 
1,500,500?. to be madea "territory." Danish 
proclamation .... 25 Oct. 1867 

By a dreadful hurricane off St. Thomas, the 



Royal Mail steamers Rhone and Wye were 

entirely wrecked ; the Conway and Derwent, 

and above 50 other vessels, driven ashore ; 

about 1000 persons said to have perished. 
Much suffering occasioned in Tortola ; houses 

blown down or unroofed, &c. (a report reached. 

London that the isle was submei-ged) 29 Oct. 1867 
Earthquake at St. Thomas's and other isles ; 

much damage ; few lives lost . . Nov. „ 



VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
churches, in honour of the miraculous ascent of Maiy into heaven, according to their belief, 
15 Aug. A.D. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated 21 Nov., said to have 
been instituted among the Greeks in the nth century; its institution in the "West is 
ascribed to pope Gregory XI. 1372 ; see Annunciation, and Conception, Immaculate. 

VIRTUE, League of, see Tugcndhund. 

VISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian family, which ruled in Milan from about 1277 
to 1447 ; the heiress of the family was married to Francesca Sforza, who became duke 1450. 

VISCOUNT ( Vice Comes), anciently the name of an officer under an earl, who being 
oftentimes required at court, was his deputy, to look after the affairs of the county. The 
first viscount in England created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, whom Henry VI. 
created viscount Beaumont, giving him precedence above all barons, 10 Feb. 1440. Ashmole. 
This title, however, is of older date in Ireland and France. John Barry, lord Barrj--, was 
made viscount Buttevant, in Ireland, 9 Rich. II. 1385. Bcatson. 

VISIBLE SPEECH, a term applied by Mr. Alex. Mehdlle Bell to his " Universal Self- 
Interpreting Physiological Alphabet," comprising thirty symbols representing the confor- 
mations of the mouth when uttering sounds. He stated that about fifty different tyjies would 
bo required to print all known languages with these symbols. He expounded his system to 
the Society of Arts, Loudon, 14 March, 1866 ; and published a book in 1867. 

VISIGOTHS, separated from the Ostragoths about 330 ; see Goths. The emperor Valens, 
about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condition of their serving 
when wanted in the Roman armies ; and Theodosius the Great j^ermitted them to form dis- 
tinct corps commanded by their own officers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, and 
in 410 took Rome. They founded their kingdom of Toulouse, 414 ; conquered the Alani, 
and extended their rule into Spain, 414; expelled the Romans in 468; and finally were them- 
.selves conquered by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when tJieir last king, Roderic, was 
defeated and slain ; see S-pain for a list of the Visigothic kings. Their rule in France ended 
with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, in 507. 

VITTORIA (N. Spain), the site of a brilliant victory obtained by AVellington over the 
French army commanded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and marshal Jourdan, 21 
June, 1813. The hostile armies were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. After a long 
and fearful battle, the French were driven, towards evening, through the to\\Ti of Vittoria, 
and in their retreat wei-e thrown into irretrievable coniusion. The British loss was 22 
officers and 479 men killed ; 167 officers and 2640 men wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 
151 pieces of cannon, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions, cattle, and 
treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, "Wel- 
lington took Jourdau's only remaining gun. 

VIVARIUM, see Aquavivarium, 

VIVISECTION. Physiological experiments iipon living animals, having much increased, 
the societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals in Dresden and Paris m 1859 requested 
the opinion of a committee of eminent scientific men on the merits of the knowledge thus 
acquired. Their judgment was not unanimous. The London society took up the question 



VIZ 784 VOL 

in i860; and printed a pamphlet by Mr. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 1862 an 
international conference to discuss the question was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. 
The subject was discussed in 1866, and a prize awarded by the London society. Sir Charles 
Bell's opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured the subject it was meant to illus- 
trate, or misled men into practical errors of the most serious character. 

VIZIER, Grand, an officer of the Ottoman Porte, hrst appointed about 1326. The office 
was abolished in 1838 ; but since revived. 

VLADIMIR (central Russia), a city founded in the 12th century, and the capital of a 
grand duchy from 1 157 to about 1328. 

VOIRON, see Veseronce. 

VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth there are above 200 volcanoes which have 
been active in modern times ; see Etna, Vesuvius, and Iceland. In Mexico, a plain was filled 
up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava from a volcano, 
in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out 13 Sept. 1777, which threw out an im- 
mense quantity of red water, that discoloured the sea for several leagues. A new volcano 
appeared in one of the Azore islands, i May, 1808. 

VOLHYNIA, a Polish province, annexed to Russia 1793. 

VOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at war with the Romans. Prom their 
capital, Corioli, Cains Martius (who defeated them about 493 b.c.) derived his name Corio- 
lanus. The story of his banishment by his ungrateful countrymen ; of his revenge on them 
by bringing the Volsci to the gates of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the entreaties 
of his mother, Volumnia (487 b.c), is considered by many as a poetical legend. The Volsci 
and their allies totally defeated at Sutrium by the consul Valerius Corvus (346 B.C.), and 
incorporated with the Roman people about 338 B.C. > 

VOLSINII, the inhabitants of an Etrurian city, who, after a sharp contest, were com- 
pletely overcome by the Roman consul Titus Coruncanius, 280 b.c. 

VOLTAIC PILE or Battery, was constructed in consequence of the discoveries of 
Galvani ; see Galvanism in article Electricity. The principle was discovered by Alessandro 
Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and 
announced by him to the Royal Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 
1800. Volta was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and was 
otherwise greatly honoured. "While young he invented the electrophorus, electric pistol, and 
hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been 
greatly improved by the researches of modern philosophers. The nitric acid battery of Mr. 
"W. R. Grove was constructed in 1839 ; the carbon battery of Professor Robert Bunsen in 
1842. The former is very much used in this country; that of Bunsen on the continent. 

VOLTURNO, a river in S. Italy, near Capua, nfear to which Garibaldi and his followers 
held a strong position. This was furiously assailed by the royal troops on i Oct. i860, who 
were finally repulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest in which Garibaldi had yet been 
engaged. H e was aided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from Naples. On 2 Oct. general 
Bixio completed the victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops and dispersing others, 

VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Public contributions for the support of the British 
government against the policy and designs of France amounted to two millions and a half 
sterling in 1798. About 200,oooZ. were transmitted to England from India in 1799. Sir 
Eobert Peel, of Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, subscribed io,oooZ. 
Annual Register ; see Patriotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds were subscribed in 
the British empire for the relief of the Lancashire cotton spinners ; see Cotton. 

VOLUNTEERS were enrolled in England in consequence of the threatened invasion of 
revolutionary France, 1793-4. Besides our large army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, we 
subsidised 40,000 Germans, raised our militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as 
volunteers ; the yeomanry formed cavalry regiments. Between 1798 and 1804, when this 
force was of greatest amount, it numberecl 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish.* On 26 Oct. 
1803, king George III. reviewed in Hyde Park 12,401 London volunteers, and on 2S Oct. 
14,676 more. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on i Jan. 
1804 ; see Naval Volunteers. In May, 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the fear 
of a French invasion, the formation of volunteer corps of riflemen commenced under the 
auspices nf the government, and by the end of the year many thousands were enrolled in all 
parts of the kingdom. 

* The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed at Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinster, 
12 Oct. 1779. They armed generally to the amount ff 20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of 
the housijs of lords and commons in Ireland, for their patriotism and spirit, for coming forward and 
defending their country. At the period when the force appeared, Irish affairs bore a serious aspect ; 



VOL 



785 



YOY 



YOLUNTEERS, continued. 

[The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in 
1803 as the duke of Cumberland's sharp- 
shooters. They retained their organisation 
as a rifle club, when other volunteers were 
disbanded. In 1S35 they were permitted by 
the duchess of Kent to take the name of the 
Eoyal Victoria Rifle Club.] 

l^ationol Volunteer Association for promoting the 
practice of Rifle-shooting, was estabUshed in 
London, under the patronage of the queen 
and prince consort, Mr. Sidney (afterwards 
lord) Herbert, secretary at war, president, 
and the earl of Derby and other noblemen 
vice-presidents. (Annual subscription one 
guinea, or a composition for life of ten guineas) 

16 Nov. 

2500 Volunteer officers presented to the queen : 
a dinner followed, with the duke of Cam- 
bridge in the chair ; and a ball . 7 March, 

The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in 
Hyde-park 23 June, 

[Mr. Tower, of AVealdhall, Essex, aged 80, was 
present as a private ; he had been present as 
an officer in a volunteer review in 1S03.] 

First meeting of the National Association for 

rifle shooting held at Wimbledon ; captain 

Edwd. Ross obtained the queen's prize of 

250^. and the gold medal of the association 

2-7 July, 

[M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prize.] 

Successful sham - fight at Bromley, Kent 

14 July, 

Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen 
at Edinburgh 7 Aug. 

Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed 
by the earl of Derby at Knowsley i Sept. 

Lord Herbert stated that the association had a 
capital of 3oooi. and an annual income of 1500?. 

16 Feb. 

Volunteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000 

May, 

Second meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Jopling 
gains the queen's prize and the association 
medal 4-10 July, 

Review of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, 
13 July ; of 9000 at Wai'wick . 24 July, 

Registered number of volunteers 162,681 

I April, 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at 
Brighton 21 April, 

Third meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Pixley gains 
the queen's prize, &c. . . i-i4July, 

A commission recommends that an annual grant 
of either 20s., 30s., or 34s., be given to each 
volunteer according to circumstances Oct. 

Fourth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July, &c. ; 
queen's prize, <&c., won by sergeant Roberts, 



1859 
1S60 



of the 12th Shropshire rifle volunteers 

14 July, 1862 

An act to amend and consolidate the acts 
reLating to the volunteer force of Great 
Britain was passed . . . 21 July, 1S63 

22,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of 
Wales in Hyde-park (great improvement 
noticed) 28 May, ,, 

Fift/i meeting at Wimbledon, 11 July, &c. ; the 
queen's prize, <&c., won by private John 
Wyatt, of the London rifle brigade 23 July, 1864 

Volunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1864. 

Sixth meeting at Wimbledon, began 11 July; 
the queen's prize was won by private Shaiinan 
of the 4th West York Rifle Volunteers, 18 
July : the meeting ended with a review by 
the duke of Cambridge . . 22 July, 1863 

Seventh meeting at Wimbledon began 9 Jxily ; 
queen's prize won by Angus Cameron, of the 
6th Inverness rifles, 17 July; the value of 
about 7oooi. distributed in prizes ; and review 
by duke of Cambridge . . 21 July, 1866 

The volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
at Brighton, 2 April ; at York, 11 Aug. ; by 
duke of Cambridge at Hyde^park 23 June, „ 

Estimate of volunteers : 135,000 infantry, 
27,000 artillery, and 4000 engineers. Times. 

9 Oct. „ 

About 1 100 volunteers visit Brussels, headed 
by col. Lloyd Lindsay : warmly received : 
first prize gained by Curtis, of the nth 
Sussex rifles .... 11-22 Oct. ,, 

Parhamentary vote for volunteers, 361,000?. 

7 June, 1867 

MetropoUtan and Berkshire volunteers re- 
viewed in Windsor Great park 10 June, ,, 

Fiffhth meeting at Wimbledon, began 8 July ; 
Belgian Garde civique and volunteers (above 
2000) received by prince of Wales, 13 July; 
resignation of lord Elcho, chairman of the 
council ; succeeded by earl Spencer, 18 July ; 
grand review by prince of Wales, the sultan, 
&c. ; the queen's prize given to sergeant Lane, 
of Bristol, by the princess of Teck 20 July, ,, 

Grand i-eview in New Sefton park, Liverpool 

5 Oct. „ 

About 28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen 
at Windsor 20 June, „ 

Ninth meeting at Wimbledon, to begin on 

13 July, 1868 

Eastee Monday reviews and sham fights. — 
Brighton, 21 April, 1862, and 5 April, 1863 ; 
Guildford, 28 March, 1864 ; Brighton, 17 April, 
1865 ; and 2 April, 1866 ; Dover, 22 April, 1867; 
Portsmouth (the most successful hitherto, 
29,490 volunteers present) . 13 April, „ 



YOSSEM, Peace of, l?etween the elector of Brandenburg and Louis XIY. of France ; 
the latter engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; signed 6 June, 1673. 

YOTING PAPERS, see Dodson's Act. The proposal to use them was negatived in the 
debates on i-eform in 1867. 

YOUGLE or Youille, S. W. France (near Poitiers), where Alaric IL, king of the 
Yisigoths, was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, 507. Clovis immediately after 
subdued the whole country from the Loire to the Pyrenees, and thus his kingdom became 
firmly established. A peace followed between the Franks and Yisigoths, who had been 
settled above one hundred years in that part of Gaul called Septimania. Clovis soon after- 
wards made Paris the capital of his kingdom. Hhmult. 

YOYAGES. By order of Pharaoh-necho, of Egypt, some Phcenician pilots sailed from 
Egypt do\vn the Arabian Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, entered the 

mamrfactures had decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a prohibition of the export of salted 
provisions and butter. No notice of the complaints of the people had been taken in the Enghsh parliament, 
when, owing to the alarm of an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an immense force was 
soon raised. The Irish took this occasion to demand a free trade, and government saw there was no trifling 
with a country with arms in its hands. The Irish parUament unanimously addressed the king for a free 
trade, and it was granted, 1779. 

3 E 



VUL 



WAG 



Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length 
arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 b. c. Herodotus. The first 
voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Islands in a skirmish) in 
1519-20; see Circur}i7iavigators, and North-Wcst Passage. 

VULCAlSriTE (vulcanised india-rubber), also termed Ehonite. 

VULGATE (from viilgatus, published), a term applied to the Latin version of the 
Scriptures, which is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), and which is attributed to 
St. Jerome, about 384. The older version, called the Italic, is said to have been made in 
the beginning of the and century. A critical edition was printed by order of pope 
Sixtus V. in 1590, which being considered inaccurate, was superseded by the edition of 
pope Clement V. in 1592. The earliest printed Yulgate is without date, by Gutenberg and 
JFust, probably about 1455 ; the first dated (Fust and Schoeffer), is 1462. 



_ "WADHAM COLLEGE (Oxford). Founded by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his 
wife, in 1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wilkins (over the gateway), the 
founders of the Royal Society frequently met prior to 1658. 

WAGER OF BATTLE, see Appeal. 

WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen were first fixed b*y act of 
parliament 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master carpenters, 
masons, tilers, and other coverers of houses, had not more than 2,d. per day (about <)d. of 
our money) ; and their servants i\d. Yiner's Statutes. 



By the 23rd Hen. VI. the wages of a bailiff of 
husbandry was 23s. 4.d. per annum, and 
clothing of the price of 5s. with meat and 
drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., 
clothing, 4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 
iss., clothing, 401^. ; woman-servant, los., 
clothing, 4.? 1444 

By the n Hen. VII., a like rate of wages with 
a little advance : as, for instance, a free 
mason, master carpenter, rough mason, 
bricklayer, master tiler, phimber, glazier, 
carver or joiner, was allowed from Easter to 



Michaelmas to take 6cZ. a day without meat 
and drink ; or, with meat and drink, ^d. : 
from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate id A 
master having under him six men was allowed 

id. a day exti-a : 

In 1866 the annual amount of wages paid in 
the United Kingdom, was estimated by Mr. 
Gladstone at 250,000,000?. : by Mr. Bass at 
350,000,000?. ; and by professor Leone Levi at 
418,300,000!., earned by 10,697,000 workers, 
ages 20 to 60. 



Tear. 
In 1716 . 


s. d. 
per diem 9 


Year. s. 
In 1800 . . per diem 2 


d. 



1740 
1760 . 
17S8 
1794 . 


,, 10 

,, 10 

„ 14 

I 6 


1811 ... ,,2 
1850 . . „ 3 

a. ^^57^- • • • . " 5 
Smce then increased. 


4 







WAGES OF HAEVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 
Tear. 
In 1350 . . 2^ec diem 
1460 . 
1568 
1632 , 
1688 

WAGGONS were rare in the last century. They, with carts, &c., not excepting those 
nsed in agriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers' waggons are now nearly superseded 
by the railways. 

WAGHORN'S NEW OVERLAND ROUTE to INDIA. Lieut. Waghorn devoted a 
large portion of his life to connect India with England. On 31 Oct. 1845, he arrived in 
London, by a new route, with the Bombay mail of the ist of that month. His despatches 
reached Suez on the 19th, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he proceeded by steamboat 
to a place twelve miles nearer London than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, Baden, 
Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached London at half-past four on the morning of the 
first-mentioned day. The authorities of the different countries through which he passed 
eagerly facilitated his movements. The ordinary express, via Marseilles, reached London 
2 Nov. following.* Mr. Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to the Times newspaper, 
in which he stated that in a couple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to London in 
21 days. He died 8 Jan. 1850. 

WAGRAM, a village near Vienna, the site of a battle fought 5-6 July, 1809, between 
the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter was completely victorious. The 

* The Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on i Dec. 1845, arrived early on the 30th in London, by 
way of Marseilles and Paris. This speedy arrival was owing to the great exertions made by the French 
government to show that the route through France was shorter and better. 



WAH 787 WAL 

slaughter on both sides was di-eadful : 20,000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the 
defeated army reth-ed to Moravia. An armistice was signed on the 12th ; and on 24 Oct. 
by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France ; the kingdoms of Saxony and 
Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; jmrt of Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and 
Joseph Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain. 

"WAHABEES or Wahabites, a warlike Mahometan reforming sect, considering them- 
selves the only true followers of the prophet, arose in Arabia in about 1750, under the rule of 
Abd-el-Wahab. His grandson, Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by the caliph 
of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, 
although their chief was assassinated in the midst of his victories. His son, Abdallah, long 
resisted Mahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1 818 he was defeated and taken prisoner by 
Ibrahim Pacha, who sent him to Constantinople, where he was put to death. The sect now 
floui'ishing is well described by Mr. "W. Giiford Palgrave in his " Journey and Residence in 
Arabia in 1862-3," published in 1865. 

WAHLSTATT, see Katzhach. 

"WAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly before Christmas. The name was 
given to the musicians attached to the king's court. We find that a company of waits was 
established at Exeter in 1400 to "pipe the watch." The waits in London and "Westminster 
were long officially recognised by the corporation. 

"WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), an ancient town. Near it is the site of a battle between 
Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, 
and 3000 Yorkists fell upon the field, 31 Dec. 1460. The death of the duke, who aspired 
to the crown, seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret ; but the earl of "Warwick 
espoused the cause of the duke's son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and the 
civil war was continued. An art and industrial exhibition was opened at "Wakefield, 30 
Aug. 1865. 

"WALBROOK CHURCH (London), reputed the masterpiece of sir Christopher "Wren, 
completed in 1679. There was a chuixh here in 1135, and a new church was erected in 
1429. 

"WALCHEREISr (an island at the mouth of the Scheldt, Holland). The unfortunate 
expedition of the British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships of the line, and 200 
smaller vessels, principally transports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under the com- 
mand of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet under sir Richard Strachan. For a long time 
the destination of the expedition remained secret ; but before 28 July, 1809, when it set 
sail, the French journals had announced that "Walcheren was the point of attack. Perhaps 
a more powerful and better appointed armament had never previously left the British ports, 
or ever more completely disappointed public expectation. Flushing was invested in 
August ; a dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was taken 15 Aug. ; but no sug- 
gestion on the part of the naval commander, nor urging on the part of the officers, could 
induce the earl to vigorous action, until the period of probable success was gone, and 
necessity obliged him to return with as many of the troops as disease and an unhealthy 
climate had spared. The place was evacuated, 23 Dec. 1809. The house of commons 
instituted an inquiry, and lord Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the ordnance, 
to prevent greater disgrace ; but the policy of ministers in planning the expedition was, 
nevertheless, approved. The following epigram appeared at the time : — 

" Lord Chatham, with his sword \indrawn. Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; 
Sir Richard, longing to be at 'em, Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham." 

"WALDECK AND PYRMONT, united German principalities, established in 16S2. The 
late reigning family claim descent from the Saxon hero, "Witikind, who flourished about 
772. Prince George Victor succeeded his father, George, on 15 May, 1845; abdicated; 
and on 22 Oct. 1867, the states approved a treaty of annexcation, and the administration 
was transferred to Prussia, i Jan. 1868. Population in Dec. 1S61, 58,604. 

■WALDENSES, a sect (also called Valdenses, Vallenses, and Vaudois) inhabiting the 
Cottian Alps, derives its name, according to some authors, from Peter de "Waldo, of Lyons 
(11 70). They had a translation of the Bible, and allied themselves to the Albigenses, and 
were much vilified and persecuted, which led to the establishment of the Holy Office or 
Inquisition. Pope Innocent III. commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies 
of the AValdenses in Narbonne and Provence ; but the French bishops were at first jealous 
of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the 
orders of the legates, 1203-4. One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, 
having been assassinated, the aspiring pontift" called on all the neighbouring powers to 
march into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at the disposal of Simon 

3 E 2 



WAL 



788 



WAL 



de Montfort, commander of this crusade, and the whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses 
were ordered to be pursued with fire and sword ; see A Ihigenses. They settled in the valleys 
of Piedmont about 1375, but were frequently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 17th 
century, when Charles I. of England interceded for them (1627-9), and Oliver Cromwell 
(1655-6) obtained them some degree of toleration. They were permitted to have a church 
at Turin, Dec. 1853. In March, 1868, it was stated that there were in Italy 28 ordained 
"Waldensian ministers, and 30 other teachers. 

WALES (Cambria), called by the Eomans, Britannia Secunda. After the Koman 
emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern was elected king of South Britain. He invited 
over the Saxons to defend his country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons 
perfidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which 
they made themselves masters of South Britain. Many of the Britons retired to Wales, 
and defended themselves against the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, about 447. In 
this state Wales remained unconquered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 ; and 
in 1282 Edward I. entii'ely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independence 
by the death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* The Welsh, however, were not entirely recon- 
ciled to this revolution, till the queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon in 1284, whom 
Edward styled prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne 
almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England by act of parliament, 
1536 ; see Britain. 



The supreme authority in Sritannica Secunda 

intrusted to Suetonius Paulinus . . a.d. 58 
Conquests by Julius Frontinus . . . . 70 
The Silures totally defeated . . . . „ 
The Eonian, Julius Agricola, commands in 

Britain 78 

Bran ab Llyr, surnamed the Blessed, dies about 80 

Reign of Caswallon 443 

The ancient Britons defeat the Saxons . 447-448 
The renowned Arthur elected king . . .517 
Dyvnwal Moelmud, a great monarch, comes 
from Armorica, and becomes king of the 

Cymry about 640 

Reign of Roderic the Great .... 843 
He tmites the petty states of "Wales into one 

principaUty ; his death .... 877 
Division of Wales — into north, south, and cen- 
tral (or Powys-land) ,, 

The Welsh princes sulDmit to Alfred . . . 885 
The Danes land in Anglesey .... 900 
Laws enacted by Howel Dha, prince of all 

Wales about 911 

He acknowledges the supremacy of Athelstan 926 
Civil wars at his death . . . about 948 
Great battle between the sons of Howel Dha 
and the sons of Edwal Voel : the latter 

victorious 952 

Edgar invades Wales 963 

Danes invade Wales, and lay Anglesey waste . 980 
Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of 

Eineon 990 

The counti-y reduced by Aedan, prince of North 

Wales 1000 

Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn 1015 
Rhun, the fierce Scot, defeated near Caermar- 
then ........ 1020 

The joint Irish and Scots forces defeated with 

great slaughter 102 1 

Jestyn, lord of Glamorgan, rebelUng, is de- 
feated and slain 1039 

Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold 1055 
Rhys overthrown and slain .... 1056 
WilUam I. claims feudal authority over Wales 1070 

Rhys ab Owain slain 1074 

Ravaging invasion of the earl of Chester . . 1079 
Invasion of the Irish and Scots . . . 1080 

William I. invades Wales 1081 

Battle of Llechryd 1087 

[In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab 



Cynv3Ti were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, 
the reigning prince]. 

Rhys ab Tewdwr slain 1087 

The Welsh destroy many Norman castles . 1092 

Insurrection of Payne TuberviUe . . . 1094 
Invasion of the English under the earls of 

Chester and Shrewsbuiy .... 1096 
The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings ito6 
Violent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de 
Windsor, by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab 

Bleddyn 1107 

Cardigan conquered by Strongbow . . . ,, 

Cadwgan assassinated 11 10 

Gruffydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignty 1113 
Another body of Flemings settle in Pembroke- 
shire „ 

[The posterity of these settlers are still dis- 
tinguished from the ancient British po- 
pulation by then- language, manners, and 
customs]. 
Henr3'- 1, erects castles in Wales 
Revolt of Owen Gwynned on the death of 

Hen. I. ; part of South Wales laid waste . 1135 
The Welsh ravage the borders . . . . 1136 
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with 

the powers of a count palatine in Pembroke, 1138 
Henry II. invades Wales, which he subse- 
quently subdues, after a stout resistance by 
Owen Gwynned .... 
Confederacy of the princes of Wales for the 
recovery of their lost rights and indepen- 
dence 

Prince Madoc said to have emigrated to Ame- 
rica, about 1 169 

Anglesey devastated 11 73 

The crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, 
archbishop of Canterbury . . . .1188 

Powys castle besieged 1191 

The earl of Chester's inroad into North Wales . 1210 
King John invades Wales, laying waste a great 
part of the principalities . . . 1211-12 

Revolt of the Flemings 1220 

Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits great 



1114 



"57 



1164 



Death of Maelgwy ap Rhys 1230 

Powys castle taken by Llewelyn ap lorwerth . 1233 
William, earl of Pembroke, slain . . . 1234 
Prince David ravages the marshes, (fee. . . 1244 
Invasion of Henry III 1245 



* The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan, 19 March, 1284, alleges that — " Divine Providence has 
now removed all obstacles, and transferred wholly and entirely to the king's dominion the land of Wales 
and its inhabitants, heretofore subject \into him in feudal right." The ancient laws were to be preserved 
in civil causes ; but the law of inheritance was to be changed, and the English criminal law to be put in 
force. Annals of England. 



WAL 



789 



WAL 



"WALES, continued. 

Anglesey again devastated 1245 

Llewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince . . 1246 

Welsh nobility combine against the English . 1258 
Hay and Brecknock castles taken by prince 

Edward 1265 

Peace with the English 1267 

Edward I. summons Llewelyn to West- 
minster ; on his refusal to come, deposes 
him ; and invades Wales .... 1277 

The sons of Grafydd treacherously drowned in 
the river Dee, by the earl Warrenne and 

Roger Mortimer 1281 

Hawarden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn 
and his brother David ; they destroy Flint 

and Rhuddlan castles 1282 

Great battle between Llewelyn ap Griifydd, 
the last prince, and the English : Llewelyn 
slain, after the battle, by De Franctan 

II Dec. ,, 
Wales finally subdued by Edward I., after a 

severe contest ,, 

Pi'ince David sun-enders, and is executed . . 1283 
The first English prince of Wales, son of Ed- 
ward, born at Caernarvon castle (see Princes 
of Wales, p. 790) . . . .25 April, 1284 
Statute of Wales (see p. 788) enacted, 19 March, ,, 
The insuiTection of Lleweljm ap Madoc ; 

checked, 1294 ; suppressed . . . . 1316 
Great rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen 
Glendgwer (grandson of the last prince, 

Llewelyn), commences 1400 

Radnor and other places taken by Owain 

Glyndwr . 1401 

He besieges Caernarvon 1402 

And seizes Harlech castle 1404 

Harlech castle retaken by the English forces . 1408 

Owain Glyndwr dies 1415 

Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., takes 

refuge in Harlech castle 1459 

Town of Denbigh burnt 1460 

The earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., 
lands in I'embroke, and Is aided by the 

Welsh Aug. 1485 

Palatine jurisdiction in Wales abolished by 
Henry VIII 1535 



Monmouth made an English county ; counties 
of Brecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor formed. 

Act for "laws and justice to be administered 
in Wales in same form as in England," 27 
Hen. VIII 

Wales incoi-porated into England by parlia- 
ment 

Divided into twelve counties . . . . 

Dr. Ferrars, bishop of St. David's, burnt at the 
stake for heresy 

Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, at- 
tacked and murdered while on his assize 
tour 

The bible and prayer-book ordered to be trans- 
lated into Welsh, and divine service to be 
performed in that language .... 

First congregation of dissenters assembled in 
Wales ; Vavasour Powel apprehended while 
preaching 

Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles I. 

Powys castle taken by sir Thos. Myddelton, Oct. 

Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, be- 
headed on Tower-hill ... 10 Jan. 

Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parlia- 
ment general Mytton 

Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh . . . 

Rhuddlan castle surrenders .... 

Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army 
under Mytton 

Battle of St. Pagan's ; the Welsh defeated by 
col. Horton, Cromwell's lieutenant 8 May, 

Beaumaris castle surrenders to CromweU . . 

Pembroke castle taken; colonel Poyer shot* 

25 April, 

The French land in Pembrokeshire, and are 
made prisoners Feb. 

Rebecca or "Becca" riots broke out against 
toll-gates, Feb. ; an old woman, a toll-keeper, 
was miu-dered 10 Sept. ; many persons were 
tried and punished .... Oct. 

Cambrian Archasological Association founded . 

Subscriptions begi.m for establishing a uni- 
versity in Wales .... Dec. 



1536 
1543 



1563 



1620 
1642 
1644 

1645 



1647 
1648 

1649 
1797 

1843 
1846 

1863 



SOV^EREIGNS OF WALES. 



640. Dyvnwal Moelmud, king of the Cymry. 

688. Idwallo. 

720. Rhodri, or Roderic. 

755. Conan. 

818. Mervyn. 

843. Roderic, surnamed the Great. 



877. 
913. 
939- 



985- 
992. 
998. 

1015. 

1021. 

1038. 

1061. 

1073- 
1079. 



PRINCES OF NOETH WALES. 

Anarawd. 

Edwal Voel. 

Howel Dha the Good, prince of aU Wales. 

Jevaf, or Jevav, and lago. 

Howel ap Jevaf. 

Cadwallon ap Jevaf. 

Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Dha. 

Edwal ap Meyric ap Edwal Voel, 

Aedan, a usurper. 

Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 

lago ap Edwal ap Meyric. 

Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 

Bleddyn and Rygwallon. 

Trahaern ap Caradoc. 

Griffith ap Conan. 



1137. Owain Gwynedd. 
ii6g. David ap Owain Gwynedd. 
1 194. Llewelyn the Great. 
1240. David ap Llewelyn. 

1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood ; 
slain after battle, in 1282. 



877. 
907. 



993- 
1021. 
1031. 
1042. 
1061, 
1073. 
1077. 
1092. 
HIS- 
"37' 
1196. 



PRINCES OF SOUTH WALES. 

Cadeth or Cadell. 

Howel Dha the Good. 

Owain ap Howel Dha, his son. 

Meredith ap Owain. 

Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 

Rytherch ap Jestyn, a usurper. 

Hywel and Meredydd. 

Rhydderch and Rhys, the sons of the usurper. 

Meredydd ap Owain ap Edwyn. 

Rhys ajj Owain, and Rhydderch ap Caradoc. 

Rhys ap Tewdwr Mawr. 

Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. 

Griffith ap Rhys. 

Rhys ap Grufydd, or Griffith. 

Grufydd ap Rhys. 



* At the commencement of the civil war, Pembroke castle was the only Welsh fortress in the posses- 
sion of the parliament, and it was entrusted to the command of col. Langhame. In 1647, he, and colonels 
Powel and Poyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made Pembroke their head quarters ; after the de- 
feat at St. Pagan's, they retired to the castle, followed by an army led by Cromwell. They capitulated, after 
having endured great sufferings from want of water. Langhame, Powel, and Poyer were tried by a court- 
martial, and condemned to death ; but CromweU having been induced to spare the lives of two of them, 
it was ordered that they should draw lots for the favour, and three papers were folded up, on two of 
which were written the words, "Life given by God ;" the third was left blank. The latter was drawn 
by colonel Poyer, who was shot accordingly on the above mentioned day. Pennant. 



WAL 



790 



WAL 



WALES, continued. 

1202. Rliys ap Grufydd. 

1222. Owain ap Grufydd. 

1235. Meredith ap Owain : he died in 1267. 

PRINCES AND LORDS OF POWYS-LAND. 

877. Mervyn. 

900. Cadeth ; also prince of South Wales. 

927. Howel Dha, the Good. 

* * * 

985. Meredydd ap Owain. 

* * 4? 

1061. Bleddyn ap Cynvyn. 
1073. Meredydd ap Bleddyn. 
1087. Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. 
1132. Madoc ap Meredydd. 
1 1 60. Griffith ap Meredydd. 

1256. Gwenwinwin, or Gwenwjniwyn. 
„ Owain ap Grufydd. 

ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES.* 

1301. Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Ed- 
ward II.), son of Edward I., born in Caer- 
narvon Castle on the 25th April, 1284. It 
is asserted that immediately after his birth 
he was preseiited by his father to the "Welsh 
chieftains as their future sovereign, the king 
holding up the royal infant in his arms, and 
saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dyn," 
literally in English, '"This is your man," 
but signifying, "This is your countryman 
andkmg." See, however, "Jch Sien." 

1343. Edward the Black Prince. 

1376. Bichard, his son (afterwards Bichard II.) 

1399. Henry (afterwards Henry V.), son of 
Henry IV. 

1454. Edward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkes- 
bury, 4 May, 1471. 

1471. Edward (afterwards Edward V.), son of 
Edward IV. 

1483. Edward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484. 

1489. Arthur, son of Henry VII. ; died in 1502. 

1503. Henry his brother (afterwards Henry VIII.) 



1537. Edward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was 

duke of Cornwall, and not prince of Wales. 
1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died 6 Nov. 

1612. 
1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). 
1630. Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never 

created prince of Wales. 
1714. George Augustus (afterwards George II.). 
1729. Frederic Lewis, his son ; died 20 March, 1751. 
1751. George, his son (aftei-wards George III.) 
1762. George, his son (afterwards George IV.) : 

bom 12 Aug. 
1841. Albert-Edward, son of queen Victoria : born 

9 Nov. 

Travelled on the continent, and studied at 
Oxford and Edinburgh in 1859. 

Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, 
and the United States, i860. 

Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan. : 
attended the camp at Dublin, July to Sept. ; 
opened New Middle Temple Library, 31 Oct. ; 
1861. 

Ordered to be prayed for as Albert-Edward, 
instead of Albert, 8 Jan. ; visited the con- 
tinent, Syria, and Egypt, March-June ; 
Germany and Italy, Aug-Dec. 1862. 

Admitted to the house of peers, 5 Feb. ; a privy 
councillor, 8 Dec. 1863. 

Married to princess Alexandra of Denmark, 

10 March, 1863. 

Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. -Oct. 

1864; Bussia, Nov.-Dec. 1866. 
Visited International Exhibition, Paris, May, 

1867. 
Visited Ireland ; arrived at Dublin, 15 April, 

1868. 
Installed knight of St. Patrick, 18 April, 1868. 
Opened Leeds Fine Arts Exhibition, 19 May, 

1868. 
Issue : Albert- Victor, bom Jan. 1864 ; 

George-Frederick, born 3 June, 1865 ; 

Louisa- Victoria, born 20 Feb. 1867. 



WALHALLA or Yahalla (the Hall of Glory), a temple near |Eatisbon, erected by 
Louis, king of Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the gi'eat men of Germany, 
commenced 18 Oct. 1830, and inaugurated 18 Oct. 1842. The name is derived from the fabled 
meeting-place of Scandinavian heroes after death. 

WALKING, see Pedestrianism. 

WALLACHIA, see DanuUan Principalities. On 23 Dec, 1861, the union of Wallachia 
and Moldavia, under the name of Roumania, was proclaimed at Jassy and Bucharest. 

WALLER'S PLOT. Edmund Waller, the poet, and others, conspired to disarm the 
London militia and let in the royalists. The plan was detected and punished, June-July, 
1643. Waller betrayed his confederates, and was suffered to emigrate, 

WALLIS'S VOYAGE, Captain Wallis sailed from England on his voyage round the 
world, 26 July, 1766; and returned to England, 19 May, 1768. 

WALLOONS, descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the Low Countries. Some of 
them fled to England from the persecution of the duke of Alva, the governor of the Low 
Countries for Philip II. of Spain, 1566. A church was given to them by queen Elizabeth, 
Their language is considered to be based on that of the ancient Gauls, 

WALLS, see Roman Walls. 

WALNUT-TREE has long existed in England.t The black walnut-tree (Juglans nigra) 
was brought to these countries from Noi'th America before 1629. 

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of 

* Wales, Princess of. This title was held, some authors say, during the early period of her life, by 
the princess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIIL, and afterwards queen Mary I. She vras 
created, they state, by her father princess of Wales, in order to conciliate the Welsh people and keep alive 
the name, and was, they add, the first and only princess of Wales in her own right ; a rank she enjoyed 
until the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards Edward VI., born in 1537. Thia is however denied 
by Banks. 

t Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest walnut-tree on record ; it was feUedin 1627, 
and from it were cut nineteen loads of planks ; and as much was sold to a gunsmith in London as cost 
■Lol. carriage ; besides which there were thirty loads of roots and branches. When standing it covered 76 
poles of ground ; a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measure. 



WAL 



791 



WAR 



Orford) was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war in 1708 ; was expelled the house of 
commons on a charge of misappropriating the pnblic money, 171 1 ; committed to the Tower, 
17 Jan. 1 712; became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer in 1715. 
He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 171 7, bringing in the sinking fund bill on the 
day of his resignation. On the earl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his office, 
and held it till 1742. He died 18 March, 1745. 

SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (1721). Charles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord 

Sir Robert Walpole, first lord of the treaiury. Carteret (the latter succeeded by the duke of 

Thomas, lord Parker, created eail of Macclesfield, Newcastle), secretaries of state. 

lord chancellor. Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of 

Henry lord Carleton (succeeded by "William, duke of Cadogan), ordnance. 

Devonshire), lord president. George Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), secre- 

Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), tary-at-wai: 

prioi/ seal. Viscount Torrington, &c. 
James, earl of Berkeley, ^wi lord of the admiralty. 

WALRUS. One placed in the Zoological Gardens in 1853 lived a few days only ; another 
was placed there in the autumn of 1S67, and died 25 Dec. 

AVALTZ, the popular German national dance, was introduced into England by baron 
ISTeuman and others in 18 13. Raikcs. 

WANDEWASH (S. India). Here the French, under Lally, were severely defeated by 
colonel Eyre Coote, 22 Jan. 1760, 

WANDSWORTH, near London. Here was opened a meeting-house, the first place of 
worship for dissenters in England, 20 Nov. 1572. In Garratt-lane, near this place, a mock 
election of a mayor of Garratt was formerly held, after every general election of parliament, 
to which Foote's dramatic piece, The Mayor of Garratt {1763), gave no small celebrity. 

WAR, called by Erasmus "the malady of princes." Osymandyas of Egypt, the first 
warlike king ; he passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 B.C. Vslicr. He is sup- 
posed by some to be the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, up to the present time, 
no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have perished on the field of battle ; see Battles. 

rOREION WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN" SINCE THE CONQUEST. 



War with 
Scotland 
France 
Scotland 
France . 
France 
France , 
France 
France . 
Scotland 
Scotland . 
France 
France 



Peace. 

. 1092 

1118 

• 1 139 



119s 
1216 
1234 
1299 

1323 
1328 
1360 
1420 



War with 
France 
France . 
France 
France . 
Scotland 
Scotland. 
Scotland 
France 
France 
Scotland . 
France 
Spain 



. 1068 

1116 
. 1138 

1161 

• "94 
1201 

. 1224 

1294 
. 1296 

1327 

• 1339 
1368 

"War of the Succession, commenced 4 May, 1702. 

Peace of Utrecht, 13 March, 1713. 
"War with Spain, 16 Dec. 1718. Peace concluded, 

1721. 
"War ; Spanish War, 23 Oct. 1739. Peace of Aix-la- 

Chapelle, 30 April, 1748. 
"War with France, 31 March, 1744. Closed also on 

30 April, 1748. 
"War; the Seven Tears' War, 9 June, 1756. Peace of 

Paris, 10 Feb. 1763. 
"War with Spain, 4 Jan. 1762. General peace, loFeb. 

1763- 
"War with the United States of North America, 14 

July, 1774. Peace of^Paris, 30 Nov. 17S2. 
"War with i'rance, " ~ 



Peace. 
1422 . . 1471 
1492 same year. 



1512 , 

1522 

1522 

1542 

1547 

1549 

1557 

1557 

1562 , 



1514 
1527 
1542 
1546 
1550 
1550 
1559 
1560 

1564 
1604 



War with Peace 

Spain . . . 1624 . . 1629 

France . . 1627 . 1629 

Holland . . 1651 . . 1654 

Spain . . 1655 . 1660 

France . . 1666 . . 1668 

Denmark . i656 . 1668 

Holland . . 1666 . .1668 

Algiers . . 1669 . 1671 

Holland . . 1672 . . 1674 

France . . 1689 . 1697 
Peace of Eyswick, 20 Sept. 1697 

Closed same time, 



"War with Spain, 17 April, 1780. 

20 Jan. 17S3. 
"War with Holland, 21 Dec. 1780. Peace signed, 

2 Sept. 1783. 
"War of the Revolution, i Feb. 1793. Peace of Amiens, 

27 March, 1802. 
"War againstBonaparte, 29 April, 1803. Finally closed, 

18 June, 1S15. 
"War with America, 18 June, 1812. Peace of Ghent, 

24 Dec. 1814. 
"War with Bussia, 27 March, 1854. Peace of Paris 

31 March, 1856. 
For the wars with India, China, Persia, and Abys- 
sinia, see those countries respectively. 



6 Feb. 1778. Peace of Paris, 20 
Jan. 1783. 

WAR AFFAIRS. On account of the war with Russia, the duke of Newcastle, previously 
colonial secretary, was appointed a secretary for war aflairs, and a cabinet minister, 9 June 
1854 ; see Secretaries. An act for the protection of war department stores was passed in 1867. 

WARBECK'S INSURRECTIOISr. Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to 
whom Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, 
sister to Richard III., to personate her nephew Richard, Edward V.'s brother, which he did 
first in Ireland, where he landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by Henry VII. 1493. 
Some writers consider that Warbeck was not an impostor. 

of Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord 
Huntley's daughter, in maiTiage, the same year. 



"Warbeck attempted to land in Kent, with 600 men, 

150 were taken prisoners, and executed, 1495. 
Reco mmended by the king of France to James I"V. 



James I"V. Invaded England in his favour, 1496. 



WAR 



792 



WAS 



AVARBECK'S USTSURRECTIOE", continued. 



Plotted with the earl of Warwick to escape out 
of the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, 
Aug. ; the plot failed, and he was hanged at 
Tyburn, 28 Nov. 1499. 



Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, 

where 3000 joined him, and he took the title of 

Richard IV., 1497. 
Taken prisoner by Henry VII., 1498. 
Set in the stocks at Westminster and Cheapside, and 

sent to the Tower, June, 1499. 

WARBURG (K. Germany). Here the Frencli were defeated by the duke of Brunswick 
and the allies, 31 July, 1760. 

WARDIAN" CASES. In 1829, Mr. IST. B. Ward, from observing a small fern and grass 
growing in a closed glass bottle, in which he had placed a chrysalis covered with moist earth, 
was led to construct his well-known closely glazed cases, which afford to plants light, heat, 
and moisture, and exclude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They are particularly adapted for 
ferns. In 1833 they wereiirst employed for the transmission of plants to Sydney, &c., with 
great success, and Professor Faraday lectured on the subject in 1838. 

WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of London in their wards, where they elect 
annually their common councilmen. The practice is said to have begun in 1386. They had 
previously assembled in Guildhall. 

WARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specify the name of the accused. They were declared 
to be illegal by lord chief justice Pratt, 6 Dec. 1763, in relation to the seizure and committal 
of Mr. Wilkes for a libel on the king ; see North Briton. 

WARRIOR, see under Navy of England, i860. 

WARSAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this city from Cracow 
in 1566, and it became the seat of government in 1689. Population in 1859, 162,777. 



The Poles defeated in a three days' battle by 
^- the Swedes . . . . j 28-30 July, 1656 
Alliance of Warsaw, between Austria and 
Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance .of 
which, John Sobieski assisted in raising the 
siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September 
following), signed . . -31 March, 1683 
Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII. . . . 1703 
Treaty of Warsaw between Russia ^and Poland 

24 Feb. 1768 
The Russian garrison placed here in 1794 ; 
expelled by the citizens with the loss of 2000 
killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of 

cannon 17 April, 1794 

The Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejo- 

vice 4 Oct. ,, 

The king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July : 
compelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is 
taken by the Russians . . . Nov. ,, 
Suwarrow, the Russian general, after the siege 



and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 
30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in 
cold blood 4 Nov. 1794 

Warsaw constituted a duchy, and annexed to 
the house of Saxony . . . Aug. 1807 

The duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw 
made the residence of a Russian viceroy . 1813 

The last Polish revolution commences at War- 
saw 29 Nov. 1830 

Battle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the 
Russians were defeated, and forced to retreat 
with the loss of 7000 men . . 25 Feb. 1831 

Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard 
fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken 
possession of by the Russians ; and great part 
of the Polish army retired towards Plook and 
Modlin 6-8 Sept. ,, 

The czSir meets the emperor of Austria and the 
regent of Prussia ; no result . . 20-25 Oct. i860 
(See Poland, 1861-5.) 



WARTBURG, a castle in Saxony (E. Germany), where Luther was conveyed for safety 
after the diet of Worms, April, 1521, and where he translated the Bible into German. 

WASHING MACHINES, see Patent. 

WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly in Virginia and Maryland, on the bank of 
the Potomac, N.E. of Virginia) the capital of the United States, founded in 1791, and made 
the seat of government in 1800. 



The house of representatives opened 30 May, 1808 

Washington was taken by the British forces 
under general Ross, after his victory at 
Bladensburg; its superb structures and 
national library burnt . . 24 Aug. 1814 

General Ross killed by some American riflemen, 
in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, 

12 Sept. ,, 

Smithsonian institute {which see) founded . 1846 



Part of the capitol and the whole of the Ubrary 
of the United States' congress destroyed by 
fire 24 Dec. 1851 

The prince of Wales entertained by the presi- 
dent here Oct. i860 

Washington fortified in . . . April, 1861 

President Lincoln shot by Brooke in Ford's 
theatre, 14 April ; died . . 15 April, 1865 
See United States. 



WASIUM (named from the royal house of Wasa or Vasa), a supposed new metal, dis- 
covered by F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1682. In Nov. 1863 Nickles declared it to be a com- 
pound of didymium, yttrium, and terbium. 

WASTE LANDS. The inclosure of waste lands and commons, in order to promote 
agriculture, first began in England about the year 1547, and gave rise to Ket's rebellion, 
1549. _ Inclosures were again i;)romoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The waste 
lands in England Avere estimated in 1794 to amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there 
were taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 1801. In 1841, there were about 



"WAT 



79S 



WAT 



6,700,000 acres of waste land, of whicli more than half was thought to be capable of 
improvement ; see Agriculture. 

WATCH OF London, at night, appointed 1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before 
the introduction of public clocks. Bardie. The old watch was discontinued, and a new 
police (on duty day and night) commenced, 29 Sept. 1829 ; see Police. 

WATCHES are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is 
affirmed that Eobert, king of Scotland, had a watch about 13 10. 



Watches first used in astronomical observations 
by Purbach 1500 

Authors assort that the emperor Charles V. was 
the first who had anything that might be 
called a watch, though some call it a small 
table-clock 1530 

Watches first brought to England from Ger- 
many in 1577 

A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is 
preserved in the library of the Royal Institu- 
tion, London. 

Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so- 
called) have had their invention ascribed to 
Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huyghens 



by the Dutch. Dr. Derham, in his Artificial 
CLockmaker, says that Dr. Hooke was the 
inventor; and he appears certainly to have 
produced what is called the pendulum watch 
about 1658 ; manifest, among other evidences, 
from an insci-iption on one of the double- 
balance watches presented to Charles IT., 
"Rob. Hooke, inven. 1658; T. Tompion, 
fecit, 1675." 
Repeating watches invented by Barlowe . 1676 

Harrison's first time-piece produced (see 

Harrison) 1735 

Watches and clocks were taxed in . . . 1797 
The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 



WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, considered water to be the 
original principle of everything, about 594 B.C. Stanley. In the Roman Church water was 
first mixed with the sacramental wine, a.d. 122. Lenglet. 

In freezing, water contracts till it is reduced 

to 42° or 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand 

till it becomes ice at 32°. 
Water was first conveyed to London by leaden 

pipes, 21 Henry III. 1237. Stoio. It took 

nearly fifty years to complete it ; the whole 



being finished, and Cheapside conduit erected, 
only in 1285 

The New River water brought to London from 
Amwell in Hertfordshire, at an immense 
expense, by sir Hugh Myddelton, in . . 1613 

The city was supplied with its water by con- 
veyances of wooden pipes in the streets and 
small leaden ones to the houses, and the 
New River Company was incorporated, 1620. 
So late as queen Anne's time there were 
watei--carrier3 at Aldgate-pump. 

The water-works at Chelsea completed, and the 
company incorporated 1722 

London-bridge ancient water-works destroyed 
by fire 29 Oct. 1779 

Cavendish and Watt demonstrated that water 
is composed of 8 parts of oxygen and i part 
of hydrogen 1781 

Water was decomposed into oxygen and 
hydrogen gases by the voltaic battery by 
Nicholson and Carlisle, 1800 ; by the heat of 
the oxy-hydrogen flame by W. R. Grove . 1846 

An act to supply the metropolis with water, 



i8S7 



IS & 16 Vict. c. 84, was passed . i July, 18 

[The supply is now considered to be much 
improved in quahty and quantity.] 

A company was formed to carry out Dr. Nor- 
mandy's patent for converting salt water 
into fresh, in Jan. 

Commissioners for metropolitan water siipply 
appointed ; met .... 20 Feb. 1867 

London supplied by nine companies : the New 
River (the best), E^ast London, Chelsea, Grand 
Junction, Southwark and Vauxhall, Kent, 
West Jliddlesex, Lambeth, and South Essex ; 
who deliver about 108,000,000 gallons daily 1867 

New schemes for supplying London with 
water, 1867 : — 

1. Mr. Bateman; from the sources of the 

Severn. 

2. Messrs. Hemans and Hassard ; from the 

Cumberland lakes. 

3. Mr. Telford Macneill ; Thames water 

filtei-ed through Bagshot sands. 

4. Mr. Bailey Denton ; storage reservoirs near 

the sources of the Thames. 

5. Mr. Remington ; from the Derbyshire and 

Staffordshire hills. 
The water from the first two sources analysed 
and highly approved by professors Frankland 

and Odhng April, 1868 

See Artesian Wells. 



WATER-BED, CLOCKS, see Bed, Clocks. 

WATER-COLOUR PAINTING was gradually raised from the hard dry style of the last 
century to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of Nicholson, Copley, Fielding, Sandby, 
Varley, the gi'eat Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Front, &c., within the present century. The 
exhibition was founded in 1805. 

WATER-GLASS, a name given to a liquid mixture of sand (sQex) and one of the alkalies 
(potash or soda). Glauber [De Lithiase) mentions a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von 
Euchs, the modern inventor, gave an account of his process in 1825 ; and Mr. Frederick 
Ransome of Ipswich, ignorant of Von Fuchs' discovery, patented a mode of preparing water- 
glass in 1845, which he has since greatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmaun of Lille 
published a pamphlet setting forth the advantageous employment of water-glass in hardening 
porous stone and in stereochromy (which see). It has been applied to the exterior of many 
buildings in France and England. The memoirs of Von Fuchs and Kuhlmann were trans- 
lated and printed in England in 1859 by direction of the prince consort. 

WATER-MILLS, used for grinding corn, are said to have been invented by Belisarius, 
the general of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 555. The ancients parched 
their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, which were turned 
by men and beasts with great labour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 



WAT 794 WAV 

WATERFORD (S. Ireland), built 879, was totally destroyed by fire in 981. Rebuilt and 
considerably enlarged by Strongbow in 1171, and still further in the reign of Henry VII., 
who granted considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard II. landed and was crowned 
here in 1399 : in 1690, James II. embarked from hence for France, after the battle of the 
Boyne ; and William III. resided here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorable storm 
here, 18 April, 1792. The cathedral of Waterford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, was first 
built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first bishop of Waterford, after his return from 
England from his consecration, 1096. This see was united with that of Lismore in 1363. It 
was valued in the king's book, by an extent returned 29 Henry VIIL, at 72Z. 8s. id. Irish 
per annum. By stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. the see of Waterford and Lismore was united by the 
Irish Church Temporalities act with the see of Cashel and Emly, 14 Aug. 1833. The interior 
of the cathedral, organ, &c., were destroyed by fire, 25 Oct. 181 5. 

WATERLOO,* in Belgium, the site of the great battle on Sunday, 18 June, 1815, between 
the French army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under Napoleon, and the allies, commanded 
by the duke of Wellington ; the latter, with 67,661 men and 156 guns, resisted the various 
attacks of the enemy from ten in the morning until five in the afternoon. About that time, 
16,000 Prussians reached the field of battle; and by seven, the force under Blucher amounted 
to above 50,000 men, with 104 guns. Wellington then moved forward his whole army. A 
total rout ensued, and the carnage was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 ofBicers and 
1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 officers and 4560 men wounded — total, 6932 ; and 
the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, 
making 22,976 hors de comhat. ISTapoleon, quitting the wreck of his flying army, returned 
to Paris ; and, finding it impossible to raise another, abdicated the throne of France. 
P. Nicholas. 

WATERLOO BRIDGE, London. A bridge over this part of the Thames was repeatedly 
suggested diiring the last century, but no actual preparations to carry it into effect were made 
till 1806, when Mr. G-. Uodd procured an act of parliament, and gave the present site, plan, 
and dimensions of the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagreement with the com- 
mittee, he was superseded by Mr. Rennie, who completed this noble structure. It was 
commenced 11 Oct. 181 1, and finished 18 June, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of 
Waterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of Wellington, and other distinguished per- 
sonages, were present at the opening. Its length within the abutments is 1242 feet; its 
width within the balustrades is 42 feet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are nine, 
is 120 feet.f 

WATERSPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the Glatz mountains in Germany, and caused 
dreadful devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; many pei'sons perished, 
13 July, 1827. A waterspout at Glanflesk, near Killarney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of 
Mr. John Macarthy, destroying farm-houses and othet buildings ; seventeen persons perished, 
4 Aug. 1831. The estimated length of one seen near Calcutta, 27 Sept. 1855, was 1000 feet. 
It lasted ten minutes, and iwas absorbed upwards. One seen on 24 Sept. 1856, burst into 
heavy rain. 

WATER TOFANA, see Poisoning. WATLIISTG-STREET, see Roman P^ds. 

WATTIGISTIES (N. France). Here Jourdan and the French republicans defeated the 
Austrians uuder the prince of Coburg, and raised the siege of Maubeuge, 14-16 Oct. 1793- 

WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION", see Tyler. 

WAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with which the curves of the hull of a ship should 
be adapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed the subject of experiments begun by 
Mr. John Scott Russell in 1832, with the view of increasing the speed of ships. Colonel 
Beaufoy is said to have spent 30,000?. in researches upon this matter. It was also taken up 
by the British Association, who have published reports of the investigations. The principle 
has been adopted by naval architects ; see Undulatory Theory. 

WAVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley ; or, 
'Tis Sixty Years since," in 1814, and closed with " Tales of my Landlord," fourth series, in 
1 83 1. The authorship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a dinner, 23 Feb. 1827. 

* The British forces have been twice signally successful over those of France on the same ground — 
Waterloo; and by the side of the very chapel of Waterloo, which was remarked for being uninjured 
by shot or shell on 18 June, 1815, did Marlborough cut off a large division of the French forces opposed 
to him on 17 Aug. 1705. The conquerors on the same field are the only commanders in the British service 
whose military career brought them to dukedoms. 

t On Oct. g, 1857, two youths, named Kilsby, found on one of the abutments of the bridge a carpet 
bag, containing human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, salted, and boiled, and some foreign 
clothes. After much investigation no clue could be found respecting the name of the individual, and the 
remains were interred ia Wokiug cemetery. 



WAW 



195 



WEI 



The original MSS. of several of Scott's poems and novels were sold by auction by Christie 
and Manson for 1255 guineas, 6 July, 1867. 

"WAWZ or Wawer (Poland). The Poles under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at 
Wawz, and after two days' hard fighting, ail the Eussian positions were carried by storm, and 
they retreated with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, 31 March, 1831. The loss of 
the Poles was small, but their triumph was soon followed by defeat and ruin. 

"WAX came into use for candles in the 12th century ; and wax candles were esteemed 
a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of vegetable wax have been in 
use for centuries ; see Candleberry. The wax tree, Ligustrum hccidum, was brought from 
China before 1794. — Sealing-wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. 
Its use has been almost superseded by the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. 

"WE. Sovereigns generally use we for /, which style began with king John, 1199. Coke- 
The German emperors and French kings used the plural about 1200. 

WEATHER, see Meteorology. 

WEA"V"ING appears to have been practised in China more than a thousand years before 
it was known in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed the art to Isis ; the Greeks to 
Minerva ; and the Peruvians to the wife of Manco Copac. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had 
not any seam, being woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. The print of a 
frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmet's Dictionary, under the word Vestments. 
Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where they manufactured woollens, which, says- 
king Edward, "may prove of great benefit to us and our subjects'' (1331J. Flemish dyers, 
clotli drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c., settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, 
Southampton, and otlier places, on account of the duke of Alva's persecution, 1567 ; see Loom, 
and Electric Loom. 

WEDDING-RINGS, were used by the ancients, and put upon the wedding finger, from 
a supposed connection of a vein there witli the heart. According to Pliny they were made 
of iron ; in the time of Tertullian of gold. Wedding-rings are to be of standard gold, by 
statute, 1855 ; see Adriatic. 

WEDGE-LIKE Characters, see Cuneiform. 

WEDGWOOD WARE, pottery and porcelain produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of 
Staffordshire, in 1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were founded in 1771. Previously to 
1763, much earthenware was imported from France and Holland. 

WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, so called from the Saxon idol Woden or Odin, 
worshipped on this day. Woden was the reputed author of magic and the inventor of all the 
arts, and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the Greeks and Romans. 

WEEDON INQUIRY (Northamptonshire). Commissioners were appointed to inquire 
into the accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great military clothing establishment 
at this place, in July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. Many of the statements, 
afterwards disputed, caused much dissatisfaction. 

WEEK, the space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, who observed 
the sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of weeks — the first, the common one 
of seven days ; the second of years, which was seven years ; the third of seven times seven 
years, at the end of which was the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from 
the Saxon : — 



Latin. 




Encilish. 


Saxon. 


Dies Solis, 


Day of the Sun, 


Sunday, 


Sun's day. 


Dies Lunse, 


Day of the Moon, 


Monday, 


Moon's day. 


Dies Martis, 


Day of Mars, 


Tuesday, 


Tiw's day. 


Dies Mercurii, 


Day of Mercury. 


"Wednesday, 


"Woden's day. 


Dies Jovis, 


Day of Jupiter, 


Thxirsday, 


Thor's day. 


Dies Veneris, 


Day of Venus, 


Friday, 


Friga's day. 


Dies Satumi, 


Day of Saturn, 


Saturday, 


Sateme's day 



WEIGHTS AND Meastjres. These and the stamping of gold and silver money, were 
invented by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895, B.C. et seq. ; see Arundelian Marbles. Weights 
were originally taken from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a grain. Chalmers. 



The standard measure was originallykept at "Win- 
chester by the law of king Edgar, 972. 

Standards of weights and measures were provided 
for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs of 
London, 9 Rich. I. 1197. 

A public weighing-machine was set up in London, 
and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the 
city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do 



justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 
{Stow) 1309. 

Edward III. ordered that there should be "one 
weight, measure, and yard," throughout the king- 
dom, 1353. 

First statute, directing the use of avoirduiwis 
weight, of 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. 



WEI 



796. 



WEL 



WEIGHTS AND Measijees, continued. 

Weights and measures ordered to be examined by 
the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. 1795. 

Again regulated, 1800. 

Statute for establishing a uniformity of •weights 
And measures, 1824, took place throughout the 
United Kingdom, i Jan. 1826. 

New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1835, 
1855, and lastly in 1859. 

16 & 17 Vict. c. 29, regulates the weights to be 
Tised in the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of 
the Troy ounce, 1853. 

WEIMAR, capital of the grand-ducliy of Saxe Weimar (which see). 

WEIJSrSBERG, see Guelphs. 

WELLINGTON ADMINISTEATION, succeeded that of Viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828, 
and resigned 16 Nov. 1830. 



A committee of the house of commons recom- 
mended that the decimal system should be lega- 
lised, but not made compulsory until sanctioned by 
general approval, 1862. 

A commission (consisting of Mr. G. B. Airy, gen. 
E. Sabine, lord Rosse, Mr. T. Graham, and others), 
appointed to examine the standards, 9 May, 1867. 

(See Standard; and Metrical System,.) 



Duke of Wellington, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Bathurst, president of the council. 

Lord EUenborough, iwivy seal. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Robert Peel, earl Dudley, and 

Mr. Wm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial 

secretaries. 
Viscount Melville, hoard of control. 
Mr. Charles Grant, board of trade. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-war. 
J. C. Herries, master of the mint. 



Earl of Aberdeen, dvxhy of Lancaster. 

Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, 

and Mr. Grant qiiitted the ministry, and various 

changes followed in May and June same year. 
The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became, 

respectively, foreign and colonial secretaries. 
Sir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-war. 
Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterward lord Fitzgerald), 

India hoard. 
Lord Lowther, first commissioner of land revenues, <&c. , 

May and Jxine, 1828. 
Mr. Arbuthirot; Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, &c. 



WELLINGTON COLLEGE (Sandhurst), was erected by subscription in memory of the 
great duke of Wellington. It was instituted for the support and education of the orphan 
children of soldiers. The first stone was laid by the queen on 2 June, 1856 ; and the 
building was opened by her majesty on 29 Jan. 1859. Out of the 159,000?. subscribed, 
55,000?. were expended on the building, and the rest invested for the maintenance of the 
institution. 

WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA, the largest tree in the world, a native of California, 
was discovered by Mr. Lobb in 1853, and first described by Dr. John Lindley. When full 
grown it is about 450 feet high, and 116 feet in circumference. The prince consort (5 June, 
j86i) and the queen (24 July, 1861) planted Wellingtonias at the new gardens of the Royal 
Horticultural Society. 

WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, &c. For details, see separate articles. 



Arthur Wellesley was born, according to some 
authorities, in March ; to others i May, 1769 

Appointed to command in the Mahratta war in 
India ; takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, 
12 Aug. ; and gains his first victory at Assaye, 
23 Sept. ; defeats Scindiah at Argaum, Nov. ; 
and at Gawalghur . . . .13 Dec. 1803 

Becomes Secretary for Ireland .... 1807 

Takes the command in Portugal, defeats Junot 
at Vimeira 21 Aug. 1808 

Defeats Victor at Talavera, 28 July; created 
viscount Wellington. ... 4 Sept. 1809 

Repulses Massena at Busaco, 27 Sept. ; and oc- 
cupies the Unes at Torres Vedras 10 Oct. 1810 

Defeats Massena at Fuentes d'Onore, 5 May ; 
takes Almeida 10 May, iSii 

Passage of the Douro and defeat of Soult 

12 May, 1812 

Storms Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; and Badajos, 
6 April; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 22 
July ; enters Madrid ... 12 Aug. ,, 

Defeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at Vit- 
toria, 21 June; storms St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; 
enters France 8 Oct. 1813 

Defeats Soult at Orthez, 27 Feb. ; and at Tou- 
louse 10 April, 1814 

•Created duke of Wellington, with an annuity 
of 13, oooi. and a grant of 300,000?. . May, 1814 

■Commands the army in the iSTetherlands ; re- 
pulses an attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 
t6 June : defeats Napoleon at Waterloo, 18 
Jtine ; invests Paris .... 3 July, 1815 



Commands the army of occupation in Prance 

181S till Nov. 1818 
His assassination attempted by Cantillon, who 

escapes 10 Feb. ,, 

Appointed master-general of the ordnance . . 1819 
The JVellington shield and supporting columns 
designed by Stothard, commemorating all 
the above-mentioned victories, presented to 
the duke by the merchants and bankers of 
London. (It was manufactured by Green 
and Ward, and cost 1 1,000 i.) . 16 Feb. 1822 

The duke appointed commander-in-chief, 22 

Jan. ; resigns 30 April, 1827 

Becomes first minister .... Jan. 1828 
Aids in carrying the Catholic Emancipation bill 

April, 1829 
Asserts that no reform in parliament is needed, 

2 Nov. ; resigns .... 16 Nov. 1830 
Transacts all the business of the country after 
the resignation of lord Melbourne, till the 
arrival of sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and 
becomes foreigii secretary under sir R. Peel, 
Dec. 1834 ; resigns .... April, 1835 
Dies at Walmer castle. . . .14 Sept. 1852 
His body removed to Chelsea hospital, where 

it lay in state .... 10 Nov. „ 

Removed to the Horse Guards . . 17 Nov. ,, 
Public funeral at St. Paul's cathedral 18 Nov. „ 
A multitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and 
a half of persons, were congregated in the line of 
route, a distance of three miles, to vntness and 
share in the imposing spectacle. 



WEL 797 WES 

WELLINGTON VICTORIES, continued. 



The military consisted of the household regiments of 
horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the 
rifles, a battalion of the Eoyal Marines, the 33rd 
regiment, the 17th Lancers, and the 18th Light 
Dragoons, with the regiment of Soots Greys. 

There were besides' a body of Chelsea pensioners, 
and men of different arms of the East India Com- 
pany. 

The body was placed, early in the morning of the 



richly caparisoned, and the coffin was thus seen by 
the whole of the crowd. 

The procession moved about seven o'clock, and it 
was three o'clock before the body was lowered 
into the vault beside the remains of Nelson, under 
the dome of St. Paul's cathedral. 

In 1857 a number of models for the tomb were ex- 
hibited in Westminster Hall ; none chosen. 

The stone sarcophagus, completed in 1858, cost iiooZ 



i8th, by means of machinery, upon a lofty and , Memorial by Marochetti erected by his sou and 
sumptuous funeral car, drawn by twelve horses I tenants at Strathfieldsaye, July, i865 

WELLS were dug by Abraham, 1892 b.o., and Isaac, 1804 {Gen. xxi. 30, and xxvi. 19). 
Danans is sai^l to have introduced well-digging into Greece from Egypt. The " tube-well " 
is the invention of Hiram J. Messenger, Stephen Brewer, and Byron Mudge, Americans of 
the state of New York. The apparatus consists of an iron tube perforated with holes at the 
lower end, and shod witli a steel point, which readily enters the hardest soil when forcibly 
driven. It was used with great advantage during the civil war 186 1-4, and by the British 
in their campaign in Abj^ssinia in 1867-8. 

WELLS (Somerset). The cathedral church was built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, 
704, and by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Several other of the West Saxon kings 
endowed it, and it was erected into a bishopric in 909, during the reign of king Edward 
the Elder. The present church was begun by Eobert, the i8th bishop of this see, and 
completed by his immediate successor. The first bishop of Wells was Jilthelm or Adelmus 
(aftei-wards bishop of Canterbury). Beatson. The see was united with Bath {which see) 
in 1088. 

WENDS, a branch of the Slavonic family which spread over Germany in the 6th century, 
and settled especially in the north-eastern parts. 

. WESLEYAN METHODISTS, a large sect founded by John Wesley (born 1703, died 
1 791) and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few other students formed themselves 
into a small society for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. On account 
of their strictness of life they were called Methodists, in 1729. John Wesley went to 
Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians. On his return to 
England, in 1738, he commenced itinerant preaching, and gathered many followers. Ou 
finding many churches shut against him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, 
Bristol, and other places. For some time he was united with George Wliitefield ; but dif- 
ferences arising on account of the doctrine of election, which Wesley rejected, they sepa- 
rated in 1 741 ; see Whitefield. Wesley was almost continually engaged in travelling 
through the United Kingdom. His two leading doctrines were the instantaneotisness of 
conversion, and Christian perfection, or deliverance from all sin. His society was weU 
organised, and he preserved his influence over it to the last. "His genius for govern- 
ment was not inferior to that of Richelieu." Macaulay. In 1851 there were 428 circuits in 
Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 
itinerant preachers, and 6579 chapels. 



Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) . . . 329 
Weslyan Methodist Reformers (1S49). . . 2000 
The last arose out of the publication of "Fly 
Sheets,"advocatingreforminthebody(i844-8). 
The suspected authors and theii- friends were 
expelled. By these disruptions the main 
body is thought to have lost 100,000 members. 
— This sect in America numbered about a 
million in 1844, when a division took j)lace 
on the slavery question. 



The Conference, the highest Wesleyan court, is 
composed of 100 ministers, who meet an- 
nually. It was instituted by John Wesley in 1784 

At the centenary of the existence of Methodism 
2i6,oool. were collected, to be expended in 
the objects of the society .... 1839 

Out of the original connection have ceded : — 

Chapels in 1851 

New Connection (in 1796) 301 

Primitive Methodists (1810) 2871 

Bible Christians, or Bryanites (1815) . . . 403 

WESSEX, see Britain. 

WEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS— Sierra Leone, Gambia, Lagos. Governor, Arthur 
E. Kennedy, 1867. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA, formerly Swan River Settlement, which was projected 
by colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the colonial office, and captain Stirling, 
appointed lieutenant governor, Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the appointed site in August fol- 
lowing. The three towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were founded same year. In 
March, 1830, fifty ships, with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to 1,000,000^., had 
arrived before hardly any dwellings had been erected or land surveyed. The more energetic 
settlers left for home or the neighbouring colonies, and the colony languished for twenty 
years for want of suitable inhabitants — the first settlers, from their previous habits and rank 



WES 798 WES 

in life, proving unfit fox- tlie rough work of colonisation. In 1848, the colonists requested 
that convicts might be sent out to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were kindly- 
received and well treated. The best results ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the 
inhabitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should be sent out annually. The reception 
of convicts is to cease in after years, in consequence of the energetic opposition of the other 
Australian colonies (1865). — The settlement of King George's Sound was founded in 1826 by 
the government of New South Wales. It was used as a military station for four years. In 
1830, the home government ordered the settlement to be transferred to Swan River. Since 
the establishment of steam communication, the little town of Albany here, employed as a 
coaling station, has become a thriving sea-port. It possesses an excellent harbour, used by 
whalers. A journal called the Freemantle Gazette was published here in March, 1831. 
Population of Western Australia in 1859, 14,837; Jan. 1862, 15,555, Jan. 1866, 20,260. 
Governor John Stephen Hampton, appointed 1861 ; succeeded by sir Benjamin Pine, 
May, 1868. 

WESTER]^ CHURCH (called also the Latin or Roman) broke off communion with 
the Greek or Eastern Church, 653 ; see OreeJc Church. The history of the Western 
Church is mainly comprised in that of the popes and of the several European kingdoms ; 
see Popes. This church was disturbed by the Arian heresy about 345 and 500 ; and by 
the Pelagian about 409 ; by the introduction of image-Worship about 600 ; by the injunc- 
tion of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the 
contests between the emperors and the popes respecting ecclesiastical investitures 
between 1073 and 1173 ; ^7 the rise and progress of the Reformation in the 15th and 
i6tli centuries; by the contests between the Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and i8th 
centuries; and by the progress of modern philosophy and rationalism in the 19th; see 
Roman Catholics. ' 

WESTERIlT EMPIRE. The Roman empire was first divided into Eastern and Western 
by Diocletian in 296 ; but was reunited under Constans in 340. It was again divided into 
Eastern and Western by Valentinian and Yalens, of whom the former had the Western por- 
tion, or Rome, properly so called, 364 ; see Eastern Empire, Italy, and Rome. 

the African Vandals into Italy, and Rome is 
sacked. Maxinnis stoned to death. 



EMPERORS. 

364. Valentinian, son of Gratiau, takes the Western, 

and his brother Valens the Eastern empire. 
367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a 

colleague in the government by his father. 
375. Valentinian II. , another son, also very young, 

is, on the death of his father, associated with 

Gratian, who is assassinated by his general, 

Andragathius, in 383. Valentinian murdered 

by one of his oflacers, Arbogastes, in 392. 
392. Bugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial 

dignity; he and Arbogastes are defeated by 
394. Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole 

emperor. 
[Andragathius threw himself into the sea, and 

Arbogastes died by his own hand.] 
39s. Honorius, son of Theodosixis, reigns, on his 

father's death, in the West, and his brother 

Arcadius in the East. Honorius dies in 423. 
423. Usurpation of John, the Notary, defeated and 

slain near Ravenna. 
425. Valentinian III., son of the empress Placidia, 

daughter of Theodosius the Great : murdered 

at the instance of his successor, 
455. Maximus : he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valen- 
tinian, who, to avenge the death of her first 

husband and the guilt of her second, invites 

WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he 
made in the New World, and first seen by him in the night between the nth and 12th Oct. 
1492. The largest are Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto Rico, Trinidad, and 
Guadaloupe ; see tlie Islands respectively. 

WESTMINSTER, so called on account of its western situation with regard to St. Paul's 
cathedral, or from there being formerly a monastery named East Minster, on the hill now 
called Great Tower-hill, This city joins London at Temple-bar. Formerly Westminster 
was called Thorney, or Thorney Island : and in ancient times Canute had a palace here, 
which was burnt in 1263. Westminster and London were one mile asunder so late as 1603, 
when the houses were thatched, and there were mud waUs in the Strand. It is said that 
the great number of Scotsmen who came over after the accession of James I. occasioned the 
building of Westminster, and united it with London. Howel's Londinopolis; see Palace of 
Westminster, and Parliament. 



455. Marcus Mascilius Avitus ; forced to resign, and 

dies in his flight towards the Alps. 
457. Julius Valerius Majorianus : murdered at the 

instance of his minister, Ricimer, wlio raises 
461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the 

supreme power. Severus is poisoned by 

Ricimer. 
465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, 

•without assuming the title of emperor.] 
467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the 

senate and army ; murdered by Ricimer, who 

dies soon after. 

472. Flavins- Anicius Olybrius: slain by the Goths 

soon after his accession. 

473. Glycerins : forced to abdicate by his successor, 

474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, 

and retires to Salonse. 

475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augus- 

stu), son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the 
emperor deposed by 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli: takes Rome, 

assumes the style of king of Italy, and com- 
pletes the fall of the Western empire. 
See Italy, Rome, and Germany. 



WES 



799 



WES 



WESTMINSTER ABBEY. The miraculous stories concerning tliis pile of buildings 
werg questioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was emplo.yed to survey the present edifice, 
and who, iipon close examination, found nothing to countenance the belief that it was 
erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. Historians have fixed the era of the first abbey in 
the 7th century, and ascribed to St. Sebert, king of Essex, the honour of erecting it. 

The church becoming ruinous was splendidly- 
rebuilt by Edward the Confessor (1055-65) 
and filled with monks from Exeter. (Pope 
Nicholas II. constituted it the place for the 
inauguration of the kings of England.) De- 
dicated 28 Dec. 1065 

The church once more built in a raagnificent 
and beautiful stjde by Henry III. . . 1220-69 

In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., and 
Richard II. the great cloisters, abbot's house, 
and principal monastic buildings, erected. 

The western parts of the nave and aisles re- 
built between .... 1340 and 1483 

The west front and the great window built 
by Richard III. and Henry VII. ; the latter 
commenced the chapel which bears his name; 
the first stone laid . . . .24 Jan. 1502-3 

The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric, 



1540; finally made a collegiate church by 
Elizabeth 1560 

Made a barrack for soldiers, July, 1643. JHer- 
curius liusticus. 

The great west window and the western towers 
rebuilt in the reigns of George I. and II. 1714-60 

The choir injured by fire . . . g July, 1803 

Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapi- 
dated parts at an expense of 42,000^. in . 1809 

A fire, without any serious injury . 27 April, 1829 

The evening services for the working classes, 
when a sermon was preached by the dean. 
Dr. Trench, commenced on . .3 Jan. 1858 

The Sooth anniversary of the foundation cele- 
brated 28 Dec. 1865 

7000L voted by parliament to restore the chap- 
ter-house I May, 1866 



WESTMINSTER Bishopric and Deanery. At the dissolution of monasteries, West- 
minster abbey was valued at 3977?. per annum ; king Henry VIII. in 1539, erected it into 
a deanery; and in 1540 into a bishopric, and appointed John Thirleby prelate. But he, 
having wasted the patrimony allotted by the king for the support of the see, was translated 
to Norwich in 1550, and with him ended the bishopric of Westminster ; Middlesex was the 
diocese, being restored to London. The dean continued to preside until the accession of 
Mary, who restored the abbot ; but Elizabeth displaced the abbot, and erected the abbey 
into a collegiate church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it still continues. On the 
revival of the order of the Bath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster was appointed dean of 
that order, which honour has been continued. Dr. Nicholas Wiseman was created archbishop 
of Westminster by the pope Pius IX. in 30 Sept. 1850 ; see Papal Aggression. Dr. Wise- 
man died 8 Feb. 1865 ; Henr}'' Manning was consecrated his successor 8 June, following. 

WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The old bridge was accounted one of the most beautiful 
bridges in the world. It was begun (after a design of M. Labelye), 13 Sept. 1738, the 
first stone was laid 29 Jan. 1738-9 ; and it was opened for passengers 17 Nov. 1750 ; cost 
426,650?. It was built of Portland stone, and crossed the river where the breadth is 1223 
feet. Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most of the balustrades on both sides 
•were removed, to relieve the structure of its weight. — By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 (4 Aug. 1853), 
the estates of its commissioners were transferred to her majesty's commissioners of works, 
who were empowered to remove the then existing bridge, and build a new bi^idge (near the 
old one), which was shortly after begun. The contract required the completion of the works 
by I June, 1857. The driving of the first elm pile commenced on 3 July, and the driving 
of the iron jiiles and plates in September. The works were suspended for a time, in con- 
sequence of the failm-e of Messrs. Mare the contractors. The government eventually under- 
took the building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas Page, the engineer. One half of the 
new bridge was opened for use early in i860 ; the whole on 24 May, 1862. 

WESTMINSTER Confession of Faith and Catechisms were drawn up by the 
"Assembly of Divines" (partly consisting of laymen), who sat by authority of parliament 
in Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These have ever since been the 
doctrinal standards of Scotch Presbyterians. 

WESTMINSTER HALL (London). One of the most venerable remains of English 
architecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banquetiug-hall ; and here in 1099, 
•on his return from Normandy, ' ' he kept his feast of Whitsimtide very royally. " The hall 
became ruinous before the reign of Richard II. who repaired it in 1397, raised the walls, 
altered the windows, and added a new roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. 
In 1236 Henry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 poor persons to be entertained in this 
tall, and in the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of queen Eleanor's coronation ; 
and here Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, wheii the number of the guests 
each day the feast lasted was 10,000. Stoxo. The courts of law were established here by 
king John. Idem. Westminster hall was stated to be the largest room in Europe unsup- 
ported by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall underwent a general 
rej^air in 1802. Concurrently with the erection of the palace of Westminster, many 



WES 800 WHI 

improvements and alterations have lately been made in this magnificent hall. The Volun- 
teer Eifle corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of 1859, and since. 

WESTMINSTER PALACE, see under Palace of Westminster, and Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER SCHOOL or St. Peter's College, was founded by queen Elizabeth 
in 1560, for the education of forty boys, denominated the Queen's scholars, who are pre- 
pared for the university. It is situated within the abbey enclosure. Besides the scholars. 
on the foundation, many of the nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster for in- 
struction. A proposal in i860 to remove the school was disapproved of in 1861. 

WESTMINSTER STATUTES, see Acts of Parliament. 

WESTMORELAND. This county and Cumberland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of 
Scotland by Edward the Elder in 945 ; and resumed by Henry III. in 1237. NeviUe, earl 
of Westmoreland, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was attainted in 1570. 

WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy belonged in former times to the dukes of 
Saxony, and afterwards became subject to the archbishop of Cologne. On the secularisation 
of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent 
to Prussia. The Icingdom of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, 
composed of conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to the 
west of the Elbe, was created by decree 18 Aug. 1806, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king, 
I Dec. 1807. Hanover was annexed to it, i March, 1810, The kingdom was abolished in 
1 8 13, and the countries restored to their former rulers. 

WESTPHALIA or Munster, Peace of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburg, between 
Erance, the emperor, and Sweden ; Spain continuing the war against France. By this peace 
the principle of a balance of pov/er in Europe was first recognised ; Alsace given to France, 
and part of Pomerania and some other districts to Sweden : the Elector Palatine restored to 
the Lower Palatinate ; the religious and political rights of the German states established ; 
and the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, 24 Oct. 1648. 

WEST SAXONS, see Wessex, in Britavn. \ 

WHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was first carried on by the Norwegians in the ninth cen- 
tury. Lenglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and Iceland for their oil only till 
1578 ; the use of their fins and bones was not yet known, consequently (a writer quaintly 
adds) no stays were worn by the ladies. The English whale-fishing commenced at Spitz- 
bergen in 1 1598 ; but the Dutch had been previously fishing there. The fishery was much 
promoted by an act of parliament passed in 1749. From 1800 to 2000 whales have been 
killed annually on the coast of Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported in 18 14 
was 33,567 tuns. The quantity in 1826, when gas-light became general, was reduced to 
25,000 tuns ; so that the consumption of oil had become, on this account, greatly diminished. 
In 1840 the quantity was about 22,000 tuns ; in 1850, 21,360 tuns ; in 1861, 19, 176 tuns ; 
in 1864, 14,701 tuns ; in 1867, 15,945 tuns. 

WHARNCLIFFE MEETINGS of pubhc companies (held to give enlarged powers under 
certain prescribed conditions), are so called because the standing orders of the house of lords, 
under which they are held were introduced by lord Wharncliffe, about 1846. 

WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their emperor, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the 
art of husbandry, and method of making bread from wheat, about 2000 years before the 
Christian era. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th century, by Coll ap CoU 
Frewi. Roberts. The first wheat imported into England of which we have a note was in 
1347. Various statutes have regulated the sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, 
thereby to encourage its being raised at home. Imported into the United Kingdom in 1854, 
2,656,455 qrs. of wheat, and 6,329,038 cwts. of flour ; in 1861, 6,912,815 qrs. of wheat, and 
6,152,938 cwts. of flour ; in 1864, 23,196,714 cwts. of wheat, and 4,975,935 cwts. of flour ; 
in 1866, 23,156,329 cwts. of wheat, and 4,972,280 cwts. of flour; see Corn Laws, and 
Bread. In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable utility of considering the pedigree of 
wheat. 

Value of Wheat imported info the United Kingdom. 

. £8,713,532 1864 .... £10,674,654 

. . 16,554,083 1865 .... 9,775,616 

. 19,051,464 1866 .... 12,983,090 

. . 23,203,800 1867 24,985,096 

. . 12,015,006 



1854 . . . 


£11,693,737 


1859 


185s . . . 


9.679.578 


i860 


1856 . 


12,716,349 


1 061 


1857 . . 


9.563,099 


1862 


1858 . 


9,050,467 


1863 



WHEEL, Breaking on the. A barbarous mode of death, of great antiquity, ordered 
by Francis I. for robbers, about 1515 ; see Ravaillac, &c. 
WHEEL- WORK, see Spinning, Looms, Automaton. 
WHIGS. In the reign of Charles II. the name Whig was a term of reproach given by 



^YRl SOI WHI 

the court party to their antagonists for holding the principles of the "whigs," or fanatical 
covenanters in Scotland ; and the name Tory was given to the court party, comparing 
them to the Tories, or popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. This distinction arose out of the 
discovery of the Meal-tub plot {ichich see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the meal plot before 
parliament, two parties were formed : the ones who doubted the plot styled those who 
believed in it Whigs; these styled their adversaries Tories. In time these names, given as 
marks of opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hitvie. The Whigs brought about 
the revolution of 1688-9, and established the protestant succession. They were instru- 
mental in obtaining the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the Test and 
Corporation act. Catholic emancipation, jiarliamentary and municipal reform, and the repeal 
of the corn laws. The Whig Club was established by Charles James Fox; one of its original 
members was the great Francis, duke of Bedford, who died in 1802. For the principal Whig 
ministries, see Goclolphin, Halifax, Walpole, Rockingham, Grenville, Grey, Melbourne, 
Russell, Palmerston. 

WHISKY, the spirit distilled from malt and other corn in Scotland and Ireland, of which 
about eight millions of gallons have been distilled annually in the former, and upwards 
of nine millions of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this article has produced an 
annual revenue of about three millions. The distillation of whisky in these countries is 
referred to the i6th century ; but some authors state it to have been earlier; see DistillaUon. 
In 1855 the duties on spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were equalised with those 
distilled in England. 

WHITEBAIT DHSriSTEE, when the cabinet ministers meet at the end of each session, is 
said to have begun at the end of the last century, through sir Robert Preston and sir George 
Rose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues to dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Greenwich. 
Another account dates its origin in 1721. The whitebait {clupea alba) is a subject of con- 
troversy. Albert Giinther, of the British IMuseum, in his Catalogue of Fishes, says the 
whitebait is "a purely nominal species," and that all the examples which he has examined 
were young herrings (1868). 

WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, so called on account of their wearing linen 
frocks over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages in 1761, but were suppressed by 
a military force, and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose into insurrection again 
and were suppressed 1786-7. Whiteboys have appeared at various times since, committing 
the most frightful crimes. The insurrection act was passed on their account in 1822. 

WHITEFIELDITES. George Whitefield, the founder of the " CalvinisUc iMethodists," 
was the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, where he received his first education. He was 
admitted a servitor at Oxford in 1732, and became a companion of the Wesleys there, and 
aided them in establishing Methodism. He parted from them in 1741, on account of their 
rejection of the doctrine of election. His first tabernacle was built. He was the most 
eloquent preacher of his day. His first sermon was preached in 1736, and he commenced 
field preaching in 1739. He is said to have delivered 18,000 sermons dming his career of 
34 years. His followers are termed "the countess of Huntingdon's connection," from his 
having become her chaplain in 1748, and her energetic .support of the sect, and by estab- 
, lishing a college at Trevecca. There were 109 chapels of this connection in 185 1 ; but many 
of his followers have joined the Independents. He was born in 1714, and died in 1770 ; see 
Tabernacle. 

WHITE FRIARS, see Carmelites, White. 

WHITEHALL (Loudon), built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of 
the 13th centmy. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the Black Friars of Hoiborn, who 
sold it to the archbishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued 
to be the town residence of the archbisho]>s till purchased by Henry VIII. of cardinal AVolsey, 
in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who died 
at Richmond in 1603, was brought from thence to AVhitehall, by water, in a grand procession. 
It was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her 
majesty was written : 

" The queon was brought by water to Whitehall, At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
More chnig about the barge : fish under water Wept out tbeir ei/cs of pearl, and swam blind after. 
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, Mave rowed her thither in her people s eyes ; 
For huwsoe'er thus much my thoughts have seann'd. She had come by water, had she come by land." 

Whitehall Avas partly burnt 9, 10 April, 1691 ; and all destroyed by fire, 4 Jan, 1697-8, 
except the banqueting-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., 
according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall Cliarles I. was 
beheaded 30 Jan. 1649. George I. converted the hall into a chapel 1723-4. The exterior of 
this edifice underwent repair between 1829 and 1833. 

3 F 



WHI 802 . WIG 

WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries formed about 1377, against Louis, count 
of Flanders. The struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by Philip, duke of 
Burgundy. 

WHITE HOODS, see Catechumens. 

WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of freestone, the residence of the president, 
flives name to the United States government, as St. James's jialace does to that of Great 
Britain. 

WHITE PLAINS (N. America), where a battle was fought 28 Oct. 1776, between the 
revolted Americans and the British forces under sir William Howe. It terminated in the 
defeat of the Americans, who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 

WHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turcomans who conquered Persia about 1468 ; 
and persecuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who founded the Sophi dynasty in 
1501. 

WHITE TOWEE, the keep or citadel in the Tower of London, a large square, irregular 
building, erected in 1070, by Gandulph, bishop of Eochester. It measures 116 feet by 96, 
and is 92 feet in height : the walls, which are 11 feet thick, having a winding staircase con- 
tinued along two of the sides, like that in Dover Castle. It contains the sea armoury, and 
the volunteer armoury — the latter for 30,000 men. Within this tower is the ancient chapel 
of St. John, originally used by the English monarchs. The turret at the JST.E. angle, the 
highest of the four by which the White Tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical 
purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of the royal observatory at Greenwich. 

WHITSUNTIDE, a festival appointed to commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost 
upon the apostles : the newly-baptised persons or catechumens, used to wear white garments 
on Whitsunday. This feast is moveable, being always exkctly seven weeks after Easter. 
Eogation week {loMcli see) is the week before Whitsunday. Whitsunday 1868, 31 May ; 1869, 
16 May; 1870, 5 June; 1871, 28 May. 

WHITTINGTON'S CHARITIES. Sir Eichard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of 
London, served the office of lord mayor three times, the last time in 1419. Many false 
stories are connected with his name, and his munificent charities are little known. He 
founded his college, dedicated to the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, in 1424 ; and his 
almshouses in 1429 ; the latter stand on Highgate-hill, near the supposed site of the famous 
stone which commemorated the legend of his return to London, after leaving it in despair, 
the church bells chiming him back by the promise of his future greatness. 

WHITWOETH FOUNDATIONS. Mr. Joseph Whitworth, the eminent engineer, in a 
letter to the first lord of the treasury, dated 18 March, 1868, offered to found 30 scholarships 
of the annual value of lOoZ. each, to be applied for the further instruction of young men, 
natives of the United Kingdom, selected by open coinpetition for their intelligence and pro- 
ficiency in the theory and practice of mechanics and its cognate sciences, with a view to the 
promotion of engineering and mechanical industry in this country ; and he expressed hopes 
that means might be found for bringing science and industry into closer relation with 
each other than at present obtains here. This offer was accepted by the lords of the 
committee of the privy council, 28 March, 1868. 

WICKLIFFITES, the followers of John Wickliffe (born 1324), a professor of divinity in 
the university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He was the father of 
the reformation of the English Church from popery, being among the first who opposed the 
authority of the pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, &c. Wickliffe was 
protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted 
by the church, and rescued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, 
31 Dec. 1384, in his 6oth year. The council of Constance, in 1414, decreed his bones to be 
disinterred and burnt, which was done by the bisliop of Lincoln, and his dust was cast into 
the river Swift, 141 5. Wicklifie's English version of the Bible was commenced in 1380 ; an 
edition of it was ]3rinted at Oxford in 1850. 

WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's brother to marry his widow (1490 B.C.). For 
the burning of widows in India, see Suttees. Among the numerous associations in London 
for the relief of widows are, one for the widows of musicians, instituted in 1738 ; one for 
widows of naval men, founded in 1739; one for widows of medical men, 1788 : a law 
society, for widows of professional gentlemen, 1817 ; and a society for artists' widows, 1827. 
— Widowers were taxed in England as follows : a duke, 12I. los. ; lower peers, smaller 
sums ; a common person, is. ; 7 Will. III. 1695, 

WIG, see Peruke. 

WIGAN (Lancashire). In the civil war the king's troops commanded by the earl of 
Derby,- were defeated and driven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary forces under 



WIG 



803 



WIL 



sir John Smeaton. The eavl was again defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- 
tions of Wigan to the ground, same year ; and once more hy a greatly superior force com- 
manded by colonel Lilburne, 165 1. In this last engagement, sir Thomas Tildersley, an 
ardent royalist, was slain ; a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. The colliers in the 
neighbourhood struck, and acting riotously 17, 18 April, 1868, were quelled by the 
military. Arrangements were soon after made with the employers. 

WIGHT, Isle of, the Roman Veda or Vectis, was conquered by Vespasian in the reign 
of Claudius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdic about 530 ; in 787 by tlie 
Danes ; and in looi, when they held it for several years. It was taken by the French, 
13 July, 1377, and has several times suffered from invasions by that people. In the year 
1442, Henry VI. alienated the Isle of Wight to Henry do Beauchamp, first premier earl of 
England and then duke of Warwick, with a precedency of all other dukes but Norfolk, and 
afterwards crowned him king of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but this earl dying 
Avithout heirs male, his regal title died with him, and the lordship of the isle returned to the 
crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton-court, was a piisoner in Carisbrook castle, 
in 1647. In the time of Charles II. timber was so plentiful, that it is said a squirrel 
might have travelled on the tops of the trees for many leagues together ; but it is now much 
reduced, through supplying the dockyards for the British navy. In this isle is the queen's 
marine residence, Osborne-house. 

WILDERNESS BATTLES, see United States, May 1864. 

WILKES' NUMBER, 45, see North Briton, and also Warrants, General. 

WILLOW-LEAVES, see Sun. 

WILLS AND Testaments are of very high antiquity, see Genesis xlviii. Solon intro- 
duced them at Athens, 578 e.g. There are many regulations respecting mils in the Koran. 
Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 
31 B.C. The power of bequeathing lands by the last will and testament of the owner was 
confirmed to English subjects i Henry I. iioo ; but with great restrictions and limitations 
respecting the feudal system, which were taken off by the statute of 32 Henry VIII. 1541. 
Blackstone' s Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on record is stated (but in 
error) to be that of Richard II. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor made a will, 1066. Various 
laws have regulated the wills and testaments of British subjects. All previous statutes were 
repealed by i Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws with relation to wills thereby amended.* The 
present Pkoeate Court (ivMch see) was established in 1857. An office for the reception of 
the wills of living persons was opened in Jan. 1861 ; see TheUusson's Will. 

extracts FI!0M the last will of napoleon I., EMPEROR OF FRANCE.f 

[He died 5 May, 1821, eleven days after he had signed these documents. The original in French occupies 
about twenty-six pages in Peignot's " Testaniens Reinarquables," 1829.] 

in chief, LaiTcy, 100,000 francs. He is the most 
virtuous man I have known. To general Brayer, 
100,000 francs. 

" To general Lefevre Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. 
To general Drouet, 100,000 francs. To general Cam- 
bronne, 100 000 francs. To the children of general 
Muton Duvernais, 100,000 francs. To the cliildren 
of the brave LabSdoyiSre, 100,000 francs. To the 
children of general Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 
francs. To the childi'en of general Chartraud, 
100,000 francs. To the children of the virtuous 
general Travost, 100,000 francs. To general Lalle- 
niand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To general Clausel, 
100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, also 100,000 
francs. To the baron de Mencvalle, 100,000 francs. 
To Amavilt, author of Marius, 100,000 francs. 

"To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I request him 
to continue to write for the defence and glory of the 
French armies, and to confiiund the calumniators 
and the apostates. To the baron Big-non, 100,000 
francs : I request him to write the history of French 



" This day, 24 April, 1S21, at Longwood, in the 
island of St. Helena. This is my testament, or act 
of my last will : 

" I leave to the comte de Montholou 2,000,000 
francs as a proof of my satisfaction for the atten- 
tions he has paid to me for these six years, and to 
indemnify him for the losses which my residence 
in St. Helena has occasioned him. I leave to the 
comte Bertrand 500,000 francs. I leave to Mai-- 
chand, my first valet-de-chamhre, 400,000 francs ; 
the services he has performed for me are those of a 
friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, sister, 
or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old guard. 
To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100,000 
francs. To Pijeron, 100,000 francs. To Archam- 
baud, 50,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. To 
Chandelle, idem. 

"To the Abbe Vignali, 100,000 francs. I desire 
that he may build his house near Ponte Novo de 
Rossino. To the comte Las Casas, 100,000 francs. 
To comte Lavalette, 100,000 francs. To the surgeon 



* By this act the testator must be above 21, not a lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at 
the time of signing, not ,an outlawed or unpardoned felon. All kinds of property may be devised. The 
will must be written legibly and intelligibly, and signed by the testator, or by his direction, in the pre- 
sence of two or more witnesses, who also must sig-n. A married woman may bequeath only her pin 
money or separate maintenance, without the consent of her husband. 

t These documents, dated from 15-24 April, which had been deposited since 1821 in England, have 
been, at the request of the French government, given up to the authorities at Paris, to be deposited 
among the archives of that capital. 

3 F 2 



WIL 



804 



WIN 



WILLS, continued. 

Diplomacy from 1792 to 1815. To Poggi de Talaro, 
100,000 francs. To the surgeon Emmery, 100,000 
francs. 

"These sums shall be taken from the six millions 
which I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815, and from 
the interest at the rate of 5 per cent, since July 1815 ; 
the account of which shall be adjusted with the 
bankers by the counts Montholon and Bertrand, and 
by Marchand. 

The following are part of the eight Codicils to the 

*' On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy — such 
as money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of 
which the viceroy is the depositary, and which 
belong to me, I dispose of two millions, which I 
leave to my most faithful servants. I hope that 
without their showing any cause, my son Eugene 
Napoleon will discharge them faithfully. He cannot 
forget the forty millions which I have given him 
in Italy, or by the right (parage) of his mother's 
inheritance. 

."From the funds remitted in gold to the empress 
Maria Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, 
at Orleans, in 1814, there remain due to me two 
mihions, which 1 dispose of by the present codicil, 
in order to recompense my most faithful servants, 
whom I beside recommend to the protection of my 
dear Maria Louisa. I leave 200,000 francs to count 
Montholon, 100,000 francs of which he shall pay into 
the chest of the treasurer (Las Casas) for the same 
purpose as the above, to be employed according to 
my depositions in legacies of conscience. 

"10,000 francs to the sub-officer Cantillon, who 
has undergone a prosecution, being accvised of a 
desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he 

WILMINGTON (N. Carolina, U. S. ) was held by the confederates ; resisted severe 
attacks of the federals in Dec. 1864. Fort Fisher was taken by assault on 15 Jan., and 
Wilmington was evacuated by the confederates, 22 Feb. 1865. 

WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION, succeeded that of sir Robert Walpole, Feb. 

1742. 



"These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to 
the widows and children, and in their default, shall 
revert to the capital. I institute the counts Mon- 
tholon, Bertrand, and Marchand my testamentary 
executors. This present testament, written en- 
tirely by my own hand, is signed and sealed with 
my arms. 

"NAPOLEON. 

" 24 April, 1821, Longwood." 

preceding will of the emperor : — 

has been declared innocent. Cantillon had as much 
right to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had 
to send me to perish on the rock of St. Helena, &c., 
(fee., &c. 

LETTER TO M. LAFITTB. 

" Monsieur Lafitte, — I remitted to you in 1815, 
at the moment of my departure from Paris, a sum 
of nearly six millions, for which you gave me a 
double receipt. I have cancelled one of these 
receipts, and I have charged comte de Montholon to 
present to you the other receipt, in order that you 
may, after my death, deliver to him the said sum 
with interest at the rate of five per cent, from the 
ist of July, 1815, deducting the payments with 
which you have been charged in virtue of my 
order. I have also remitted to you a box containing 
my medallion. I beg you will deliver it to comte 
Montholon. 

"This letter' having no other object, I pray God, 
Monsieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His holy 
and worthy keeping. 

"NAPOLEON. 

"Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, 25 April, 



Earl of Wilmington, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrington, president of the, council. 

Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 

Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the excTieguer. 

Lord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries 

of state. 
Earl of Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty. 



Duke of Argyll, commander of the forces and maate)'- 
general of the ordnance. 

Mr. Henry Pelham, -paymaster of the forces. 

With 'several of the household lords. 

[On lord Wilmington's death, 26 July, 1743, Mr. 
Pelham became prime minister; and in Nov. 
1744, he formed the "Broad-bottom" administra- 
tion; see Pelham.'^ 



WINCHESTER (Hampshire), a most ancient city, whose erection may reasonably be 
ascribed to the Celtic Britons, though the alleged date of its foundation, 892 B.C. is 
manifestly unworthy of attention. It was made the capital of the West Saxon kingdom 
under Cerdic, about 520 ; and of England by Egbert, 827 ; it became the residence of 
Alfred 879-901. In the reign of William I., though Winchester was still a royal residence, 
London began to rival it ; and the destruction of religious houses by Henry VIII. almost 
ruined it. Several kings resided at Winchester, and many parliaments were held there. 
Memorials of its ancient superiority exist in the national denomination of measures of 
quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, &c. , the use of which has but recently 
been replaced by imperial measures. The bishopric is of great antiquity. The cathedral 
church was first founded and endowed by Cynegils, or Kenegilsus, the fir.st Christian king 
of the West Saxons. Becoming ruinous, the present fabric was begun by bishop Walkelyn, 
the 34th bishop, 1073. The church was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then to St. 
Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once bishop here. Dedicated to the Holy Trinity by 
Henry YIII. St. Birinus was the first bishop of the West Saxons, his seat Dorchester, 
636 ; Wina, in 660, was the first bishop of Winchester. The see is valued in the king's 
books at 2793?. 4s. 2(Z. annually. Present income, 10,500?. 



Taken by the Danes, 871-3 ; ravaged by Sweyn 1013 

William Rufus buried here iioo 

Hospital of Holy Cross, founded by bishop 

Henry de Blois . ■ . . . ... 1132 

Winchester school, founded by bishop William 

of Wykeham 1382-7 



Winchester several times taken and re-taken, 
1641-3 ; taken by Cromwell and the castle 

dismantled 1645 

Charles II. began a palace here by Wren . . 1683 
Winchester Cross restored 1866 



WIN 805 WIN 

WINCHESTER, continued. 



1820. George Pretyman Tomline, died 1827. 
1S27. Charles Bichard Sumuer (present bishop). 



RKCENT BISHOPS OF WINCHESTER. (Prelates of the 

Order of the Garter.) 
1781. Brownlow North, died 12 July, 1S20. 

WINCHESTER SCHOOL, the oldest of our great schools, "Seinte Marie College of 
Wynchestre," the cliarter of which is dated Oct. 1382, was founded in 1387, by William 
(Long) of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who had established a school here in I373' 
The ancient statutes were revised in 1855. 

WINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the winding up the affairs of joint-stock companies 
which are unable to meet their engagements) were passed in 1848, 1857, and 1862. 

WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to be of Roman or 
Saracen invention. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe by the 
knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in the crusades. Baker. 
Windmills were first known in Spain, France, and Germanj% in 1299. Anderson. Wind 
saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, when one was erected near the Strand, in 
London. 

WINDOWS. There were glass windows in Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from 
its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed so early as tlie 3rd century, 
if not before, though the fashion was not introduced until it was done by Bennet, 633. 
Windows of glass were used in private houses, but the glass was imported, 1 177. A7iderson. 
In England, in 185 1, about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in each ; about 
275,000 had ten windows and upwards; and 725,000 had seven windows, or less than 
seven. 

Window-taxfirst enacted in order to defray the | Eeduced _. • 1823 

expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of ; The revenue derived from windows was in 1840 

gold i6gs I about a million and a qviarter sterling ; and 

The tax increased, 5 Feb. 1746-7 ; again in 1778; j in 1850 (to April 5), 1,832,684^. 

and again on the commutation-tax for tea i The tax repealed by act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 

I Oct. 1784 I (which act imposed a duty upon inhabited 

The tax again increased in . 1797, 1802, and 1808 | houses in lieu thereof) . . 24 July, 1851 

WINDSOR CASTLE (Berkshire), a residence of the British sovereigns, begun by 
William the Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about 11 10. Edward III., who was bom 
here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the west end, to be 
taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of William of Wykeham, 
1356, and built St. George's chapel. He assessed every county in England to send him 
workmen. James I. of Scotland was imprisoned here 1406-23. Several additions were 
made by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand north terrace ; and Charles II. repaired 
and beautified it, 1676-80. The chapel was repaired and opened, Oct. 1790. The castle 
was repaired and enlarged, 1824-8 ; and George IV. took possession of it, 8 Dec. 1828. 
Our sovereigns have here entertained many royal personages : as the emperor and empress 
of the French, in April, 1855. A serious fire occurred at the castle, in the prince of 
Wales's tower, owing to some defect in the heating apparatus, 19 March, 1853. Here 
died the prince consort, 14 Dec. 1861. 



Windsor Forest, situated to the south and west of 
the town of Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in 
circumference ; in 1607, it was 77^ miles round, 
but it has since been reduced in its bounds to 
about 56 miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and 
found to contain 59,600 acres. 

Virginia Water and the plantations about it were 
taken out of the forest. 

The marshes were drained and the trees planted for 
William, duke of Cumberland, about 1746 ; and 



much was done by George IV., who often resided 
at the lodge. 

On the south side is Windsor Great Park, which 
was fourteen miles in circumference, but it has 
been much enlarged by the Inclosure act ; it con- 
tains about 3800 acres. 

The Little Park, on the north and east sides of the 
castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are 
elegant, and have been considerably improved by 
the addition of the house and gardens of the duke 
of St. Alban's, purchased by the crown. 



WINDSOR KNIGHTS, see Poor, and Knights. 

WINDWARD ISLES (West Indies) —Barbadoes, St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, and St. 
Lucia. Governor, James Walker, 1861. 

WINE. " Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine," _2347_ B.C. (Gen. ix. 20) ; 
see Fme. Ching-Noung, emperor of Cliina, is said to have made rice wine, 1998 B.C. The 
art of making wine is said to have been brought from India by Bacchus. Christ changed 
water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee, a.d. 30. John ii. 3, 10. 

for being adulterated, to be staved and 
emptied into the channels of the streets, by 
Rainwell, mayor of London. Slaw's Citron. 1427 



Wine sold in England by apothecaries as a 

cordial in 1300, and so continued for some 

time after, although there is mention of 

" wine for the king " so early as . . . 1249 

The price was twelve shillings the pipe in . . 1400 

A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, 



The first importation of claret wine into Ire- 
land 17 June, 1490 



wm 



WIT 



WINE, continued. 

First act for licensing sellers of wine in Eng^ 
land passed 25 April, 1661 

By the Methuen treaty, Portuguese wines were 
highly favoured, and French wines discou- 
raged by heavy duties 1703 

Wine duties to be zs. gd. per gallon on Cape 
wine, and 5s. 6d. on all other wines . . 1831 

In year ending 31 March, 1856, the customs 



duties on wines produced. 1,856, 120Z. ; in 1858 
1,733,729^. ; in 1867, i,39i,i92(. 

By the French treaty of conamerce, the duty 
on wmes was much reduced . . Jan. 

Licences granted to refreshment houses by an 
act passed in 

The Oporto Wine Company (a monopoly), esta- 
blished in 1756, and abolished in . 



1815 
1830 
1839 



WINE IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. 

Gallons. 
. 8,469,776 

9,304,312 
. 10,875,855 1864 
10,336,485 



Gallons. 




3,307,460 
4,306,528 
6,879,558 
9,909,056 


1845 
1850 
1854 
1857 



Gallons. 

8,195.513 

11,052,436 

15,451,593 
15,321,029 



WINTEE, see Frosts. 

WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Eodolph of Nuremberg, about 
1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. The first wire-mill 
in England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer. 

WIRTEMBERG, see Wurtemberg. 

WISCONSIN, a N. W. state of N. America, was organised as a territory in 1836 ; and 
received into the union, 29 May, 1848. 

WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was commanded in the Jewish law 
{Bxodiis xxii. 18) 149 1 B.C., "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." Saul, after banishing 
or condemning witchcraft, incurred the wrath of God by consulting the witch of Endor, 
1056 B.C. (i Sam. xxviii. ) Bishop Hutchinson's historical " Essay on Witchcraft" was 
published in 1718. The church of Rome subjected persons suspected of the crime to the 
most cruel torments ; and pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against witchcraft in 1484. 
Thousands of innocent victims were burned alive, while others were killed by the tests 
applied. 



Many Templars burnt at Paris for witchcraft, 1309. 

Joan of Arc was burnt at Rheims as a witch, 30 May, 
1431- 

About five hundred witches were burnt in Geneva, 
in three months, 1515. 

One thousand were bui-nt in the diocese of Como in 
a year, about 1524. 

An incredible number in France, about 1520, when 
one sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. 

Nine hundred were burnt in Lorraine between 1580 
and 1595. 

One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt at Wurtz- 
burg between 1627 and 1629, old and young, 
clerical, learned, and ignorant. 

At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out 
of a population of 600; and more than 100,000 
perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany. 

Grandier, the parish priest at Loudon, was burnt on 
a charge or having bewitched a whole convent of 
nuns, 1634. 

In Bretagne, twenty poorwomen were put to death 
as witches, 1654. 

Disturbances commenced on charges of witch- 
craft in America, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and 
persecutions raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania 
in 1683. 

At Salem, in New England, nineteen persons were 
hanged (by the Puritans) for witchcraft, eight 
more were condemned, and fifty confessed them- 
selves to be witches and were pardoned, 1692. 

Maria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 

At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old wonien were ctiavged 
with having bewitched and rendered unfruitful 
the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were 
burnt 17 Jan. 1775. 

Five women were condemned to death by the 
Brahmins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed, 
15 Bee. 1802. 

WITCHOEAKT IN ENGLAND. 

Severe laws were in force against them in these 
countries in former times, by which death was the 
punishment, and thousands of persons suffered 



both by the public executioner and the hands of 
the people. 

A statute was enacted declaring all witchcraft and 
sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 
33 Hen. VIII. 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 
I. James 1603. 

The 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy 
from casting out devils, 1603. 

Barrin^ton estimates the judicial murders for witch- 
craft in England in 200 years at 30,000. 

Matthew Hopkins, the " witch finder," causes the 
judicial murder of about 100 persons in Essex, 
Norfolk, and Suffolk, 1645-7. 

Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft 
in 1664. 

Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the 
superstition about witchcraft later than any other 
counties. 

Seventeen or eighteen persons burnt at St. Osyths, 
in Essex, about 1676. 

Two pretended witches were executed at North- 
ampton in 1705, and five others seven years after- 
wards. 

In 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged nine, 
were hanged at Huntingdon. 

In Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in 
the period of about a hundred years. Among the 
victims were persons of the highest rank, while 
all orders in the state concurred. James I. even 
caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an 
acquittal. The king published his Damonologie in 
Edinburgh, 1597. 

The last sufferer in Scotland was at Dornach in 
1722. 

The laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for 
many years, when an ignorant person, attempting 
to revive them, by finding a bill agamst a poor 
old woman in Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, 
they were repealed, 10 Geo. II. 1736. 

Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country 
districts of England. On 4 Sept. 1863, a poor old 
paralyzed Frenchman died in consequence of 
having been ducked as a wizard at Castle Heding- 
ham, Essex, and similar cases still occur, 1S67. 



WIT 807 WOO 

WITENA-MOT or Witexa-gejiot. the assembling of the wise men, the great council of 
the Anglo-Saxons. A witeua-niot was called in Winchester by Egbert, 800, and in Loudon, 
833, to consult on the proper means to repel the Danes ; see Parliament. 

WITEPSK (in Russia), where a battle was fought between the French under marshal 
Victor, duke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by general Wittgenstein. The 
French were defeated after a desperate engagement, with the loss of 3000 men, 14 Nov. 1812. 

WITNESSES. Two or more witnesses were required by the law of Moses, 145 1 B.C. 
(Dent. xvii. 6), and by the early Christian church in cases of discipline (2 Cor. xiii. i), A.D. 
60. The evidence of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, 25 Edw. III. 1352. 
In civil actions between part}' and party, if a man be subpoenaed as a witness on a trial, he 
must appear in court on pain of lool. to be forfeited to the king, and xol., together with 
damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the want of his evidence to the party aggrieved. 
Lord Ellenborough ruled that no witness is obliged to answer questions which may tend to 
degrade himself, 10 Dec. 1802. New act relating to the examination of witnesses passed 
13 Geo. III. 1773. Act to enable courts of law to order the examination of witnesses upon 
interrogations and otherwise, i Will. IV. 30 March, 1831. 

WIVES, see Marriage. By the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes act, passed in 1857, 
the condition of married women has been much benetited. When ill-used they can obtain a 
divorce or judicial separation ; and while in the latter state any property they may acquire 
is secured to them personally, as if unmarried. By another act passed in 1857, they are 
enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or estates. On 21 April, 
1868, a bill was introduced into the commons giving a wife powers over money, her fortune, 
&c., as if she were single ; read a second time 10 June, 1868. 

WIVES' POISON or Water Tofana, see Poisoning. 

WOLVERHAMPTON (Staffordshire), an old town named Hamton ; owes its present 
name to the foundation of a college here by Wulfrai»a, sister of king Edgar, and widow of 
Aldhelm, duke of Northampton, 996. The queen was present at the inauguration of the 
prince consort's statue here, 30 Nov. 1866, and the church congress was opened here i Oct. 
1867. Wolverhampton is eminent for its manufactures in metal. 

WOLVES were once very numerous in England. Their heads were demanded as a 
tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 961, by Avhich step they were 
said to be totally destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate for the destruction of 
wolves in several counties of England, 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many 
centuries after their extirpation in England ; for thei'e are accounts of some being found 
there so late as 1710, when the last preseiitment for killing wolves was made in the county 
of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 
1828-9. 

WOMEN, see Wives. The employment of women is regulated by the Factor}/ and WorTc- 
sJiop Regulation acts {which see). Female suffrage for members of parliament was proposed 
by J. S. Mill, 20 May, 1867, and negatived by 196 against 73. Lily Maxwell, a shop- 
keeper at Manchester, voted for Jacob Bright, 26 Nov. 1867. Her name was on the 
register ; see Female Medical School. 

WONDERS OF THE World, i. The pyramids of Egjqit. 2. The mausoleum or tomb 
built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 3. The temple of Diana, at 
Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen 
image of the sun at Rhodes, called the Colossus. 6. The ivory and gold statue of Jujiiter 
Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt ; 
see separate articles. 

WOOD-CUTS, see Engraving on Wood. 

WOODS, FoRE.STS, &c., see Forests. The board of woods, forests, and land revenues 
was constituted in 1810. Tlie oversight of works and puljlic buildings was added to its 
duties in 1832, but transferred to a separate board of commissioners in 1851. 

WOOD'S HALF-PENCE, for circulation in Ireland and America, were coined by virtue 
of a patent, passed 1722-3. Against them, Dr. Jonathan Swift, by his Drfyjtcr's letters, 
raised such a spirit that Wood was virtually banished the kingdom. The half-pence were 
assayed in England by sir Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in 1724. 

WOODEN PAVEMENT (expensive and jx-rishable) seemed at one time likely to 
supersede stone in the principal thoroughfares of London. A wooden pavement was laid 
down at Whitehall in 1839 ; and in Oxford-street, the Strand, and other streets. The 
principal part was soon taken up, but some still exists in Coruhill ami Lombard-street 
(1868). 



woo 



AVOO 



WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Woodstock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a 
royal palace, in which king Ethelred held a parliament, and Alfred the Great translated 
Boetius cle Consolatione Philosophice, 888. Henry I. beautified the palace ; and here resided 
Eosamond, mistress of Henry II. iigi. In it were born Edmund, second son of Edward I., 
1301, and Edward, eldst son of Edward III., 1330 ; and here the princess Elizabeth was 
confined by her sister Mary, 1554. A splendid mansion, built at the expense of the nation, 
for the duke of Marlborough, was erected here to commemorate his victory at Blenheim in 
1704. At that time every trace of the ancient edifice was removed, ami two elms were 
planted on^its site ; see Blenheim. 

WOOL. From the earliest times to the reign of queen Elizabeth the wool of Great 
Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the finest in the universe ; 
and even in the times of the Eomans a manufacture of woollen cloths was established at 
Winchester for the use of the emperors. Anderson. In later times wool was manufactured 
in England, and is mentioned 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving 
of it was introduced by John Kempe and other artizans from Flanders. This was the real 
origin of our now unrivalled manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 133 1. Rymer's Feeder a. 



Duties on exported wool were levied by 
Edw. 1 1275 

The exportation proMbi ted 1337 

Staples of wool established in Ireland, at Dub- 
lin, Wateribrd, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 
Edw. Ill 1343 

Sheep were first permitted to be sent to Spain, 
which has since injured our manufacture. 
Stow 1467 

First legislative prohibition of the export of 
wool from Ireland 1521 

The exportation of English wool, and the im- 
portion of Irish wool into England pro- 
hibited ^ . 1696 

The export forbidden by act passed . . . 1718 

WOOLLEN CLOTH. Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of 
Julius Csesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him ; see Weaving. 



Bill to prevent the running of wool from Ire- 
land to France 1738 

The duty on wool imported from Ireland taken 
off 1739 

Woolcombers' act, 35 Geo. Ill 1794 

The non-exportation law was repealed, 5 
Geo. IV 1824 

In 1851 we imported 83,311,9751b. of wool and 
alpaca; in 1856, 116,211,3921b.; in 1859, 
133,284,6341b. ; in 1861, 147,172,8411b.; in 
1864, 2o6,473,'64slb. ; in 1866, 239,358,689 lb. 

We imported from Australia, in 1S42, 
12,979,8561b.; in 1856, 56,052,139 lb. ; in 
1861, 68,506,222 lb. ; in 1866, 113,773,6941b. 



British and Irish woollens prohibited in France 1677 

All persons obliged to be buried in woollen, and 
the persons directing the burial otherwise to 
forfeit s?., 29 Charles II 1678 

The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in 
England by Flemish settlers .... 1688 

Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 Will. 
Ill 1698 

The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, 
except to certain ports of England. . . 170T 

English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 
1712, and 2 Geo. 1 1715 

Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all Eng- 
land at the revolution. Chalmers. 

Value of woollen manufactures of all kinds 
exported, in 1847, 6,896,038?. ; in 1854, 
9,120,759?. ; in 1861, 11,118,6921. ; in 1864, 
18,566,078?. 



The Jews were forbidden to wear garments of 

woollen and linen together . . . B.C. 1451 
70 families of cloth-workers (from the Nether- 
lands) settled in England by Edward III. 

Rymer , a.d. 1331 

Worsted manufacture in Norfolk . . . 1340 
A kind of blankets were first made in England. 

Camden about ,, 

Woollens made at Kendal 1390 

No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported 

into England 1463 

The art of dyeing brought to England (see 

Dyeing) 1608 

Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . 1614 
Manufacture of fine cloth began at Sedan, in 

France, under the patronage of Cardinal 

Mazarine 1646 

Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, 

by Brewer, from the Low Countries . . 1667 

WOOL-COMBERS in several parts of England have a procession on 3 Feb., in comme- 
moration of bishop Blaize, who is reported to have discovered their art. He is said to have 
visited England ; and St. Blazy, a village in Cornwall, is celebrated for having been his 
landing-place. He was bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, and is said to have sufi'ered martyr- 
dom in the Diocletian persecution, 289. 

WOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chancellor of England in the house of lords, is so 
called from its being a large square bag of wool,. without back or arms, covered with red 
cloth. Wool was the staple commodity of England in the reign of Edward III. when the 
woolsack first came into use. 

WOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient military and naval arsenal in England, and 
celebrated for its royal dockyard, where men-of-war have been built so early as the reign of 
Henry VIII. 15 12, when the Harry Grace de Dieu was constructed. Here she also was burnt 
i^ 1552. The royal arsenal was formed about 1720, on the site of a rabbit-warren ; it contains 
vast magazines of great guns, mortars, bombs, powder, and other warlike stores ; a foundiy, 
with several furnaces, for casting ordnance ; and a laboratory, where fireworks, cartridges, 
grenades, &c., are made for the public service. The Royal Military Academy was erected in 
the royal arsenal, but the institution was not completely formed until 19th Geo. II. 1745. 



"WOE 809 WOR 

The arsenal, storehouses, &c., burnt, to the value of 200,000?. 20 May, 1802. Another great 
fire occurred 30 June, 1805. Fatal explosion of gunpowder, 20 Jan. 1813. The hemp- 
store burnt down, 8 July, 1813. Another explosion by gunpowder, 16 June, 1814. About 
10,000 persons are now employed in Woolwich arsenal. 

WOKC ESTER was successively an important Welsh, Eoman, and Saxon town. It was 
burnt by the Danes (1041) for resisting the tribute called Danegelt. AVilliani I. built a castle 
1090. The city was frequently taken and retaken during the civil wars of the middle ages, 
and by Cromwell in 165 1. — The Bishopiuc was foimded by Ethelred, king of the Mercians, 
680, and taken from the see of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The married 
priests of the cathedral were displaced, and monks settled in their stead, 964. The 
church was rebuilt by Wolstan, 25th bishop, 1030. Tlie see has yielded to the church 
of Rome four saints, and to the English nation five lord chancellors and three lord 
treasurers. It is valued in the king's books at 1049Z. i6s. ^^d. per annum. Present 
income, 5000?, 

RECENT BISHOPS. I 1831. Robert James Carr, died 24 April, 1841. 

1781. Richard Hurd, died 28 May, 1808. 1841. Henrj' Pepys, died 13 Nov. i860. 

1808. Folliott H. Cornwall, died 5 Sept. 1831. | i860. Henry Philpott (i'resent bishop). 

WORCESTER, Battle of, 3 Sept. 165 1, when the Scots army which came to England 

to reinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, Avho called it his crowning mercy. Charles 

with difficulty escaped to France. More than 2000 of the royalists were slain, and of 8000 

prisoners most were sold as slaves to the American colonists ; see Boscohel. 
WORKHOUSES, see under Poor. 
WORKING MEN. Since the great Exhibition of 1851, much has been done to benefit 

the labouring classes by organisation. International labour congresses were held at Geneva, 

1866 ; Lausanne, Sept. 1867. 

Worling Mcii's Clubs considered to have begun 
with the Working Men's JIutual Improve- 
ment and Recreation Society, cstabUshed in 
Lancaster by the instrumentality of the rev. 
H. Soils in 

The Westminster Worhiiig Men's Club, in Duck- 
lane, originated with Miss Adeline Cooper ; 
opened in Dec. 

TAc fVorkivg Men's C'hi.h and Institute Virion 
established by lord Brougham and others 

4 June, 1862 

The Working Men's Club and Lodging-house, Old 
Pye-street, Westminster, was opened 20 April, 1866 

Working Men's CoUeijes, etc. The first, esta- 
blished in SheflSeld, by working-men. The 
second, in London, by the rev. professor 
Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 
1854 ; a third in Cambridge ; and, in 1855, a 
fourth at Oxford ; all wholly for the working 
classes, and undertaking to impart such 

WORKS AND Public Buildin&s, see Woods. WORKSHOPS, see Ateliers. 

WORKSHOP REGULATION ACT, supplement to Factory acts, passed 21 Aug. 1867. 

WORLD, see Creation, and Glohe. 

WORMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse Darmstadt. Here Charlemagne resided in 
806 B.C. Several imperial diets have been held at Worms, where was held the imperial diet 
before which Martin Luther was summoned, 4 April, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. 
Luther Avas met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league from 
Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent a mes- 
senger to warn him of his danger, he answered, " If there were as many devils in Worms as 
there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on. " Before the emperor, the arch- 
duke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and prelates, 
and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther ajipeared, 17 April, in the imperial 
diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. Yet, 
to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion under tlie protection of the elector of Saxony 
for about a year. The edict putting him under the bans of the empire was issued 26 May, 
1521. Worms was burnt, by order of Louis XIV., 1689, the cathedral excepted; and was 
taken by the French, under Custine, 4 Oct. 1792. A memorial statue of Luther at Worms 
■was uncovered 25 June, 1868, in the presence of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns. 

WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is that of Abel, 3872 B.C. {Gen. iv.) "Men 
began to call on the name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. [Gen. iv.) The Jewish order of worship 
was set up by Moses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple, 1004 B.C. To the corrup- 
tions of the simple worship of the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idolatries owed their 



knowledge as each man feels he is most in 
want of. The colleges engage to find a 
teacher wherever 10 or 12 members agree to 
form a class, and also to have lectures given. 
There were eleven classes at the one in 
Bloomsbury, London, in 1856; Mr. Ruskin 
gave lessons in drawing. These colleges have 
been found to be self-supporting. 

A Working Women's College, begun at Queen- 
street, Bloomsbury 1864 

Act to establish councils of conciliation, to ad- 
just differences between masters and work- 
men passed . . . . .20 Aug. 1867 

Working Men's College, for South London, opened 
with a lecture bj- professor Huxley 4 Jan. 1868 

Workmen's International Exhibition proposed for 
1869; duke of Argyll, lord Elcho,and others, 
vice-presidents .... March, ,, 
See Co-operative Societies. 



WOR 



810 



"WEE 



origin. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upjjer Egypt, is supposed to be the Co2Jt of the 
Egyptians, and the Toth, or Hermes, of the Greeks, the Mercury of the Latins, and the 
Teutates of the Celts or Gauls, 21 12 B.C. Usher. 

WORSHIP IN England. The Druids were the priests here, at the invasion of the 
Romans (55 B.C.), who eventually introduced Christianity, which was almost extirpated by 
the victorious Saxons (455-820), who were pagans. The Roman catholic form of Chi-istianity 
was introduced by Augustine, 596, and continued till the Reformation (which see). 



PLACES OF WORSHIP IN ENGLAND AND WALES IN 1 85 1. 





Places of Worship. 


Sittings. 


Chiiroh of England 


14,077 


5.317.915 


Wesleyan Metliodists 


• • 6,579 


2,194,298 


Independents 


3-244 


1,067,760 


Baptists 


. . 2,789 


752,343 


Eoman Catholics . 


S70 


186,111 


Societj"- of Friends 


• • 371 


91,559 


Unitarians 


229 


68,554 


Scottish Presbyterians 


. . 160 


86,6q2 


Latter-day Saints (Mor 


nonites) 222 


30,783 


Brethren (Plymouth) 


• • 132 (?) 


18,529 


Jews 


53 


8,438 



Places of Worship. 



50 
32 



915 I New Church (Swedenborgians) 

Moravians 

Catholic and Apostolic Church ) 

(Irvingites) . . . j 3^ 

Greek Chui-ch .... 3 

Countess of Huntingdon's ) 

Connection ... J i°9 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodists . 828 
Various small bodies, some \ 

without names . . | 54° 

See Wesleyan Methodists, note. 



Sittings. 

12,107 

9,305 

7.437 

291 

35,210 

198,242 

105,557 



WORSTED, spun wool, obtained its name from having been first spun at a town called 
Worsted, in Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are 
still extensively carried on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. "A worsted-stocking knave" 
is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. 

WORTHIES, NINE, a term long ago given to the following eminent men : 



Jews. Died. 

Joshua . . . B.C. 1426 

David lois 

Judas Maccabseus . . . 161 



Heathens. 
Hector of Troy . 
Alexander the Great 
Julius Csesar 



Died. 
B.C. 1184 
• ■ 323 
44 
In some lists, Gideon and Samson are given, instead of Hector and Arthur. 
Labour's Lost, act v. sc. 2, Hercules and Pompey appear as worthies. 



Christians. Died. 

King Arthur of Britain a.d. 542 
Charlemagne of France . 814 
Godfrey of Bouillon . . iioo 

In Shakspeare's Love's 



WOTHLYTYPE, see under Photography. 

WOUNDED IN Battle. An international society for the succour of the wounded in 
battle was established at Geneva by M. Dunart in 1862. Neutral ambulances, or moveable 
hospitals are furnished, and served by volunteers. The society exhibited apparatus at the 
International Exhibition at Paris, April, 1867. 

WOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another was adjudged death by the English 
statutes. The Coventry act was passed in 167 1 ; see Coventry Act. By lord Ellenborough's 
act, persons who stab or cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure another were declared 
guilty of felony without benefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously shooting at another 
in any dwelling-house or other place, are also punishable under the same statute in the same 
degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence is met by some later statutes, particularly the act 
for consolidating and amending the acts relating to offences against the person, 9 Geo. IV., 
Jmie, 1828. This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV., 1829. An act for the 
prevention of maliciously shooting, stabbing, &c., in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV., 1825 ; amended 
loj 10 Geo. IV., 4 June, 1829. 16 & 17 Vict. c. 30, 1853, was passed for the prevention and 
punishment of assaults on women and children. 

WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and 
disasters in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 
ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists that 677 British vessels were totally 
lost, under various circumstances, in that year. 

British vessels wrecked in 1848, were, sailing vessels, 
501; steamers, 13; tonnage, 96,920. 



In 1851, there were, wrecked 611 vessels, of which 
number 11 were steamers : the tonnage of the 
whole being 111,976. 

The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months 
(Dec. and Jan ), was very remarkable for the 
number of dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea ; 
but a few of them are recorded. 



Many vessels were lost in the great storms, 25, 26 
Oct. 1859 ; 28 May, 1861 ; 19, 20 Oct. 1861 ; and 13, 
14 Nov. 1862 : by a cyclone, India, 5 Oct. 1864 ; in 
the West Indies, Oct. 1867. 

From the establishment of the Royal National Life- 
boat institution, in 1824, to the end of 1867, 
16,987 hves had been saved by its Ufe-boats. 



WB,ECKS of A''ESSELS on BPaTISH COASTS. 





Vessels. 


Lives lost. 




Vessels. 


Lives lost 


1852 . 


lois 


920 


1854 . 


. 897 . . 


1549 


1853 . 


. . 832 


. . 689 


185s 


. . 1141 


. . 469 



WRE 



811 



WRE 



WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 

Vessels wrecked or svffering Vessels j ■ , , 

other casualties. totally wrecked. * 



1856 


1153 


1857 


II43 


1858 


869 


1859 


I4I5 


i860 


1379 


I86I 


668 



— 


. 521 


1862 


1827 


• 3S4 • 


• 532 


1863 


2001 


• 354 • 


• 340 


1864 


1741 


— . 


• 1645 


1865 


2012 


• 541 . 


. 536 
. 8S4 


1866 


1787 



Vessels wrecked or suffering Vessels 

other casualties. totally wrecked. 

■ 455 
• . 503 • 
. 467 . 



Lives lost. 



620 
516* 



* 3619 lives were saved by the use of rocket apparatus, life-boats, ifcc. 
REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED OR BURNT. 



Maiy Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth 
to Spithead, upset in a squall ; all on board 

perished 20 July, 1545 

Coronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Ram- 
head ; crew saved : Hancich, 70 guns, wrecked 
on Mount Edgcumbe; crew perished i Sept. 1691 

Royal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the Med- 
way ....... 29 Jan. 1696 

Stirling Castle, 70 guns ; Mary, 70 guns ; Nirr- 
thiimberland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; 
Vanguard, 70 guns, sunk at Chatham ; York, 
70 guns, lost near Harwich ; all lost but four 
men ; Resolution, 60 g>ms, coast of Sussex ; 
Newcastle, 60 guns, at Spithead, 193 drowned; 
Reserve, 60 guns, at Yarmouth, 173 perished ; 
in the night of .... 26 Nov. 1703 

Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost 
with adniu-al sir C. Shovel, off the Scilly isles 
{which see) ..... 22 Oct. 1707 

Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew 
perished 25 Dec. 1709 

Edgar, 70 guns blew up at Spithead ; all on 

board perished .... 15 Oct. 171 1 
Victor)/, 100 guns, near the isle of Alderney ; all 
perished 5 Oct. 1744 

Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 40 
men perished 21 Sept. ,, 

Naiiiur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, 
East Indies ; all perished except 26 persons ; 
Pembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of 
her crew perished . . . 13 April, 1749 

Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N., on 
way to Gibraltar; about 400 perished 13 April, 175S 

Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary ; 
130 of the crew perished . . . 29 Nov. ,, 

Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of 
the crew perished . . . .25 Sept. 1759 

Ramilies, go guns, lost on the Bolt-head ; only 
26 persons saved ; Conrjueror, lost on St. 
Nicholas's Island, Plymouth . 15 Feb. 1760 

Du.c d'Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 
guns, lost oft' Pondicherry ; all perislaed 

I Jan. 1761 

Raisonnahle, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Mar- 
tinique .... • . 3 Feb. 1762 

RepuUe, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda ; crew 

perished 1775 

Thunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Ca^stle, 64 ; Defiance, 
64 ; Phceaix, 44 ; La Blanche, 32 ; Laurel, 28 ; 
Shark, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; J)ea.l Ca.-itle, 24 ; 
Penelope, 24; Scarborough, 20; Barbadoes, 14; 
Cameleon, 14 ; Endeavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 
guns : all lost in the same storm, in the West 
Indies, in Oct. 1780 

Gfn.. .Ba?'far, Indiaman, off Scheveling 17 Feb. 1781 

Grosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caflraria 4 Aug. 1782 

Swan, sloop of war, off Waterford ; 130 drovpned 

4 Aug. „ 

Royal George: above 600 perished . 29 Aug. ,, 

Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her passage 
from Jamaica; capt. Inglefield and 11 of the 
crew saved 21 Sept. „ 

Ville de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rod- 
ney's prizes ; the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in 
the West Indies 5 Oct. ,, 

Superb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roads. 
East Indies 5 Nov. 1783 

Cato, so guns, admiral sir Hyde Parker, on the 
Malabar coast ; crew perished . . . „ 



Count Belgioioso. Indiaman, oft' Dublin Bay ; 147 

souls perished . . . . 13 March, 

Menai, ferry-boat,, in the Strait ; 60 di'owned 

5 Dec. 
HaUewell, E. Indiaman ; 100 persons perished 

6 Jan. 
Hart well, Indiaman, with immense wealth on 

board 24 May, 

Charlemont Packet, from Holyhead to Dublin ; 

104 drowned ..... 22 Dec. 

Pandora, frigate on a reef; 100 perished 

28 Aug. 
Union, packet of Dover, lost off the port of 
Calais ; a similar occurrence had not hap- 
pened for 105 years before . . 28 Jan. 
Winterton, E. Indiaman : many perish 20 Aug. 
Impetueux, 74 guns, burnt at Portsmouth 

24 Aug. 
Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Leghorn 20 Nov. 
Ard,ent, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica . April, 
Boyne, by fire, at Spithead (see Boyne) 4 May, 
Couragenx, 74 guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near 
Gibraltar ; crew, except 124, perished 

18 Dec. 
La Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax ; 300 souls 

perished 16 Nov. 

Resistance, blown up in the straits of Banca 

24 July, 
Royal Charlotte, East Indiaman, blown up at 

Culpee I Aug. 

Proserpine frigate, in the Elbe ; 15 lost i Feb. 
Lutine, 36 guns, wrecked off the Vli^ island, 
coast of Holland ; only two saved . 9 Oct. 
Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Lang- 
stone and Chichester . . -19 Oct. 
Sci'ptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, Cape of 

Good Hof)e ; 291 of the crew perished . 
Ifassau, 64 guns, on the Haak Bank ; 100 

perished 25 Oct. 

Ethalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Penmarka 

24 Dec. 
Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point ; 369 souls 

perished 14 Jan. 

Mastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands 19 Jan. 
Repulse, 64 guns, off U.shant . . to March, 
Queen, W Indiaman, by fire, off Brazil 9 July, 
Invincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth ; capt. .John 
Rennie, and the crew, except 126 souls, 

perished 16 March, 

Margate, Margate-hoy, near Reculver ; 23 per- 
sons perished 10 Feb. 

Bangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea 12 April, 
Active, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads 

10 Jan. 
Hindoslon, East Indiaman, went to pieces on 

the Culvers n Jan. 

La Dt'termindc, 24gTnis, in Jersey Roads : many 

drowned 26 IMarch, 

Resistance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent 

31 Mav, 
Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice 

28 June, 
Seine, frigate, 44 guns, ofi" Schelling 31 July, 
Antelope, capt. Wilson, oS' Pellew Islands 

9 Aug. 
Victory, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 27 

drowned 30 Sept. 

Circe, frigate, 32 guns, off Yarmouth 16 Nov. 
Nautilus, B. Indiaman, on Ladrones 18 Nov. 



1785 
1786 
1787 
1790 
1791 

1792 



1793 
1794 
1795 



1796 
1797 
179S 



1800 



laoi 
1802 



WRE 



812 



WRE 



"WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 

Fanny, in Chinese Sea : 46 souls perish 

29 Jfov. 1803 

■5M(^saK<e, sloop, 16 guns, oflf Cork . 25 Dec. „ 

Apollo, frigate, on coast of Portugal . i April, 1804 

Cumberland Packet, on Antigua coast 4 Sept. ,, 

Romney, 50 guns, on Haak Bank, Texel 

18 Nov. ,, 

Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay; lost 8 men 

24 Nov. ,, 

-Sewj-w, on a rock, near Grouville . 21 Dec. ,, 

Boris, frigate, on the Diamond Eock, Quiberon 
Bay 12 Jan. 1805 

Abergavenny, Bast Indiaman, on the Bill of Port- 
land ; more than 300 persons perished, 6 Feb. ,, 

.Naias, transport, on Newfoundland coast 

23 Oct. ,, 

JEneas, transport, off Newfoundland; 340 pe- 
rished 23 Oct. ,, 

Aurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands ; 300 
perished 21 Dec. ,, 

-King George, packet, from Park-gate to Dublin, 
lost on the Hoyle bank ; 125 persons, pas- 
sengers and crew, drowned . 21 Sept. i8o5 

-Athenien, 64 guns, near Tunis ; 347 souls pe- 
rished 27 Oct. ,, 

■Glasgow, packet, off Farm Island; several 
drowned 17 Nov. ,, 

Felix, 12 guns, near Santander ; 79 souls lost 

22 Jan. 1807 

Blenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridge, 
and Java, 32 guns, foundered near isle of 
Eodrigueiz, East Indies . . . i Feb. „ 

Ajax, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of Tenedos ; 
250 perished 14 Feb. „ 

Manche, frigate, on the French coast ; 45 men 
perished 4 March, ,, 

'Ganges, East Indiaman, off the Cape of Good 
Hope 29 May, „ 

.Prince of Wales, Park-gate packet, axs.d Rochdale, 
transport, on Dunleary point, near Dublin ; 
neai-ly 300 souls perished . . ig Nov. ,, 

Boreas, man of -war, upon the Hannois rock in 
the Channel 28 Nov. ,, 

Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in ; Mount's Bay ; 60 
lives lost . . . . ' . . 29 Dec. ,, 

Agatha, ne&r Memel ; lord Royston and others 
drowned 7 April, 1808 

Astrea, frigate, on Anagada coast . 23 May, ,, 

Frith, passage-boat, in the Frith of Dornoch ; 
40 persons drowned ... 13 Aug. 1809 

Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from 
Halifax ; crew perished . . 31 Aug. „ 

Sirius, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 guns, 
wrecked when advancing to attack the 
French, off Isle of France . . 23 Aug. 1810 

Satellite, sloop of war, 16 guns, upset, and all 
on board perished . . . .14 Dec. ,, 

Minotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak 
Bank; 360 persons perished . . 22 Dec. ,, 

Pandora, sloop of war, oS Jutland ; 30 persons 
perished 13 Feb. 1811 

Saldanha, frigate, on the Irish coast ; 300 per- 
sons perished 4 Dec. ,, 

■ St. George, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and 

the Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, 
adm. Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 
persons) perished except 18 seamen, 24 Dec. ,, 

Manilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand ; 12 persons 
perished 28 Jan. 1812 

^British Queen, packet, from Ostend to Margate, 
wrecked on the Goodwin Sands, and aU on 
board perished .... 17 Dec. 1814 

Duchess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire 

21 Jan. 1816 

■ Seahorse, transport, near Tram ore Bay ; 365 per- 

sons, chiefly soldiers of the sgth regiment, 
and most of the crew, drowned . 30 Jan. „ 
-Zord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with 
upwards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with 
wives and children, lost near Kinsale; al- 
most all perished . . . -31 Jan. „ 



Harpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; 100 
persons drowned .... 10 Nov. i8i5 

William and Mary, packet, struck on the 
Willeys rocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, 
English Channel, nearly 60 persons perished 

24 Oct. 1817 

Queen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras ; all 
on board perished . . . .24 Oct. 1818 

Ariel, in the Persian Gulf ; 79 souls perished 

18 March, 1820 

Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liver- 
pool ; 40 drowned .... 8 Aug. 1821 

Blendon Hall, on Inaccessible Island ; many 
perished 23 July, „ 

Juliana, East Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock ; 
40 drowned 26 Dec. ,, 

Thames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head ; several 
drowned 3 Feb. 1822 

Drake, 10 guns, near Hahfas ; several drowned 

20 June, „ 

Ellesmere, stesxa&r ; 11 persons lost . 14 Dec. „ 

Alert, Dublin and Liverpool packet ; 70 souls 
perished 26 March, 1823 

Robert, from Dublin to Liverpool ; 60 souls 
perished 16 May, ,, 

Fanny, in Jersey Roads ; lord Harley and many 
drowned i Jan, 1828 

Venus, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
Gorey ; 9 persons drowned . 19 March, „ 

Newry, from N^wry to Quebec, with 360 pas- 
sengers ; cast away near Bardsy, about 40 
persons were drowned . . .16 April, 1830 

Lady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to Quebec ; 
lost near Cape Ray ; 273 souls perished ; 32 
only were saved .... 19 Aug. 1831 

Experiment, from Hull ■ to Quebec ; wrecked 
near Calais 15 April, 1832 

Hibernia, burnt in W. long. 22°, S. lat. 4°; 150 
persons (out of 232) perished . . 15 Feb. 1833 

Earl of Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin 
filled, and 11 ladies and children were 
drowned ; all on deck escaped . 13 July, ,, 

Amphitrite, ship with female convicts to New 
South Wales ; lost on Boulogne Sands ; out of 
131 persons, 3 only were saved . 30 Aug. ,, 

United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich cargo ; 
run down by the Queen of Scotland steamer 
off Northfleet, near Gravesend . 15 Oct. „ 

Waierwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford ; 
4 drowned 18 Dec. ,, 

Lady Munro, from Calcutta to Sydney ; of 90 
persons on board, not more than 20 were 
saved 9 Jan. 1834 

Cameleon, cutter, run down off Dover by the 
Castor frigate ; 13 persons drowned 27 Aug. „ 

Killarney, steamer, off Cork ; 29 persons pe- 
rished 26 Jan. 1838 

Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 
persons drowned. Owing to the coiu-age of 
Grace Darling and her father, 15 persons 
were saved (see Forfarshire) . 6 Sept. ,, 

Protector, E. Indiaman ; at Bengal ; of 178 per-- 
sons on board, 170 perished . 21 Nov. „ 

William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin 
and Liverpool ; 93 passengers saved by capt. 
Clegg, of the Huddersfield . . 11 Jan. 1840 

Lord William Bentinck. off Bombay ; 58 recruits, 
20 ofl&cers, and 7 passengers perished : the 
Lord Castlereagh also wrecked ; most of her 
crew and passengers lost . . 17 June, ,, 

H.M.S. Fairy, captain Hewitt; sailed from 
Harwich on a surveying cruise, and was lost 
next day in a violent gale, off the coast of 
Norfolk 13 '^o'^- . » 

City of Bristol, steam-packet, 35 perished 

18 Nov. „ 

Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to 
Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain 
and 55 persons perished . . .4 Jan. 1841 

Governor Fenner, from Liverpool for America; 
run down off Holyhead by the Nottingham 



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WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 

steamer out of Dublin ; 122 persons perished 

19 Feb. 1841 

Amelia, from London to Liverpool ; lost on the 
Heme Sand 26 Feb. ,, 

President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
with many passengers on board; sailed on 
II March, encountered a terrific storm two 
days afterwards, and has never since been 
heard of 13 March, „ 

[In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the 
comedian ; a son of the duke of Richmond, 
&c.] 

William Browne, by striking on the ice ; t6 
passengers who had been received into the 
long boat were thrown overboard by the crew 
to lighten her .... ig April, „ 

Isabella, from London to Quebec ; struck by an 
iceberg ■ 9 IMay, ,, 

Solway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
and Port Carlisle ; crew saved . 25 Aug. ,, 

Amanda, off Metis ; 29 passengers and 12 of the 
crew lost 26 Sept. , , 

James Cooke, of Limerick, coming from Sligo to 
Glasgow 21 Nov. ,, 

Abercrombie Robinson and Waterloo transports, 
in Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope : of 330 
persons on biiard the latter vessel, 189, prin- 
cipally convicts, perished . . 28 Aug. 1842 

SpiJrtre, war-steamer, off Jamaica 10 Sept. ,, 

Jieliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, 
off Merlemont, near Boulogne : of 116 persons 
on board, seven only were .saved 13 Nov. ,, 

Hamilton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Harwich ; 
II of the crew perished . . .15 Nov. ,, 

Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, 
near Boulogne; crew and passengers lost 

13 Jan. 1843 

Jessie Logan, East Indiaman, on the Cornish 
coast ; many lives lost . . 16 Jan. ,, 

Solway, royal mail-steamer, near Corunna; 28 
lives lost, and the mail . . .7 April, ,, 

Catherine, trader, lalown up off the Isle of Pines ; 
most of the crew were massacred by the 
natives, or afterwards drowned 12 April, ,, 

Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew 
saved 23 May, ,, 

Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th 
regiment on board, which was miraculously 
saved 13 July, ,, 

Peijasus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off the 
Fern Islands ; of 59 persons (including Mr. 
Elton, the actor), 7 only were saved 19 July, ,, 

Phanix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast 
of Newfoundland ; many lives were lost 

26 Nov. ,, 

Elberfeldl, iron steam-ship, from Brielle, 22 Feb. 1844 

Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, 
off the Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven ; about 
30 lives lost 16 June, ,, 

Margaret, Hidl and Hamburg steamer : many 
lives lost 22 Oct. 1845 

Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in 
Dundrum bay (see Great Britain) 22 Sept. „ 
[Recovered by Brunei, &c. , 27 Aug. 1847.] 

John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea ; 
several lives lost . . . -25 Sept. „ 

Tweed, W. India mail-packet ; 72 souls perished, 

19 Feb. 1847 
Carrick, brig ; a gale in the St. Lawrence ; 170 

emigi-ants perished ... 19 jfay, „ 
Avenger, H.M. steam -f rigate ; off N. coast of 
Africa; ofiQcers and crew (nearly 200) lost 

20 Dec. ,, 
'Exmouth, eniigrant-ship, from Londonderry to 

Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all 
were drowned .... 28 April, ,, 
Ocean Monarch {which see) . . . 24 Aug. 1848 
Caleb Griiiiskair, emigrant-ship, by fire ; 400 
persons miraculously escaped . 12 Nov. 1849 



Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 
Sands, oS Margate, above 400 lives lost 

30 March, 1850 

Orion, steam-ship, off Portpatrick (see Orion) 

18 June, ,, 

Rosalind, from Quebec ; a number of the crew 
drowned 9 Sept. ,, 

Edmund, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 pas- 
sengers from Limerick to New York (of 
whom more than one-half perished), wrecked 
off the Western coast of Ireland . 12 Nov. ,, 

Amazon, W. India maiL-steamer (see Amazon) 

4 Jan. 1852- 

Birkenhead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, 
and of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queens- 
town, 7 Jan. 1852, for the Cape, having on 
boai'd detachments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 
6th, 12th, 43rd, 45th, and 60th Rifles, 73rd, 
74th, and 91st regiments. It struck upon a 
pointed pinnacle rock off Simon's bay. South 
Africa, and of 638 persons, only 184 were 
saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew and 
soldiers perished .... 26 Feb. „. 

Victoria, steam-packet, wrecked near Wings 
beacon otC Gottenburg ; many hves lost 

8, 9 Nov. ,y 

Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, 
on the Gulf-of-Man ; by which more than 30 
persons lost their lives . . 24 Dec. „ 

St. George, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool 
to New York, with 121 emigrant passengers 
(chiefly Irish), and a crew consisting of 
twenty-nine seamen (the captain inclusive), 
was destroyed by fire at sea. The crew and 
seventy of the passengers were saved by the 
American ship Orlando, and conveyed to 
Havre, in France; sisupposedtohaveperished 

24 Dec. ,, 

Queen Victoria, steam-ship, bound from Liver- 
pool, was wrecked off the Bailey lighthouse, 
near DubUn ; mistook her course in a snow- 
storm ; 67 lost out of 120 . . 15 Feb. 1853. 

Independerice, on the coast of Lower Cahfomia, 
and which afterwards took fire ; 140 persons 
were drowned or burnt to death, a few- 
escaping, who underwent the most dreadful 
additional sufferings on abaiTcn shore, 16 Feb. ,, 

Duke of Sutherland, steamer, from London to 
Aberdeen ; wrecked on the pier at Aberdeen, 
and the captain (Hoskins) and many of the 
crew and passengers perished . 2 April, ,, 

Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen's Land, 
caiat. Shephard and many lives lost, 29 April, „ 

William a.nd Mary, an American emigrant-ship, 
near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken 
rock; about 170 persons perished 3 May, ,,. 

Aurora, of Hull ; sailed from New York, 
26 April, and foundered ; about 25 Uvea lost 

20 May, ,, 

Boumeuf, Australian emigrant vessel; struck 
on a reef near Toitcs Straits ; the captain 
(Bibby) and six lives lost . . 3 Aug. ,, 

Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, 
driven on shore on the Barra Islands on west 
coast of Scotland; about 348 lives lost 29 Sept. „ 

Harwood, brig, by collision with the Trident 
steamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore ; 
foundered ; si.x of the crew perished 5 Oct. ,, 

Balhousie, foundered off Beachey Head ; the 
captain (Butterworth), the passengers, and 
all the ci-ew (excepting one), about 60 persons 
in all, perished ; the cargo was valued at 
above loo.oooi. .... 19 Oct. ,, 

Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea, ran 
into the barque If'ood/iouse ; about 48 persons 
supposed to have peri.«hed . . 28 Nov. „ 

TayUur, emigrant ship, driven on the rocks oflf 
Landbay Island, north of Howth ; about 380 
lives lost ..... 20 Jan. 1854* 



* Arctic, U. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with the Vesta, French steamer, off Newfoundland; 
above 300 lives lost, 27 Sept. 1854. 



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WEECKS OF Shipping, continued. 

Favourite, in the Channel, on her way from 
Bremen to Baltimore, came into violent con- 
tact with the American barque Henper, off 
the Start, and immediately went down ; 201 
persons were drowned . . 29 April, 1854 

lady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 
10 May, 1854 ; foundered in a hurricane ; 350 
rank and file of the Madras light infantry, 
ofacers, and crew, in all 400 souls, perished 

May, ,, 

Forerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a 
sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and 
went down directly afterwards, with the 
total loss of ship and mails, and 14 lives 

25 Oct. ,, 

Mle, iron screw - steamer, struck on the 
Godevry rock, St. Ives' Bay, and aU perished 

30 Nov. „ 

CitT/ of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 
persons on board, disappeared in . . . ,, 

In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 
13-16 Nov. 1854, eleven transports were 
wrecked and six disabled. The new steam- 
ship Prince was lost with 144 lives, and a 
cargo worth 5oo,ooo(. indispensable to the 
army in the Crimea. The loss of life in the 
other vessels is estimated at 340 . . . ,, 

Geo?'(/eCa%rc!W(/, Hamburg andNew York packet, 
near the mouth of the Elbe : 96 lives lost, and 
Staley, Enslish schooner, near Neuwreek, in 
a great storm . . . . . i Jan. 1855 

Mercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a 
French ship : passengers saved . 11 Jan. ,, 

Janet Boyd, bark, in a storm off Margate 
Sands; 28 lives lost . . . 20 Jan. ,, 

Will 0' the Wisp, screw-steamer, on the Bum 
Rock, off Lambay ; 18 lives lost . 9 Feb. ,, 

Morna, steamer, on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 
21 lives lost 25 Feb. ,, 

John, emigrant vessel, on the Muncles rocks off 
Falmouth; 200 hves lost . . i May, ,, 

Pacific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New 
York, with 186 persons on board ; never since 
heard of (supposed to have struck on an ice- 
berg) . . . . . . -23 Jan- ,1 

Jose%)kine Willis, packet-ship, lost by collision 1856 
with the screw steamer Mangerton in the 
Channel; about 70 li yes lost . . 3 Feb. „ 

John Rut ledge, from Liverpool to New York, 
ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many 
lives lost 20 Feb. ,, 

Many vessels and their crews totally lost* 

1-8 Jan. 1857 

Violet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Good- 
win ; many persons perished . 5 Jan. „ 

Tyne, royal mail-steamer, stranded on her way 
to Southampton from the Brazils . 13 Jan. „ 

St. Andrew, screw-steamer, totally wrecked 
near Latakia ; loss about 145,000^ . 29 Jan. ,, 

Charlemagne, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast 
of Canton : passengers saved ; loss, about 

iio,oooi 20 March. „ 

H.M.S. Raleigh, 50 guns, wrecked on south-east 
coast of Macao .... 14 April, ,, 

Catherine Adainson, Australian vessel, wrecked 
25 miles from Sydney, 20 hves lost, about 

3 June, „ 

H.M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef in the 

Straits of Banca .... 10 July, ,, 
JDunbar, chpper, wrecked on the rocks near 
Sydney ; 121 persons, and cargo valued at 
22,oooi. lost; one person only saved, who 
was on the rocks 30 hours . . 20 Aug. ,, 



Sarah Saiids, an iron-screw steamer, sailed 
from Portsmouth for Calcutta, in Aug. 1857; 
300 soldiers on board. On 11 Nov. the cargo 
(government stores) took fire. By the exer- 
tions of major Brett and captain Castle, the 
master of the vessel , who directed the soldiers 
and the crew, the flames were subdued, 
although a barrel of gunpowder exploded 
duriag the conflagration. A new danger then 
arose — the prevalence of a strong gale — water 
was shipped heavily whei-e the port qiiarter 
had been blown out. Nevertheless, after a 
fearful struggle, the vessel arrived at the 
Mauritius, 21 Nov., without losing a single 

life 11-21 Nov. 1857 

Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near 
the Cape de Verde Islands . . i Dec. „ 

Ava, Indian mail-steamer, with ladies and 
others from Lucknow on board; wrecked 
near Ceylon 16 Feb. 1858 

Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her 
way to Melbourne ; by great exertions all on 
board were saved . . .23, 24 Aug. ,, 

Austria, steam-emigrant ship, burnt in the 
middle of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on 
board, only 67 were saved. The disaster due 
to carelessness .... 13 tSept. „ 

St. Paul, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to 
Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked 
on the island of Rossel, 30 Sept. 1858. The 
captain and eight of the crew left the island 
in search of assistance, and were picked up 
by the Prince of Denmark schooner. The 
French stearaer Styx was dispatched to the 
island, and brought away one Chinese, 25 
Jan. 1859. All the rest had been massacred 
and devoured by the natives . . . . ,, 

Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard ; 14 lives 
lost 23 Jan. iSsgt 

Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead ; out of 500, 
eight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid 
soldiers from India, who, with the crew, be- 
haved admirably .... 2 June, ,, 

Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, 
Bed Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all per- 
sons saved ; after 3^ days' exposvire to the 
sun, without water, they were rescued by 
H.M.S. Cyclops: sir John Bowring, who was 
on board, lost valuable papers . 12 June, ,, 

Admella, steamer, running between Melboxu-ue 
and Adelaide, struck on a reef ; of about 72 
persons, only 23 were saved ; many perished 
through exposure to cold . . 6 Aug. „ 

Royal CJiarter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, 
totally wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea 
coast ; 446 lives lost. The vessel contained 
gold amounting in value to between 700,000?. 
and 8oo,oooJ. ; much of this has been reco- 
vered .... night of 25-26 Oct. ,, 

Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of 
Newfoundland ; out of 116, 27 lives lost 

?i Nov. ,, 

Blervie Castle, sailed from London docks for 
Adelaide ; lost in the Channel and all on 
board, 57 persons ; last seen on . 25 Dec. ,, 

Northerner, steamer, wrecked on a rock near 
Cape Mendorino, between San Francisco and 
Oregon ; 38 lives lost ... 6 Jan. i860 

Endymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; 
loss above 20,000?. ... 31 Jan. ,, 

Dreadful gales ; and many wrecks on the coast, J 

15-19 Feb. ,, 

OndAne, steamer ; lost through collision with 



* A large American vessel. Northern Belle, was wrecked near Broadstairs. The American government 
sent 21 silver medals and 270?. to be distributed among the heroic boatmen of the place, who saved the 
crew. 5-6, Jan. 1857. 

t Pomona, an American ship, captain Merrihew ; 419 persons on board, from LiveiTpool to New York, 
was wrecked on Blaokwater Bank, through the master mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar light, 
only 24 persons saved, night of 27-28 AprU, 1859. 

J American barque Irma, with emigrants, wrecked off Barfleur; above 100 lives lost, 17 Feb. i860. On 



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WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 

the Heroine, of Bideford, abreast of Bcachey 
Head ; the captain and about 50 persons 
perished 19 Feb. 

Hunriarian, new mail-steamer, wrecked off 
coast of Nova Scotia ; all on board (205) lost 
on the night of . . . 19-20 Feb.* 

Jfimrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. 
David's Head ; 40 lives lost . . 28 Feb. 

Malalnir, iron ship, on her way to China, with 
lord Elgin and baron Gros : wrecked off Point 
de Galle, Ceylon. The ambassadors displayed 
nnich heroism ; no lives lost. Of much specie 
sunk, a good deal was recovered 22 May, 

Arctic, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jutland ; 
many persons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost 
his own life while endeavouring to save 
others S Oct. 

Connaught, steamer, burnt; crew saved through 
the gallantry of the crew of an American brig 

7 Oct. 

Juanita, wrecked through collision with an 

American vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost 

15 March, 

Canadian, steamer, sti-uck on a field of ice in 
the straits of Belle-isle, and foundered in half 
an hour ; 35 lives lost ... 4 June, 

H.M.S. Conqueror, stranded on Rum Cay, near 
Bahamas, and lost [the captain and master 
were censured for neglect of duty] 29 Dec. 

Harmony, lost with all hands oS Plymouth 

27 Feb. 

Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great 
storm : crew all lost except two . 19 Oct. 

Ocean Monarch, 2 195 tons, sailed from New York, 
5 March, laden with provisions : foundered in 
a gale 9 March, 

Upwards of 60 merchantmen lost during gales in 

March, 

Mars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 
Milford haven ; about 50 lives lost i April, 

Bencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons ; struck on 
sands near Bude haven, Cornwall ; about 26 
lives lost 19 Oct. 

Many vessels lost during storm . 19 Oct. 

Colombo, Bast India mail steamer, in thick 
weather, wrecked on Minic»g Island ; 440 
miles from Point de Galle, Ceylon ; no lives 
lost (the crew and passengers taken off by 
the Ottawa, from Bombay, 30 Nov.) 19 Nov. 

Lifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle, with about 
41 passengers ; never since heard of ; sujjposed 
to have foundered off Flamborough head 

20 Dec. 
Orpheus, H. M S. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons ; 

commander Burnett ; wrecked on Manakau 
bar, W. coast New Zealand; 7oijersons saved; 
about 190 perished ... 7 Feb. 

Anglo-Saxon, mail-steamer, captain Burgess, in 
dense fog, wrecked on reef off Cape Race, 
Newfoundland ; about 237, out of 446, lives 
lost 27 Apiil, 

AIL Serene, Australian ship ; gale in the Pacific ; 
above 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much 
till they reached the Fiji isles in a punt) 

21 Feb. 



1864 



Many shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone 
at Calcutta . . . . . 5 Oct. 1864 

H.M.S Racehorse, off Chefoo Cape, Chinese 
coast ; 99 lives lost ... 4 Nov. ,, 

The Stanley, Friendship, &c., in the gale off 
Tynemouth ; and the Dalhousie, screw 
steamer, mouth of the Tay ; same gale ; 34 
lives lost 24 Nov. ,, 

H.M.S. Bombay, burnt off Flores Island, near 
Montendes ; 91 lives lost . . 14 Doc. ,, 

Lelia, cutter ; off Great Ormes Head, during a 
gale ; several lives lost ; 7 persons drowned 
by ujisetting of the life-boat . . 14 Jan. 1865 

Eagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near 
Calcutta ; 265 coolies drowned ; great cruelty 
and neglect imputed . . .24 Aug. „ 

Duncan Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Rocas, 
S. Amei'ica; no lives lost . . . 7 Oct. „ 

Ibis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Bally- 
croneen bay ; 15 Lives lost ; sailed from Cork 

18 Dec. „ 

Samqihire, mail-steamer; collision with an 
American bai-que ; several lives lost 13 Deo. ,, 

London, steamer, on her way to Melbourne ; 
foundei-ed in Bay of Biscay; about 220 per- 
sons perished (including captain Martin, Dr. 
Woolley, principal of the university of Syd- 
ney, G. V. Brooke, the tragedian) ; about the 
same time the Amalia. steamer went down 
with a cargo worth 2oo,oooi. ; no hves lost 

II Jan. 1S66 

Many wrecks and much loss of life during 
gales 6-1 1 Jan. ,, 

Sj)irit of the Ocean, steamer; wrecked on 
a rock near Dartmouth ; all lost except 4 

23 March, „ 

General Grant, on voyage from Melbourne to 
London, wrecked off Auckland isles ; only 
13 out of about 100 saved . . May, ,, 

Amazon, H. M. screw sloop, sunk by collision 
with screw steamer Osprey, near Portland ; 
several passengers and sailors drowned 

10 July, ,, 

Bruiser, steamer, sunk by collision with the 
Hasicell, off Aldborough ; about 15 lives lost 

ig Aug. „ 

Bhima, Indian steamer ; foundered through 
collision with Nana, steamer, between Bom- 
bay and Suez ; igUveslost . II Sept. „ 

HM.S. Berenice, burnt in Persian Gulf; none 
perished . . . . . .13 Oct. ,, 

Ceres, near Camsor, Ireland ; about 36 lives lost 
[captain Pascoe censured for neglectmg to 
sound] ID Nov. ,, 

Many wrecks in the channel . . 5. 6 Jan. 1867 

James Crosfield, iron ship ; wrecked off Lang- 
ness. Isle of Man ; all on board lost 5 Jan. ,, 

Singapore, Peninsula and Oriental steamer, 
struck on a sunken rock, and went down ; 
no lives lost 20 Aug. ,, 

Rhone and Wye, Royal Jlail steamers, totally 
lost, and about 5c other vessels driven ashore ; 
great loss of life, by a hurricane, off St. 
Ihomas {sQQ Virgin Islands) . . 29 Oct. ,, 



WRITIISTC^-. Pictures are cousidered to be the first essay towards MTiting. The mcst 
ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us, are upon hard substances, 
such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, and matters of public notoriety. 
Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have written a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the 
author of the hieroglyphics, 21 12 b.c. Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the 
Latins by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 B.C. Thucydides. Cadmus, 



the same rock, on 25 Nov. 1120, was wrecked the Blanche Nef, containing the children cf Henry I. and a 
large number of attendants ; in all 363 persons perished. 

* L^ma, American emigrant vessel, ^^Tecked on rocks off Barfleur ; about 100 lives lost, 19 Feb. i860. 
Lady Elgin, an American steamer, sunk thi-ough collision with schooner Augusta on lake Michigan ; of 385 
persons on board, 287 were lust, including Jlr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., founder of the " Illustrated London 
News," and his son ; morning of 8 Sept. 1S60. 



WliO 



816 



XAN 



the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., brought the Pho3nician letters iuto Greece. Vossius. 
The commandments were written on two tables of stone, 1491 B.C. Usher. The Greeks 
and Romans used wax table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was 
known ;* see Papyrus, Parchment, Paper. Astle's " History of Writing" was first pub- 
lished in 1784. 

WROXETER (in Shropshire), the Roman city Uriconmm. Roman inscriptions, ruins, 
seals, and coins were found here in 1752. Some new discoveries having been made, a 
committee for further investigation met at Shrewsbury on 11 Nov. 1858. Excavations were 
commenced in Feb. 1859, which were continued till May. Large portions of the old town 
were discovered ; also specimens of glass and pottery, personal ornaments and toys, house- 
hold utensils and implements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of man and of the smaller 
animals. A committee was formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of continuing 
these investigations, which were resumed in 1861, through the liberality of the late Beriah 
Botfield, M. P. The investigations, stopped through want of funds, were resumed for a short 
time in 1867. 

WURTEMBERG, originally part of Swabia, was made a county for Ulric I., about 1265, 
and a duchy in 1495. The dukes were protestants until 1722, when the reigning prince 
became a Roman catholic. "Wiirteraberg has been repeatedly traversed by hostile armies, 
particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau made his celebrated retreat, 23 Oct. 
1796. The political constitution is dated 25 Sept. 1819. Wiirtemberg opposed Prussia in 
the war of 1866, but made peace, 13 Aug. following ; and in Oct. 1867, joined the 
ZollYexein {luhich see). Population of Wiirtemberg in Dec. 1864, 1,748,328; of Stuttgardt, 
the capital, 69,084. 

1795. Frederic, Eugene makes peace with France, 



1628, 
1674. 
1677. 



1733- 
1737- 
1793- 



DUKES. 

Eberhard I. 

Bberhard II. 

Ulric ; deprived of his states hy the emperor 

Charles V. ; recovers them in 1534. 
Christopher the Pacific. 
Louis. 
Frederic I. 
John Frederic ; joined the protestants in the 

Thirty years' war. 
Eberhard III. 
Wilham Louis. 
Eberhard Louis ; served under WiUiam III. in 

Ireland ; and with the Enghsh armies on 

the continent. 
Charles Alexander. 
Charles Eugene. 
Louis Eugene (joins in the war against 

France). 



Frederic II. marries the princess royal of 
England, 18 May ; made elector of Germany 
1803 ; acquired additional territories, and 
the title of king in 1805. 

KINGS. 

1805. Frederic I. supplies a contingent to Napo- 
leon's Russian army ; yet joined the allies 
at Leipsic in 1813. Died in 1816. 

William I., 30 Oct. ; son (born 27 Sept. 1781). 
He abolished serfdom in 1818 ; instituted 
representative government in 1819 ; entered 
into a concordat with Eome in 1857; was 
the oldest living sovereign, 1862 ; died 25 
June, 1864. 

Charles I., son>; 25 June ; born 6 March, 1823 ; 
married princess Olga of Russia, 13 July, 



1797. 



i8i6. 



WURTZCHEN, see Bautzen. 

WURZBURG (in Bavaria), was formerly a bishopric, and its sovereign was one of the 
greatest ecclesiastic princes of the empire. It was given as a principality to the elector 
of Bavaria in 1803 ; and by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, was ceded to the archduke 
Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral title was transferred from Salzburg to this place. In 
1814 this duchy was again transferred to Bavaria, in exchange for the Tyrol, and the arch- 
duke Ferdinand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominions. Ministers from the second-rate 
German states met at Wurzburg to promote union amongst them, 21-27 Nov. 1859. The 
archduke Charles defeated the French under Jourdan, 3 Sept. 1796 ; and the Prussians 
defeated the Bavarians, 26 July, 1866. 

WYATT'S INSURRECTION, see Behellions, 1554. 

WYCLIFFITES, see WicUiffites. 



X. 



XANTHIAN MARBLES, see British Mioseum. 

XANTHICA, a military festival observed by the Macedonians in the month called 
Xanthicus (our April), instituted about 392 B.C. 

XANTHUS, Lycia, Asia Minor, was taken by;Harpagus for Cyrus, about 546 B.C., when 

* " I would check the petty vanity of those who slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a 
scholar, by reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr. Professor 
Person by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease and beauty of the characters 
they respectively employed." Dr. Parr. 



XEN 



817 



YEA 



the inhabitants buried themselves in the ruins. It was besieged by the Romans under 
Brutus 42 B.C. After a great struggle the inhabitants set fire to their city, destroyed their 
wives and children, and perished. The conqueror wished to spare them, and offered rewards 
to his soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians into his presence, but only 150 were 
saved. Plutarch. 

XENOPHOlSr, see Retreat of the Greeks. 

XEE.es de la Frontera (S.W. Spain), the Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of 
the wine-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is that so well known in England as 
Sherry, an English corruption of Xeres. The British importations of this wine in 1850 
reached to 3,826,785 gallons; and in the year ending 5 Jan. 1852, to 3,904,978 gallons. 
Xeres is a handsome and large town, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, July 19-26, 
711, Eoderic, the last Gothic sovereign of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, 
commanded by Tarik and Muza. 

XERXES' CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the Hellespont by a bridge of boats, and 
entered Greece in the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, together with the numerous 
retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted (according to some 
historians) to 5,283,220 soids. Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 3000 
sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry and the mariners and attendants of the camp. 
This multitude was stopped at Thermopylae {which see) by the valour of 300 Spartans under 
Leonidas, 7-9 Aug. 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, 
20 Oct. 480 B.C. ; and he hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, the best of 
his generals, with an army of 300,000 men, who was defeated and slain at Plateea, 22 Sept. 
479 B.C. Xerxes was assassinated by Artabanus, 465 B.C. 

XIMEISTA (S. Spain), the site of a battle between the Spanish army under the command 
of general Ballasteros, and the French corps commanded by general Regnier, 10 Sept. 181 1. 
The Spaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss was great on both sides. 



YACHT RACES, see America.* 

YANKEE, from "Yengees," a corruption of "English," the name given by the 
Massachusetts Indians to the colonists originally ; applied solely to the New Englanders by 
the British soldiers in the American war (1775-81), and afterwards by foreigners to aU natives 
of the United States ; and latterly by the confederates of the south to the federals of the 
north during the war 1861-64. 

YARD. The precise origin of our yard is uncertain. It is, however, likely that the 
word is derived from the Saxon gyrd, a rod or shoot, or gyrdan to enclose ; being anciently 
the circumference of the body, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the length of his 
arm ; see Standard Measures. 

YARMOUTH, Great (Norfolk), was a royal demesne in the reign of William 1., as 
appears from Domesday Book, 1086. It obtained a charter from John, and one from 
Henry III. In 1348, a plague here carried off 7000 persons : and that terrible disease did 
much havoc, again in 1579 and 1664. The theatre was built in 1778 ; and Nelson's pillar, 
a fluted column 140 feet in height, was erected in 1817. The suspension chain bridge over 
the river Bure was built by Mr. R. Cory, at an expense of about 4000/. Owing to the 
weight of a vast number of persons who assembled on this bridge to mtuess an exhibition on 
the water, it suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine lives, mostly those of children, were lost, 
2 May, 1845. The railway from London to Norwich was opened in 1844. Great Yarmouth 
was disfranchised for bribery and con-uption by the Reform Act of Aug. 1867. 

YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. 



The Roman year was introduced by Eomiilus, 
738 B.C. ; and it was corrected by Numa, 713 B.C., 
and again by Julius Cresar, 45 B.C. (see Calendar). 

The solar or astronoroical year was found to comprise 
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 
decimals, 265 b.c. 

The lunar year, which comprehends twelve lunar 



months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, was in use 
among the Chaldseans, Persians, and ancient Jews. 
Once in every three years w.as added another lunar 
month, so as to make the solar and the lunar year 
nearly agree. But though the months were lunar, 
the year was solar ; that is, the first month was of 
thirty d.ays, and the second of twenty -nine, and so 



* Three American yachts, the Henrietta, Vesta, and Fleetwhg, sailed from New York, n Dec. 1866, at 
I P.M. The Henrietta airived at Cowes at 5.40 on 25 Dec, the quickest voyage ever made in a sailing 
vessel. Her rivals were only a few hours after her. 

3 G 



YEA 



818 



YEO 



YEAR, continued. 

alternately : and the month added triennially was 
called the second Adar. The Jews afterwards 
followed the Eoman manner of computation. 

The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 
days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 11 seconds. 

The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in 
March, and civil year in September ; the Athenians 
began the year in June ; the Macedonians on 24 
Sept. ; the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 29 
or 30 Aug. ; and the Persians and Annenians on 11 
Ang. Nearly all Christian nations now commence 
the year on i January. 

In France, the Merovingian kings began the year 
with March ; the Carlovingians sometimes began 
the year with Christmas, 25 Dec. ; and sometimes 
with Easter, which being a moveable feast, led to 
much confusion. 

Charles IX. of Prance, in 1564, published an arr§t, 
the last article of which ordered the year for the 
time to come to be constantly and universally 
begun, and written on and from i January. 

See litir Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Tear, French 
Hevolutionari/ Calendar,* 

The beginning of the year has been reckoned from 
the day celebrating the birth of Christ, 25th Dec. ; 
his circumcision, i Jan. ; his conception, 25 March ; 
and his resurrection, Easter. 

The English began their year on the 25th of Decem- 
ber, until the time of WilUam the conqueror. 
This prince having been crowned on i Jan. gave 
occasion to the English to begin their year at that 
time, to make it agree with the then most remark- 
able period of their history. Stow. Until the act 



for altering the style, in 1752 (see Style), the year 
did not legally and generally commence in Eng- 
land until 2sth March. In Scotland, at that 
period, the year began on the ist of January. This 
difference caused great practical inconveniences ; 
and January, Pebruary, and part of March some- 
times bore two dates, as we often find in old re- 
cords, 1745-1746, or 1745-6, or 174^. Such a reckon- 
ing often led to chronological mistakes ; for in- 
stance, we popularly say the " revolution of 168S," 
as that event happened in February 1688, accord.- 
ing to the then mode of computation : but if the 
year were held to begin, as it does now, on the 
first of January, it would be the revolution of 
1689. 

Year op Our Lord ; see Anno Domini. 

Year of the Reign. Prom the time of William the 
Conqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign's reign 
has been given to all public instruments. The 
king's patents, charters, proclamations, and all 
acts of parliament have since then been generally 
so dated. The same manner of dating is used in 
most of the European states for all similar docu- 
ments and records ; see List of Kings under 
England, p. 275. 

Year and a Day. A space of time in law, that in 
many cases establishes and fixes a right, as in an 
estray, on pi-oclamation being made, if the owner 
does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. 
The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted 
that a beast found on another's land, if unclaimed 
for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the 
soil. It is otherwise a legal space of time. 



YEAR-BOOKS contain reports in ISTorman- French of cases argued and decided in the 
courts of common law. Tlie printed volumes extend from the beginning of the reign of 
Edward II. to nearly the end of the reign of Henry VIIL, a period of about 220 years ; but 
in this series there are many omissions. These books are the first in the long line of legal 
reports in which England is so rich, and maybe considered as, to a great extent, the founda- 
tion of our unwritten law, ''Lex non scripta." In 1863 et seq. the year-books of 30 & 31 
Edward I. 1302-3, were edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the series of the Chronicles and 
Memorials published at the expense of the British government. 

YELLOW FEVER, a dreadful American pestilence, made its appearance at Philadelphia, 
where it committed great ravages, 1699. It appeared in several islands of the West Indies 
in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It raged with unparalleled violence at Philadelphia in Oct. 1762 ; 
and most awfully at JSTew York in the beginning of August 1791. This fever again spread 
great devastation at Philadelphia in July 1793 ; carrying off several thousand persons. 
Bardie. It again appeared in Oct. 1797 ; and spread its ravages over the northern coast of 
America, Sept. 1798. It re-appeared at Philadelphia in the summer of 1802 ; and broke out 
in Spain, in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; 
in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful conse- 
quences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. A malignant fever raged at Gib- 
raltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until the following year. 

YELVERTON CASE, see Trials, 1861. YENIKALE, see Azoff. 

YEOMANRY, see under Volunteers. 

YEOMEN OF THE GuAED, a peculiar body of foot guards to the king's person, instituted 
at the coronation of Henry VII. 30 Oct. 1485, which originally consisted of fifty men under 
a captain. They were called beef-eaters, a corruption of buffetierSjhGing attendants on the 
king's buffet or sideboard ; see Battle-axe. They were of a larger stature than other guards, 
being required to be over six feet in height, and were armed with arquebuses and other 
arms. The band was increased by Henry's successors to one hundred men, and seventy 
supernumeraries ; and when one of the hundred died, it was ordered that his place should be 
supplied out of the seventy. They were clad after the manner of king Henry VIIL Asli- 
mole's Instit. This is said to have been the first permanent military band instituted in 
England. John, earl of Oxford, was the first captain in i486. Beatsons Pol. Index. 

* The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland is described in the following calendar, given 
by a traveller :—" 23 June. Snow melts. 1 July. Snow gone. gJuly. Fields quite gi-een. i-jjuly. Plants at 
full growth. 25 July. Plants in flower. 2 Aug. Fruits ripe. 10 Aug. Plants shed their seed. 18 Aug. 
Snow." The snow then continues upon the ground for about ten months, fi-om i8th Aug. of one year to 
23rd June of the year following, being 309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, 
summer, and avitumn are together only fifty-six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' 
duration in these countries. 



YEIl 



819 



YOR 



YERMUK (Syria). Near here the emperor Heraclius was totally defeated by the Sara- 
cens, after a fierce engagement, Nov. 636. Damascus was taken, and his army was expelled 
from Syria. 

YEW-TREE (Taxus). The origin of planting yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter 
being fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this manner preserve them for the en- 
couragement of archery. A general plantation of them for the use of archers was ordered by 
Richard III. 1483. Sloiv's Chron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were lately seven 
yew-trees, called the Seven Sistex'S, supposed to have been planted before 1088 ; the circum- 
ference of the largest was thirty-four feet seven inches roimd the trunk. In 185 1, a yew-tree 
was said to be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North "Wales, whose circumference 
was nine yards nine inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the British dominions ; 
but it is affirmed on traditionary evidence that there are some of these trees in England older 
than the introduction of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned in the survey taken of 
Richmond palace in 1649, is said to be still existing. 

YEZDEGIRD or Persian Era, was formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still 
used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in certain computations. This era began 
on the 26th June, 632, when Yezdegird was elected king of Persia. The year consisted of 
365 days only, and therefore its commencement, like that of the old Egyptian and Armenian 
year, anticipated the Julian year by one day in every four years. This difference amounted 
to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered that in 
future the Persian year should receive an additional day whenever it should appear necessary 
to postpone the commencement of the following year, that it might occur on the day of the 
sun's passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 

YNGLINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descendants of the Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled 
Sweden till 830, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf Trsetelia, being expelled, led to the 
foundation of the Norwegian monarchy. 

YOKE. The yoke is spoken of as a type of servitude throughout Scripture. The cere- 
mony of making prisoners pass under it was practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 
321 B.C.; see Caudinc Forks. Tliis disgrace was afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon 
their vanquished enemies. Dufresnoy. 

YOKOHAMA, see Japan. 

YORK (N. England), a town of the Brigantes, named Evraiic, settled by the Romans 
during the second campaign of Agricola, about 79, and named Eboracum or Eburacum, and 
became the metropolis of the north. 



The emperor Severus died here . 4 Feb. 
Here Constantius Chlorus died, and his son, 

Constantine the Great (bom here, 274), was 

proclaimed emperor ... 25 July, 
Abbey of St. Mary's, foimded by Seward the 

Dane 

York burnt by the Danes, allies of Edgar Athe^ 

ling, and all the Niirmans slain 
The city and many churches were destroyed by 

fire 3 June, 

Massacre and suicide of many Jews 

■York received its charter from Eichard II. and 

the mayor was made a lord . 
The Guildhall erected ... 

llichard III. crowned again here . 8 Sept. 1483 
At a parliament held here Chai'les I. professed 

his intention to exercise legal government 

13 June, 1642 
York taken for the parUament, after the battle 

of Marston-moor ... 16 July, 1644 

Injured during the civil war by Fairfax April, ,, 
The cori)oration built a mansion-house for the 

lord mayor 

The castle was built by Eichard III., 1484, and 

was rebuilt 

The famous York petition to parliament, to re- 
duce the expenditure and redress grievances, 

was gotten up ... . . Dec. 1779 

Yorkshire Philosophical Society established . 182 
Fii-st meeting of the British Association held 

here 27 Sept. 183 

Population, 45,385 186 

Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; five 

persons killed .... 27 Sept. ,, 
Social Science Association met here 22 Sept. 186 



306 



1050 



1069 



1137 
1190 



1446 



1728 



1741 



Fine Arts and Industrial Exhibition opened 

24 July, 1866 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales 9-n Aug. „ 

Meeting of the church congress . 9 Oct. ,, 

DUKES. 

1385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Ed- 
ward III.) ; created duke, 6 Aug. ; died 
1402. 

1406. Edward (his son), was degraded by Heniy IV. 
in 1399, but restored in 1414; killed at Agin- 
court, 1415 ; succeeded by his nephew, 

1415. Eichard (sou of Eichard, earl of Cambridge, 
who was beheaded for treason in 1415); 
became regent of Fi-ance in 1435 ; qut lied 
the rebellion in Ireland in 1449 ; claimed 
the throne, and was appointed protector in 
1454 : his office was annulled, .and he began 
the civil war in 1455, and was slain after his 
defeat at Wakefield in 1460. 

1460. Edward (his son) afterwards king Edward IV. 

1474. Eichard (bis second son), said to have been 
murdered in the Tower, 1483 

1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. 

1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles 1. 

1643. James Stuart (his second son), afterwards 
James II. 

1716. Eraest (Ijrother of George I.) ; died 1728. 

1760. Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. 

1784. Frederic (son of George III.), born, 16 Ana:. 
1762 : marries princess Frederica of Prussia, 
I 29 Sept. 1791 ; commands the British forces 

at Antwerp, 8 April, 1793; present at the 
siege of Valenciennes, 23 May ; defeated at 
Dunkii-k, 7 Sept. ; at Bois-Ie-Duc, 14 Sept. 
3 G 2 



YOR 



820 



YOR 



YOEK, continued. 

and at Boxtel, 17 Sept. ; appointed com- 
mander-in-chief, 1798 ; defeated near Alk- 
maar, ig Sept. and 6 Oct. 1799 ; accused by 
colonel Wardle of abuse of his patronage ; 



he resigns, 27 Jan. 1809 ; becomes again 
commander-in-chief, 181 1 : strongly opposes 
the catholic claims, 1825 ; dies, 5 Jan. 1827. 



YORK, Archbi.?hopeic op. The most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, it is 
said, so made by king Lucius about 180, when Christianity was iirst partially established in 
England. The bishop Eborius was present at the council of Aries, 314. The see was over- 
turned by the Saxons, was revived by pope Gregory on their conversion, and Paulinus is said 
to have been consecrated archbishop, 21 July, 625. York and Diu-ham were long the only 
two sees in the north of England, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and Henry 
VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish bishops ; but 
during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had arch- 
bishops of their own. Much dispute arose between the two English metropolitans about 
precedency, as by pope Gregory's institutions it was thought he meant, that whichever of 
them was first confirmed, should be superior: appeal was made to the court of Rome by both 
parties, and it was determined in favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was allowed 
to style himself primate of England, while the archbishop of Canterbury styles himself 
primate of all England. The province of York now contains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, 
Chester, Durham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Ripon (which see). York has yielded 
to the church of Rome eight saints and three cardinals, and to England twelve lord chan- 
cellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in the king's 
books, 39 Henry VIII. 1546, at 1609?. 19s. 2d. per annum. Beatson. Present income, 
lOjOOoZ. 

ARCHBISHOPS. 1 664. 

1501. Thomas Savage, died, 3 Sept. 1507. 1683. 

1508. Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at Rome, 

14 July, 1514. 
1514. Thomas Wolsey, died, 29 Nov. 1530. 
1531. Edward Lee, died, 13 Sept. 1544. 1714, 

1545. Robert Holgate, deprived, 23 March, 1554. 1724. 

1555. Nicolas Heath, deprived. 1743. 

1561. Thomas Young, died, 26 June, 1568. 
1570. Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 

10 Jan. 1576. 
1577. Edwin Sands or Sandys, died, 10 July, 1588. 1757. 
1589. John Piers, died, 28 Sept. 1594. 1761. 

1595. Matthew Hutton, died, 16 Jan. 1606. 1777. 

1606. Tobias Matthew, died, 29 March, 1628. 1808. 

1628. George Mountaigne, died, 24 Oct. 1628. 1847, 

,, Samuel Harsnet, died, 25 May, 1631. 
1632. Richard Neyle, died, 31 Oct. 1640. 
1641. John Williams, died, 25 March, 1650. 

[See vacant ten years.l 
1660. Accepted Prewen, died, 28 March, 1664. 

YORK MIN"STER (dedicated to St. Peter), was erected at different periods, and on the 
.site of former buildings ; is said never to have been occupied by monks. The first Christian 
church erected here, which appears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by 
Edwin, king of Northumbria, of wood, about 625, and of stone about 635. It was damaged 
by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop Albert, about 780. It was again destroyed by 
fire in the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop Thomas, of Bayeux. It was once more burnt 
down in 1137, with St. Mary's abbc}'^, and 39 parish churches in York. Archbishop Roger 
built the choir, 1 154-81 ; Walter Gray added the south transept in 1227 ; John de Romayne, 
the treasurer of the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260. His son, archbishop 
Romanus, laid the foundation of the nave in 1291. In 1330, "William de Melton built the 
two western towers, which were finished by John de Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop 
Thoresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in accordance with the magnificence of the 
nave, and he also rebuilt the lantern tower. Thus, by many hands, and many contributions 
of multitudes on the promise of indulgences, this magnificent fabric was completed. It was 
first set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings 
destroyed, 2 Fek 1829 ; the damage, estimated at 6o,oooZ., was repaired in 1832 under sir 
Robert Smirke. An accidental fire broke out, which in one hour reduced the belfry to a shell, 
destroyed the roof of the nave, and much damaged the edifice, 20 May, 1840. This was 
restored by Sidney Smirke, at a cost of 23,000?., 1841. 

YORK AND Lancaster, Wars of, see Roses. 

YORK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794; since 1834 named Toronto. In the war 
between America and Great Britain, the United States' forces made several attacks upon the 



Richard Steme, died, 18 June, 1683. 
John Dolben, died, 11 April, 1686. 

[See vacant two i/ears.] 
Thomas Lamplough, died, 5 May, i6gi. 
John Sharp, died, 2 Feb. 1714. 
Sir William Dawes, died, 30 April, 1724. 
Launcelot Blackburn, died, 23 March, 1743. 
Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, 

Oct. 1747. 
Matthew Hutton, translated to Canterbury, 

March, 1757. 
John Gilbert, died, 1761. 
Robert Hay JJrummond, died, 10 Dec. 1776. 
William Markham, died, 3 Nov. 1807. 
Edward Venables Vernon, died, 5 Nov. 1847. 
Thomas Musgrave, died, 4 May, i860. 
Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury, 
' (from Durham), 1862. 
William Thomson, translated from Gloucester, 

PRESENT archbishop. 



YOR 821 Zm 

province of Upper Canada, and succeeded in taking York, the seat of the government, 27 
April, 1813 ; but it was soon afterwards again retaken by the British. 

YORK TOWN (Virginia, United States). Lord Comwallis had taken possession of 
York town in Aug. 1781 ; but after sustaining a disastrous siege, he was obliged to sur- 
render his army, consisting of about 7000 men, to the allied armies of France and 
America, under the command of general Washington and count Rochambeau, 19 Oct. 1781. 
This mischance was attributed to sir Henry Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
necessary succour they expected ; and it mainly led to the close of the war. It was strongly 
fortified by the confederates in the American civil war, but surrendered to M'Clellan, May, 
1862. 

YTTRIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria was discovered by professor Gadolin in a 
mineral at Ytterby, in Sweden, 1794. The metal was first obtained by Wbhler in 1828. It 
is of a dark grey colour, and brittle. 

YVRES (now Ivey, N.W. France), where a battle was fought, 14 March, 1590, between 
Henry IV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and the generals of the catholic league, 
over whom the king obtained a complete victory. 

Z. 

ZAGRAB (Hungary). Here Andrew II. defeated the invader Charles Martel, to whom 
the pope had assigned his crown, 1292. 

ZAHRINGEN (Baden), the seat of dukes, ancestors of the grand dukes of Baden, 
descended from Herman I., margrave, 1074 ; see Baden. 

ZAMA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of the battle between the two greatest 
commanders in the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. The victory was won 
by Scipio, and was decisive of the fate of Carthage; it led to an ignominious peace the year 
after, which closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost about 2000 killed and wounded, 
while the Carthaginians lost in killed and prisoners more than 40,000 ; some historians 
make the loss greater ; 202 b. c, 

ZANTE. One of the Ionian Islands {which see). 

ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, 535 ; he taught that water 
baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptised with fii'e, by the appli- 
cation of a red-hot iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in Scotland, 
and was commonly written for the letter y so late as the reign of queen Mary, up to which 
period many books in the Scottish language were printed in Edinburgh with these words, 
1543- 

ZEALAND, one of the 13 provinces which formed the League of Utrecht, 1579; see 
Holland, and Nctu Zealand. 

ZELA, N.-E. Asia Minor. Where Julius Csesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, 
son of Mithridates. Csesar, in announcing this victoiy, sent his famous despatch to the 
senate of Rome, in these words : " Veni, vidi, vici," — " I came, I saw, I conquered" (perhaps 
the shortest despatch on record). This battle ended the war ; Pharnaces escaped into 
Bosphorus, where he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; Pontus was made a Roman 
province, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 B. c. 

ZELL (Hanover), see Denmark, 1772. 

ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of the Parsees ; of which 3 out of 21 are extant. 
The age of these books is much disputed. Professor Max Mliller says that the MSS. had 
been preserved by the Parsee priests at Bombay, where a colony of fire-worshippei's had fled 
in the loth century. Anquetil Duperron's French translation, from a modern Persian 
version, was published in 1771. 

ZENO, see Stoics. 

ZENOBIA, Queen of the East, see Palmyra. 

ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle where the Germans, under prince Eugene, 
defeated the Turks, 11 Sept. 1697. This victory led to the peace of Carlowitz, ratified, 
January, 1699. 

ZIDON, see Sidon. 

ZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine or spelter, was known to the Greeks, who used it in 
the manufacture of brass. It is said to have been known in China also, and is noticed by 



ZIE 



822 



ZUG 



Europe.an writers as early as 1231 ; though the method of extracting it from the ore was 
imknown for nearl.y five hundred years after. The metal zinc is first mentioned by Para- 
celsus (who died in 1541). A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Eibblesdale's estate, 
Craven, Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after the 
invention of lithography became known in England, in 181 7; see Lithography. Zinc is much 
used in voltaic batteries ; and its application in manufactures has greatly increased of late 
years ; see Photozincography, In 1866 we imported 29,239 tons of zinc, and exported 
8903 tons. 

ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the earth Zirconia, which was discovered by Klaproth 
in 1789 ; from this Berzelius obtained the metal in 1824. Zirconia is found in the sand of 
the rivers of Ceylon. The metal exists in the form of a black powder. 

ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. A shrub brought from the south of Europe about 1640. The 
Zizy2}hus Paliitrus shrub (Christ's Thorn) was brought from Africa before 1596 ; see 
Floviers. 

ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its twelve signs named, and their situations 
assigned them by Anaximander, about 560 B.C. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the 
zodiac from the Hindoos. Sir W. Jones. 

ZOLLVEREIN {Customs' Union), the name given to the German commercial imion, of 
which Prussia is at the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually joined by nearly all the 
German states except Austria, and a treaty was signed 22 March, 1833, which became the 
basis of the association. On 19 Feb. 1853, an important treaty of commerce and navigation, 
between Austria and Prussia, to last from Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the 
other states of the ZoUverein gave in their adhesion on 5 April, 1853. In Nov. 1861, 
Prussia threatened to withdraw unless certain changes were made. By the treaty of 8 July, 
1867, between the North German confederation, and the southern states, Bavaria, Wurtem- 
berg, Baden, and Hesse, various changes were made, and by other treaties signed in Oct. 
these states agi'eed to send delegates to a easterns' parliament to be held at Berlin. A 
session of this parliament was opened by the king of Prussia, 27 April, and closed 23 May, 
1868. 

ZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) is the division of biology which treats of 
animals. Aristotle (322-284 B.C.) is the founder of the science. Systems of classification 
have been made by John Ray (1628-1705), Charles Linne (1707-78), G. Bufi'on (1707-88), 
and George Cuvier (1769- 183 2). 

The animal kingdom was divided by Linnaus into 

six classes, viz. : — Mammalia, which, includes all 

animals that suckle their young ; Aves, birds ; 

Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, fishes ; 

Insecta, insects ; Vermes, -worms ; 1741. 
Cuvier, who died in Paris, 13 May, 1832, in his great 

work, Regiie Animale, published in 1816, distri- 
buted the animals into four great divisions, the 

Vertehriita (back-boned); the Moilusca (soft bodied); 

the Articulata (jointed); and the Radiata (the 

organs disposed round a centre). 
In 1859. professor Owen made known a system of 

arranging the class Mammalia according; to -the 

nature of their brains. 
The Zoological Society of London (originally the 

ZORNDORFF, Prussia, where a battle was fought between the Prussian and Russian 
armies; the former, commanded by the king of Prussia, obtained a victory over the forces of 
the czarina, whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that of the Prussians did not exceed 
11,000, 25, 26 Aug. 1758. 

ZOUAVES AND Foot Chassettrs. When the French established a regency at Algiers, 
in 1830, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and selected the 
Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes, famous for daring and skilful courage. In time 
numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic Frenchmen, joined the regiments, 
adopting the costume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no 
more were added, they having been frequently guilty of treachery. Among their colonels 
were Lanioriciere and Cavaignac. The French Zouaves formed an important part of the 
army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.* 

ZUG, the smallest canton of Switzerland. 

* The Zouave organisation and drill were introduced into the federal army in the great civil war in 
America, by Ephraim E. EUesworth, early in 1861. He was assassinated on 24 May same year, at 
Alexandria, just after taking down a secession flag. 



Zoological Club) was founded in 1826, and its 
gardens in the Regent's Park were opened in 
April, 1827 ; the society was chartered 27 March, 
1829. 

Dr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be 
their first " anatomical prosector," 3 May, 1865. 

On the demolition of Exeter Change, in 1829, the 
menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporally lodged in 
The King's Mews, whence it was removed to the 
Surrey Zoological Gardens, 1S32. 

The Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened. 
1832. 

See Aquarium, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Acclima- 
tisation. 



ZUI 823 ZUY 

ZUINGLI ANS, the followers of the reformer, Ulricus Zuinglius, who at Zurich declaimed 
against the church of Eome, aud effected the same separation for Switzerland from the papal 
dominion, which Luther did for Saxony. He procured two assemblies to be called ; by the 
first he was authorised to proceed, by the second, the ceremonies of the Eomish church were 
abolished 15 19. Zuinglius died in arms as a soldier, being slain in a skirmish against his 
popish opponents in 11 Oct. 1531. The Zuinglians were also called Sacrajnentarians. 

ZULLICHAU (Prussia). Here the Russians, under Soltikow, severely defeated the 
Prussians under Wedel, 23 July, 1759. 

ZULPICH, see Tolbiac. 

ZURICH was admitted a member and made head of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and 
was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome ; see Zidnglians. 
A grave-digger at Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their 
lives and many others were grievously injured, 4 Sept. 1776. The French, under Massena, 
after repelling an attack of the Austrians, retired from Zurich, 5 June, 1799. The Im- 
perialists we]-e defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men killed and wounded, 
25, 26 Sept. 1799 ; see Switzerland. On 24 June, 1859, the Austrians were defeated by the 
allied French and Sardinian army at Solferiuo. Preliminaries of peace were signed at Villa 
Franca by the emperors of Austria and France on 12 July following. A conference between 
the representatives of the powers concerned having been appointed, the first meeting took 
place on 8 Aug. After many delays a treaty was signed on 10 Nov. Lombardy was 
ceded to Sardinia ; the formation of an Italian Confederation, under the presidency of the 
pope, was determined on, and the rights of the ex-sovereigns of Tuscany, Modena, and 
Parma were reserved. The formation of the kingdom of Italy in 186 1 annulled the treaty 
of Zurich, 

ZUTPHEN", in Holland. At a battle here 22 Sept. 1586, bet^veen the Spaniards and 
the Dutch, the amiable sir Philip Sidney, author of '* Arcadia," was mortally wounded. 
He died 7 Oct. He was serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl 
of Leicester. 

ZUYPER SLUYS (Holland). Here sir Ralph Abercrombie defeated an attack of the 
French under Brune ; the latter suQered great loss, 9 Sept. 1799. 



INDEX. 



[The references are to articles in the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year 
given is a.d. when B.C. is not mentioned ; two dates, thus, 1508-82, signify the year of the person's 
bii-th and death ; &., born ; d., died ; fl., flourished ; m., murdered ; k., killed.] 



Abbacies expl. Ethiopia, 1837-45 
Abbas, Persia 

Abbot, abp. ; Canterbury, 161 1 
Abbot, Charles ; speaker, 1802 
Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 
Abderahman, I. — V., caUphs, 755- 

1023. 
Abdul-Medjid, Turkey, 1839-61 
Abdul-Aziz, Turkey, 1839-61 
Abelard, d. 1142 ; Abelard 
Abercorn, Jas. marquess of, 6. 1 81 1 ; 

Ireland, Id. lleut. 
Abercromby, Jas., speaker, 1835 
Abercromby, sir R., 1738-1801 ; 

Trinidad, Alexandria 
Aberdeen, earl of, 1784-1860 ; Aber- 
deen adm. note 
Abernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 
Abingdon, earl of ; trials, 1794 
Abinger, Id., att.-gen., 1827 ; ex- 
chequer, b. 1834 
Abrantes, duke of ; see Jimot 
Absalom, killed 1023 B.C. 
Abubeker ; Ali, 632 
Acacius, henoticon, 482 
Accum, F. ; adulterations, 1822 
Achilli V. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 
Achmet ; see Ahmed 
AciUus ; statues, temples 
Ackermann, K. ; lithography, 1817 
Acron ; aromatics, 473 b.c. 
Acton, Mrs., Royal Inst., 1838 
Actuarius ; purgatives, 1245 
Adair, serj. ; Junius, 1769 
Adalbert, St. ; Prussia, 997. 
Adam; duels, 1779 
Adam, R. and bros., architects 

1728-92 
Adams, J. C, mathemat. ; Nep- 
tune, 1845 ; J. (1797) and J. Q. 
(1825), United States (presidents) 
Adams v. Dundas ; trials, 1831 
Adderley, Mr. ; Birmingham, 1856 
Addington,H., 1757-1844; Addingt. 
Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- 
tator, 171 1 ; Stanhope adminis- 
tration, 1717 ; allegory, CUo, 
clubs 
Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, 
queens (Henry I., William IV.) 
Adeodatus ; pope, 672 
Adolphus, Frederic; Sweden, 1751 
Adrian, Rome ; emperor, 117 ; 

edicts, persecutions ; popes 
Aetius, Aetians 
iEgeus ; Athens, 1283 B.C. 
.^gineta, Paulus ; surgery, 640 
.ffigisthus ; Mycenje, 1201 B.C. 
iEmiliauus ; Rome, 146 b.c. 
.apneas ; Italy, Alba, 11 82 b.c. 



iEschines, Gk. orator, 389-314 b.c. 

^schylus, Greek tragedy, 525-456 
B.C. ; drama 

.^sop ; fables (about 600 B.C.) 

Africanus ; see Scipio 

Agamemnon ; Mycenas, 1201 b.c. 

Agathocles, d. 289 B.C. ; Carthage, 
Sicily, Syracuse 

Age, proprietor of ; trials, 1844 

Agesander; Laocoon 

Agesilaus ; Sparta, 398 B.C. 

Agis ; Sparta, 427 B.C. 

Agnew, Mr. Vans ; India, 1848 

Agnodice; midwifery 

Agricola ; Britain, d. 93 ; Lancas- 
ter, Caledonia, Roman waU 

Agricola, John, d. 1566 ; Antino- 
mians 

Agrippa, d. 12 B.C. ; Pantheon, 

27 B.C. 

Ahmed I. — III. ; Turkey, 1603, 
et seq. 

AhoUab ; sculpture 

Airy, G. B., 6 i8oi; Greenwich, 
^835 ; pendulum, standard 

Aislabie, Mr. ; Sunderland admi- 
nistration, 1718; South Sea 

Akbar, India ; 1556 

Akenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 

Alario, d. 410 ; Rome, France 

Albemarle, Geo. .Monk, duke of, 
1608-70 ; administrations, 1660 

Alberoni, card, 1664-1752 ; Spain, 

Albert; Austria, Bohemia, Ger- 
many, Hungary 
Albert (prince consort), 1819-61 ; 

England, 1840 ; regency bill, 

duelling 
Albertus Magnus ; automatons 
Alboin the Longobard, killed 573 
Albrecht ; Austria, 1866; custozza 
Albuquerque (viceroy), d. 1515 ; 

India, 1503 
Alcibiades, killed 404 B.C. ; Athens 
Alcippe: Areopagitaj 
Alcock, Mr. ; duelling, 1807 
Alouia (theologian), about 725-804 
Aldebert ; impustors, 743 
Aldhelme ; Sahsbury, 705 ; poetry, 

ballads 
Alectus ; Britain, 294 
Alengon, due d' ; Agincourt, 1415 
Alexander of Paris ; Alexandrine 
Alexander the Great, 356-323 B.C. ; 

Macedon, Egypt, Gordian, Tyre, 

Memphis 
Alexander Severus ; Rom. em., 222 
Alexander I. d. 1825; Russia, iSoi; 

AusterUtz, 1805 ; Leipsic, 1813 



Alexander ; see pope ; Scotland 
Alexander, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Alexander, sir \V. ; Nova Scotia, 

1722 
Alexius, East (emperors), 1081-1203 
Alfieri,Victoi-, Ital. poet, 1749-1803 
Alfred the Great, 849-901 ; Eng- 
land, councils, clocks, crown, 
militia 
Alfred, prince ; Godwin, 1053 ; 
— duke of Edinburgh, 6. 1844 ; 
England, royal family 
Alibaud ; France, 1836 
Ali Pacha; Rosetta; Turkey, 1820; 

Albania 
Alison, Arch., hist., 1792-1867 
Allen and others ; Fenians, 1867 
Alleyne, Edwd.,d. 1617; Dulwich 
Almagro ; Abancay, 1537 
Almansour ; Bagdad, 762 
Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 
Alphonso ; Sicily, Spain, Portugal 

(kings) 
Alsop, Joseph ; trials, 1839 
Althorp, vise. ; Grey administra- 
tion, 1830 ; Melbourne, 1835 
Alva, duke of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp, 

Holland 
Alvanley, lord ; duel, 1835 
Alvinzi, marshal ; Areola, 1796 
Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C. 
Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs 
Amadeus, Savoy ; annunciation 
Ambrose, St. , d. 397 ; anthems, 

Te Deum, liturgies 
Ambrosius ; Stonehenge 
Amenophis ; Egypt, 1821 B.C. 
Amerious Vespucius, 1451-1516 ;. 

America, note 
Amherst, lord ; China, 1816; India, 

1823 
Ammianus Marcellinus, Lat. hist., 

d. 390 
Amontons, W. ; 1663-1705, tele- 

gi-aphs 
Amos, prophesies about, 787 B.C. 
Ampere, A. M., 1775-1S36 ; elec- 
tricity (galvanism); and tele* 
graph 
Amulius ; Alba, 794 B.C. 
Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout 
Amyutas ; Macedon, 540 B.C. 
Anacharsis, 592 B.C. ; anchors,, 

bellows 
Anacletus ; pope, 78 
Anacreon, Gr. poet, ./J. abt. 537 B.C. 
Anastasius ; pope ; East ; emperors 
Anaxagoras, 480 B.C. ; earthquakes 
Anaximander, 547 b.c. ; maps 
Anaximenes, 548 b.c. ; air 



826 



INDEX. 



Anderson, J. ; slavery (in Unit. 

States), note, 1853. 
Andrassy ; Hungary, 1S67 
Andr^, mai. ; United States, 17S0 
Andrew ; Hungary, kings 
Andrews, H., d. 1S20 ; almanacs 
Andronicus, 240 b. c. ; drama 
Andronicus ; Eastern empire,iii3, 

1328 
Angela, St. ; Ursuline nuns, 1537 
Angerstein, J., d. 1822; National 

Gallery 
Anglesey, Henry, marquess of, 

1768-1854 ; Ireland (lord-lieu- 
tenant), 1828, 1830 
Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow 
Anjou, Plantagenet, Jarnac, 1569 ; 

Naples, 1266 
Ankerstrom (kills Gustavus III.)j 

Sweden, 1792 
Anna, St. ; Mexico, 1853 
Anne of Brittany, d. 1514; maids 

of honour 
Anne of Austria, d. 1666 ; iron 

mask 
Anne, queen, 6. 1664; England, 

1702-14; semper eadem 
Ansell, G. ; fire-damp, 1865 
Anselm, abp. ; Canterbury, 1093 
Anson, admiral ; Acapulco, 1744 ; 

naval battles, 1747 
Anson, general ; India, 1857 
Anthony ; monachism, 4th century 
Antigonus; Ipsus, 301 B.C.; profiles 
Antioohus I. — X. 280-65 b. c. ; Syria, 

Jews, 170 or 168 B.C. 
Antipater; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Antisthenes; cynics, 396 B.C. 
AntoneUi, card., 6. 1806; Eome, 

1848 
Antoninus Pius ; Rome, emperors, 

138 ; Roman wall 
Antony, Mark, d. 30 ; Rome, 43 

B.c ; Armenia, PhUippi, 42 

B.C. ; Actium, 31 B.C. 
Anviti, col. killed ; Parma, 1859 
Apelles, painter, 352-308, B.C. 
Apollodorus; Trajan's pillar, 114 
ApoUonius ; Syria, 168 B.C. 
Appian hist., JZ. about 147 
Appius Claudius ; Rome, 449 B.C. ; 

aqueducts, decemviri, Virginia 
Applegarth ; printing machine 
Apries ; Egypt, 571 b.c. 
Apsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 
Apuleitis, Latin novelist, d. 174 
Aquinas, T., theol., d. 1274 
Arago, D. P., nat. phil., 1786-1853 
Aram, Eugene; trials, 1759 
Aratus ; Achaia, 245 B.C. 
Arbograstes ; Aquileia, 394 
Aroadius and Honorius ; eastern 

and western empire, 395 
Arohelaus ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C. ; 

Macedon, 413 b.c 
Archemorus ; Nemrean games 
Archer, P. S.; collodion, 1851 
Archidamus ; Sparta, 648 B.C. 
Archilochus, 708 B.C. ; Iambic 

verse 
Archimedes, 287-212 B.C. ; circle, 

cranes, mechanics, mensuration, 

organs, reSectors, screw, plane- 
tarium 
Archytas ; math., about 400 b.c; 

automaton, pulley 
Ardesoif, Mr. ; cockfighting, 1788 
Aretin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025 
Arfastus, chancellor, 1067 
Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 1817 
Argyll, duke of ; Dunblane, 1715 
Ariarathes ; Cappadocia 



Ariobarzanes, 322 B.C. ; Cappa- 
docia, 93 B.C. 
Aviosto, L. Ital. poet, 1474-1533 
Aris, gov. ; prisons, 1800 
Aristarchus, 156 B.C. ; sun, globe 
Arista3us ; conic sections, 330 b.c 
Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C. ; 

Athens 
Aristippus; Cyrenaic sect, 392 b.c. 
Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 b.c 
Aristodemus; biarohy, 1102 b.c. 
Aristophanes, d. 380 B.C.; comedy 
Aristotle, 384-322 B.C. ; Aristo- 
telian philosophy, acoustics, bo- 
tany, Macedon, mechanics, me- 
taphysics, philosophy 
Arius, d. 336 ; Arians 
Arkwright, R. (1732-92) ; cotton, 

Manchester, spinning 
Arlington, lord ; cabal, 1670 
Arminius, or Hermann; Teuto- 

burg, 9 
Arminius, J., d. 1609 ; Arminians, 

Dort 
Armstrong, W. G. ; electricity, 

1840; cannon, 1859 
Arne, T., music composer, 1710-78 
Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 
Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 
Arnott, Neil, 6. 1788 ; stove, 1821; 

bed, 1830 ; ventilators 
Arrian, hist., ji. 148 ' 

Arsaces ; Arsacidas, Parthia, 250 

B.C. 

Artabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. 
Artaxerxes ; Persia (kings) 
Artemisia ; mausoleum, 350 B.C. 
Artemones ; battering-ram, 441 b. o. 
Arthur, king; Britain, 506 
Artois, count d' ; duelling, 1778 
Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 
Arundel, Henry, earl of ; adminis- 
trations, 1547 
Ascanius; Alba, 1152 B.C. 
Asdrubal ; see Hasdrubal 
Aselli, G. ; lacteals (1622), lympha- 
tics 
Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
Ashburton, lord; treaty, 1842 
Ashe, gen. ; Briar's creek, 1779 
Ashford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 
Ashley, loi'd ; cabal, 1670 
Ashley, sir Arthur ; cabbages 
Ashton, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 
Aske ; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 
A.slett, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1803 
Assheton, Wm. ; clergy charities 
Astley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 
A.ston, sir A ; Drogheda, 1649 
Astyages ; Media, 594 b.c. 
Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athan. creed 
Atbelstan ; England (king), 924; 

mint, 928 
AthenBeus, Greek, d. 194 (?) 
Atherton, sir Wm., att. gen., 1861 
Athol, duke of ; Man, sold by, 1765 
Athothes ; hieroglyphics, writing 
Atossa ; marriage by sale 
Attalus, d. 197 B.C. ; seven churches 

(Pergamus), parchment 
Atterbury, bp. F. ; banished, 1723 
Attila ; Hungary, Chalons, 451 
Attwood, T.; chartists, 1838 
Atwell, W.; trials, 1857 
Auber, D., music composer, &. 1784 
Auchmuty, sir Samuel ; Batavia, 

1811; Montevideo, 1807 
Auckland, Id. bp.; Bath and Wells, 

1854 
Auckland, lord ; Grey administra- 
tion, 1830 ; India, 1835 
Augereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 



Augustenburg, duke of ; Denmark, 

1863 

Augustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 

Augustin the monk, abp. Canter- 
bury, 602 ; Rochester 

Augustus (emperor); Rome, 27 b. c. ; 
prEetorian guards 

Aulus Gellius, Latin misc.,^. 169 

Aurelian ; Rome, emp. 270; Ale- 
manni 

Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 

Aurungzebe ; India, 1658 

Ausonius, poet, d. 394 (?) 

Austin ; see Austin, St. 

Austin, capt. ; Franklin 

Austin, W- ; trials, 1855 

Austria, John of ; Lepanto, 1571 

Averroes, med. writer,,/?. 1149-1198 

Avioenna, med. and phil., 980-1037 

Avisa ; queens (John) 

Ayesha, Mahomet's widow ; camel, 
day of, 656 



B. 

Babbage, C, 6. 1792; calculating 

machine 
Baber; India, 1525 
Babeuf, d. 1791 ; agrarian law 
Babrius ; fable 
Babyngton {which see), 1586 
Bach, J. Sebastian ; music, 1685- 

1754 
Bachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
Back, G. ; north-w. passage, 1833 
Bacon, P., lord (1561-1626); law- 
yers, aeronautics 
Bacon, sir Nicholas ; keeper. Id., 

1558 ; baronet 
Bacon, John, sculptor, 1740-99 
Bacon, Roger, d. 1292 ; astrology, 
camera lucida, loadstone, magic- 
lantern, magnet, optics, specta- 
cles 
Bacon, T. P. ; trials, 1857 
Baffin, W. M. ; Baffin's Bay, 1616 
Bagnal, lieut. ; duel, 1812 
Bagot, bishop ; Oxford, 1829 
Bagration, pr. ; Mohilows, 1812 
Bagster, Miss M. ; trials, 1828 
Bailey, rev. W. ; trials, 1843 
Baillie, col. ; Arcot, 17S0 
Baillie, general ; Alford, 1645 
Baillie, Joanna, poet, 1762-1851 
Bailly, M., philo., executed, 1793 
Bainbrigg, abp. ; York, 1508 
Baines, M. T. ; Palmerston admi- 
nistration, 1855 
Baird, sir David ; Cape, 1806; Se- 

ringapatam, 1799 
Bajazet; Turkey, 1389 
Baker, colonel ; Bull's Bluff, 1861 
Baker, H. ; Bakerian lecture, 1765 
Baker, sir S. W. ; Africa, 1864 
Balard, M. ; amylene, 1844 
Balohan, admiral ; Aldemey, 1744 
Baldwin I.— V. ; Jerusalem, iioo- 

85 ; East Flanders 
Bales, P. ; calligraphy 
Balfe, M. W., 6. 1808 
Balfour, John ; Scotland, 1679 
Ballarat, Melbourne, 1854 
Ballard, John ; Babyngton's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Ballasteros, gen. ; Ximena, 1811 
Balliol, Edw.; Scotland,kings,i329 
Balliol, John ; Scotland, 1293 ; Ox- 
ford, Dunbar 
Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scot- 
land, 1745 ; trials, 1746 



INDEX. 



827 



Baltimore, lord ; America, 1632 ; 

trials, 1768 
Bancroft, abp. ; Canterbury, 1604 
Bancroft, G., hist., 6. 1800 
Banks, sir J., 1743-1820; hort. soc, 

royal institution, 1799 
Bannister, Mr. ; retired, 1815 
Bar, due de; Agincourt, 1415 
BaradcBus ; Eutychians, Jacobites 
Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 
Barantz, north-w. passage, 1594 
Barbarossa, Fred. 1., of Germany 
Barbarossa. d. 1546; Tunis, Algiers 
Barbauld, Mrs. A. L., 1743-1825 
Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and 

Dorey ; trials, 1844, and note 
Barberini ; Portland vase 
Barbou ; printers, 1539-1813 
Barbour, John, sc. poet, 1316-95 
Barbour J. ; trials, 1853 
Barclay, oapt. ; pedestrianism, 1809 
Barclay, Perkins, <fe Co. ; porter 
Barclay, Rob., d. 1690; quakei-s 
Barham, lord; admiraltj', 1805 
Baring, Alex. ; Peel admiuist. 1834 ; 
sir F. ; London Inst. 1805 ; Bus- 
sell adm. 1846. 
Barker, Robert ; panorama, 178B 
Barlaam ; Barlaamites, 1337 
Barlow ; clocks. 1676 
Barlow, rev. J. ; Royal Ins ti tut. ,1842 
Barlow, sir G. ; India, governors, 

1S05 
Barlowe, William; compass, 1608 
Barnard, general ; India, 1857 
Barnes, T. , d. 1841 ; Times 
Barnet, Geo. ; trials, i8i6 
Barr^, Isaac ; Rockingham admi- 
nistration, 1782 
BaiTctt ; Cumberland, naval bat- 
tles, 181 1 ; Fenians, 1S68 
Barrie, capt. ; naval battles, 181 1 
Barrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 
BaiTington, Mr. ; duel, 17S8 
Barrington ; trials, 1790 
Barrot, O. ; Prance, 1848 
Barrow, Isaac, theol. and philos. , 

1630-77 
Barry, sir Charles, architect, 1795- 

1S60; parliament 
Barth, Dr. ; Africa, 1849 
Barthelemy, E. ; trials, 1855 
Barton, Bernard, poet, 1784-1849 
Barton, Dr. ; insurance, 1667 
Barton, Elizabeth ; impostor, 1534 
Baschi, Matt. ; Capuchins, 1525 
Basil, St. , d. 380 ; Basilians 
Basil ; East. emp. 867 ; Russia 
Ba.'^ilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 
Bath, earl of ; Bath admin., 1746 
Bathou ; Transylvania, 1851, (fee. 
Bathurst, bp. ; Norwich, 1805 
Bathurst, earl ; Liverpool adminis- 
tration, 1S12 
Bathyllus ; pantomimes 
Batman, J. ; Victoria, 1835 
Batthyany ; Hungary, 1848 
Battus; Gyrene, 631 B.C. 
Baumgarten; ;Bsthetics, 1750 
Bavaria, elector of ; Ramilies, 1706 
Baxter, sir D. ; Dundee, 1863 
Baxter, G. ; printing in colours, 

1836 
Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 
Bayard, chevalier, killed, 1524 
Bayle, I?., d. 1706; dictionary, 1697 
Bayley, lieut. : duel, 1818 
Baynard, GeoflFrey ; combat 
Bazalgette, J. W., 6. 1819 ; sewers, 

Thames 
Beadon, bishop; Bath, 1802 
JSean aimsat the queen; trials, 1842 



Beaton, cardinal; to. 1546 
Beattie, Jas. ; poet, 1735- 1803 
Beauclerc, lord Charles, drowned 
while assisting at a wreck, i85i 
Beau Nash ; ceremonies 
Beauchamp, Henry de ; Wight 
Beauchamp, John de ; barons 
Beaufort, cardinal, d. 1447 
Beauliarnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; 

Italy, Mockern 
Beaulieu, genei-al ; Lodi, 1796 
Beaumont, sir S., painter, 1753- 

1827 ; National Gallery 
Beaumont, Mr. ; duel, 1821-1826 
Beaumont ; viscount, 1440 
Beauregard, P. G., h. i8i8 ; United 

States, 1S61 
Beauvoir, sir J. de ; trials, 1835 
Becket, T., to. 1170; Becket 
Beckford, W. ; Fonthill abbey 
Bede, Venerable, d. 735 
Bedford, duke of ; duel, 1822; Ire- 
land, lord- lieutenants, 1490-1757 ; 
France, 1422; admiralty, 1744; 
nobility, 1470 
Bedingfield, Ann ; trials, 1763 
Beeby, William ; longevity 
Beeching, J. ; lifeboat, 1851 
Beethoven, L., mus. comp., 1770- 

1827 
Begum charge ; Chunar, 1781 
Behem, Martin ; Azores 
Behnes, Wm., sculpt., 1800-64 
Behring, d. 1741 ; Behring's straits 
Bela ; Hungary, kings 
Belasyse, lord L. ; adm., 1687 
Belcher, sirE. ; circumnavigation, 

1836 ; Franklin 
Belcredi, count Rd., h. 1823; Aus- 
tria, 1865 
BeUsarius, rf. 565; Africa, east emp. 
Bell, And., d. 1832; Lancasteriau 

schools 
Bell, sir C, 1774-1842 ; nerves 
Bell, H. ; steam, 1812 
Bell, rev. Patrick ; reaping ma- 
chine, 1826 
Bellamont, lord ; duel, 1773 
Bellamy ; trial, 1844 
Bell.ai-mine, card., 1542-1621 
Bellingham kills Perceval, 1812 
Bellingham, sir Daniel, mayor (of 

Dublin), 1665 
Bellini ; music, 1802-35 
Bellot, lieut, rf. 1853; Franklin 
Belochus ; Assyria, 1446 B.C. 
Belus ; Assyria, 2245 B.C. 
Belzoni, J. ii., traveller, d. 1823 
Bem, gen. Joseph, d. 1850; Hun- 
gary 
Benbow, adm. ; naval battles, 1702 
Benedek, L. , b. 1804; KQniggratz 
Benedict, Benedictines ; popes, 

574-1758 
Bentham, Jer. (1746-1832); savings 

banks 
Bentinck, lord G., d. 1848 ; protec- 
tionists 
Bentinck, lord W. ; Assam, India, 

1827 
Bentley, Rd., scholar, 1662-1742 
Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 1780-1857 
Berengaria, queen (of Richard I.), 

d. 1230 
Berengarius ; fete de Dieu 
Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and 

others ; trials, 1814 
Beresford, lord ; Albuera, 1811 
Beresford, lord J. ; suicide, 1841 
Beresford, Wni. ; Derby adm., 1852 
Berg, gen. ; Poland, 1863 
Berkeley ; trials, 1811, 1858 



Berkeley, hon. C. ; duel, 1842 
Berkeley, lord ; admiralty, 1717 
Berkeley, lord ; America, N., 1644 ; 

Brest, 1694 ; Carolina 
Bernadotte, 1764-1844; Dennewitz, 

Sweden, king 
Bernard, St., 1091-1153 
Bernard, S. ; trials, 1858 
Bernard, sir Thomas; British Inst., 

1805 ; Royal Institution, 1799 
Bernini, 1598-1680 
Berri, duke and duchess of; France, 

1820- 1833 
Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 
Berthelot, P.M., 6. 1827; acety- 
lene, defiant gas, 1S62 
Berthier, gen. ; marshal, 1753-1815 
Berthollet, C. L., chemist, 1748- 

1822 ; chlorine 
Bertie, lady G. C. ; lord great 

chamberlain 
Berwick, duke of, d. 1734 ; Landen, 

Almanza, Newry 
Berzelius, Jas., 1779-1848 ; che- 
mistry, silioium 
Bessemer, H. ; iron, steel, 1856 
Bessus ; Persia, 331 B.C. 
Best, capt. ; duel, 1804; Surat, 1611 
Bethell, bp. ; Gloucester, 1824 
Bethell, sir B. , solicitor-gen., 1852, 

attorney-gen., 1S59 (see West- 
bury) 
Bethencourt ; Canaries, 1400 
Betty, master ; theatres, 1804 
Beust, F. F. v., b. 1809 ; Austria, 

1866 
Bevern, prince; Breslau, 1757 
Bewick, T., 1753-1828; wooden- 
graving 
Bexley, Vansittart, lord ; Liverpool 

administration, 1812 
Beza, Theodore, theologian, 1519- 

1605 
Bialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, 1861 
Bickersteth, bp. ; Ripon, 1856 
Biela, comet, 1826 
Big Sam ; giants, 1809 
Biugley, lord ; Oxford adm. 1711 
Bird, the boy ; trials, 1831 
Birkbeck, Dr., rf. 1841 ; mechanics' 

institutes 
Biscoe, capt. ; southern continent, 

1832 
Bishop ; burking, 1831 
Bishop, A. ; derrick, 1857 
Bishop, sir H. ; mvisic, 1786-1855 
Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 
Bismarck, O. von, b. 1813 ; Prussia, 

1862-8 ; Gastein 
Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 
Black, Jos. ; chemist, 1728-99 ; 

magnesia, air, balloon 
Blackburn, abp. ; York, 1724 
Blackstone, sir W., 1723-80 ; law 
Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800; rhetoric, 

verse ; — John, chronologist, d. 

1797 
Blake, adm. R., 1599-1657 ; Algiers, 

Dover straits, Portland isle, 

Santa Cruz 
Blakeslcy, Robt. ; trials, 1841 
Blanc, Louis, b. 1813 ; France, 1848 
Blanchard; balloon, 1784-1819 
Blanchard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 
Blanchard, T. ; timber bending, 

1855 
Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 
Bligh, captain ; bread fruit tree ; 

Adventure bay. Bounty mutiny 
Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley 

Pole ; trials, 1825 
BUgh, ;Mr. ; trials, 1806 



828 



INDEX. 



Blomfield, bp. ; Chester, 1824; 

London, 1828 
Blondin; crystal palace, 1861 
Blood, col., d. 1680; Blood, crown 
Blood, Mr.; trials, 1832 
Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1849 
Bloomfield, K., poet, 1766-1823 
Blucher, marshal, d. 1819 ; Jan- 

villiers, Ligny, Waterloo 
Blum, R., shot in 1848 
Blumenbach, J. F., 1752-1840 
Blundell, lieut. ; duel, 1813 
Boadicea, d. 61 ; Britain, Iceni 
Boardman, captain; duel, 181 1 
Boccaccio, 1313-75 ; Decameron 
Boddington ; trials, 1797 
Boden, col. ; Sanscrit, 1832 
Bodley, T. ; Bodleian lib., 1602 
Boerhaave, H., med. writ., 1668- 

1738 
Boethius, 'killed, 524 
Boeticher; Dresden china, 1700 
Bogle V. Lawson ; trials, 1841 
Bohemia, king of— "Ich Dien;" 

Crecy, 1346 
Boileau, Nic, poet, 1636-1711 
Bois de Chfene, Mdlle.; beards, 1834 
Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Boldero, capt. ; duel, 1842 
Boleslaus ; Poland 
Boleyn, Anne; England (queen 

Hen. VIII.) 
Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire; admi- 
nistrations, 1532 
Bolingbroke, lord ; Oxford ad- 
ministration, 1711 ; deism 
Bolivar (1783-1830) ; Columbia 
BoUand, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
Bonaparte family ; Prance 
Bonar, Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 
Bonaventura, 1221-74; conclave 
Bonavisa, Anthony ; distaff, 1505 
Bond ; magnetism, 1668 
Bond, prof. ; photograpy, 1851 
Bonelli ; electric loom, 1854 
Bonheur, Rosa, painter, 6. 1822 
Bonner, bishop of London ; admi- 
nistrations, 1554 
Bonnet, C, naturalist, 1720-93 
Bonnycastle, J., mathematician, 

d. 1821 
Bonpland, A., naturalist, 1773-1858 
Bonwell, rev. J. ; trials, i860 
Boon, colonel ; America, 1754 
Boosey, T. ; copyright, 1854 
Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 
Booth, Wilkes, assassin ; U. States, 

1865 
Booth, Mr. ; theatres, 1817 
Borde, Andrew ; Merry-andrew 
Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
Borgese, H. ; diamond 
Borgia, Caesar, killed, 1507 
Boroimhe, Brian ; Ireland, 1014 
Borowlaski, ct. ; dwarf, 1 739-1 837 
Borrington, lady; trials, 1808 
Borromeo, abp. Charles, 1538-84 
Boscan, Span, poet, abt. 1496-1544 
Boscawen, adm., 1711-60; Lagos 
Bosquet, marshal, 1810-61 ; Inker- 

mann, 1854 
Bossuet, J., theol., 1627-1704 
Boswell, sir A. ; duel, 1822 
Boswell, James, biogra., 1740-95 
Both well, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
Bottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 
Bouohet, Anthony ; illuminati 
Bouchier, archbp. ; Canterbury, 

i486 
BoufiBers, marshal ; 1644-171T 
BougainviDe, d. 1811 ; circumnavi- 
gation. New Hebrides 



Bouill^, marquis de ; Eustatia, 1781 
Boulby, Mr. ; China, i86o 
Boulton, Mat., d. 1809; Birming- 
ham 
Boulton and Watt ; coinage, 1788 
Bourbon family ; Bourbon, duke 

of; duels, 1778 
Bourgeois, sir P. ; Dulwich, 1813 
Bourke, sir R. ; Victoria, Austraha, 

1831 
Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 
Bourne, Sturges ; Canning admi- 
nistration, 1827 
Bousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 
Bovill, sirW.,6. 1814; com. pleas, 

1866 
Bowen, sir G. ; Queensland, 1859 
Bower, Mr. Elliott; trials, 1852 
Bowes, Miss ; Strathmore, 1766 
Bowring, sir J., b. 1792; Canton, 

China, Siam 
Bowstead, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
Bowyer, bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 
Boyd, captain ; duel, 1808 
Boyd, Hugh ; Junius 
Boydell, aid., d. 1804; British In- 
stitution 
Boyle, earl of Orrery ; orrery 
Boyle, Rob., 1626-91 ; phosphorus, 

Royal Society 
Boyle, Henry; Godolphin admi- 
nistration, 1702 1 
Brabant, duke of; merchants, 1296 
Bradbury, H. ; nature-printing, 

1855-6 
Bradley, admiral ; trials, 1814 
Bradley, Jas., 1693-1762; astro- 
nomy, Greenwich 
Bradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury, 

1349 
Braganza, John of ; Portugal, 1640 
Bragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3 
Braham, John, singer, 1774-1856 ; 

theatres 
Brahe, Tycho, 1546-1601 ; astro- 
nomy, globe 
Braidwood, Jas. ; fires, k. 1861 
Bramah, J., 1749-1814 ; hydrosta- 
tics, planing-machine 
Brande, W. T., chemist, 1788-1866; 
Royal and London Institutions 
Brandreth, the Luddite; Derby 

trials, 1817 
Brandt, count ; Zell, 1772 
Brandt ; cobalt, phosphorus, 1667 
Brautome, P., historian, 1527-1614 
Brasidas, killed, 422 B.C. 
Breadalbane peerage ; trials, 1866-7 
Breakspeare, JSicholas; pope, 1154 
Brederode, H. de ; gueux, 1566 
Bremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 
Bremer, Fred., novelist, 6. 1802 
Brendon, St. ; Clonfert, 558 
Brenn, captain ; Hibernia, 1833 
Brennus ; Rome, 390 b. c. 
Brereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 
Bresson, count ; suicide, 1847 
Brett, J. W. ; submarine tele- 
graph, 1845 
Brett, sir W. B., sol. gen. 1868 
Brewster, David, nat. pbil., 1781- 
1868; kaleidoscope, British asso- 
ciation 
Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
Bridge water, earl ; admiralty, 1699 
Bridgewater, duke of, 1729-1803 ; 

Bridgewater Canal 
Bridport, lord ; L'Orient, 1795 
Brienne, M. de ; notables, 1788 
Bright ; corpulency, 1809 
Bright, John, 6. 1811 ; Adullam, 
agitators, peace congress 



Bright, T. ; shorthand 

Brindley, Jas., 1716-72 ; tunnels, 
Bridgewater canal. Barton 

Brinklett; trials, 1828 

Brinvilliers, madame de, executed, 
1676 ; poisoning 

Bristol, mayor of ; trials, 1832 

Bristol, John, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1621 

Brodie, sir B. C, s\irgeon, 1783- 
1862; — {son) chemist, b. 1817; 
graphite, 1862 

Broke, captain ; Chesapeake, 1813 

Brome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 

Bromley, sir Thomas ; adminis- 
trations, 1579 

Brongniart, A., geo., 1770-1847 

Brooke, sir .James, 1803-68; Borneo 

Brothers, R., d. 1824 

Brough, M. A. ; trials, 1854 

Brougham, H., 1778-1868; chan- 
cellor, impeachnjent, social 
science 

Broughton, lord; Russell admi- 
nistrations, 1846, 1851 

Brown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 

Brown, H. ; trials, 1858 

Brown, sir J ; iron, 1867 

Brown, captain John; United 
States, 1859 

Brown, W., 1783-1864; Livei-pool, 

1857 
Brown, R., d. 1630; Brownists, 

independents 
Brown, Rob., botanist, 1773-1858 ; 

Brownian 
Browne, American gen. ; Chip- 

pawa, 1S14 ; Fort Erie 
Browne, Hannah; trials, 1837 
Browne, George ; DubHn, 1554 
Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 
Brownrigg, gen. ; Candy, 1815 
Bruck, baron ; Lloyd's, note 
Bruce, J., traveller, 1730-94; 

Africa, Bruce, Nile, Palmyra 
Bruce, David; NeviU's cross, 

1346 
Bruce, Edward ; Dundalk, 1318 
Bruce, Robert, d. 1329; Scotland, 

king, 1306 ; Bannockburn, 1314 
Bruce, Michael ; Lavalette, 1816 
Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 1851 
Brucher, Antonio ; coinage, 1553 
Brudenell ; trials, 1834 
Brueys, admiral ; Nile, 1798 
Brunei, I. K., 1769-1849; blocks, 

steam, Thames tunnel 
Brunei, I. K., 1806-59; steam 
Bruno ; Benedictines, Chartreuse, 

Cologne, turnery 
Brunswick, duke of ; Valmy, 1792 ;. 

Quatre Bras, 18 15 
Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, 

Ings, and Tidd ; Cato-street, 

1820 
Brutus, Lucius Junius ; consuls, 

509 B.C. 
Brutus and Cassius; Philippi, 

42 B.C. 

Bryan (or Brian) Boroimhe ; harp, 
Clontarf, Ireland, 1014 

Bubb ; opera-house, 1821 

Buchan, M ; Buchanites, 1779 

Buchan, captain ; N.-W. passagOr 
1819-22 

Buchanan, J., pres. U. States, 
1856, d. 1868 

Buckhurst, Thomas, lord ; admi- 
nistrations, 1599 

Buckingham, Stafford, duke of ; 
constable, 1521 

Buckingham, G. Villiers, duke of ; 



INDEX. 



829 



administrations, 1615, 1621 
dress : killed, 1628 
Uuckingbam, duke of; cabal 
ministry, 1670; Peel adminis- 
trations, 1841 ; duel, 1822 ; — (6. 
1823) ; Disraeli adm., 1868 
Buckingham, marquess of ; Ire- 
land, lord lieutenant, 1787 
Buckinghamshire, earl of ; Liver- 
pool administration, 1812 
Buckland, W. ; geologist, 1784-1856 
Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1863 
Buckle, H. T. ; historian, 1822-62 
Bufalmaco ; caricatures, 1330 
Buffon, G., 1707-88; geology, 

zoology, 1749 
Bugeaud, marshal, 1784-1849 ; 

Morocco, 1844 
Bulkeley, bishop ; Bangor, 1553 
Bull, J., "God save the King,''i6o6 
Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1710 
Bulwer, see Lytton, td. 
Bunning, J. B. ; coal-exchange, 

1849 
Bunsen, baron C. J. ; 1791-1860 
Bunsen, R. ; voltaic pile, 1842 ; 

spectrum, i860 
Bunyan, J., 1628-88 ; Bedford, al- 

legoiy, pilgrim's progress 
Buonarottt, Michael Angelo, 1474- 

1564 
Burbage, James ; plays, drama 
Burdett, sir F., 1770- 1844; duel, 

1S07 ; riots, trial, 1820 
Burdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1835 
Burdon, Mr. : trials, 1841 
Burger, G. ; Germ, poet, 1748-94 
Burgess, bishop ; Salisbury ; 

David's, St. 1825 
Burgh, Hubert de ; "Whitehall 
Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 
Burke, Edmund, 1729-97; Rock- 
ingham administrations, 1782 ; 
Canada, Junius 
Burke, R. ; Fenians, 1867-8 
Burke and Wills ; AustraUa, 1860-3 
Burleigh, lord; administrations, 

1558 
Burlington, Rd. earl of, 1695-1753 
Bumes, sir A. , murdered ; India, 

1841 
Burnet, Dr. ; antediluvians 
Burnet, bp. Gilbert, 1643-1715 
Burnett, Mr., d. 1784 ; Burnett 

prizes 
Burns, R., poet, 1759-96 
Burnside, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 
BuiT, colonel ; duel, 1804 
Burton, Rob. (Anat. of Melancholy), 

iS76-r64o 
Bury, Richard de; libraries, 1341 
Bute, earl of, 1713-92 ; Bute adm. 
Butler, bp. S. ; Lichfield, 1840 
Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 
Butler, captain ; SiUstria, 1854 
Butler, Saja.(IIudibras), abt. 1612-80 
Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 
Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1817 
Buttevant ; viscount, 1385 
Button, sir Thomas ; N.-W. pas- 
sage, 1612 
Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
Buxton, sir T. F., 17 86- 1845; 

prisons, 1815 
Byng, J., exec. 1757 ; Gibraltar, 

Byng, 1757 
Byrne, Miss; riot, 1819 
Byron, comm. ; port Egmont, 1765 
Byron, George, lord, poet, 1788- 

1824; Greece, Missolonglii 
Bysse, Dr. ; musical festivals 



Cabot, Sebastian and John ; Ame- 
rica, 1497 
Cabral, Alvarez de ; Brazil, 1500 
Cabrera, general ; Spain, 1840 
Cade, Jack ; Cade's insurrection, 

1430 
Cadell, captain ; Australia, 1867 
Cadmus, 1453 B.C. ; alphabet, 

Bosotia 
Cadogan, captain ; duels, 1809 
Cadwallader ; Britain, 678 
Cascilius Isidorus ; slaveiy in 

Rome, 12 B.C. 
Caedmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 680 
Cassar, Julius, 100-44 B.C.; Rome, 
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 
Pharsalia, Zela, Rubicon 
Cassar, Octavius, 63 B.C. -14 a.d. ; 
Rome, Actium, ruassacres, tri- 
umvirate, Philippi, emperor 
Csesalpinus ; blood, circulation, 

1569 
Cagliostro, d. 1795 ; diamond neck- 
lace 
Caithness, earl of ; steam-carriage, 

i860 
Cairns, Hugh, lord, b. i8ig, att.- 

gen. 1866, lord chan. 1868 
Calajihilus ; wandering Jew 
Calas, J., judicially murdered, 1761 
Calder, sir Robt. ; naval batt. 1805 
Calderon, P., Sp. dramatist, 

i6o7(?)-8 
Calepini ; dictionaries, 1500 
Calhoun, Mr. ; temperance soc, 

1818 
Caligula ; Rome, emperor, 37 
Calippus ; Calippic period, 330 B.C. 
Calixtus, pope ; Calixtins, 1656 
Callcott, J. W. : music, 1766-1821 
Callicratus ; calligraphy 
Callimachus ; Abacus, architec- 
ture, Corinthian, 540 B.C. 
Callinicus ; Greek fire, wildfire 
Callisthenes ; Chaldean, Macedon, 

328 B.C. 
Calonne ; notables, 1788 
Calthorpe, Id. ; Birmingham, 1857 
Calverly ; pressing to death, 1605 
Calvert and Co. ; porter, 1760 
Calvin, John, 1509-64; Calvinism 
Cambac€r&s; directory, 1799 
Cambridge, dukes of ; Cambridge 
Cambridge, George, duke of, b. 

1819 
Cambyses ; Egypt, Persia, 525 B. c. 
Camden, lord ; chancellor, lord, 
Percival adm., 1809 ; exchequer, 
Ireland (lord-lieut.) 
Camden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 
Camelford, lord; duel, 1804 
Cameron, H. I. ; trials, 1858 
Cameron, consul; Abyssinia, 1863 
Camillus ; Rome, 391 b.c. 
Camoeus, poet, 1524-79 
Campbell, bishop ; Bangor, 1859 
Campbell, sir C. ; see Ch/de 
Campbell, John, lord, i78i(?)-i86i ; 
attorney-general, king's bench, 
chancellor, Palmerston 
Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 
Campbell, major ; duel, trials, 1808 
Campbell, capt. ; marriages, forced, 

1690 
Campbell, Thos, poet, 1777-1844 
Camper, Peter, 1722-89; facial 

angle 
Campion ; trials, 1857 
Canaletti, painter, 1697-1768 
Canning, George, 1770-1827; Can- 



ning, duel, 1809; grammarians, 
king's speech 
Canning, viscoimt, 1812-62; India, 

1855 
Canova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 
Cantillon ; wUls (Napoleon's), 1821 
Canton, J., d. 1772; phosphorus, 

magnetism 
Cantor, Theod. ; Cantor lectures, 

1853 
Canute ; England, 1017 ; Alney 
Cape Town, Gray, bp. of ; Africa, 

1866; Church of England 
Capel, H. ; admiralty, 1679 
Capet family ; France, 987 
Capo d'Istria, count ; Greece, 1831 
Car; augury 
Caracalla; Rome, emp. 211; Ale- 

manni 
Caracci.L., painter, 1555-1619; An., 

1568-1609 
Caraccioli, adm., executed 1799 
Cai-actacus; Britain, 50 
Caraffa, bishop ; Theatiues, 1524 
Carausius ; Britain, 281 
Cardan, J., 1501-76 
Garden, Mr. ; trials, 1854 
Cardigan, lord; duel, 1840; trials, 

1841-63 ; Balaklava, 1854 
Cardross case ; trials, 1861 
Cardwell, Edward, b. 1813; Pal- 
merston administration, 1855-59 
Carey, bishop ; St. Asaph, 1830 
Carleton, sir Guy; U. States, 

1782 
CarlUe, R. ; atheist: trials, i8ig, 

1831 
Carlisle, earls of; Ireland, lord- 
lieutenant, 1859 
Carlos, Don ; Spain, 1833 
Carlyle, Thos., phil. and hist., 

b. 1795 
Carmarthen, marquess of; admi- 
nistrations, 1689 
Carnot, L., mathem., 1753-1823 
Caroline; queen (George II.), 

parks 
Caroline ; queen (George IV.), 
Brandenburg-house, delicate in- 
vestigation 
Carpenter, gen. ; Preston, 1715 
Carr, bishop ; Worcester, 1831 
Carr, Holwell ; National Gallery, 

1824 
Carr^ ; congelation, i860 
Carstairs, rev. W. ; thumbscrew 
Cartier ; America, 1534 
Carter, Richard ; alchemy, 1476 
Carteret; circumnavigator, 1766 
Carteret, lord ; Walpole adminis- 
trations, 1721 
Carthage, St. ; Lismore, 636 
Cart Wright, major; trials, 1820 
Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces, 

231 B.C. 
CasoUa, L. ; thermometer, 1861 
Cashin, Miss ; quackery, 1830 
Cashman ; Spafields, riots, 1816 
Casimir ; Poland 
Cassander; Macedon, 316 B.C. 
Cassibelaunus ; chariots 
Cassini, 1625-1712; astronomy; 
Bologna, latitude, Satum, 1655 
Cassius ; Philippi, 42 B.C. 
Castanos ; Spain, 1852 
Castel, M. ; Dartmouth, 1404 
Castlereagh, lord ; union with Ire- 
land, 1800; Pitt admin., 1804; 
Liverpool admin., 1812; duel, 
1S09 ; suicide, 1822 
Catesby, Rob. ; gunpowder, 1605 
Cathcart, Id. ; Copenhagen, 1807 



830 



INDEX. 



Cathcart, general ; Kaffraria ; In- 

kermMnn, 1854 
Catherine ; England (queens Hen. 

v., VIII., Charles II. J 
Catherine ; Eussia, 1725 ; Odessa ; 

Sebastopol 
Cato (the censor) ; agriculture ; 
149 B.C. ; — (the tribune), kills 
himself, 46 B.C. 
Catullus, poet, d. abt. 47 B.C. 
Catulus; Uimbri, toi b.c. 
Caulaincourt ; Chatillon, 1S14 
Cans, S. de ; steam-engine. 1613 
Cautley, sir P. ; Ganges, 1854 
Cavaignac, general ; France, 1848 
Cavaliere, Emilio di ; opera, reci- 
tative, 1600 
Cavendish, circumnavigator, 1586 
Cavendish, H., d. 18 10; balloons, 
electricity, chemistry, nitrogen, 
hydrogen, water 
Cavendish, W. ; Devonshire, 1618 
Cavendish, .John de ; judges, 1382 
Cavendish, lord John ; Portland 

administration, 1783 
Cavour, Camille de, i8og-6i ; Sar- 
dinia, Austria 
Caxton, Wm., abt. 1412-91 ; print- 
ing 
Caylus, count; encaustic painting, 

1765 
Cecil, Wm. ; administrations, 1572 
Cecrops ; Athens, 1556 B.C. 
Celeste, madame ; theatres, 1844 
Oelestin ; popes, 1143 
Celsus ; midwifery, &o. , 37 
Cerdic ; Britain (Wessex) 
Cerinthus ; apocalypse 
Cervantes, M.S., 1547-1616 ; don 

Quixote 
Chacornac ; planets, 1853 
Chad, St. ; baths, 667 
Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608 
Chalmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847 
Chambers, bishop ; Peterborough, 

1 541 
Chambers ; encyclopsedia, 1728, 

1859 

Chambers, sir William,; Somerset- 
house, 1775 

Changarnier, general ; Prance, 1851 

Channing, W., 1780-1842 

Chantrey, P., sculpt., 1782-1841 

Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793 

Chares; colossus, 28S B.C. 

Charlemagne, 742-814 ; academy, 
couriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chris- 
tianity, France, Germany, Na- 
varre 

Charles Albert ; Sardinia, 1831 ; 
Novara, 1849 

Charles ; England, France, Spain, 
Savoy, Germany, Sweden, Si- 
cily, (fee. 

Charles V. ; emperor, 1500-58 ; 
Spain, Austria, Germany, 
Spires 

Charles V. ; Bastile, 1369 

Charles VI. ; picquet, 1390 

Charles XII., 1682-1718; Sweden, 
Fred erickshald 

Charles the Bold ; Burgundy, 1468, 
Nancy, Liege 

Charles, archduke, 1771-1847; As- 
perne, Bckmtihl, Essling 

Charles of Anjtiu ; Naples, 1266 

Charles of Hohenzolleru, prince, 
6. 1839 ; Danub. princ. 1866 

Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa, 1757 

Charles Stuart, prince ; pretender, 
Culloden, 1746 

Charlesworth, J. C. ; trials, 1861 



Charlotte, queen (George III.) 
Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- 

1817 ; Claremont 
Charteris, col. ; trials, 1730 
ChasstS, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 
Chateaubriand, viscount, French 

writer, 1768- 1848 
Chatham, earl of, 1708-78; New- 
castle admin., 1757 ; Chatham 
admin. 1766; Walciieren, 1809 
Chatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 
Chaucer, G., 1328-1400; Canter- 
bury tales 
Chaves, marq. of; Portugal, 1826 
Chelmsford, Id. ; Derby adm. 1858 
Oherubini, music comp. 1760-1842 
Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 1851 
Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 
Chevallier, M., 6. i8o5 
Chevreul, E., chemist, (fee, 6. 1786; 

candles 
Chicheley, arohbp. ; Canterbury, 

1414-1443 
Childeric ; France (kings) 
ChillingworthjW. , theolo., 1602-44 
Ching Noung; China, wine, 1998 

B.C. 

Chladni, E., 1756-1827; acoustics 
Choiseul, E., due de, 1719-85 
Cholmondeley, gen. ; horseguaids, 

1693 
Chosroes I. ; Persia, 531 j 

Christian ; Denmark, Sweden, 

1448 
Christian IV. ; Christiana, 1624 
Christian VII. ; Oldenburg 
Christina ; Sweden, 1633 ; Spain, 

1833 
Christophe ; Hayti, 1811 
Christopher, Robt. Adam ; Derby 
administration, 1852 ; Denmark 
(kings) 
Chrysostom, father, 354-407 
Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 
Cialdini, gen. ; Italy, i860 ; Castel 

Ficlar(io, Gaeta 
Gibber, C. ; poet-laureate, d. 1757 
Cicero, 106-43 b c. ; Ath6ns,Eome, 

Catiline, Philippics 
Cid (Spanish hero), ^.'1099 
Cimabue, painter, 1240-1300 
Cimarosa, musician, 1754-1801 
Cimon ; Eurymedou, 466 b.c. 
Cincinnatus, dictator, 458 B.C. 
Cinna, consul, killed, 84 B.C. 
Clanny, Dr. Beid; safety lamp, 

1817 
Clanricarde, marq. of ; postmaster, 
1846 ; Russell administration, 
1851 ; Palmerston administra- 
tion, 1855 
Clapperton, Hugh, traveller, 1788- 

1827 
Clare, John, poet, 1793-1864 
Clare, earl of ; duel, 1820 
Clarence, duke of; Anjou, Claren- 
cieux ; rebellion, 1478 ; admi- 
ralty, 1827 
Clarendon, earl of (Hyde), 1608-74 ; 
administrations, 1660, 1685 ; — 
G. F. Villiers, 6. 1801 ; Ireland, 
lord-lieut. ; Aberdeen, Palmer- 
ston 
Clarke, Adam, theoL, 1760-1832 ; — 
Sam., theol., 1675-1729 ; — Edw. 
D., traveller, 1768-1822 
Clarke, M.A. ; trials, 1814 
Clarke, gen. ; Cape, 1795 
Clarke, Sl. C. ; Shakspeare, con- 
cordance, 1847 
Clarkson, Thomas, d. 1846; slavery 
Claude Lorraine, painter, 1600-S2 



Claudian, Latin poet, d. abt. 408 ;. 

archery 
Claudius ; Rome, emperor, 41 
Claudius, App. ; decemviri, 451 e.c. 
Clausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1836 
Claussen, chev. ; flax, 1851 
Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1679 
Clay, Mr. ; slavery, U. S., 1820 ;. 

Li beria 
Clayton, Mr. ; dviel, 1830 
Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 
Cleaver, bishop; Bangor, St. 

Asaph, 1806-1815 
Cleistlaenes ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
Clemens Romanus ; popes, 662 ; 

— Alexandrinus, d. abt. 213 
Clement ; popes, 91 ;— IV. ; con- 
clave, 1268 ; — VII. ; pontiff, 
benefices, Clementines, 1378 ; 
—VIII. ; index ;— XIV. (Gan- 
ganelli); 1769; Jesuits; — 
Jacques ; France, 1589 ; — 
Joseph ; planing-machine, 1825 ;. 
— Julian ; midwifery, 1663 
Clementi, M., music, d. 1832 
Cleombrotus ; Sparta, 380 B.C. 
Cleomenes ; Sparta, 520 B.C. 
Cleon, Athenian demagogue, d. 

422 B.C. 
Cleopatra ; Egypt, 69-30 B.C. ; rose 
Clifford, C. ; life-boat (note), 1856 
Clifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, 

1829; — sirTho., cabal, 1670 
Clinton, H. Fynes, 1781-1852 ; 

chronology 
Clinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 
Clinton, Geoffrey de ; KenUworth, 

1120 
Clive, Rob., lord, 1725-74 ; Arcot, 

India, Plassey 
Cloncurry, lordj'w. Piers; trials,i8o7 
Close, Mr. ; duels, 1836 
Clotaire ; France, kings, 358 
Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- 
vicus, Louis) ; France, 481 ; 
Normandy, Paris, Clovis, Sa- 
lique, fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 
Cloots, Anacharsis, exec. 1794 
Clune, (fee. ; trials, 1830 
Clyde, lord, h. 1792 ; India, 1857 • 
Clymer; printing-press, 1814 
Cobbett,WilLiam, 1762-1835 ; trials, 

1809, 1811, 1831 

Cobden, R., 1804-63; anti-com- 

law league, free trade, French 

treaty, peace congress 

Cobham, Id. ; roasting alive, 1418 

Coburg, prince of; Fleurus, 1794 

(see Saxe-Coburg) 
Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dun- 
donald), d. i860 ; Basque roads, 
stocks, trials, 1S14 
Cockburn, sir A., b. 1802 ; solici 
tor-general, 1858 ; attorney-ge- 
neral, king's bench, ch. j. 
Cocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837 
Codrington, admiral sir E. ; Nava- 

rino, 1827 
Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. 
Cohom, B. van (mihtary engineer), 

1641-1704 
Coke, sir Edw., 1550-1634 ; parlia- 
ments, 1592 
Colbert, J. B., 1619-83; tapestiy 
CoJborne, sir John ; Canada, 1838 
Colclough, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. 
Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 
Colenso, bp., b. 1814 ; church of 

England, 1863 ; trials, 1866 
Coleridge, Samuel T., poet, &c., 
1772-1834 



INDEX. 



831 



Coles, capt. Oowper ; navy of 

England, 1855-62 
Colet, J.; Paul's school, 1512 
Coligni, admiral, killed, 1572 
CoUard, rear-adml. ; suicide, 1846 
Collier, J. P. ; Shakspeare, 1849 ; 

— Jeremy, 1650-1726 
Collingwood, lord, 1748-1810; Tra- 
falgar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 
Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 
CoUinson, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
Collucci, V. ; trials, 1S61 
Colman, G., d. 1794; — G. jun., d. 

1826 ; theatres, 1777 
Colonna family flourish, 1288-1555 
Colonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 
Colpoys, admiral ; mutinies, 1797 
Colt, colonel; pistols, 1853 
Columba, St., 521-97; isles 
Columbanus, d. 614 or 615 
Columbiere ; armorial bearings, 

1639 
Columbus, Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506 ; 
America, iiahama, Caraccas, 
Christopher's, Salvador, Do- 
mingo 
Columijus, Bartholomew ; maps, 

1489 
Columella, medical writer, abt. 46 
Colville, sir C. ; Cambray, 181 5 
Combe, G., 178S-1858; oraniology 
Combermei-e, 1. ; Bhurtpore, 1826 
Comines, Ph. de, hist. 1445-1509 
Commodus ; Rome, emperor, iSo 
C'omneni ; eastern emperors, 1057; 

Pontus, Trebizond, 1204 
Comte, A., 1795-1857 ; positive 

phil. 
Comyu, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Cond^ Louis ; Jarnac, 1569 
Conflans ; Quiberon, 1759 
Confucius, d. 479 b.c. ; China 
Congleton, lord ; suicide, 1842 
Congreve,W., dramatist, 1670-1729 
Congreve, sirWm., 1772-1828 ; fire- 
works, 1814 
Conolly, J., 1795-1866 ; lunatics, 

1S39 
Conon ; Sparta, 394 b. c. ; Arginusaj 
Conrad; Germany, 911 
Conrad II. : Germany, 1024 ; Bur- 
gundy 
Conradin ; Naples, Germany, 1268 
Constans ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine ; Rome, emp. 323 ; 
Adrianople, aruspices, banner, 
Britain, Eastern empire, Rome, 
York, Scotland 
Constantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine IV. ; monasteries 
Constantius ; Rome, emps., 305 
Contarini (doges at Venice), 1041- 

1674 
Conway, sir Edw. ; administra- 
tions, 1621 ; — general Conway, 
Chatham administration, 1766 
Cook, capt., 1728-79 ; Australia, 
Cook's voyages, Behring's 
Straits, Botany Bay, Flattery 
Cape, New Hebrides, New Zea- 
land, Norfolk Island, Otaheite, 
Owhybee, Port Jackson 
Cook, Mrs., murdered; trials, 1841 
Cook, J. P., murdered; trials, 1856 
Cooke, sir George ; Chatham, 1766 
Cooke, B. W., R. A., 6. i8ioori8ii 
Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1832 
Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1755-1812 
Cooke, W. P., electric teleg., 1837 
Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 1768-1841 
Cooper, J. Fenimore, Am. noveUst, 
1789-1851 



Cooper, Mr. ; slave trade, 1787 

Cooper; trials, 1805, 1842 

Coote, sir Eyre ; India, Arcot, 

1760; Carnatic, Cuddalore 
Cope, sir John ; ]?restonpans, 1745 
Copernicus, Nic., 1473-1543 ; astro- 
nomy, attraction, solar system 
Copleston, bishop ; Llandaff, 1827 
Copley, J., painter, 1738-1815 
Coram, capt. Thos., d. 1751; found- 
ling hospital, 1739 
Corday, Cliarlotte ; France, 1793 
Corder, Wm. ; trials, 1828 
Cordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 
Corelli, A., musician, b. 1653 
Corin ; libertines, 1525 
Coriolanus; Volsci, 490 B.C. 
Cormac ; Cashel, goi 
Comeille, P., tragedy, 1606-84 
Cornelia, Maximiliana; vestals, 92 
Cornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 
Cornhill, Henry ; sheriff, 1189 
Cornwall, bp. ; Worcester, 1S08 
Cornwallis, abp. ; Canterbiu-y, 

1768 ; Lichfield, 1781 
Cornwallis, marquess, 1738-1805 ; 
admiralty, India, America, Ban- 
galore, Ireland (lord-lieut.), Se- 
ringapatam 
Coroebus; Olympiads, 776 B.C. 
Correggio, A., painter, 1494-1534 
Corry ; duel, 1800 
Corry, H. T. L., h. 1803; admi- 
ralty, 1867 
Cort, H. ; iron, 1781 
Corte Real; America, north-west 

passage, 1500 
Cortez, F., 14S5-1554; Mexico, 1521 
Coryate, Thomas ; forks, 1608 
Cosmo I. ; Port Ferrajo, 1548 
Costa, M., musician, 6. 1810 
Coster, L. ; printing 
Cottenham, lord ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1836 
Cottmgton, lord ; administrations, 

1635 
Cotton, R. ; Cottonian library, 1600 
Cotton, sir Stapleton ; Villa Franca, 

1812 
Coulomb, C, 1736-1806; electri- 
city, 1785 
Courtanvaux ; ether, 1759 
Courtenay, abp. Cautei-bury, 1381 
Courtenay; Thomites 1838 
Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 
Courtois, M. de ; iodine, 1812 
Courvoisier ; trials, 1840 
Cousin, v., French philos., &. 1792 
Coutts, Miss A. Burdett, b. 1814; 

trials, 1847 
Coventry, sir John ; Coventry act, 

1670 
Coventry ; administrations, 162S- 

1672 
Coverdale, Miles, 6. 1487 ; Bible, 

IS3S 
Cowley, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 
Cowper, lord ; Burford, Halifax, 

1714 
Cowper, E. ; printing-machine, 

1815 
Cowper, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 
Cox, Walter; trials, iSii 
Coyle, Mr. Bernard ; duel, 1802 
Crabbe, G., poet, 1754-1832 
Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin., 

171S 
Crampton, Mr. ; United States, 

1856 
Crane, sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619 
CranSeld, Lionel, lord ; adminis- 
trations, 1621 



Cranmer, archbp. , 1489-1556; Can- 
terbury, administrations, 1529; 
Cranmer, homilie.s, martyrdom 
Cranworth, lord ; chancellor, 1852 
Crassus, Marcus ; ovation, slain, 

53 BC. 
Craterus ; Cranon, 322 
Crawfurd, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 
Crawley; trials, 1802-1863; steel 
Crellin, Miss ; trials, 1S42 
Crespigny, Mr. ; duel, 1828 
Cresswell, sir C. ; probate, 1S57 
Crewe, bp. ; Bambrouyh, 1778 
Crichton, Jas., " the admirable," 

m. about 1560 
Crillon, due de ; Gibraltai-, 1782 
Crockatt v. Dick ; trials, 1818 
Croesus ; Lydia, 560 b.c. 
Croft; impostors, 1553 
Croft, sir Richard ; suicide, 1818 
Crofts, Mr. ; dwarfs, 1653 
CroUius; calomel, 1608 
Croly, G. ; poet, 1780-1860 
Crompton, S., 1753-1827; cotton: 

mule, 1779 
Cromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658 ; ad- 
ministrations, 1653 > Amboyna, 
agitators, oommor wealth, Eng- 
land, Drogheda, Dundalk, mace, 
Ireland, Marston Moor, Naseby, 
Worcester 
Cromwell, Richard ; administra- 
tions, 1658; England 
Cromwell, T., lord Essex ; adminis- 
trations, 1532; registers 
Crookes, Wm. ; thallium, 1861 
Crosbie, sir Edward ; trials, 1798 
Cross, E. ; Surrey Gardens, 1831 
Crossley, F. ; Halifax, 1857 
Crouch ; trials, 1844 
Crowther, lieut. ; duel, 1829 
Crozier, capt. ; N.-W. passage, 1845 
Cruden, Alex. ; concordance, 1737 
Cruikshank, G., h. 1794; wood-en- 
graving 
Ctesias; hist,, 398 B.C. 
Ctesibius, 140 B.C.; clock, organ, 

pump 
Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 1817 
CuUen, W., physician, 1712-90 
Cumberland, duke of ; Closter- 
seven, Culloden, Fontenoy, 1745 
Cumberland, R.; comedies, 1732- 

1811 
Gumming v. lord de Roos ; trials, 

1837 
Gumming, rev. John, 6. 1810 
Cunard, Sam., 1787-1865 ; steam 
Curio ; amphitheatres, abt. 50 B.C. 
Cun-an, John Philpot, orator, 1750- 

1817; duel, 1790 
Cursor, Papirius ; dials, 293 B.C. 
Curtius Marcus ; earthquakes, 358 

B.C. 

Cuthbert, St., d. 6S6 ; Canterbury 
Cuthbert v. Browne ; trials, 1829 
Cuvier, G., naturalist, 1769-1832 ; 

zoology 
Cuyp, A. , painter, 1606-67 
Cyprian, father, m. 258 
Cyriacus ; Abrahamites 
Cyril, father, d. 386 
Cyrus the Great, killed, 529 B.C. ; 

Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 

Media, Persia 
Cyrus, the younger ; Cunaxa, 

401 B.C. 
Czermak, Dr.; laryngoscope, 1861 

D. 

Dacier, mad., 1654-1720; Delphin 
Diisdalus; labyiinth, axe, 1240 b.c? 



832 



IXDEX. 



Dagobert ; Denis, St., 673 
Daguerre, M. , A 1851 ; photography 
Dahl, professor; dahhas 
D'Alemhert, 1717-83 ; acoustics 
Dalhousie, marquess of, 1812-60; 

India, gov. -gen., 1848 
Dalmas, A. ; trials, 1844 
Dalmatia ; see Soult 
Dalrymple, sir Hew ; Cintra, 1808 
Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844 ; 

atomic theory, 1808 
Damasus, pope, 366 ; pontiff, crown, 

pope, tiara 
Damiens, Damiens' attempt, 1757 
Dampier; circumnavigator, i68g 
Dampier, bishop ; Ely, 1808 
Damremont, marshal ; Algiers, 

Constantia, 1837 
Danaus ; Greece, 1485 B.C. ? 
Danby, earl of ; administrations, 

1673 ; physic garden 
Dangerfleld ; meal-tub plot, 1679 
Daniel prophesies, 606 B.C. 
Daniel, Sam. ; poet-laureate, 1619 
Danneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 
Dannenberg, gen. ; Oltenitza, 1854 
Dante, Alighieri, ItaUan poet, 1265- 

1321 
Danton, G., exec. 1794 ; clubs,Pren. 
D'Arblay, mad. (of Bumey, no- 
velist), 17S2-1840 
Darbon v. Eosser ; trials, 1841 
D'Arcon, M. ; Gibraltar 
Dardanus, Ilium, 148 B.C. 
Dargan, W. , d. 1867 ; Ireland, Dub- 
lin exhibition, 1853 
Darius ; Persia, 521 B.C. ; Greece 
Darling, Grace ; Forfarshire, 1838 
Darling, sir C. ; Jamaica, 1857 ; 

Victoria, 1863 
Darmes; France, 1840 
Damley, lord ; Scotland, 1565 
Dartmouth, earl of; Oxford ad- 
ministration, 1711 ; Eockingham 
admin., 1766 
Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- 

1802 
Darwin, Charles, naturalist, 6. 1809 
Dashwood, sir Francis ; Bute ad- 
ministration, 1762 
Daubeny, C. ; atomic theory, 1850 
Dauglish, Dr. ; bread, 1859 
Daun, count, d. 1766 ; Hochkirchen, 

Torgau 
Davenant, William ; drama, opera, 

1684 
Davenpoi't, Miss ; theatres, 1844 
David ; Jews, 1065 B.C. 
David, George ; impostors, 1556 
David I.; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle 
David, J., painter, 1748-1825 
Davidson, D. ; trials, 1855 
Davila, 1576-1631 
Davis, Jefferson, 6. 1808 ; United 

States, 1861 
Davis; N.-W. passage, 1585; quad- 
rant, China 
Davoust, marshal; Krasnoi, Mo- 

hUow, Jena, Eckmiihl, 1809 
Davy, sir Humphry, chemist, &c., 
1778-1829; Royal Institution, 
barium, electricity, phosphorus, 
calciumi, magnesium, potassium, 
sodium, safety-lamp, strontium 
Davys, bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 
'Dawes, abp. ; York, 1714 
Day (Kossuth's notes case), trials, 

i860 
Day, Mr. ; Fairlop fair 
Deacle v. B, Baring ; trials, 1831 
JDeane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 
Deane, abp. ; Canterbui-y, 1501 



Debain ; hai-monium 

De Balton ; duels, 1811 

De Burgh, Hubert ; Whitehall 

De Candolle, A., botanist, 1778-1841 

De Courcy, baron; peers, 1181 

Decius Mus sacrfeces himself, 

295 B.C. 
Dee, Dr. J., d. 1608 ; astrology 
Deerfoot, pedestrianism, 1861 
De Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731 ; Eobin- 

son Crusoe, Juan, plague 
De Foix, Gaston ; Eavenna, 1512 
De Gaspaiis, A. ; planets, 1849 
De Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 
De Grasse, admiral; Chesapeake, 

naval battles, Tobago, 1781 
De Grey, earl ; Ireland, lord lieu- 
tenant, 1427 
De Haven, lieut. ; Franklin, 1850 
Delabeche, H., 1796-1855; geology 
De la Clue, admiral; Lagos, 1759 
Delambre, J., mathematician, 1749- 

1822 
De la Eue ; trials, 1845 
De la Eue, Warren ; photography, 

1857 ; eclipse, i860 
De la Eoche, Paul, 1797-1856 
De I'Epge, abb^, 1712-89 ; deaf 
De Lesseps, M. ; Suez, 1857 
De Loundres, Henry; Dublin, 1205 
D'Estaign, count; Bencoolen, 1760; 

Georgia 
D'Esterre, Mr. ; duels, 1815 ' 
D'Btrees, adml. ; Texel, 1673 
Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 
Demetrius ; Athens, Macedon, 

impostors, Poland 
Democritus, 6. about 470 B.C. 
Demosthenes, abt. 382-322 B.C. ; 

philippics 
Denison, archdeacon ; trials, 1856 
Denison, bishop; Salisbury, 1801 
Denison, E. B. ; bells, 1856 
Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 
Denman, lord, 1779-1854 ; att- 

gen., king's bench 
Denmark, prince George, admi- 
ralty, 1702, queens (Anne) 
Denner, J. clarionet, about 1690 
Denny, J. ; trials, 1851' 
De Quincey, Thos., essayist, 1785- 

1859 
Derby, Ed. earl of, 6. 1799; Derby 

admin., 1852, 1858, 1866 
Derby, earl'of ; Man, Wigan, Derby 
Derby, countess of ; Latham-house, 

1644 
De Eoos, lord, v. Gumming ; trials, 

1837 
De Euyter, adml. ; Sheem^ss, 

1667 ; Chatham, Texel 
Derwentwater, earl of, execu- 
tions, 1716; Greenwich 
Des Cartes, Een6, 1596-1650; car- 
tesian, rainbow 
Desmoulins, CamiUe, exec. 1794; 

clubs, 1782 
Dessaix, general ; Marengo, 1800 
Dessalines; Hayti, 1803 
De Stael, madame, 1766-1817 
DeucaUon ; deluge, 1503 B.C. 
De Veres, earls of Oxford : Id. gt. 

chamberlain, marquess, duke 
Devigne, Hen. ; billiards, 1571 
Deville, H. St. C. ; aluminium, 

1856 ; platinum, 1859 
Devon, W. R. , earl of, 6. 1807 ; 

Disraeli, 1868 
Devonshire, duke of; Devonshire 

administration, 1756 
De Winter, adm. ; Camperdown, 
1797 



De Witt ; chain shot, 1666 ; (pen- 
sionary)murdered, 1672 ; Hague 
Dhuleep Singh ; India, 1849 ; Pun- 
jab 
Diaz, B., discovers Cape of Good 

Hope, i486 
Di Bardi, Donato ; sculpture, 1383 
Dibdin, C, 1745-1814 ; ballads 
Dibutades ; models 
Dick, Mr. ; trial.=, 1818 
Dickens, Chas., novelist, 6. 1812 
Dickinson, capt. ; trials, 1829 
Dickson, col. ; trials, 1859, 1863 
Diderot, D., philos., 1713-84 
Didius JuUanus ; Rome, emp. 193 
Dido ; Carthage, 869 B.C. 
Didot, M. ; paper-making, stereo- 
type 
Diebitsch, gen. ; Balkan, 1829 
Diesbach ; prussic acid, 1709 
Digby, B. ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Digges, L. ; optics, 1671 
Dillon, Mr. Luke ; trials, 1831 
Diocletian ; Eome, emp. 284 ; Dal- 
matia 
Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 
Diodorus Siculus, 50 B.C.-13 a.d. ; 

Etna 
Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 B.C. ; an- 
thropophagi 
Dionysius ; Portugal, anno domini, 

catapultse 
Dionysius Halicarnassus, Gr. poet, 

ji. 30 B.C. 

Dionysius ; Syracuse, 406 b.c. 

Diophantus; algebra, 370 

Dipoenus ; sculpture, marble 

Dircks, H. ; ghosts, 1858 

Disraeli, I., 1767-1848 ; — Benjamin, 
6. 1805; Derby admin., 1852, 
1858; Disraeli admin., 1868 

Diver, Jenny ; trials, 1740 

Dixon, capt. ; Apollo 

Dixon, Hepworth, 6. 1821 
Ebelians, mormonites 

Dobereiuer, J. W., nat. phil., 1780- 
1849 ; diffusion, philos. lamp 

Dockwra, Mr. ; Penny post, 1683 

Dodd, Mr. ; steam, 1815 

Dodd, Dr. ; trials (executed for 
forgery), 1777 ; Magdalens, for- 
gery 

Doddridge, Philip, theol., 1702-51 

Dodsley, E. ; annual register, 1758 

Dodson, sir John ; admiralty court, 

1857 
Doggett, T., gives prize, 1715 
Dolci, C, painter, 1616-86 
Dolben, abp. ; York, 1683 
Dollond, John, 1706-61 ; achro- 
matic telescopes, 1753 ; optics 
Domenichino, Z., painter, 1581- 

1641 
Dominic, St. ; Dominicans, 1215 
Domitian; Eome, emp., 81 
Donald of the Isles ; Harlaw, 1411 
Donatus, grammarian, j?. 355 
Donizetti, G. ; music, 1798-1848 
Donkin, sir E. ; suicide, 1841 
Donovan; duels, 1779 
Dor^, Gustav, artist, b. 1833 
Dorey, Georgiana ; trials, 1844 
Doria, And., Genoese adml., 1468- 

1560 
Dormer, lord; Eoman Catholics, 

1129 
Dorset, duke of ; administrations, 
1689 ; Pelham administration, 

1744 
D'OrviUiers ; TJshant, 1778 
Dost Mahomed ; Afghanistan, 1829 
Douglas, earl of ; Homelden, 1402 



INDEX. 



833 



Douglas, Wm. ; Otterburn, 138S 

Douglas, James; British Colum- 
bia, 1858 

Douglass, sir John ; delicate inves- 
tigation, 1806 

Douw, Gerard, Dutch paint., 1613- 

74 
Dove, H., 6. 1803; dichrooscopc, 

i860 
Dove, W. ; trials, 1856 
Dowdeswell, William ; Rocking- 
ham administration, 1765 
Doyle, sir John ; Portugal, 1828 
Doyle, J., b. 1826 ; caricatures 
Doyle V. Wright ; trials, 185 1 
Draco, Athens, 621 B.C. ; laws, 

Draco 
Drake, Francis, 1545-96 ; Armada, 
Cadiz, California, Chatbam, 
circumnavigators, Drake's cir- 
cumnavigation, Deptford, New- 
Albion 
Drayton, M., poet, 1563-1631 
Drebbel ; optics, 1621 ; microscope, 

thermometer 
Dred Scott case ; slavery, U.S. 
Dreyse, J. N. ; needlegun 
Drouet ; Varennes, 1791 
Druitt, G. ; trials, 1S67 
Drummond, abp. ; York, 1761 
Drummond, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 
Drummond, lieut. ; lime-light, 

aboTit 1826 
Drummond, Mr. , murdered ; trials, 

1843 
Dryden, John, poet, 1631-1701 ; 

poet-laureate 
Dubois, cardinal, 1556-1723 
Diiboscq, M. ; electric lamp, 1855 
Dubritius, St. ; Llandaff, 612 
Duchesne, Pfere, see Hebert 
Duckworth, sir ; Dardanelles, 1807 
Duorow ; theatres, Astley's, 1825 
Dudley, earl of Leicester; admi- 
nistrations, 1558 
Dudley, lord ; admin., 1551 
Duell, William ; trials, 1740 
Dufay ; electricity, 1733 
Duff, captain ; trials, 1841 
Dugdale, W., 1605-86 
Duggan, Wm, ; trials, 1832 
Du Guesclin, B. ; Montiel, 1369 
Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 

260 B.C. 
Dulong, P. L., 1785-1838 ; acids 
Dumouriez, gen., 1739-1823; Jem- 

mappes, 1792 
Dun, John ; bailiff 
Duncan, Dr. ; ichnology, 1828 
Duncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 
Duncan, admu-al lord ; Camper- 
down, 1797 ; Texel 
Duncannon, viscount ; Melbourne 

administration, 1834-5 
Duncombe, F. ; sedan-chairs, 1634 
Dundas, Henry; savings' banks, 

1810 ; Pitt admin., 1804 
Dundas, sir D. ; .solicitor-general, 

1846 ; com. -in-chief, 1809 
Dundas, gen. ; KilcuUen, 1798 
Dundas, lieut. -col. ; Prescott, 183S 
Dundas, major; trials, 1831 
Dundas, sir it. ; Baltic, 1855 
Dundee, vise. ; Killiecrankie, 168 
Dundonald, earl, 1775-1860 
Dundonald, lord (see Cochrane), d. 

i860 
Dunn, Richard ; trials, 1847 
Dunstan, abp.,cZ. 988 ; Canterbury, 

959 ; coronation 
Duns Scotus, d. 1308; burying 
alive, Scotists 



Dupetit Thouars ; Otaheite, 1843 

Diipont ; Baylen, 1808 

Durazzo, Charles of, m. 1386 ; 

Naples, kings, 13S1 
Durer, A. U., 1471-1528; engraving 
Dm-ham, earl of, 1792-1840; Grey 

admin., 1830; Canada, 1838 
Duroc, marshal ; Bautzen, 1813 
Dutrochet, R. J. H., 1776-1847; 

endosmnsis 
Du Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 
Dwyer ; trials, 1843 
Dyce, Wm. ; painter, 1806-64 
Dymocke family ; championship 



E. 



Eadbald ; convents, 630 

Eadmer, d. about 1124 

Eastlake, sir C, 1793-1865 ; Royal 
Academy 

Eatnn, Daniel ; trials, 1796, 1S12 

Eden, bp. ; Man, 1847 

Edgar ; England, kings, 958 

Edgar, rev. Mr. ; temperance, 1829 

Edgeworth, Maria ; novels, 1767- 
1849 

Edmund ; England, 940, 1016 

Edward the Confessor ; England, 
kings, 1042 ; Danegeld 

Edward I. ; England, kings, 1272 ; 
Lewes, Scotland, Wales 

Edward III. ; England, kings, 
1327 ; Cressy, Sluys, garter 

Edward IV. ; England, kings, 
1461 ; Bamet, Tewkesbury, Tow- 
ton 

Edward VI. ; England, kings, 
1547 ; Christ's hospital 

Edward, Black Prince, 1330-76 ; 
duke, Cressy, Poitiers 

Edwardes, lieut. ; India, 1848 

Edwy; England, 955 

Egau, Mr. ; trials, 1S43 

Egbert ; England, kings, 828 

Bgerton, sir Thomas ; chancellor, 
lord high, 1596 

Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 

Eglinton, earl of ; Ireland, lord- 
lieutenant, 1852 ; tournament 

Egmont, lord ; administrations, 

1763 

Egremont, earl of ; Grenville ad- 
ministration, 1762 

Bhrenberg, C. , naturalist, 6. 1795 

Eick, H. ; trials, 1859 

Elcho, Id., 6. i3i8 ; AduUam, 1866; 
cabs, volunteers 

Eldon, lord, 1751-1838 ; chancellor, 
1801 

Eleanor ; queens (Edward I., 
Hen. IL and IIL) 

Elgin, lord ; Elgin marbles; c7. 
1841 ; — James, lord, 1811-63 ; 
Canada, 1846; China, 1857; 
Japan, Palmerston, India, 1861; 
govr.-gen., 1861 

Elgin, lord,i). Ferguson ; trials, 1807 

Elijah prophesies about 910 B.C. 

Elisha proijhesies, 896 B.C. 

Elizabeth, queen, 1533-1603; Eng- 
land, 1558; goose, poor laws, 
Richmond, Whitehall 

Elizabeth ; England, queens (Ed- 
ward IV. and Henry VII.) 

Elizabeth ; France, tx-ials, 1794 

Elkington ; gilding, electrotype 

ElLenborough, lord ; att.-gen.,iSoi ; 
king's bench, delicate investiga- 
tion ;— 'present lord, 0. 1790 ; Wel- 
lington admin., 1828 ; India, 



govr.-gen., 1842 ; Derby adm., 
1858 
Ellesmere, lord ; administrations, 

1615 ; chancellors. Id., 1603 
Elhce, E. ; Melbourne administra- 
tion, 1834 
Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 
Elliot, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 
Elliot, sir Gilbert ; North admi- 
nistration, 1770 
Ellis, Wellboro; Grenville admi- 
nistration, 1770 
Elphinstone,admiuistrations,i795; 

Cape of Good Hope, Saldanha 
ElsjTige, Wm. ; Sion college, 1340 
Elzevir family, printers, 15S3-1680 
Emerson, R. W. ; essayist, h. 1803 
Emmet, Robert ; rebellions, con- 
spiracies, trials, 1803 ; press 
Bmpedocles ; suicide 
Encke, J. P., 1791-1865 ; comets, 

1818 
Enderby, Messrs. ; southern con- 
tinent, 1838 
Enghien, due d', executed, 1804 
Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ; stenography 
Epaminondas, 371 B.C. ; Leuctra, 

Mantinea 
Epictetus, philoso.,_/l. 118 
Epicurus, 342-270 B.C. ; philosophy 
Epiphauius, St. ; abstinence 
Erasistratus; anatomy, ab. 300 B.C. 
Erasmus, D., 1467-1536; Greeklan- 

guage, Rotterdam 
Eratosthenes ; degree, 250 B.C. ; 

armillary sphere 
Eratostratus fires Diana's temple, 

356 B.C. 
Erechtheus ; Athens, 1383 B.C. 
Eric ; Denmark 

Erichthonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., car 
Hlricsson, capt. ; caloric ship, 1S53 
Erie, sir W. : common pleas, 1859 
Ernley, sir John ; administrations, 

16S5 
ErroU, earls of ; constable of Scot- 
land, lord high 
Erskine, lord; chancellor, lord; 

Grenville administration, i8o5 
Erskine, gen. ; India, 1795 
Esdaile, E. ; trials, 1S58 
Espartero ; Spain, Bilboa, 1836 
Esquirol, E. ; lunatics, 18 10 
Essex, earl of ; administrations, 

1532, 1579 ; Newbury, 1643 
Este, sir Augustus d' ; marriage 

act, royal, 1844 
Ethelbert, 560, Canterbury 
Ethel dra; Ely, 673 
Ethelred, 979; coronation, Dane- 
geld 
Ethersey, com. ; suicide, 1857 
Etty, W., painter, 1787-1849 
Euchidas ; pedestrianism 
Euclid ; geometry, 300 B.C. 
Euler, L., 1707-83; acoustics 
Eugene, prince; 1663-1736; Bel- 
grade, Turin, Kenta 
Eugenie, empress ; France, 1855 
Eugenius ; popes, Aquileia 
Eumenes ; parchment, 190 B.C. 
Eumolpus ; Eleusinian mysteries 
Euripides, 4S0-406 b.c. ; tragedy 
Eurysthenes ; biarchy, 1102 b.c. 
Eurystheus; Mycenie, 1289 B.C. 
Eusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 
Eusebius, of Ca;sarea, ab. 275-340 
Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 
Euthalius ; accents, 458 
Eutyches,./J. 447 
Evauder ; Circensian games 
Evans, general de Lacy ; British 
3 11 



834 



INDEX. 



legion, 1835 ; Spain, 1835 ; Iruu, 

Sebastian 
Evans ; trials, 1858 
Evans, W. E. ; harmonium, 1841 
Evelyn, J., 1620-1706; horticulture, 

lime-tree 
Examiner, the ; trials, 1812 
Exmouth, lord ; Algiers, 1816 
Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771 
Eyre, E. J. ; Jamaica, 1864-7 
Ezekiel i^rophesies about 595 B.C. 



Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 311 

B.C. 

Fabii, killed at Cremera, 477 B.C. ; 

Fabii 
Faber, F. ; oratorians, 1848 
Fahrenheit, G. D., 16S6-1736; ther- 
mometer, about, 1726 
Fairbairn, Mr. ; tujoular bridge, 

1849 
Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 
Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 
Falconbridge ; London, 1453 
Falconer, H. ; geologist, d. 1865 
Faheri, Marini ; Venice, 1355 
Falkland, visct. ; Newbury, 1643 
Falstaff, sir John ; taverns 
Pancourt, Samuel; circulating li- 
braries, 1740 
Faraday, Michael, 1791-1S67; Eoyal 
Institution, chemistry, electri- 
city, gas, magnetism, magneto- 
electricity, ice 
Farquhar, Mr., buys Fonthill 

abbey, 1822 
Farragut, D., admiral, 1866 ; United 

States, 1864 
Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
Patima ; Mahometanism, note 
Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728 
Fauutleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 
Faust, John ; printing, 1442 
Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
Faustulus ; Alba, 770 b. c. 
Faux, Guy ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Fawcett, col. ; duel, 1843 
FeUx, popes 

Fellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840 
Felton assassinates Buckingham 

at Portsmouth, 162S 
Pension, abp., 1651-1715 ; Cambray 
Penning, Eliza; executions, 1815 
Fenwick, J. ; executed, 1697 
Ferdinand ; Austria, Naples, Por- 
tugal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany, 
Castile, Cordova 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, Minden, 

1759 
Fergus ; Scotland, coronation 
Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 
Ferrers, earl ; trials, 1760 
Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 
Fielding, H., novehst, 1707-54; 

magistrates 
Fieschi ; France, 1836 
PUlmore, M. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 1850 
Finch, sir John ; chancellor, lord ; 
administrations, 1640 ; Heneage, 
chancellor, 1673 
Finch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 
Finiguerra ; engraving, 1460 
Finnei-ty, Peter; trials, 1808, 1811 
Pinnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856 
Pinnis, col. ; India. 1857, mofe^ 
Fisher, bp.; administrations, 1509 ; 

Salisbury : executed, 1535 
Fisher ; duels, 1806 



Fitzgerald, H. ; life-boat, 1856 
Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1798 
Fitzgerald, lord, v. Mrs. Clarke ; 

trials, 1814 
Fitzgerald, lord ; 'Wellington ad- 
ministration, 1830 
Pitzherbert, Mrs. ; libel, 1789 
Fitz-Osborn ; justiciars, 1067 
Fitzpatrick ; GrenviUe adjninistra- 

tion, 1806 
Fitzpatrick, Hugh ; trials, 181 3 
PitzRoy, R., 1805-65 ; circumnavi- 
gation, 1826 ; New Zealand, 1843 ; 
meteorology, 1857 
Fitzwalter, Eobert de ; Dunmow, 

1244 
Pitzwilliam, earl ; Grenville admi- 
nistration, 1806 ; Ireland, lord- 
lieutenant 
Flad, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1866 
Plaminius ; Thrasymene, 217 B.C. 
Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
Flannock ; rebellions, 1497 
Plavius, Titus Lartius ; dictators, 

498 B.C. 
Plaxman, J., sculptor, 1754-1826 
Fletcher of Saltoun, fl. 1700; 

ballads 
Fletcher, will-forger; trials, 1844 
Plight and Robson ; apoUonicon, 

1817 ^ 

Flinders, captain, explores New 

Holland, 1801 
Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
Plores, gen. ; Uruguay, 1863-S 
Plorus, Rom. historian, fl. 106 
Flourens, M. J. P., philos., &. 1794 
Fohi; China, 2240 B.C. 
Foix, Gaston de ; Ravenna, 1512 
Folengio, Theo. ; macaroni 
Folkestone, lord ; arts, society of, 

I7S4 
Pollett, sir "Wm. solicitor-gen., 

attorney-gen., 1844 
FoUiott, bp. ; Hereford, 1803 
Poote, Sam., 1721-77; theatres 
Poote V. Hayne; trials, 1824 
Forbes, lord ; horse-guards, 1702 
Forbes, Edwd., naturalist, 1815-54 
Forbes, J. D., nat. philos., 6. 1809 
Porster, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 
Porster, M. ; planets, i860 
Portescue, lord ; Ireland, lord- 
lieutenant, 1839 
Forwood, St. (Southey), murdered 
wife and four children, Aug., 
1865 
Foscaro, doge, deposed 1457 
Poster, John, essayist, 1770-1843 
Pottrell, capt. ; duels, 1817 
Foucault, M., 1819-68; pendulum, 

siderostat 
Pouch€, J., due d'Otranto, 1763- 

1820 
Fould, Achille, 1800-67; France, 

1861 
Poulis, R. & A., printers, 1707-76 
Pourdrinier, M. ; paper, 1807 
Fourier, C, d. 1837; Pourierism 
Powke, capt. ; exhibition, 1862 
Fox & Henderson ; crystal palace, 

1851 
Pox, bishop of Winchester ; ad- 
ministrations, 1509; privy seal 
Fox, Charles James, 1749-1806 ; 
duel, 1779 ; Portland admin., 
1783 ; India bill, people 
Pox, George, 1624-90 ; quakers 
Pox, Henry; Newcastle adminis- 
tration, 1757 
Fox, sir Stephen; Chelsea, 1628 



Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 
Prancia, Dr., 1755-1840 ; Paraguay 
Francis, St., 1182-1226; Cordeliers 
Francis I., emperor ; Germany, 

1745 ; Austria, 1804 
Francis I. ; Prance, 1515: duelling, 

cloth of gold, Marignan, he, 

Pavia, Sicily 
Francis ; trials, 1842 
Francis, sir Philip ; Junius 
Francisco d' Assise ; Spain, 1846 
Frankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; 

trials, 1842, 1852 
Prankland, Edw. ; ethyl, methyl, 

1849 
Franklin, Benjamin, 1706-go; elec- 
tricity, 1752 ; lightning 
Franklin, sir John ; north-west 

passage, 1825 ; Franklin 
Franks ; suicide, trials, 1825 
Praser v. Bagley ; trials, 1844 
Frederick, duke of York, 1762-1827 ; 

York 
Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, 

Hesse, Nuremberg, Palatinate, 

Prague, Hochkirchen, Torgau 
Frederick- Augustus ; Poland, 1697 
Frederick-Lewis, prince ; Wales, 

1729 
Fremont, J. C, 6. 1813 ; U. States, 

1856 
Fremy, M. ; steel, 1861 
French, col. ; trials, 1820 
Preney; trials, 1749 
Frewen, abp. ; York, 1660 
Frith, W. P., painter, h. 1820 
Pi'iveil, Wm., pust-office, 1631 
Frobisher, sir Martin, d. 1594 ; 

north-west passage, 1576 
Froissart, historian, 1337-14x0 
Frost, John, chartist; Newport, 

1839 
Froude, J. A., historian, 6. 1818 
Frumentius; Ab^'ssinia, 329 
Puad Pasha ; Damascus, Turkey, 

1860-5 
Fuller, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 
Fulton, R., 1765-1815; steam- 
engine, 1803 
Furley, Mary ; trials, 1844 
Purneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, 

New Holland : returns, 1774 
FuseU, H., painter, 1741-1825 



G. 



Gage, gen.; America, 1775 

Gaine, W. ; parchment, paper, 1857 

Gainsl3orough, Thomas, painter, 

1727-88 
Galba; Rome, emp. 68 
Gale ; balloons, gunpowder, 1S65 
Gale Jones ; trials, 1811 
Gale, Sarah, and Greenacre ; trials, 

1857 
Galen, 130-200 ; physic 
Galgacus, 84 ; Grampians 
Galileo di Galilei, 1564-1642 ; 

acoustics, astronomy, falling 

bodies, hai-monic curve, ice, 

inquisition, pendulum, planets, 

sun, telescopes 
Gall, J., 1758-1828 ; craniology 
Galle, Dr. ; Neptune, 1846 
Gallien ; balloons, 1755 
Gallienus ; Rome, emp. 260 
Galvani, Louis, 1737-98; electricitj', 

1 791 ; voltaic pile 
Galway, earl of ; Almanza, 1707 
Gama, Vasco de, d. 1525 



INDEX. 



835 



Gambler, lord ; Basque Beads, 

1809 ; Copenhagen 
Ganganelli; Clement XIV., popes, 

1769 
Gangeland ; apothecary 
Gardiner, bp. ; administrations, 

1529 
Gardiner, heut. Alau; missions, 

1850 
Garibaldi, Joseph, b. 1807 ; Italy, 
1859-67 ; Solferino, Sicily, Naples, 
Voltumo 
Garnerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 
Garnet ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Boyal Institu- 
tion, 1801 
Garrick, David, 1716-79 ; theatres, 

Drury-lane, jubilees 
Garrison, W. L. ; slavery in United 

States, 1831 
Garrow, Wm. ; att.-gen., 1813 
Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703 
Gassendi, 1592-1655 ; sun, sound 
Gaston do Poix ; Ravenna, 15 12 
Gate*, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 ; Cam- 
den, 1780 
Gauden, bp. ; eikon basilike, 1649 
Gaudin, M. ; sapphire, 1857 
Gaunt, John of, 6. 1340; Ghent, 

roses, wars 
Gausius, 335 B.C. ; caustic 
Gavestons, beheaded, 1312 ; re- 
bellions 
Gay, John, 1688-1732 ; fables, 

operas 
Gay-Lussac, J., 1778-1850; balloons 
Ged, William ; stereotype, 1730 
Geffrard, gen. Fabre ; Hayti, 

1858 
Gelasius I. popes, 492 ; breviary, 

pall ; Candlemas 
Gellert, C. F., 1715-69 
Gellius, Aulus, Latin miscellany, 

fi. 117-180 
Gelon ; Syracuse, 485 B.C., Himera 
Genghiskhan ; see Jenghis Khan 
Genseric lands in Africa, 429 
George, David, d. 1556 ; family of 

love 
George, St. ; garter 
George I. — IV. ; England (kings) 
George I. ; accession, 1714 
George II. ; Dettingen, 1743 
Georgi ; dahlia, 1815 
Geranib, baron ; aliens, 1812 
Gerard, J. ; physic garden, 1567 
Gerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 
Germaine, lord George Sackville ; 

Minden, 1759 
Germanus ; Sodor, 447 
Gerstenzweig, general ; Poland, 

ra. 1 861 
Gesler ; Switzerland, 1306 
Geta ; Rome, emp. 211 
Gibbins, Mr., killed ; riots, 1831 
Gibbon,Edward, historian, 1737-94 
Gibbons, Grinlin, sculptor, 1648- 

1721 
Gibbons, Orlando ; music, 1583- 

1625 
Gibbs, J., architect, 1674-1754 
Gibbs, sirV. ; attorney-gen., 1807; 

common pleas 
Gibson, J., sculptor, 1 791-1866 
Gibson, T. M. ; Palmerston admi- 
nistration, 1859 
Giesmar, general ; Praga, 1831 
GifFord, lieut. ; Kildare, 1798 
Gifford, R. ; attorney-gen., 1819 
GiSord, Wm., 1757-1826 ; Quarterly 

Rev., 1809 
Gilbert, ai'chbp. ; York, 1757 



Gilbert, Dr., 1540-1603; electricity, 

1600 ; magnetism 
Gilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1845 
Gilbert, G. ; executions, 1862 
Gilchrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 
Gildas, historian, 516-570 
Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1828 
Gillespie, col. ; Vellore, 1806 
Gillespie, gen. ; Kalunga, duel, 1788 
Ginckel, gen. ; Aughrim, 1691 
Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
Gioja, P. ; compass, 1302 
Giotto, painter, 1276-1336 
Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 
Gladstone, W. E. ; 6. 1809; Peel, 

Aberdeen, Palmerston administ. , 

Russell, reform, 1867 ; Ireland, 

1 868 ; suspensory act 
Glaislier, J. ; meteorology, 1850; 

balloons, 1862 
Glanville, R. de, ch. justice, 1180 
Glas, capt., murdered; trials, 1766 
Glas, John, 1698-1773 ; Glasites, 

1727 
Glenelg, lord (Charles Grant), d. 

1866; Wellington adm., 1828 
Glendower, Owen ; Wales, 1401 
Glerawley, lord, v. Bum ; trials, 

1820 
Gloucester, duke of ; maiTiage act, 

1772 
Glover, E. A. ; trjals, 1858 
Gluck, C. ; music, 1714-87 
Gobelin, G. ; tapestry. Gobelins 
Goderich, lord, d. 1859 : Goderich 
Godfrey, M. ; Bank of England, 

1694 
Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, 

109Q 
Godolphin, earl ; Godolphin ad- 
ministration, 1684 
Godoy, M. , prince of peace ; Spain, 

1806 ; d. 1851 
Godwin, Wm., 1756-1836 ; politics, 

novels 
Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 
Goethe, or Gothe ; German miscel. 

1749-1832 
Gog and Magog ; GuUdhall 
Goldoni, Ch., Ital. dramatist, 1707- 

93 
Gold.schmidt (Jenny Lind), 6. 1821 ; 

Nightingale fund 
Goldschmidt, H., 1802-66 ; planets, 

1852 
Goldsmith, Oliver ; miscel. 1728-74 
Gon.salvo de Cordova, gen., d. 1515; 

Garigliano 
Good, Daniel; trials, 1842 
Goodrich, bp. ; administ. 1551 
Goodyear, C. ; caoutchouc 
Gordian ; Rome, emps. 237 
Gordon, lord G., d. 1793; riots, 

libel, trials, 1781, 1788 
Gordon, col.; duels, 1783 ; China, 

1863 
Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 
Gorgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
Gorham v. bishop of Exeter ; trials, 

1849 
Gortschakoff, gen. ; Kalafat, 1854 ; 

Silistria, Tchernaya 
Gortschakoff, prince ; Vienna con- 
ference, 1853; Poland, 1861 
Gossett, sir W. ; trials, 1842 
Qough, sir Hugh ; China, 1841 ; 

India, 1846; Goojerat, Sobraon, 

Ferozeshah 
Goulburn, H. ; Wellington admm- 

istration, 1828 
Gould, J., t>. 1S04; work.? on birds, 

1832-64 ; humming-birds, 1862 



Gould, Miss ; trials, 1822 
Gould, murderer ; trials, 1840 
Gourlay, captain ; duels, 1824 
Gower, earl; Wilmington adm., 

1742 ; North adm., 1770 
Gower, J., d. 1402 
Gracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133 ; — 

Caius slain, 121 B.C. 
Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 
Grafton, duke of; Rockingham 
adm., 1765 ; Grafton adm., 1767 
Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 
Graham of Claverhouse, 1650-89; 

KiUiecrankie 
GrahaEQ, A. ; planets, 1848 
Graham, gen. ; Barossa, 1811 ; 

Sebastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 
Graham, Mr. ; pendulum, 1715 ; 

magnetism, 1722 
Graham, Mr. ; duels, 1791 
Graham, Thos., b. 1805 ; mint, dif- 
fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 
Graham, sir James, 1792-1861 ; 

Grey, Peel 
Grammont, ducde, Dettingen, 1743 
Granard, Arthur, earl of; Kil- 

mainham, 1675 
Granby, marquess of ; Chatham 

adminis., 1766 
Grant, capt. John; cookery, 1857 

cottager's stove 
Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 
Grant, lieut, ; trials, 1816, 1844 

Central Africa, 1863 
Grant, see Glenelp; Pittsburg, 1862 
Grant, gen. Ulysses, 6. 18 

United States, 1863 
Grantham, lord ; Shelbume admin- 
istration, 1782 
Grantley, Id. ; attorney-gen., 1763 
Granville, earl ; Russell, Palmers- 
ton admin., 1851 
Gratian ; canon law, 1151 
Gratian, Rome, emp. 367-83 
Grattan, Henry, orator, 1750-1820 ; 

duelling, 1800, 1820 
Graves, adm. sir T. Basseterre, 

1782 
Gray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827 ; see Cape- 
town. 
Gray, lord ; Pomfret castle, 1483 
Gray, Thomas, poet, 17 16-71 
Greathead, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 
Greatrix, Val. ; impostors, 1666 
Greaves, lord; suicide, 1830 
Greeley, Horace, b. 18 11 
Green, Mr. ; balloons, 1828 
Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 
Greene, general ; Camden, 1781 
Greenwood, T. ; file, i860 
Gr^goire, M. ; national convention, 

1792 
Gregory the Great, d. 1604 ; Aber- 
deen, chanting, Christianity 
Gregory I. — XVI. ; popes, 590 et seq. 
Gregoiy VII. ; Italy, 237 
Gregory XI., pope ; pallium 
Gregory XIII. ; calendar, 1582 
Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 

326-390 ? 
Grenville, George ; Newcastle ad- 
min., 1754; Grenville admin., 

1763 
Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 

1846 
Grenville, lord; Grenville admin., 

1806 ; delicate investigation 
Gresham, sirT., d. 1579; Gresham 
Grey, bp. ; Hereford, 1832 
Grey, earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, reform 
Grey, Henry, earl; Russell admi- 
nistration, 1835 

3 ir 2 



836 



INDEX. 



Grey, lady Jane, exec. 1554 ; Eng- 
land, queens 

Grey, sir George; Russell admin., 
1846 ; Palmerston admin., 1855 

Grey, sir G. ; Cape, 1856 

Grey, S. ; electricity, 1720 

Gi-iesbach, J., Greek critic, 1745- 

l8l2 

Grimaldi, Joseph, retires, 1828 
Grimm, Jacob, 1785-1863; diction- 
ary (Gernaan) 
Grindall, abp. ; York, 1570 ; Can- 
terbury, liturgy 
Grinfield, general; Demerara,i8o3 ; 

Tobago 
Grinnell, Mr. ; Franklin expedi- 
tion, 1S50 
Grocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 
Grogan, col., captured; XJ. States, 

1841 
Gros, baron; China, 1858 
Grote, G., historian, b. 1794' 
Grotius, H., 1583-1645 ; philosophy 
Grove, W. R., 6. 1811; voltaic bat- 
tery, 1839 ; correlation, 1842 ; 
continuity, 1866 
Growse, Elias ; needles 
Guelph ; Bavaria, Brunswick 
Guericke, Otto von, d. 1686 ; air, 

electricity, 1647 ; Magdeburg 
GuiSrin-Meneville, silk (ailantine), 

1858 
Guernsey, W. H. ; trials, 1858 
Guesclin, B. du, d. 1380 
Guicciardini, P., hist., 1482-1540 
Guido, Aretino, fl. 1030 
Guido, Reni, painter, 1575-1642 
Guilford, earl of ; trials, 1853 
Guinness, Mr. ; Patrick's, St., 1865 
Guiscard ; Naples, 1059 > conspira- 
cies, 1710 
Guise, dvikes of ; Guise 
Guizot, P., 6. 1787: Prance 
Gunter, E. ; Gunter's chain, 1606 
Gurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 
Gumey, Russell; recorder, 1856 
Gurwood, colonel; suicide, 1845 
Gustavus Adolphus, killed ; Lut- 

zen, 1632 ; Sweden, IMunich 
Gustavus Vasa ; Sweden, 1521 
Gustavus I. — IV. ; Sweden 
Gutenberg, J., d. 1467 ; printing 
Guter, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659 
Guy Paux ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Guy, Thos. ; Guy's hospital, 1721 
Guyton, Morveau; balloons, 1784-94 
Guzman, Doniiuick de ; beads, 1202 
Gwynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 16S7 
Gyges; Lydia, 718 B.C. 
Gylippus, 414 B.C. ; Syracuse 



Habakkuk, prophet, ab. 326 B.C. 
Hachette, Jeanne de la ; Beauvais, 

1472 
Hrtcker, L. ; Sabbath schools, 1740 
Hacket, "Wm. ; impostors, 1591 
Haokman, Mr. ; trials, 1770 
Haddington, earl of ; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1834 
Hadley ; quadrant, 1731 
Hadrian ; Rome, emperor, 117 
Hsecker; magnetism, 1851 
Hafiz (Persian poet),./J. 14th cent. 
Haggai prophesies about 630 B.C. 
Haggart. David; trials, 1821 
Haggarty and Holloway; trials, 

1S07 
Hahnemann, Sam., 17SS-1843; 

homoeopathy 



Hakluyt, R. ; geog., 1553-1616 
Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 
Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- 

1761 
Halifax, earl of ; Halifax adminis- 
tration, 1714 ; trimmer ; see 
Wood 
Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston 

administration, 1855 
Hall V. Semple ; trials, 1862 
Hall, Marshall, m.d., 1790-1857 
Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
Hall, Sam., d. 1862 ; lace 
Hallam, Henry, hist., 1778-1859 
Haller, A. von; physiologist, 1 708- 

77 
Halley, Edmund, astronomer ; 

Greenwich, 1719 
Halloran, Dr., transported for 

forging a frank, 1818 
Ham el, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
Hamilcar; Carthage, 237 B.C. 
Hamilton and Douglas cause ; 

trials, 1769 
Hamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 
Hamilton, duke of ; duelling, 1712 ; 

trials, 18 13 
Hamilton, James, marquess of, 

administrations, 1640 
Hamilton, J. ; court of honour 
Hamilton; duels, 1748, 1804 ^ 
Hamilton, Mary ; trials, 1736 
Hamilton, sir W."; Herculaneum 
Hammond, Mr. ; ambassadors, 1791 
Hampden, Richard ; adniinistra- 

tions, i6go 
Hampden, John, killed, 1643 ; ship- 

raoney, Chalgrove 
Hampton, H. ; free church, 1859 
Hancock, T, ; caoutchouc, 1843 
Handcock ; trials, 1855 
Handel, G. P., 1684-1759; Handel, 

opera, oratorios 
Hannibal, Cai-thaginian, 247-183 
B.C. ; Rome, Bernard, Sagun- 
tum, Spain, Cannae, Carthage, 
Zama 
Hanson, capt. ; duels, 1776 
Hans Sachs, 1494-1578 ; minne- 
singers 
Hanway, Jonas, d. 1768 ; umbrella 
Haroourt, lady ; fete de vertu 
Harcourt, lord ; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1711 
Hardicanute ; England, 1039 
Harding, prof. ; planets, 1804 
Hardinge, sir Henry (aft. lord), 

1846 ; India 
Hardinge, Mr. ; ioumals, 1752 
Hardwicke, earl of; Pelham ad- 
min., 1744 ; Derby admin., 1852 ; 
Ireland (lord-Ueut.), 1801 
Hare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 
Hargrave, J. ; cotton, 1767 
Hargreaves, E. ; Australia, 1851 
Harley, Robert; Godolphin ad- 
ministration, 1702 ; Harleian 
library, see Oxford 
Harmodius kills Hipparchus, 514 

B.C. 

Harney, gen. ; United States, 1855 
Harold II. ; Hastings, 1066 
Haroun-al-Raschid, caliph, 765-809 
Harpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 
Harrington, earl of ; Pelham ad- 
ministration, 1744 
Harris, Mr. ; organs, 1682 ; clocks, 

apples, fluxions, pendulum 
Harris, sirW. S., 1792-1867 ; light- 
ning conductors, 1820 
Harrison, gen. ; United States, 
president, 1841 



Harrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, 

1864 ; Harrison, 1714 
Harrison, Mr. ; congelation, 1857 
Harrowby, earl of ; Pitt adminis- 
tration, 1804 el seq. 
Harsnet, archljp. ; York, 1628 
Hartinger, Mr. ; duels, 1820 
Hartland, sir R. ; Madras, 1771 
Harvey, B. Bagenai ; trials, 1798 
Harvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ; . 

blood, anatomy, midwifery 
Harwood ; porter, 1730 
Hasdnibal ; Carthage, Spain ; Me- 

taurus, 207 B.C. 
Hastings,marquessof; India, gov.- 

gen. 1813 
Hastings, Warren, 1733-1818 ; Itt- 

dia, 1772 ; Chunar, Hastings 
Hatchell, Mr. ; duels, 18 14 
Hatfield fires at George III. ; trials, 

1800 
Hatfield ; executions, 1803 
Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 ; 
chancellor (lord high), master 
in chancery 
Haiiy, R., 1743-1822 ; crystallo- 
graphy 
Hafiy, V. ; blind school, 1804 
Havelock, gen. ; India, 1857 ; 

Cawnpore 
Hawke, admiral ; naval battles, 

1747 
Hawkesbury, lord ; admmistra- 

tions, 1807 ; Amiens 
Hawkey, lieut. ; duels, trials, 1846 
Hawkins, sir John, d. 1595 ; 

Guinea, slave trade, 1562 ; 

potatoes, tobacco, Chatham 
Hay, lord John ; British legion, 

1835 ; St. Sebastian's 
Haydn, .Joseph [compiler of this 

book], d. 1856 
Haydn, Joseph, 1732-1809 ; music 
Haydon, Benj., painter, 1786-1846 
Hayes, Mr. ; duels, 1728, 1806 ; 

trials, 1802 
Hayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 
Haynau, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
Hayward ; trials, 1821 
H. B. ; caricatures 
Head, sir Francis ; Canada, 1836 
Headfort, marquess ; trials, 1805 
Hearne, north-west passage, 1769 
Heath, arohbp. ; York, 1555 
Heberden, Dr. ; Humane Society, 

1774 
Hebert, J. R. (pfere Duchesne), 

executed, 1794 
Hector of Troy, slain, 1183 B.C. 
Heenan, J. ; boxing, i860 
Hegel, G., philosopher, 1770-1831 
Hehl ; animal magnetism, 1774 
Heine, H., German poet, 1799-1856 
Helena, St. ; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem 
Heliodorus, ,^. 398 
Heliogabalu's ; Rome, emp. 218; 

silk 
Helmholtz, H., 6. 1821 ; ophthal- 
moscope, 1851 
Heloise, d. 1164; Abflard 
Helps, Arthur, hist, and miscel., 

6. 1811 
Helsham, capt. ; duels, 1829 
Hemans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 
Hencke ; planets, 1S45 
Hengist; octarch, Salisbury 
Henley, lord ; GreuviUe adminis- 
tration, 1763 
Henley, Jos. ; Derby administra- 
tion, 1852 
Henley, orator, d. 1756 
Hennis, Dr. ; duels, 1833 



INDEX. 



837 



iieunetta ; quueiis (Cluuies I.) 
Henry ; kings : England, France, 

Germany, Spain 
Henry I. ; Tinehebray, 1106 
Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415 ; Cher- 
bourg' 
Henry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 
Henry VIII. ; England, 1509; age, 
defender, field, monasteries, 
spurs 
Henry II. ; tournaments, 1559 
Henry IV. ; France, 1589 ; Nantes, 

Kavaillao, Yvres 
Henry the Lion; Brunswick, 1139 
Henshaw, Mr. ; dxiels, 1820 
Hepburn, ensign; trials, 1811 
Heraclitus, pliUosopher,jl. 500 B.C. 
Heraclius ; cross, 615 
Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1689 
Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593- 

1633 
Herbert of Cherbury, lord, 1581- 

164S 
Herbert, Sidney (aft. lord), 1810- 

61 ; Peel, Palmerston admins. 
Hercules Tyrius ; purple 
Herder, J. G. von, pliilosopher, 

1744-1S03 
Hermann (Arminius), Germany, g 
Hero of Alexandria, .rt. 284-221 b c. 
Herod; Jews, 42 B.C. 
Herodian hist.,./J. 173 
Herodotus, b. 484 B.C. ; history 
Herophilus ; anatomy, 302 b. c. 
Herostratus fires the temple at 

Ephesus, 356 B.C. 
Herries, J. C. ; Peel adm., 1834 
Herring, abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 
Herring, Jlrs. ; ti-ials, 1773 
Hcr.schel, W., 1738-1822 ; Saturn, 
astronomy, telescope, sun, 
Uranus, nebular hypothesis 
Herschel, J. F., 6. 1790; actino- 

meter, photography 
Hertford, marquess of ; his execu- 
tors V. Suisse, trials, 1842 
Hertford, earl of ; administrations, 

1547; Pinkey 
Hervie, H. ; doctors' commons, 

1560 
Hesiod, Greek poet, j?. 850 B.C. 
Hess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 
Heytesbury, lord; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1844 
Hiero, Syracuse, 478-275 B.c 
Hieronymus, see Jerome ■ 
Hilary ; hymns, 431 
Hill, lord ; commander-iu-chief, 

1828 
Hill, Kowland, b. 179s; pcst-office 
Hillsborough, lord ; North admi- 
nistration, 1770 
Hind, J. R.,b. 1823 ; planets, 1847 ; 

comets 
Hindes, lieut. ; duel, 1817 
Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 
Hipparchus, ji. 162 B.C. ; astro- 
nomy, Canary, constellation, 
degrees, latitude, longitude 
Hippias ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
Hippocrates, d. 357 e.c. ; anatomy, 

surgery, loadstone 
Hoadley, B., bp., d. 1761 ; Ban- 

gorian 
Hobart, lord; Addington adm., 

1801 
Hobbes, T., 1588-1679 ; academies 
Hobbima, painter,/. 1681 
Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord 
Broughton); Melbourne adm., 
1834 
Hoche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793 



Hooker, murderer; trials, 1845 
Hodgson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761 
Hodgson i/. Greene; trials, 1832 
Hofer, Andrew ; Tyrol, 1809-10 
Hofmann, A., 0. i8i8; chemistry, 

ammonia, aniline, crith 
Hogarth, W., painter, 1697-1764 
Hogg, James, poet, 1772-1S33 
Holbein, Hans, d. 1543 
Holcroft, T., 1745-1809 ; melo- 
drama, 1793 
Holdernesse, earl of ; Devonshire 

administrations, 1756, 
Holgate, abp. ; York, 1545 
Holinshed, Ralph ; d. about 1580 
Holkar ; India, 1S04 
Holland, lord; Melbourne adm., 

183s et seq. ; trials, 1797 
Holland, sir H., b. 1788; pres. 

Roy. Inst., 1865 
Holiest murderers ; trials, 1851 
Holmes, adm.; Cape Coast, 1663 
Holt, sir John ; King's Bench, 1689 
Holt ; trials, 1844 
Hoi well, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 
Home or Hume, D.; spirit rap- 
ping ; trials, 186S 
Home, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 
Homer,/. 962 B.C. (ttm(o?i) ; poetry 
Hompesch, baron; duels, 1806 
Hone,Wm., 1779-1842; trials, 1817; 

almanacs 
Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 
Honorius ; West, empire, 395 
Hood, admii-ol ; Madeii-a, 1807 ; 

Toulon 
Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 179S- 

1845 
Hook, Theodore, novehst, 17S8- 

1S41 
Hooke, Rob., 1635-1702; air, boil- 
ing, camera, geology, mechan- 
ics, microscope, telegi-aphs 
Hooker, Rich., theoL, 1553-1600 
Hooker, W., botanist, 1785-1865 ; 
— J. D. (son), b. 1816; — gen. It., 
U. S., 1862-3 ; Fredericksburg 
Hopkins, Matthew; witches, 1645 
Hopley, T. ; trials, i860 
Horace, 65-8 B.C., Latin poet; 

Athens, satires 
Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 
! Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 
Horn, coiuit ; Nordhngen, 1634 
Home, G., bp. ; Norwich, 1790 
Home Tooke, John, d. 1812 ; Hoi-ne 

Tooke, ifec. 
Homer, Fr. ; bullion, 1810 
Hornor, Mr. ; Colosseum, 1824 
Hornsby, Dr. : Radcliffe obs. , 1771 
Horrebow ; astronomy, 1659 
Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 ; astronomy, 

Venus 
Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 
Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
Horsley, bp. ; St. Asaph, 1802 
Horsman, Edwd., b. 1807 (sec. for 
Ireland, 1855-7); Adullam., 1866 
Hosea prophesies about 785 b.c. 
Hotham, adm ; naval battles, 1795 
Hotspur; Otterburn, 1388 
lloublon, sir J.; Bank of England, 

1695 
Houghton, John, executed, 1535 ; 

Charterhouse 
Howard, John, 1726-90 ; prisons, 

potatoes 
Howard, Luke, d. 1864; clouds 
Howard, adm. sir Edward; naval 

battles, 1513 
Howard of Effingham, lord ; ar- 
mada, 15S8 



Howards. Gossett; trials, 1842 
Howe, sir William ; Long Island, 

1776 
Howe, lord, 1784 ; Pitt, 1783; Brest, 

Ushant 
Howel Dha ; Wales, gii 
Howley, Dr., abp. ; Canterbiuy, 

1828 ; Lambeth 
Huber, P., 1750-1831 ; bees 
Hudson, Jeft'rey, 1626 ; dwarf 
Hudson, H. ; Hudson's Bay 
Huggins, Wm. ; spectrum, note 
Hughes, su- E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Hugo, Victor, poet and uoveL, b. 

1802 
Hullah, J., 6. 1812 ; music, 1840 
Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 
Humboldt, A. de, 1769-1859 
Humboldt, W. de, 1767-1835 
Hume, David, hist., 1711-76 ; — Jos., 

politics, 1 7 77- 1 85s ; see Home 
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, d. 

at Bury, 1447 
Hunniades, J.; Hungary, 1442; 

Turkey, Varna 
Hunt, Geo. Ward ; Disraeli admi- 
nistration, exoheq.. 1868 
Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 
1820; Clerkenwell, Manchester 
Hunt, John and Leigh ; trials, 

1811-1S12; — J., anthropology 
Hunt, Wm. Holman, painter, h. 

1827 
Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93; 

— W., 1718-83 
Huntingford, bp. ; Hereford, 1802 
Huntly, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 
Hunton, Jos. (forgery) ; execu- 
tions, 1828 
Hurd, bishop ; Worcester, 1781 
Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830; Wel- 
lington admin., 1828; Liver- 
pool, 1830 
Huss, John, burnt, 1415; Hussites 
Hutchinson, Amy ; trials, 1750 
Hutchinson, J ohii, d. 1737; Hutch- 

insonians 
Hutchinson, major; Alexandria, 

1801 
Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's 

escape, 1815 
Huttou, abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 
Hutton, W., d. 1815 ; geology 
Huygbens, d. 1695 ; astronomy, 

optics, pendulum 
Hyde, sir S.; chancellor, Id. h. ,1660 
Hyde, Laurence ; administrations, 

1689 et seg. 
Ilyder Ah, d. 1782; India. Arcot, 

Carnatic, Mysore 
Hyginus, pope, 139 ; martyr 
Hypatia, philosopher, ui. 415 B.C. ; 

hydrometer 
Hyperidcs ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Hyrcanus, John, d.. 106 B.C. ; Sa- 
maritans 



I. 



Ibrahim Pacha, 17S9-1848 ; Anti- 

och, Beyrout, Egj^at, Greece, 

Syria, Turkey, Damascus, Wa- 

habees 

Ignatius, St., mart., ii5;liturgies 

250 
Inipey, major; duels, iSoi 
luachus ; Argos, 1856 B.C. 
Incledon. C, d. 1826 
iriez do Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 
Inglefield, axyt. ; Franklin, 1852 
Inglis, col. ; Albuera, i8n 



83S 



INDEX. 



Ingram, Herbert, d. i860; Illust. 

London News, 1842 
Innocent I. — XII. ; popes 
Innocent III., pope, 1198; tran- 

substantiation 
Irenweus, martyr, 202 
Irving, E., 1792-1834; Ii-vingites, 

trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues 
Irving, "Washington, 1783-1859 
Isabella ; salique law, Spain 
Isaiah prophesies about 760 B.C. 
Islip, abp. ; Canterbury, 1349 
Isocrates, Gr. orator, 436-338 B.C. 
Iturbide ; Mexico, 1821-1865 
Ivan ; Eussia, 1462 ; czars 



J. 

Jackson, bp. ; Oxford, 1812 ; Lin- 
coln, 1852 
Jackson, gen. ; United States, 1829 
Jackson. Thos., " Stonewall," 1826- 
63 ; Manassas, United States, 
1862 ; Chancellorsville 
Jackson, T. ; executions, 1861 
Jackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846 
Jackson, J. B. ; printing in colours, 

1720 
Jacob, Dr. ; Christ's hospital, 1854 
Jacobi ; Baltic, note, electrotype 
Jacquard loom, i8o5 
James ; England, Scotland, Spain 

(kings) 
James IV.; Flodden, 1513 
James, H. ; photozincography, i860 
Jane, England, 1554 ; queens, 

Sicily 
Jansen, C, 1585-1638 ; Jansenism 
Jason, argonautic exp., 1263 B.C. 
Jebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 

1793-1863 
Jeffcott, sir John TV. ; duels, 1833 
Jefferson, Thos., 1743-1826; United 

States, president, 1801-8 
Jefifery, Eobert ; Sombrero, 1807 
Jeffrey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 
Jeffreys, George (afterwards lord); 
administrations, 1685 ; King's 
Bench, chancellor, lord high, 
bloody assize ; d. 1689 
Jellachich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 
Jenghis Khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; 
Hungary, India, Moguls, Af- 
ghanistan 
Jenkins, Henry; longevity, d. 1670 
Jenkinson, bp.; David's, St., 1825 
Jenner, E., 1749-1S23; vaccination 
.lennings, Mr.; tontines, 1798 
Jeremiah prophesies about 629 b. c. 
Jerningham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings, 

1760 
Jerome, St., Latin father, 345-420? 

ascension, liturgies 
Jerome of Prague ; burnt, 1416 
Jersey, countess of; delicate in- 
vestigation, 1806 
Jervis, sir John, 1734-1823 ; Cape 
St. Vincent ; — solicitor-gen., at.- 
gen., common pleas, d. 1856 
Joan of Arc, burnt, 1431 ; Joan 
Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples 
Joel prophesies about 800 b, c. 
John, St., d. 100 ; babtism, ac- 
cusers, evangelists, gospels 
John I. — XXIII.; popes, 523, &c. 
John of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571 
John, king ; Bohemia, Portugal, 

Spain, Prance, Poitiers 
John, king ; England (1199), char- 
ter of forests, magna charta, 
" We" 



John of Leyden; anabaptists, 1534 
John the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 
Johnson, Andrew, 6. 1809; United 

States, 1865-8 
Johnson, Sam., 1709-84; diction- 
ary, literary societies 
Johnson, judge ; trials, 1805 
Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 
Johnston, capt. ; steam, 1S25 
Johnston, gen.; Boss, N., 1798 
Johnston, Albt., Ic. Pittsburg, 1862 ; 

—Jos., U. S., 1863 
Johnston, Eobert ; trials, 1818 
Johnston, sir John ; marriages, 

forced, 1690 
Joinville, Jean de, hist., 1224-1318 
Joinville, prince de, 6. 1818 ; 

Ocean Monarch, 1848 
Jonah prophesies about 862 B.C. 
Jones, colonel ; Dimgan, 1647 ; 

Eathmines 
Jones, H. Bence ; Eoyal Institu- 
tion, i860 ; fluorescence, spec- 
trum, note 
Jones, Gale ; trials, 1811 
Jones, Inigo, architect, 1572-1652 
Jones, Jane ; trials, 1842 
Jones, Mr. ; riots, 1819 
Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 
Jones, Owen, 1842 ; Alhambra, 

James's-hall, St. 
Jones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic, 

chess. Menu, Sanskrit 
Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 
Jonson, Ben., 1574-1637; poet-laur. 
Joquemin, M. ; picquet, 1390 
Jordan, Mrs., actress, d. 1816 
Joseph; Germany,Namur,Portugal 
Josephine, empress, 1763-1814; 

France, 1809 
Josephus, 38-100, Jewish hist. 
Jotham ; fables, 1209 B.C. 
Joubert, gen. ; Novi, 1799 
Jourdan, marshal ; Cologne, Fleu- 

rus, Vittoria, 1813 
Jovian; Rome, emps., 363 
Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858-68 
Judas Maccabaius rules 168-160 

B c. 
Judith; Abyssinia, 960' 
Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C. ; Numidia, 

Jugurthine war 
Julian ; Eome, emp. 360 ; edicts, 

Paris 
Juhanus Salvius ; edicts, 132 
Julius, Mr. ; duels, 1791 
Julius II. ; popes, 1503 ; Rome, 

Bologna, Laocoon, Cambray 
Julius Caesar ; see Casar, Julius 
Jung Bahadoor ; Nepaul, 1857-60 
Junot, marshal, 1771-1813: Cintra, 

Vimiera, 1808 
Jussieu, A. L. de ; botanist, 1748- 

1836 
Justin, emp. ; Rome, 518 and 565 
.Justin, St. ; Eochester, 604 
.Justinian ; eastern empire, 527 
Justin Martyr, 164 ; millennium 
Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires 
Juxon, apb. ; administrations, 

1640 ; Canterbury, 1660 ; bishs. 



K. 

ICane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 
Kant, Imman., 1724-1804 ; meta- 
physics 
Karaman, Joseph ; Syria, 1866-7 
Karslake, sir J., b. 1821 ; att.-gen., 
1867 



Kaunitz, piince W.A., Aust. states- 
man, 1711-94 
Kaye, bishop ; Bristol, 1820 ; Lin- 
coln 
Kean, Charles, b. 1811 ; theatres 
Kean, Edmund, 1787-1833 
Keane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1839 
Keats, John ; poet, 1796-1821 
Keble, rev. John, poet, 1792-1866 ; 

Keble 
Keenan ; trials, 1803 
Keith, George ; earl-marischal of 

Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 
Keith, George ; quakers, 1646 
Keller, Dr. ; lake dwellings, 1865 
Kellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Kelly, Miss; theatres, trials, 1816 ; 
Kelly, sir Fitzroy, 6. 1796; sol.- 
general, att.-gen., cli. baron, 
1866 
Kemble, Charles, 1775-1854 
Kemble, John, actor, 1757-1823 
Kemble, Miss F. ; actress, 6. 1811 
Kemp, abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 
Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 
Kempenfeldt, adm. ; Royal George, 

1782 
Kempis, T. a, ; theology, 1380-1471 
Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 185S 
Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 
Kennedy, C. E. ; trials, 1858, note 
Kent, Edw. duke of, 1767-1820 
Kent, Odo, earl of; treasurer, 

1066 
Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 
Kentigern, St. ; alDstinence, Glas- 
gow, Asaph, 560-83 
Kenyon, lord ; attorney -general, 

1782 ; king's bench 
Kepler, J., 1571-1630 ; optics, pla- 
netary motions, 1609; rainbow, 
tides, dyehouses 
Keppel, adm. ; Belleisle, Ushant, 
trials, 1779; coalition, naval bat- 
tles 
Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 
Keying ; China, 1842-58 
Killigrew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 
Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, 

trials, executions, 1746 
Kilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 
Kilwarden, lord ; king's bench ; 

trials, 1803 
Kimberley, see WodeJiouse 
King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 
King, Mr. Locke ; administrations, 

1851 
King, Dr. ; Csesarean operation 
King, col. ; suicide, 1850 
King, C. ; trials, 1855 ; gems, i860 
Kinglake, A. W. ; hist., 6. 1802 
Kingsley, C. ; novels, &c., b. 1819 
Kingston, duchess of; trials, 1776 
Kingston, earl of, v. lord Lorton ; 

trials, 1776 
Kingston, Evelyn, duke of; Wal- 

pole, 1721 
Kirby and Wade, capts., shot, 

1702 ; naval battles, note 
Kircher ; jEolian harp, 1653 ; phi- 
losopher's stone, trumpet 
Kirkman ; piano-forte 
Kirwan, Eichard B. ; trials, 1852 
Kiss, Karl, sculptor, 1802-65 
Klapka, general G., 6. 1820 
Kleber, J. B., Fr. gen., 1 754-1 800; 

El Arisch 
Kleist ; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden 
Klopstock, P.T., Germ, poet, 1724- 

1803 
Kmety, gen. (Ishmail Pacha), d. 
1865 ; Hungary, Kars 



INDEX. 



833 



KnatcbbuU, sir B. ; Peel adminis- 
trations, 1834-S 
Kneller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- 

1723 
Knigtit, Chs., hist. &. 1791 ; diffu- 
sion sec, 1827 
Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
Knight, Mr. ; north-west passage, 
1602 ; South Sea bubble, bribery 
Knight V. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
Knox, John, 1505-72; Presbyte- 
rians, congregation, Scotland 
Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 
Kock, Faulde, Fr. novelist, b. 1794 
Kohl, P. ; execution, 1865 
Konig, F. ; printing-machine, 1814 
Konig, M.; phonoscope, tonometer, 

1862 
Komer, Th., Germ, poet, 1791-1813 
Kosciusko; Poland, 1794; Cracow 
Kossuth, L., b. 1S02; Hungary, 

1849-68 ; United States 
Koster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 
Kotzebue ; north-west passage, 

1815, Aug. drama; killed, 1S19 
Kouli Khan ; Moguls, India, Persia, 

1730 
Kunckel, J., 1630-1703 ; phos- 
phorus, 1670 
Kutusoff, gen. M., 1745-1813; 
Russia, Muskwa, Smolensko, 
1812 
Kyhl, P.; nature-printing, 1833 



Labouchere, Henry; Russell ad- 
ministration, 1846 ; Palmerston 
administration, 1855 
Labourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792 
La Bruyfere, French essays, 1639-96 
Lachaise, P6re,i624-i7og; cemetery 
Lacordaire, Pfere H. D., 1802-61 
Lactantius, d. abt. 325 ; fathers 
Ladislas ; IBohemia, Hungary 
Laennec, R., physician, 1781-1826 
Lafarge, Madame ; trials, 1S40 
Lafayette, marq. ; 1757-1834 
Lafitte, d. 1844; wills (Napoleon's) 
La Fontaine, J., fabulist, 1621-95 
Lagava, &c. ; execution, 1856 
Lagny, circle, 1719 
La Grange, J. L., 1736-1S13'; acous- 
tics, astronomy, 1780 
Laing, Sam., 6, iSio; India, 1861-2 
Laird, Mr. ; Birkenhead 
Lake, gen. ; Bhurtxjore, 1805 ; 

Delhi, Luicellas 
Lake, capt. ; Sombrero, 1807 
Lalande, J., astron. , 1732-1807 
Lally, gen. Thos. de; beheaded, 

1766 
La Marmora, gen. A., 6. 1804; 

Tchernaya, 1855 ; Italy, 1862 
Lamartine, A. de, miscel. writer, 

6. 1792 ; France, 1848 
Lamb, C, 1775-1834 ; essays 
Lamb, Dr., killed, 1628 ; riots 
Lamballe, prhicesse de ; France, 

1792 
Lamberg, ct. ; Austria, 1848 
Lambert, Mr., d. 1809; corpulency 
Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 
Lambrecht, Mr.; duels, trials, 1830 
Lambton, Mr. ; duels, 1826 
Lamennais, P6re, F. R. de, 1782- 

1854 
Lamirande, M. ; extradition, 1866 
Lamoricifere, gen., 1806-65; France, 

1851 ; Rome, i860 
Lamplough, archbp. ; York, 1688 



Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 
Lancaster, duke of ; Lancaster 
Lancaster, Joseph, 1771-1838 ; 
Lancasterian schools, education 
Lander, Richard, 1804-34 1 Africa 
Lands'eer, sir E., painter, b. 1803 
Lanfranc,archbp. Canterbury, 1070 
Langara, adm. ; naval battles, 1780 
Langdale, Id. ; master of rolls, 1836 
Langdale, sir M. ; Naseby, 1645 
Langham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1366 
Langton, abp.; Canterbury, 1206 
Lannes ; marshals, Asperne, 1S09 
Lansdowne, marquess of, 1780- 
1863; see Pelti/, Shelburne ; Gode- 
richadm. 1827; Russell adm. 1846, 
1851 ; Aberdeen adm. 1852 ; Pal- 
merston adm. 1855, et seq. 
Laomedon ; Troy, 1260 B.C. 
Laplace, P. de ; mathemat., 1749- 

1827 
Latimer, bp., burnt, 1555; pro- 

testants 
Latimer, viscount ; administra- 
tions, 1672-3 
Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645; 

Canterbury, administrations 
Lauderdale, duke of ; cabal, 1670 
Laura; Petrarch, 1327 
Lautrec, d. 1528 
Lavalette's escape, 1815 
Lavater, J., 1741-1801 ; physiog- 
nomy 
Lavoisier, A., 1743-94; carbon, 

nitric acid, <fec. 
Law, bishop ; Chester, Bath, 1824 
Law's bubble, 1720 
Lawes, H., 1600-62 
Lawless, Mr. ; riots, 1828 
Lawrence, gen.H., 1806-57 '? India, 

1857 
Lawrence, Sir J., b. 1811; India, 

1863 
Lawrence, sirT., painter, 1769-1830 
Layard, Austen, 6. 1817; Nineveh 
Layei-'s conspiracy, 1722; Layer 
Leake, adm., d. 1720 ; admiralty, 
Gibraltar, Mediterranean, Mi- 
norca 
Leatham, E. ; trials, 1861 
Ledru Rollin, A., b. 1808 ; Prance, 

1848 
Lee, Alexander ; theatres, 1830 
Lee Boo, prince ; Pelew Islands, 

1784 
Lee, archbp. ; York, 1544 
Lee, W. ; stocking-frame, 1589 
Lee, gen. Robt.; Unit. States, 1862 
Leech, John, 1817-64 ; caricatures 
Leeds, duke of; administi-ations, 

1689 
Leeke, H. ; Bushire, 1856 
Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723 ; animal- 

culse, polypus 
Lefevre, C. Shaw ; speaker, 1839 
Leggatt, B. ; burning, 1612 
Legge, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Legge, H. B., Newcastle adm. 1754 
Le Gros, R.aymond ; Dublin, 1171 
Leibnitz, Gottfried, 1646-1716 ; 

mathematics, fluxions 
Leicester,earl of; administrations, 

1558 ; national associations 
Leicester, ear of, v. Morning 

Herald; trials, 1809 
Leighton, abp. Robt, 1613-84 
Leighton, G. C. ; printing in 

colours, 1849 
Le Jay ; polyglot, 1628-45 
Lelewel ; Poland, 1863 
Lely, sir P., painter, 1617-80 
Lo Maire ; circumnavigator, 1615 



Lennox, col. ; duels, 1789 
Lenoir ; gas, 1861 
Le Notre ; James's Park, St. i6£8 
Leo ; popes. Eastern emph-e 
Leo X. ; popes, 1513 ; indulgences 
Leon, Diego de ; Spain, 1841 
Leon, Ponce de; America, 1512 
Leonarda of Pisa ; algebra, 1202 
Leonardo da Vinci, painter, 1452- 

1520 
Leonidas ; Thermopyte, 4S0B.C'. 
Leopardi, Italian orat. 1798-1837 
Leopold, Germany ; Slorgarten, 
1315 ; Sempaoh, 1386; Bel- 
gium, 1830 
Lspidus ; triumvir, 43 B.C. 
L'Epde, abb^ de, 1712-89, deaf 
Le Pique, M. ; duels, 1808 
Le Sage, 1668-1747 
Leslie, C. R., painter, 1794-1859 
Lesseps, M. ; Suez 
Lessing, G. E., German philoso- 
pher, 1729-81 
Lestock, admiral ; Toulon, 1744 
L'Estrange, sir R. ; newspapers, 

1663 
Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane Soc. 1774 
Lever, sirAshton; niusenm 
Leverrier, U., b. 1811 ; Neptune, 

1846 
Levy, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 1810 
Lewis, Mr. ; theatres, 1773 
Lewis, sir G. CornewaU, 1806-63 ; 

Palmerston adm. 1855 
Lewisham, vise. ; Addington ad- 
ministration, 1801 
Leybourne, William de ; admiral, 

1297 
Libanius, orator, 314-390 
Liddon, lieut. ; north-west pas- 
sage, 1819 
Lieber, T. ; erastianism, 1523-84 
Liebig, J., b. 1S03 ; agriculture, 

chemistry 
Light, F. ; Penang 
Ligonier, lord; Bute, 1762 
Lilbume, col. ; levellers, Wigan, 

1651 
Lilly, George, d. 1559; charts 
Lilly ; astrology, 1647 
Lin ; China, 1840 
Linacre, Dr., d. 1524 ; gardening, 

lectures, physicians 
Lincoln, Abm., b. 1809 ; United 

States, 1860-2 
Lincoln, earl of ; administrations, 

1579 
Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind 
Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), b. 1821 
Liiidley, John ; hot,, 1799-1S65 ; 

horticulture 
Lindsay, earl of ; Edgehill, 1642 
Lindsay, sir John ; Madras, 1770 
Lingard, J., 1771-1851 ; historian 
Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 
Linnaeus, C. von, 1707-78 ; botany, 

Linnsean zoology 
Linus, poet, .ft. 1281 B.C. 
Liprandi; Balaklava, Eupatoria, 

185s 
Lisle, lord ; administrations, 1544 
Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 
Lisle, visct. ; Portsmouth, 1544 
Listen, J., actor, retires, 1838 
Liszt, F. ; music, b. i8ii 
Little, John ; Sherwood forest 
Littleton,lord; chancellor. Id., 1641 
Littleton, Sir. ; Jlelbourne ad- 

mioistration, 1834 
Liverpool, earl of, 1770-1828 ; — 

Liverpool administration, 1S1.2 
Livingstone, D., b. 1817; Africa 



840 



INDEX. 



Livius, Titus, Roman hist. d. i8 
Llewellyn; Wales, 1194 
Lloyd, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Lloyd, Cathemie : quackery, 1831 
Lloyd, Charles, esq. ; Junius, 1769 
Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1845 
Locke, J., 1632-1704 ; physics, car- 
tesian, coin 
Locke, VV. ; ragged schools, 1844 
Lockyer, major; duel, 18 17 
Jjofting, John ; thimble, 1695 
Logeman ; magnetism, 1851 
Lollard, Walter ; LoUards, 1315 ; 

burned, 1322 
Lombe, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 
London dock comipany; trials, 1 851 
Londonderry, lord ; see CastU- 

Tcagh; suicide, 1822 
Long, sirR. ; administrations, 1660 
Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 
Long, St. John ; quack, trials, 

1 830-1 
Longfellow, H. W., h. 1807. 
Longinus, philoso., killed, 273 
Longley, abp. of York, i860; Bipon 
Longsti-eet, gen. ; Chicamauga, 

1863 ; U. States 
Lonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
Lonsdale, earl of ; duels, 1792 ; Der- 
by administration, 1852 
Lopez ; Cuba, 1850 ; United States 
Lopez, gen. ; Paraguay 
Lopez, sir Manasseh ; Gram- 
pound, trials, 1819 
L'Orme, Philibert de ; Tuileries, 

1564 
Lorraine, Chas. of ; Lissa, Mohatz, 

1687 
Lorraine, duke of ; Crecy, 1346 
Lorraine, Claude, pamter, 1600-82 
Losinga, H. ; Norwich, 1091 
Loudon, C. J., 1 783- 1 843 ; botany 
Loughborough ; att.-gen., coali- 
tion, 1783 
Louis ; France, Spain, 1724 
Louis III. ; landgrave, 1130 
Louis XL, "Christian;" blood, 

posts, 1470 ; Provence 
Louis XII. ; tester, 1513 
Louis Xni. ; Loii,)S d'or, 1640 
Louis XIV. ; Dieu-donne, Nantes, 

1685 
Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14 ; 

Prance 
Louis, king ; Hungary, Buda, 1526 
Louis, prince of Conde ; Jarnac, 

1569 
Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 
Louis-Napoleon ; France, 1848, 

and n. 
Louis-Philippe ; France, 1830 
Louisa-Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846 
Louise, queen, d. 1850 ; Belgium, 

1832 
Louth, lord ; trials, 1811 
Louvel ; trials, 1820 
Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 

1747 
■Level; trials, 1812 
Lowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 
Lowther, vise. ; Wellington adm., 

1828 
Loyola, Ignatius ; Jesuits, 1534 
Luby, Thos. ; Fenian, trials, 1865 
Lucan, earl of ; ti-ials, 1856 
Lucan, killed, 65 ; Bome, Cordova 
Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 
Lucian, about 120-200 
Lucilius; satire, 116 B.C. 
Lucretia, d. 47 B.C. ; Borne, 

spinning 
Lucretius, d. 52 B.C. 



LuUy ; nitric acid, 1287 (music), 
1633-72 

Lumiey v. Gye ; trials, 1854 

LunardJ, M. ; balloons, 1784 

Lushington, S. ; admu-alty court, 
1838 

Lutatius; naval battles, 241 B.C. 

Luther, Martin, 1483-1546 ; Au- 
gustine, Lutheranism, Dort, 
Protestantism, Augsburg, Cal- 
vinists, Worms 

Luther, R. ; planets, 1852 

Luxemburg, marshal ; Enghien, 
1692 

Luxmore, bishop ; Bristol, 1807 

Lyourgus ; Sparta, 881 B.C. 

Lyell, sir C, 6. 1797; geology ,• 
man 

Lyly, W. ; euphuism, 1581 

Lyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863 ; chan- 
cellor ; Canning admin. 1827 ; 
Wellington admin. 1828 ; Peel 
admin. 1834, 1841 

Lynch ; trials, 1817 

Lynedoch, lord; Barrosa, 1811 ; 
Bergen-op-Zoom, St. Sebastian 

Lyon, capt. ; north-west passage, 
1821 ; gen. N., Springfield, 1861 

Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 

Lysander; Sparta, 405 B.C. 

Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C. ; 
Corus . I 

Lysippus ; Lysistratus, sculpture, 
busts, 328 B.C. 

Lyttelton, Geo., lord; dreams,i779 

Lytton, E. Bulwer, Id., novelist 
and poet, b. 1805 ; guilds 



M. 

Macadam, J. ; macadamising, 1S19 
Macarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra 

Leone, Ashantees, 1824 
Macartney, earl ; duel, 1786 ; 

China, 1793 ; India 
Macaulay, T. B., 1800-1859; Mel- 
bourne adm., 1837 
Macbeth ; Scotland, 1057 
MacCabe ; robbers, 1691 
MacClellan, gen. George, 6. 1826 ; 

United States, 1861-4 
Macclesfield, earl of; chancellor, 

lord high, 171 8 
MacCormack ; reaping machine, 

1831 
Macdonald, marshal ; Parma, 

Trebia, 1799 
Macdonald, capt. ; Prussia, i86i,to. 
Macdonalds massacred ; Glencoe, 

1692 
MacDowell, gen. J. ; Manassas, 

1 861 
Macduff, Mr. ; duel, 1790 
Macfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 
Macgregor, J. ; bank, British, 1849; 

canoe, 1865 
Machiavelli, N., 1469-1527 
Mack, general; Ulm, 1805 
Mackay, gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 
Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 
Mackenzie, bp., C. F. ; Africa, 

i860 
Mackintosh, sir James, 1765-1S32 
Macklin, C, actor, d. 1797. 
Macklin; Bible, books 
Mackonochie, rev. Mr. ; trials, 

1867-8 : ritualists 
MacLachlan, Jessie ; trials, 1862 
Macleod, H. D. ; trials, 1858 
Macleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 
Maclisp, D., painter, b. 1811 



McMillan, J. ; trials, 1S61 
MacNamara, capt. ; duels, 1803 
M'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 

north-west passage 
M'CuUoch, J. R , poUt. econ., b. 

1789 
M'Neill, sir J. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
McCarty, gen. ; Enniskillen, 1689 
McClintock, cayit. ; Franklin, 1859 
McGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 
McKenzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
McNaghten, sir W., killed 1841 
McNaughten, Mr. ; trials, 1761, 

1843 
Macready, W. ; actor, b. 1793 
Macreath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 
Macrobius; lat writer, ('. 415. 
Madan, bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 
Madiai, the ; Tuscany, 1852 
Madison, James ; United States, 

president, 1809 
Maecenas, d. 8 ; dedications, baths 
Magee, J. ; trials, 1813 
Magellan ; killed, 1521 ; circum- 
navigation, Philippine 
Magi ; fire worshippers, Epiphany 
Magnus ; king, Norway, Sweden 
Maguire, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Magus, Simon ; Simonians, here- 
tics 
Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
Mahometanism, Mecca, Medina, 
Beder, Turkey, Koran 
Mahomet II., d. 1481 ; eastern em- 
pire, Turkey, Adrianopole, Con- 
stantinople, Albania 
Mahony, F. (Prout), d. 1866 
Ma'imonides (Maimoun), Moses, 

Jewish wr., d. 1208 
Maitland, capt. ; France, 1815 
Maitland, sir Fred. ; China, 1838 
Majendie, bishop) ; Chester, 1800 
Major ; conchology, 1675 
Malachi prophesies about 397 B.C. 
Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, clan- 
ships, Alnwick, Uunsinane 
Malebranche, N. ; philos., 1638- 

1715 
Malherbe ; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 
Malibran, madame ; music, 1808-36 
Mallet, B. ; earthquakes, seismo- 
meter, 1858 
Malmesbury, lord, h. 1807 ; Derby 

administrations, 1852, 1858 
Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 
Maltby, bishop ; Durham, 1836 
Malthus, T., 1766-1834, polit. econ. 
Malzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 
Manasseh, Ben Israel; Jews, 

1657 
Manby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 
Manchester, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1620 
Manchester will ; trials, 1854 
Mandeville, visct. ; administra- 
tions, 1620 
Manes, killed, 274 ; Manicheans 
Manfred, killed 1266; Naples 
Manlius ; Cimbri, 102 B.C., Rome 
Manners, lord John, 6. 1818 ; 
Derby administrations, 1852, 
1858, 1866 
Manning, H., 6. 1809; cardinal 

and archbishop, 1865 
Mannings ; murderers, trials, 1849 
Manny, sir W. ; charter-house, 

1371 
Mansel, bishop ; Bristol, 1808 
Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 
Mansfield, lord ; att.-gen. 1754 ; 

Dumblain, 1715; fictions in law, 

king's bench 



INDEX. 



841 



Mansfield, C B. ; benzole, 1849 
Manuel ; Eastern empire, Trebi- 

zond 
Manutius, see Aldus 
Mar, earl of ; Harlaw, 141 1 
Marat, stabbed; France, 1793 
Mai'cellus ; Rome, 212 B.C. 
March, Rogei-, earl of; rebellions, 

139S 
March, R. ; rope-making, 1784 
Marchmont ; trials, 1858 
Marciou ; Marclonites, 140 
Marcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 

161 
Marcus Curtius ; Rome, 362 B.C. 
Mardonius ; Mycale, Plat^ea, 

497 B.C. 
Margaret ; queens (Edward I. ) 
Margaret of Anjou (queen of 
Henry VI.) d. 1481 : Tewkes- 
bury, Towton, Wakefield 
Margaret of Norway ; Calmar, 

1393 
Margaret (governess of the Nether- 
lands, 1559) ; beards 
Margraff; beetroot, 1747 
Maria da Gloria ; Portugal, 1826 
Maria-Louisa, d. 1847 > France, 

p. 316; wills (Napoleon's) 
Maria-Theresa : Germany, 1711 
Maria- Antoinette ; Prance, 1793 ; 

diamond necklace 
Mai'ius, d. 86 B.C. ; Ambrones, 

Cimbri 
Markham, abp. ; York, 1776 
Marlborough, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 162S 
Marlborough, duke of, 1650-1716 ; 
com. -in-chief, marshals, Blen- 
heim, Douay, Liege, Lisle, Mal- 
plaquet, Oudenarde, Ramilies 
Marlborough, John, duke of, 
b. 1822 ; Derby administration, 
1867; Disraeli adm., 1868 
Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 
Marmont, marshal ; Salamanca, 

1812 
Marmontel, J. F., 1723-99 
Marot, Clement; Fr. poet, 1495- 

IS44 
Marr, earl of ; trials, 1831 
Marsh, bp. ; LlandafF, 1816 
Marsh, Catherine, convalescent 

hospital 
Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
Marshall, T. R. ; trials, 1859 
Martel, Charles ; France, 714 
Marten, Maria ; trials, 1828 
M'arth; planets, 1854 
Martial ; epigrams, ji. too 
Martin, John, painter, 1790-1854 
Martin, Jon. ; fires, York minster, 

1829 
Martin ; popes, 649 et seq. 
Martin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 
Martin, rev. G. ; suicide, i860 
Martyr, Peter, reformer, 1500-62 
Marvell, And., d. 1678; ballot 
Mary I., 1516-58 ; England (queen), 

1553 ; Calais 
Mary IL, 1662-94; England (queen), 

1689 
Mary, queen of Scotts, 1542-87 ; 
Scotland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, 
sycamore, Langside, Lochleven- 
castle, Fotheringay 
Maryborough, lord ; postmaster, 

1S35 
Masaniello ; Naples, 1647 
Maskelyne, N. , astronomer, 
1732-11 ; Greenwich, 1765 ; 
almanacs, SchiehaUien, Venus 



Mason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 
Massena ; Zurich, 1799; Almeida, 

Busaco 
Massey v. Hcadfort ; trials, 1804 
Massey, W. ; India, 1865 
Massillon, J. B. ; Fr. preacher, 

1663-1742 
Mathew, Theobald, d. 1856 ; tem- 
perance 
Mathews, Chas. ; actor, 1776-1835 
JIathias ; anabaptists, 1534 
Matilda ; queens (WilUam I) ; 

Bayeus tapestry, 1066 
Matilda ; England (queens, 

Stephen) 
Matilda (empress) ; England, 1135 
Matilda ; Denmark, 1772 ; Zell 
Matilda, countess; Canossa, 1077 ; 

Italy 
Matthew, T., abp. ; York, 1606 
Matthews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744 
Maud ; see Matikla 
Maule, Fox (lord Paninure) ; Rus- 
sell administration, 1846 
Maunsell, col. ; meal-tub plot, 

1679 
Maupertuis, P. L. de, 169S-1759; 

latitude 
Maurice, rev. F. D., 6. 1805 ; 

working-men's college, 1854 
Maury, lieut. M., b. 1806 
Mausolus, 377 B.C. ; mausoleum, 

wonders 
Maximin ; Rome, emp. 235 ; 

giants, persecutions 
Maximilian ; emperors, Germany, 

1493 ; Mexico, 1864 
Mayne, sir Rohd., b. 1796 ; police, 

1829 
Mayo, earl of, b. 1S22 ; Disraeli 

adm. 1868 
Mazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ; 

tontines 
Mazzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532 
Mead, Dr. Rich., 1673-1754; ino- 
culation 
Mead, Geo., gen., b. 1816; United 

States, 1863 
Meagher; Ireland, 1S48 
Medhurst, Frs. H. ; trials, 1839 
Medici ; Medici family 
Msdicis, Catherine de, d. 1589 ; 

Bartholomew, St. 
Medina-Sidonia, duke of ; armada 
Medon ; Athens, 1044 
Mehemet Ali ; Egypt, Syria 
Meikle, A., thrashing-machine, 

1776 
Melanchthon, Philif), 1497-1560 ; 

Augsburg confession 
Melas, general ; Marengo, 1800 
Melbourne, viscount, 1779-1849 ; 

Melbourne; trials, 1836 
Mellon, Miss (afterwards duchess 

of St. Alban's), first appearance, 

179s 
Melville, lord; impeachment, 1806 
Memnon said to invent alphabet, 

1822 B.C. 
Menabrea, count L. F. ; Italy, 1867 
Menander, d. 291 b.c. ; drama 
Mendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1809-47 
Mendizabal; Spain, 1835 
Mendoza, Pedro de ; Buenos 

Ayres, 1530 
Menou, general ; Alexandria, 1800 
Menschikotf, ijrince ; Holy Places, 

1853 ; Russia, Alma, llusso-Turk- 

ish war 
Mercator, Ger., 1512-94; charts 
Merovaius ; Merovingians, France, 

448 



Mesmer, Frederic Ant. ; mesmer- 
ism, 1766 
Metastasio, Pet., poet, 1698-1782 
Mctellus ; Achaia, 147 B.C. 
Metius; telescopes, 1590-1609 
Jteton ; golden number, 432 B.C. 
Metternich, prmce, 1773-1859 
Metz, M. de ; reformatory, 1839 
]\Ieux and Co. ; porter 
Jleyer, Simon; Saturn, 1608-9-10 
Meyerbeer, J. M., 1 794-1 864; mus. 

comp. 
Mezentius; indiction, 312 
Micah prophesies about 750 B.C. 
Michael Angelo Buonaroti, 1474- 

1564 
Michael ; eastern empire, Servia 
Michaelis, J. W.,bib. critic, 1717-91 
Michelet, J., Fr. hist., 6. 1798 
Middlesex, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1621 
Middleton, Con. ; (Cicero) 1683-1750 
Middleton; N.W. passage, 1742 
Middleton (or Myddelton), sir 

Hugh, 1565-1631; New River 
Middleton, John ; giants, 1578 
Mieoislas ; Poland, 962 
Miguel, dom,, 1802-66 ; Portugal, 

1824 
Mildmay, sir J. H. ; trials, 1814 
Mildmay, sir Walter ; administra- 
tions, 1579 
Mill, Jas., hist, of Ind., 1773-1836 
Millais, J. E., 6. 1829, painter 
Miller, Hugh; geology, suicide, 

1856 
Miller v. Salomons ; trials, 1852 
Millie, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Milman, H. H., poet and hist, 6. 

1791 
Milosch ; Servia, 1815 
Miltiades ; Marathon, 490 B.C. 
Milton, John, 160S-74 ; Paradise 

Lost, Cripplegate 
Mina, gen., d. 1836 ; Spain, 1835 
Minos ; Crete, 1015 B.C. 
Minto, earl of; India, gov. -gen. 

1807 
Miramon, gen. ; Mexico, 1S59 ; exe 

cuted, 1867 
Mirfes, M. ; Mexico, i86i 
Jlister, Josiah ; trials, 1841 
Jlitchell, sir F. ; victuallers, 1621 
Mitchell, D. ; aquarium, 1853 
Mitchell, adm ; Bantry bay, 1801-2 
Mitchell ; Ireland, 1848 
Jlitford, sir John ; att.-general, 
1800; speaker, i8oi ; — W., hist, 
of Greece, 1744-1S27 
Mithridates the Great, 131-63 B.C. ; 
Pontus, comets, electuary, mas- 
sacres, omens 
Mitra, gen. B. ; Buenos Ajrres, 

1859 

Moffat, colonel ; wrecks, 1857 

Mohun, lord ; duels, 1712 

Moir, capt. ; trials, 1830 

Mou-a, earl of; India, gov. -gen., 
1813 

Mol^, count, d. 1855 

Molesworth, sir William ; Aber- 
deen adm., 1852 

Moli&re, Fr. comic drama, 1622-73 

Molinos, 1627-96 ; quietists 

Molyneux, Mr. ; absentee, 1738 

j\Iomi3esson, Giles ; victuallers, 
1621 

Monck, visct. C. S., b. 1819; Ca- 
nada, 1 861 

Monk, general ; administi-ations, 
i66o; guards; d. 1670 

Monk, bi.shop; Gloucester, 1830 



842 



INDEX. 



Monmouth, duke of, 1685 ; rebol- 
lion, Sedgemoor, iron mask, 
Bothwell 

Monroe, Mr. ; United States, pre- 
sident, 1817-21 

Monstrelet, Eng. de, hist., d. 1453 

Montacute, mai-quess of; Man, 

1314-43 

Montagu, lord ; adnainistrations, 
1660-89 

Montagu, lady M. W. ; inocula- 
tion, 171 8 

Montague, Mrs., d. 1800; May- 
day 

Montaigne, M. de, Fr. essayist, 

1533-92 
Montalembert, comte de ; France 
Montanus; Montanists, about 171,* 

polyglot, I5S9 
Montefiore, sir Moses; Jews, 1837 
Montemolin, comte de ; Spain, 

1860-1 
Montesquieu, 1689-1755 
Monteverde ; opera, 1607 
Montfort, Simon de ; barons' war, 
commons, Kenilworth, steward, 
lord high, speaker, Lewes : killed 
at Evesham, 1265 
Montfort, Amauri de ; Albigenses, 

1208 
Montgolfier, M. ; balloons, 1782 
Iilontgomery, Mr. ; suicide, duels, 

1803 
Montgomery, comte de; tourna- 
ments, 1559 
Montholon, comte de ; will (Napo- 
leon's), 1821 
Monti, Ital. poet, 1 754-1 828 
Montpensier ; Prance, Spanish 

marriage, 1846 
Montrose, duke of ; Pittadm. 1S04, 

6. 1799; Derby adm. 1866 
Montrose, marquess of, executed, 
1650; Corbiesdale, Scotland, Al- 
ford, Philiphaugh 
Moore, abp. ; Canterbury, 1783 
Moore, murdered ; trials, 1853 
Moore, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Moore; almanac, 1698-1713 
Moore, Serjeant ; leases, 1535 
Moore, Anne ; abstinence, 1808 
Moore, sir John, k. at Coruuna, 

1809 
Moore, sir Jonas ; Greenwich 
Moore, Thos., poet, 1780-1852 
Mordaunt, Charles, viscount ; ad- 
ministrations, 1689 
More, sir Thomas, 1480-1535 ; ad- 
ministrations, 1529 ; lord chan- 
cellor, supremacy 
More, Hannah, 1745-1833 
More, Roger ; rebellion, 1651 
Moreau, general, 1763-1813 ; Ales- 
sandria, Augsburg, Wtirtemberg, 
Dresden 
Moreland, Sam., d. 1695 ; capstan, 

speaking-trumpet 
Morelh ; tourniquet, 1674 
Moreton, John, earl of; Ireland, 

1177 
Morgan ; buccaneer, 1668 
Morgan, colonel ; Lincoln 
Morgan, confederate general; U. 

States, 1862 
Morland, Geo., animal painter, 

1763-1804 
Morley, T. ; music : d. 1604 
Morning Chronicle ; trials, 1810 
Morning Herald ; trials, 1809 
Morning Post ; libel, 1792 
Mornington, lord ; India, 1798 
Morpeth, viscount (aft. earl of Car- 



lisle) ; Melbourne adm., 1835; 

Ireland, lord-lieut. 
Morris, George; flowers, 1792 
Morris, Mr. ; theatres, 1805 
Mortara, B. ; Jews, 1858 
Mortier, mar. ; Romainville, 1814 
Mortimer, B. A. ; trials, 1859 
Mortimer, earl of March; Berke- 
ley, 1327 
Morton, arch. ; Canterbury, i486 
Morton, regent of Scotland, 1572 
Morton, sir A. ; administrations, 

1628 
Morton, Thomas ; ether, 1846 
Morton; trials, 1852 
Moryson, Fynes; forks 
Mosely, Wolf, &c. ; trials, 1819 
Moses, 1571-1451 B.C. 
Mosquera, gen. ; New Granada, 

1861 
Moss, bishop ; Oxford, 1807 
Mosse, Dr. ; lying-in-hospital, 1745 
Mothe-Guyon, madame de la ; 

quietists, 1697 
Mountajgne, abp. ; York, 1628 
Mount-Sandford,lord,killed; trials, 

1828 
Mouravieff; Ears, 1855 
Mourzoufie; Constantinople, east- 
ern empire, 1204 
Mozart, W. A. ; music, 1756-91 
Mudie, C. ; circulating library, 1842 
Muirhead, J. G. ; trials, 1825 
Mulgrave, earl; Liverpool adm., 

1812 ; Ireland, lord-lieut. 
Mullens, J. ; trials, i860 
Miiller, P. ; execution, 1864 
Miiller, F. Max, 6. 1823; Vedas, 

Sanskrit, language 
Mulct, M. ; artesian well, 1841 
Mulready,AVm. ; painters, 1786-1863 
Mummius, L. ; Corinth, 146 b.c. ; 

painting 
Munich, marshal; Perekop, 1736 
Munoz, duke ; Spain, 1833 
Munro, H. ; Buxar, 1764 
Munster, earl of ; suicide, 1842 
Munzer ; levellers, anabaptists, 

1524-5 
Murat, Joachim, 1771-1815 ; Erfurt, 

Naples 
Muratori, L. ; hist., 1672-1750 
Murchison, sir Roderick I., 1792 ; 

geology, Brit. Assoc. 
Murdoch, Mr. ; gas, 1792 
Murillo, B. S., Sp. painter, 1618-82 ; 

painters 
Murray, Mr. ; penny post, 1683 
Murray, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act, 

1793 
Murray, B. ; trials, 1841 
Murray, bishop; David's, St., 1800 
Murray, sir James ; Tarragona, 

1813 
Murray, sir Geo. ; Peel adm., 1834 
Musa ; Spain, 712 
Musseus, JZ. 1413 B.C. 
Musgrave, abp. ; Hereford, 1837 
Musgrave, sir Richard ; duel, 1802 
Mushat, Mr. ; steel, 1800 
Myddelton, sir Hugh, i565?-i63i; 

New River 
Mylne, R. ; architect, 1734-1811 ; 

Blackfriars 
Myron, sculptor,,/?. 480 B.C. 
Mytton, general ; Wales, 1645 



N. 
Nabis; Sparta, 206 B.C. 



Nabonasser..^. 747 B.C. ; astronomy 
Nachimoff, admiral ; Sinope, 1853 
Nadar ; balloon, 1863 
Nadir Shah; Persia, 1732; Delhi, 

Afghanistan, Cabul 
Nahum prophesies about 713 B.C. 
Nana Sahib ; Cawnpore, India, 

1857 

Napier of Merohiston ; logarithms ; 
Napier's bones, 1614 

Napier, admiral sir C. ; Portugal, 
Sidon, Baltic, 1854 

Napier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanec, 1843 

Napier, lord ; China ; Edinburgh"; 
United States, 1856 

Napier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 

Napier, sir R., 6. 1810; Abyssinia, 
1867 ; Magdala 

Napoleon, Jerome ; p. 316 n. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, 1769-1821, 
p. 316 ; confederation, legion of 
honour, models, notables, Cairo, 
Egypt, Elba, Fontainebleau, 
Malta, Mamelukes, St. Helena, 
Simplon, vaccination : his battles : 
Acre, Areola, Asperne, Auer- 
stadt, Austerlitz, Bautzen, Boro- 
dino, Castiglione, Charleroi, 
Dresden, Eckmlihl, Essling, 
Eylau, Friedland, Hauau, Italy, 
Jena, La Rothifere, Leipsic, 
Ligny, Lodi, Lutzen, Marengo, 
Montereau, National guard, Pul- 
tusk, St. Dizier, Simplon, Tilsit, 
Troyes, Vienna, Waterloo, Wurtz- 
burg 

Napoleon, king of Rome ; France, 
p. 309, 316 

Napoleon III., 6. 1808 ; France, 
p. 316 ; Boulogne, Strasburg, 
Cherbourg, Italy, Magenta, 
Solferino 

Narses ; East, empire, 552 ; Goths, 
Italy, Rome 

Narvaez, gen. Ramon, 1800-1868 ; 
Spain, 1846 

Nash, Mr. ; theatres, parks, i8i8 

Nasmyth, J. ; steam-hammer, 1838 

Nasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 

Nasr-ul-Din ; Persia, 1848 

Nearchus ; sugar, 325 B.C. 

Nebuchadnezzar; Jews, 605 B.C., 
Tyre, Babylon 

Necho; Egypt, 634 B.C. 

Neil, col. ; India, 1857 ; AUahabad, 
Benares 

Neilson, J., 1792-1865 ; blowing- 
machine, 1828 

Nelson, Horatio, admiral lord, 
1758-1805 ; Nelson 

Nero ; Rome, emperor, 54 

Nesselrode, comte de, Russian 
statesman, 1780-1862 

Newcastle, marquess of ; Marston- 
moor, 1644 

Newcastle, duke of ; Pelham adm., 
1749; Newcastle adm., 1754; 
Aberdeen adm., 1852 

Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 

Newman, rev. J. , and Achilli ; 
trials, 1852 ; Tractarians 

Newport, sir John; exchequer, 
1834 

Newton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air, 
binomial, coin, diamond, astro- 
nomy, royal society, hydro- 
statics, gravitation, mechanics 

Ney, mar.'hal, 1769-1815 ; Denne- 
witz, France, Quartre-Bras, Ulm, 
Ney 

Neyle, archp. ; York, 1632 

Nicooli, Nicholas ; libraries, 1436 



INDEX. 



843 



Nicephori, emperors ; east, empire, 

802-963 
Nicephorus; comets 
Nicholas I., Russia, 1825-55 
Nicbolas V. ; popes, 1447-55 ;" St. 

Peter's, Rome 
Nichols, col. ; New York, 1664 
Nicholson ; trials, 1813 
Niebuhr, B. H. ; hist., 1776-1831 
NiSpce ; photography, 1814 
Niger, P. ; Rome, emp.: killed, 194 
Nightingale, F., b. 1820; Scutari, 

Nightingale 
Ninus ; Assyria, 2059 B.C. 
Nisbet, sir John ; advocates, 1685 
Noad, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 
Noah, 2347 B.C. ; ark, Armenia 
Noailles, marshal; Dettingen, 1743 
Nobel, Alf. ; nitro-glycerine, 1864 
Norfolk, Thomas, duke of ; admi- 
nistrations, 1540; people 
Noi-man, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 
Norman, Robert; magnet, 1576 
Norman by and Buckingham, duke 

of; Godolphin adm. , 1702 
Normanby, marquess of; Ireland 

(lord lieut.), 1835 
North, bishop; Winchester, 1781 
North, lord; North adm., 1770 
North, sir F. ; king's counsel, 1663 
Northampton, Henry, earl of ; ad- 
ministrations, 1609 
Northcote, sir Stafford, b. 1818 ; 

Derby adm., 1866 ; Disraeli adm., 

1868 
Northumberland, Algernon, duke 

of ; Derby administration, 1852 
Northumberland, Dudley, duke 

of; administrations, 1551 
Northumberland, Hugh, duke of ; 

Ireland (lord-heut.), 1763 
Northumberland, earl of ; coaches, 

Man 
Norton, sir Fletcher; att.-gen., 

1763 
Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 
Norton v. lord Melbom-ne ; trials, 

1836 
Nostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 
Nott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 
Nottingham, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1684 
Numa Pompilius ; Rome, kings, 

715 B.C. ; calendar 
Numitor; Alba, 795 B.C. 
Nunez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 



O. 



Oakley, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 
Gates, T. ; Oates' plot, 1678 
Obadiah prophesies about 587 B.C. 
O'Brien, king ; Limerick, 1200 
O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 
O'Connell, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1847 ; 
duels, i3i5 ; agitators, emanci- 
pation, repeal, trials (1831-1844), 
Ireland 
O'Connell, Mr. Morgan ; duels, 1835 
O'Connor, Arthur ; press, riots, 

trials, 1798 
O'Connor, Fergus, d. 1855 ; char- 
tists 
O'Connor, Roger ; trials, 1817 
Ochus ; Persia, 359 b. c. 
Octavius; Rome, 37 b c. 
Odin ; Sweden, 70 B.C. 
Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer 
Odo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 
Odoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli 



O'Donnell, marshal Leopold, 1808- 

67 ; Spain, 1841 
(Edipus; Boeotia, 1266-76 B.C. 
CKnotrus'; Arcadia, Greece, 1710B c. 
Oersted, H. C, 1777-1851 ; elec- 
tricity, 1819 
Ogle, George ; duel, 1802 
Oglethorpe, gen. : Georgia, 1732 
O'Grady, Mr. ; duels, 1803 
Ogyges ; deluge, 1764 B.C. 
O'Halloi'an, Dr. ; trials, 1818 
O'Keefe ; trials, 1825 
Gibers, M. ; planet, 1802 
Oldcastle, sir John, burnt, 141S 
Oliphant, sir Wm., advocate 
Olivarez governs Spain, 1621-43 
Oliver, L. ; trials, 1858 
Ollendorff, H. G. ; linguist, 1803-65 
OUivant, bp. ; Llandaff, 1849 
O'Loghlen, sir M. ; Roman catho- 

hcs, 1836 
Omai ; Otaheite 

Omar, caliph, 634 ; Alexandria, Ali 
Omar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro, 
01tenitza,Ingour, Russo-Turkish 
war, 1855 
Ommaney, capt. ; Franldin, 1850 
O'Moore, Rory ; Carluw, 1577 
O'Neil, rebellion ; massacre. Black- 
water, 1598 
O'Neil, Miss, appears at Covent 

Garden, 1814 
Opie, John ; painters, 1761-1807 
Oppian, poet,./?. 171 
Onslow, sir R. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
Orange, William, prince of ; Hol- 
land, Maestricht, revolution, 
1572 ; England, 1689 
Orange, prince of; Quatre-Bras, 

1815 
OrbelHana ; Circassia, 1857 
Orellana ; Amazonia, 1540 
Orestes ; Mycense, Sparta, 1175 B.C. 
OrfUa, M. J. ; physician, 1787-1853 
Orford, earl of; admiralty, 1709 
Orloff, count ; diamonds, 1772 
Ormond, James, duke of; Ireland, 

P- 396, 397 

Ormond, earl of ; combat, 1446 

Ormond, marquess of; Rathmines, 
1649 

Orr, Wm. ; trials, 1797 

Orrery, earl of ; orrery 

Orsini, Felix, 1819-58 ; France, 
1858 

Ortega, gen. ; Spain, i860 

Osborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1854 

Osborne, sir Thomas ; administra- 
tions, 1672 

Oscar ; Sweden, 1844 

Osgodeby, Adam de ; master of 
the rolls, 1295 

Ospina ; New Grenada, 1857 

Ossory, lord ; tea, 1666 

Osymandyas ; Egypt, 2100 B.C. ; 
observatories, painting 

Othman ; Turke}', 1298^ 

Otho ; Rome, emp , 69; Germany, 
936; Greece, 1832-62 

Otto, M. ; Amiens, 1802 

Ottiicar; Bohemia, 1197 

Oudinot, marshal; Rome, 1849 

Outr.im, sir James ; 1802-63 ; Mo- 
hammerah, India, 1857 

Overbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613 

Overend, Gurney, & Co. ; trials, 
1867 

Ovid ; poet, d. iS 

Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 

Owen, Robert; socialists, 1S34 

Owen, Richard, 6. 1804 ; odonto- 
graphy, palaeontology, zoology 



Oxenden, sir George ; Surat, 1664 
Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 
Oxford, earl of; Godolphin adm., 

1702 ; Oxford adm. 
Oxford, John, earl of; yeomen, 



Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 

Paddon, lieut., taKk;S Cerberc, 

1800 
Paget, lord ; duels, trials, 1809 
Paget, lord Wm., v. Cardigan; 

trials, 1844 
Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 
Paget, sir WilUam ; administra- 
tions, 1547 
Paine, 'Thomas ; trials, 1792 
Pakington, sir John, 6. 1799; Derby 

and Disraeli admin. 
Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 
Palamedes ; alphabet, backgam- 
mon, battle, dice, chess, 680 

B.C. 

Palestrina, 1529-49 ; music 
Palladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 
PalUser, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 
Palm, the bookseller ; trials, 1806 
Palm, cardinal, shot; Rome, 1848 
Palmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 
Palmer; duels, 1815; trials, 1856 
PaLmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784- 

1865 ; Palmerston 
Panizzi, Antonio; British Muse- 
um, 1859 
Panmure, lord; Russell adm., 

1851 
PaoU, Pascal ; Corsica, 1753 
Papachin, adm. ; flag, 1688 
Papin ; steam-engine, 1681 
Papineau ; Canada, 1 837 
Papirius Cursor; sun-dial, 293 B.C. 
Paracelsus, d. 1541 ; alchemy 
Pare] a, adm. ; Chili, 1865 
Parini, Guis., Ital. poet, 1729-99 
Paris, count of, 6. 1838 ; Orleans 
Park, Mungo, d. 1805 ; Africa 
Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 
Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canter- 
buiy, 1558 ; hturgy. Nag's 
Head 
Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 
Parker, capt. ; Boulogne 
Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1814 
Parker, Thomas, lord ; chancellor, 

lord, 1718 
Parkes, consul ; China, i860 
Parma, duke of; Yvres, 1590 
Parma, prince of ; Antwerp, 1585 
Parmenio ; Macedonia, 329 B.C. 
Pamell, sir Henry ; Melbourne 

adm. 1835 
Parr, Thomas; 1483-1635; longe- 
vity 
Parrhasius ; painting: fl. 397 B.C. 
Parry, E. ; north-west passage, 

1818 
Parsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 
Parsons family ; cock-lane ghost, 

impostors, 1762 
Pascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calcu- 
lating naachine, barometers 
Paskiewitch ; Silrstna, 1854 
Pasteur, M. ; fermentation, 1861 
Patch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 
Paterculus, Rom. hist., d. 31 
Paterson, W. ; bank, 1694 ; Darien 
Paton, Miss, at Haymarket, 1822 
Patrick, St., preaches, 433 ; Ar- 



844 



INDEX. 



dagh, Armagh, Dublin, isles, 
shamrock 
Patroclnio, nun ; Spain, 1861, 1866 
Patten, col. John W., b. 1802; 

Disraeli adm. 
Paul, St., martyred, 65 ; popes 
Paul, see Sarpi 
Paul I. ; Kussia, 1796 
Paul II. ; popes, 1464 ; purple 
Paul, sir J., &c. ; trials, 1855; 

fraudulent trustees 
Paullnus ; bells, 400 
Paull, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
Paululio, Anafesto : doge, 697 
Paulus JSmilius ; Cannge, 216 B.C. 
Paulus, Marcus; compass, 1260 
Paulus ; Abrahamites 
Pausanias ; Sparta, 480 B.C. ; Pla- 

taja, Macedon, 336 B.C. 
Pausias, of Sicyon, 360-330 B.C. ; 

painting 
Paxton, sir Joseph, 1803-65 ; ex- 
hibition of 1851 ; crystal palace 
Payne, Mr. G. ; duels, 1810 
Peabody, G., 6. 1795; London, 1862 
Peace, the prince of : Spain, 1806 
Pearce, <&c. ; gold robbery, 1857 
Peckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 
Pedro (Peter); Portugal, Brazil, 

1822 
Peel, captain sir P. ; India, 1858 
Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 
Peel, sir Robert ; cotton manuf . , 
1750-30 ; — (son) statesman, 1788- 
J850 ; Peel adm. (see note), 1834- 
1841 ; acts of parliament, con- 
servative, corn bill, duels, 1S15 ; 
income-tax, tariff;— ((/raMdso/i), 
b. 1822 
Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1569 
Pelham, H. ; Wilmington adm., 

1742 ; Pelham adm., 1744 
Pelham, bp. ; Bristol, 1807 ; Nor- 
wich, 1857 
Pelham, sir W. ; Engineers, 1622 
Pelissier, due de Malakhoff ; 1794- 

1864 ; Algiers, Dahra 
Pelletier ; quinine, 1S20 
Pellew, sir Ed. ; naval battles, 1795 
Pelouze, P. J., 6. 1807 ; formic acid 
Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 
Pemberton, sir Fi-ancis ; king's 

bench, 1681 
Pembroke, earl of; Godolphin 
adm. 1702 ; lord lieutenant, 
Lincoln, protectorates, Sahs- 
bury, admiralty 
Pengelly, W. ; man 
Penn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 
Penn, Wm., d. 1718 ; Pennsylva- 
nia, Quaker 
Penny, captain ; Pranklin, 1850 
P6p6, gen. F. ; Naples, 1820 
Pepin ; France, 752 ; Ferrara 
Pepys, bp ; Worcester, 1841 
Perceval, Spencer, m. 1812; Pef- 

ceval 
Percy (Hotspur) ; Otterbum, 1388 
Percy, lord; Durham, 1346; Ho- 

melden 
Pardiccas ; Macedon, 454 B.C. 
Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres, 

1779 
Pereire, M. ; cr<5dit mobilier, 1852 
Pereyra ; Uruguay, 1856 
Pericles ; Athens, 469 B.C. 
Perillus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. 
Perkin Warbeck ; Warbeck, 1492 
Perkin, W. H. ; anUine, 1857 
Perkins; engraving, copper-plate 

printing, 1819 
Perreaus ; forgery, trials, 1776 



Perrelra ; deaf and dumb 
Perring, John; mayor, 1803 
Perry, Mr. ; trials, 1810 
Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 
Persano, adm. ; Lissa, Italy, 1866-7 
Perseus ; Pydna, 168 b.c. 
Persigny, J. G., b. 1808; France, 

i860 
Persius, 34-62 ; satires 
Perugino, Paolo, 1446-1524 
Peter the Cruel ; Montiel, 1369 
Peter the Great ; 1672-1725 ; Rus- 
sia, Deptford, Petersburg, 
Narva, Pultowa 
Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 
Peters, C. H. ; planets, 1862 
Potion ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 
Peto, S. M., 1809; diorama, 1855 
Petrarch, 1304-74 ; Petrarch, son- 
nets 
Petre, sirWm. ; administrns., 1547 
Petronius ; Ethiopia, 22 B.C. 
Petronius Arbiter, d. 66 
Pettigrew, T. ; epitaphs, 1857 
Petty, lord H. ; Grenville adm., 

1807 
Petty, Wm. ; Royal Society, 1660 
Pezet, J. A. ; Peru, 1863-5 
Phsedrus writes fables, 8 
Phalaris ; brazen bull, 599 b. c. 
Pharamond ; France, 418 ? 
Pharaohs ; Egypt, 1899 B.C. \ 
Pharnaces ; Pontus, Cappadocia, 
744 B.C. 

Pheidon, fi. 869 B.C. ; coinage, 

silver, scales, weights 
Phelps, Mr. ; theatres, Sadler's 

Wells, 1844 
Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
Phidias, Ji. 43 B.C. ; statues 
Philip, D. ; France, Macedon, 

Spain, Hesse, Orleans, 1640 
Philip, St. ; Neri, oratorios, 1550 
Philip the Good ; Burgundy, Hol- 
land, 1419-67 
Philip the Great, killed 336 b.c ; 

Macedon, iEtolia, Chseronaia, 

Locri, Thessaly 
Philip II. ; Spain, 1556 
Philippa, queen (Edward III.) ; 

Dm-ham, 1346 
Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
Phillimore, sir R. J; admiralty, 

1810 
Phillip, gov. ; Australia, 1788 
Phillips, J. T. : Brit. Assoc, 1831; 

fire annihilator, 1849 
Philopoemen; Achaia, 1948.0. 
Philpott, bp. ; Worcester, 1861 
Phipps, capt. ; north-west passage, 

1773 

Phocas; east, emp., 602 

Phocion, killed 317 b.c. 

Phoroneus ; Argos (1807 B.C.), sa- 
crifice, laws 

Photius, Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 B.C. 

Piastus ; Poland, 842 

Piazzi, M. ; planet, 1801 

Pichegru ; Manheim : killed, 1805 

Piokard, sir H. ; lord mayor, 1357 

Picton, gen. ; trials, 1806 ; Quatre- 
Bras, AVaterloo, 1815 

Pierce ; United States, president, 

1853 
Piers, abp. ; York, 1589 
Pigot, David Richard ; exchequer, 

1846 
Pigot, Id. ; India, Figot diamond, 

1802 
Pigot, major-gen. ; Malta, 1800 
Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
Pilkington, bishop ; liturgy 



Pilpay ; fables 

Pindar, ab. 522-439 b.c. — Peter 
(Doctor Wolcot), 1738-1819 ; 
trials, 1807 
Pinel, M. ; lunatics, 1792 
Pinzon; America S., 1500; Peru, 

1863 
Pisander ; naval battles, 394 B.C. 
Pisistratus ; Athens, 527 b.c. 
Pitman, I. ; phonography, 1837 
Pitt; diamond, 1720 
Pitt, Wm. ; see Chatham, earl 
Pitt, Wm., 1 759-1 806; Pitt adm., 
1783; India company, E., re- 
form, duels, 1798 ; income-tax 
Pius ; popes, 142 et seq. 
Pius IV. ; confession, 1504 
Pius VII. ; concordat, 1801 
Pius IX. ; popes, and Rome, 1846; 

papal aggression, conception 
Pizarro ; America, 1524 
Plato, 429-347 B.C. ; academies, 
anatomy, antipodes, names, 
Sicily 
Platts, John ; executions, 1847 
Plautus, h. 184 B.C. ; drama 
PUny, the elder, 23-79; pearls, 
Vesuvius ;• — the younger, d. zoo 
Plowden, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1849 
Plumer, sir Thomas; att.-gen., 

1812 
Plummer, Eugenia; trials, i860 
Plunket, lord ; lord chancellor 

(Ireland), 1830 
Plutarch, jl. 80 ; biography 
Pocock, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 
Poerio, C. ; Naples ,1850-59-60 
Pogson, N. ; planets, 1856 
Poitevin, M. ; balloons, 1852-58 
Poitiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 

1089 
Pole, Wellesley ; mint, trials, 1825 
Pole, abp. ; Canterbury, 1556 
Polignac, prince de ; France, 

1830 
Polk, Jas. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 184s 
Pollio, C. ; slavery, 42 b.c. 
Pollock, gen. G. ; India, 1842 
Pollock, sir Frederick ; attorney- 
general, exchequer, 1834-1844 
Polo, Marco, writes about 12' " 



PoTybius, 207-122 (?)B.c. ; sij 
telegraphs, Achaia, physic 

Polycarp martyred, 166 

Polydorus ; Laocoon 

Pomare; Otaheite, 1799 

Pompey, killed 48 b.c. ; Rome, 
Spain, Pharsalia 

Pond, J. ; Greenvsich, 1811 

Pontius, C. ; Caudine forks, 321 

B.C. 

Poole, A. ; auricular confession, 

1858 
Pope, Alex., 1688-1744 ; Alexan- 
drine verse, satire. Homer, 1714 
Pope, gen. J. ; Manassas, United 

States, 1862 
Popham, sir Home ; Buenos Ayres, 

Cape, trials, 1S07 
Poppaia (wife of Nero) ; masks 
Porsenna; labyrinth, 520 B.C. 
Person, prof., 1759-1808; writing 
Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick 
Porteus, bp. ; London, 1787 
Portland, duke of, Portland adm., 

1783 ; Ireland (Lord heutenant), 

Junius 
Portman, sir Wm. ; king's bench, 

1554 
Portsmouth, earl of ; trials, 1823 
Porus, Hydaspes, 327 b.c 



INDEX. 



845. 



Posidonias, / . 86 B.C.; atmosphere, 

moon, tides, air 
Potamon ; eclectics, about i 
Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 
Pottinger, sir H. ; China, 1841 
Pouchet, M. ; spont. generation, 

1859 
Poussin, N. ; painters, 1594-1665 
Powell, Langharne, and Poj'er, 

colonels ; Wales, 1647 
Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
Power, Mrs. Mary; longevity, 

1853 
Powys, bishop ; Man, 1854 
Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1647 
Praslin murder, 1847 
Praxiteles, Ji. 363 B.C. ; mirrors 
Premislaus ; Poland, 1295 
Prescott, Wm. ; 1796-1859 
Pi-eston, lord ; conspiracy, i6gi 
Pretender, old, 1688-1765 ; young, 

1720-88 ; Pretender, Falkirk, 

Prestonpans, Culloden 
Pretsch, P. ; photo-gal vanography, 

1854 
Prevost, su- George ; Plattsburg, 

1814 
Priam ; Ilium, Troy, 1224 B.C. 
Price, Mr. ; duels, 1816 ; alchemy 
Price, adm. ; Petropaulovaki, 1854 
Prichard, Dr. ; 1785-1848, ethno- 
logy 
Pride, col. ; Pride's purge, 1648 
Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 
Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804; earth- 
quakes, eudiometer, nitrous gas, 

oxygen, fluorine 
Prim, gen. Juan, 6. 1814; Castel- 

lejos, Guad-el-ras, i860; Spain 
Prince, H. J. ; agapemone, 1845 
Prior, M., poet, 1664-1721 
PriscilUan ; gnostics, 384 
Pritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe- 
cution, 1865 
Probert ; trials, 1824 
Probus ; Rome, emp. 276 ; massacre 
Procles ; biarch, 1102 B.C. 
Procopius, hist. 500-65 ; Hussites, 

1431 
Propertius ; poet, 26 b. c. 
Proudhon, P. de, socialist, 1809-65 
Prynne, W. , legal antiquary. 1600-69 
Psammetichus, 650 B.C. ; Egypt, 

labyrinth, languages, sieges 
Pseusennes, 971 b.o. ; Egypt 
Ptolemy (astronomer), d. 161 
Ptolemy ; Egypt, Bible, Septua- 

gint, Ipsus, pharos, arithmetic, 

academies 
Ptolemy, Epiphanes, 205 B.C. ; 

Egypt, Rosetta 
Puckering, sir John; chancellor, 

lord high, 1592 
Pugin, A. W., 1811-52, decorat. art 
Pullen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifa.x adm., 1714 
Pulteney, sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 
Purcell, Henry ; music, 1658-95 
Purchas, Sam" ; 1577-1628 
Purdon, col. ; Ashaintees, 1826 
Purefoy; duels, 1788; trials, 1794 
Pusey, Dr. E., 6. 1800; Puseyism 
Pye, Henry J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 
Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 
PjTrho ; sceptics, 334 b.c. 
Pyrrhus ; Macedon, 287 u.c. ; Epi- 

rus, 31S-272 B c. ; Tai-entum, 

Asculum 
Pythagoras,/. 555 B.C. ; acoustics, 

astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt. 

the globe, h.arnaouic strings, 

shoes, solar system, spheres 



Quekett, prof. ; histology, 1857 
Quentin, col. ; duels, 1815; trials, 

1814 
Quevedo, Span, writer, 1580-1645 
Quintilia ; Quintilians 
Quintin ; libertines, 525 
Quintus Fabiiis, 291 B.C. ; painting 
Quiros ; New Hebrides, 1606 



R. 

Rabelais, F., satirist, 1483-1553 
Rachel, mademoiselle, d. 1858 ; 

enamelling 
Racine, J. ; dramat., 1639-99 
Radchffe, Dr. John ; Radcliffe 

library, 1737 
Radetzky, marshal, d. 1858 ; Aus- 
tria, Custozza, Novara, Italy, 
1848 
Radnor, earl of; administrations. 



igRae, Dr. ; Franklin, 1848 



aglan, lord ; Russo-Turkish war, 

1857 

Ragotski ; Transylvania 

Raikes, iMr., 1781 ; Sunday-schools, 
education, infanticide 

Raleigh, sir Walter, 1552-1618 ; 
dress, Pennsylvania, Trinidad, 
Virginia, England 

Rameses ; Egypt, 1618 

Ramirez II. ; Semincas, 938 B.C. 

Ramsay, David ; combat, 1631 

Ramsay, sir George ; duels, 1790 

Ramsden, Jesse, 1735-1800; theo- 
dolite, 1787 

Ranee ; Trappist, 1662 

Randolph, T. ; post-office, 1581 

Randolph, bp. ; Bangor, London, 
1809 

Raphael, 1483-1520; cartoons 

Raphael, Alex. ; Roman catholics, 

1834 
Rarey, J. S. ; horse, 1858 
Rassam, H. ; Abyssinia, 1864 
Ratazzi, U., 6. 1S08; Italy, 1862 
Ranch, C. ; sculptors, 1777-1857 
Ravaillac kills Henry IV., 1610 
Rawdon, lord ; Camden, 1781 
Rawlinson, col. sir H., 6. 1810 ; 

Asc^yria, BaViylon, Behistiin, 1844 
Ray, John, 1628-1705 
Rayhere ; Bartholomew's, iioo 
Raymond, lord ; attorney-general, 

1725 ; king's bench 
Reaumur, d. 1757 ; light 
Reay, Mis.s, killed ; trials, 1779 
Reay, lord ; combat, 1631 
Rebeccaites; trials, 1843 
Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
Redesdale, lord; att.-gen., 1800 
Redpath, L. ; trials, 1857 
Reece, R. ; bogs, 1849 
Reed, Andrew, 17871862; orphan, 

idiots, incurables 
Reeves, Mr. John ; levellers, 1792 
Regnier, gen. ; Kalitsch, Maida, 

Ximera, 1811 
Regulus, 250 B.C. ; Carthage 
Reich, F., and Richter, T.; indium, 

1863 
Ri'ichenbach, C. ; b. 1788 ; paraf- 

fine, 1831 ; odyl 
Reichenstein ; tellurium, 1782 
Reich.stadt, dukede ; France, p. 316 
Keid, gen. ; India, 1857 
Reiubauer; trials, 1820 
Relly, Jas. ; universalists, 1760 



Rembrandt, Paul ; p.ainters, 1608-69 
Remigius de Fescamp ; Lincoln, 

1086 
Remy, St. ; Rheims 
Renata, Maria; witchcraft, 1749 
Renaudot, M. ; newspapers, 1631 
Rennie, J. (1761-1821), and sir J. ; 
breakwater, 18 12 ; Waterloo- 
bridge, London-bridge 
Repton, Humphry, landscape gar- 
dener, 1752-1818 
Reschid Pacha ; Turkey, 1853 
Reuchlin, J., reformer, d. 1522 ; 

Talmud 
Reuss ; engraving 
Reynere, Richard ; sheriff, ii8g 
Reynolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92 ; 

royal academy, 1768 
Reynolds, abp. ; Canterbury, 1313 
Reynolds, capt. ; trials, 1840 
Reynolds, George ; duels, 1788 
Riall, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 
Ricasoli, B.,&.abt. 1S03; Italy,i86i-7 
Rice, Spring (lord Monteagle) ; 

administrations, 1834 
Rich, Richard, lord ; chancellor, 

lord, 1547 
Richard I., England, 1189; Acre, 
Ascalon, Coeur de Lion, Dieu 
et mon di-oit, laws, Oleron, navi- 
gation laws 
Richard III., i. 1485 ; Bosworth 
Richardson, sir John ; naturalist, 

1783-1865 ; Franklin 
Richardson, H.; life-boat, 1852 ; — 

Sam., 1689-1761 ; novels 
Richelieu, card., 1585-1642; France, 

1624 
Richelieu, duke of; Closterseven, 

I7S7 
Richmond, duke of ; Rockingham 
administration, 1782, &c. ; Ire- 
land, duels: 6. 181S ; Derby, 
Disraeli administrations 
Richter, J. Paul, Ger. novel., 1763- 

1825 
Ridel, Stephen, 11 89; chancellor, 

lord, Ireland 
Rider, WilUam ; silk hose 
Ridley, bp., burnt, 1555 
Riego put to death ; Spain, 1823 
Rienzi, N., ?)i. 1354; tribmie, Rome 
Riguet, M. ; tunnels 
Rinuccini, Octavio, b. 1621 ; opera 
Ripon, earl of, 1782-1859; Goderich 

administration, 1827 
Ritson, Joseph, critic, 1752-1803 
Rivers, earl, m. 1483 ; Pomfret 
Rizzio, David, m. 1566; Scotland, 

France, Naples 
Robert, duke of Normandy : 
Tinchebray, 1106; Scotland, 1306 
Robert II.; pilgrimages, 1060 
Roberts, D., R.A., 1796-1864 
Robertson, capt.; trials, 1862 
Robertson, Dr. Wm., hist., 1721-93 
Robespierre, F. M;veign of terror, 

France, 1793-4 
Robin Hood ; robbers, archery, 

1189 
Robinson, F. ; Goderich, note 
Robinson, James ; ether, 1848 
Robinson, R., 1735-90 ; indepen- 
dents 
Robinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle 

administration, 1754 
Robinson, of York, murdered ; 

trials, 1853 
Robson, W.; trials, 1856 
Rochambeau ; Yorktown, 1781 
Rochefoucauld, F. De la, philos., 
1613-80 



846 



INDEX. 



Rochester, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1679 

Eockingham, marq. of; Eooking- 
ham administrations, 1765 

Roderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 

843 
Rodney, G. ; Eustatia, 1781 
Eodolph of Hapsburg ; Austria, 

1278 
Rodolph of Nuremberg ; Wire, 

1410 
Roebuck, J. ; duel, 1835 ; Sebas- 

topol 
Roger ; Sicily, Naples, 1130 
Rogers, Jobn, burnt, 1555 
Rogers, Sam., poet, 1763-1855 
Roggewein, circumnavigator ; Eas- 
ter Island, 1722 
Rob an, card.; diamond necklace, 

17S6 
RoUin, Chas. , hist., 1661-1741 
Rolt, sir J.;att.-gen., 1866; justice 

appeal, 1867 
Remain, M.; balloons, Tc. 1785 
Romilly, sir Samuel ; criminal law, 

suicide, 1818 
Romilly, sir J., now Id.; solicitor- 
general, master of the rolls, 1851 
Romney, Geo.; painter, 1734-1802 
Romulus ; Rome, 753 B.C. ; calen- 
dar, Alba, aruspices 
Romulus Augustulus ; western 

empire, 475 
Ronalds, F. ; electric telegraph, 

1823 
Ronae, J.; kinder-garten, 1851 
Rooke, sir George; Gibraltar, 1704; 
snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Cape la 
Hogue, Cape St. Vincent, Vigo 
Roper, colonel ; duels, 178S 
Rosas ; Buenos Ayres, 1852 
Roscoe, W., hist., 1753-1831 
Rose, sir Hugh ; India, 1858 
RoselDerry, countefs of; trials, 1814 
Rosencrans, gen.; Unit. S., 1862 
Ross, sir J.; Franklin, north-west 

passage, 1848 
Ross, colonel ; duelling, 1817 
Ross, gen. ; Baltimore, Washing- 
ton, 1814 
Rosse, earl of, 1800-67 ; telescopes, 

1828 ; Royal Society, 1848 
Rosser, Mr., and Miss Darbon; 

trials, 1 841 
Rossi, count, m. 1848 ; Rome 
Rossini, G. , mus. comp., 6. 1792 
Rostopchin; Moscow, 1812 
Rothesay ; duke 
Rothschild, Anselm (the first), 

d. 1812 
Rothschild, baron ; Jews, 1S49 
Eoubiliac : sculptors, d.. 1762 
Roupell, W., M.P.; trials, 1862 
Rousseau, J. J., philos., 1712-1778 
Rowan, A. H.; trials, 1794, 1805 
Rowe, Nicholas, 1673-1718 ; poet- 
laureate, d. 171S 
Eowlandson, Thos., caricaturist, 

1756-1827 
Rowley, admiral J. ; Bourbon, 

iSio 
Roxana; Macedon, 311 B.C. 
Roxburgh, duke of, 1812 ; Boc- 
caccio 
Rozier, M.; balloons, 1783 
Rubens, P. P.; painters, 1577-1640 
Rudbeok, 01.; thoracic duct. 
Rudolph ; Austria, Germany 
Ruhmkorff's induction coil, 1851 
Runjeet Singh; Afghanistan, 1818; 

diamonds 
Rupert, prince, 1619-S2 ; engrav- 



ing, Birmingham, Edgehill, Mar- 

ston-moor, Naseby, Newark 
Ruric ; Russia, 862 
Rush, Bloomfield, the murderer; 

trials, 1849 
Ruskin, John, art critic, b. 1819 
Russell, C; suicide, 1856 
Russell, colonel ; guards, 1660 
Russell, adm. Edw.; La Hogue, 

i6g2 
Russell, J. Scott, 6. 1808 ; fires, 

steam-navigation, wave 
Russell, lord John, now earl, h. 

1792 ; Russell administration, 

note, Aberdeen, reform 
Russell, lord W., m.; trials, 1840 
Russell, W. H. ; Times, 1854, 1857, 

1861 
Ruthven, Mr.; duels, 1836 
Rutland, duke of; Ireland (lord 

lieutenant), 1784 
Ruyter, see De Reuyter 
Ryder, bp.; Gloucester, 1815 
Ryder, sir Dudley ; king's bench, 

1754 
Rvves, Mrs. : trials, 1866 1 



S. 



Sabatta, Levi, 1666 1 

Sabine, gen. Edw. ; Royal Society, 

1861 ; magnetism 
Saoheverel, Dr. ; high church 

party, 1709 
Sackville, lord George ; Minden, 

1759 
Sadleir, J.; suicide, 1856; — Dr., 

1858 
Sadler, Mr.; balloons, 1812 
Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells, 1683 
Sadler, sir Ralph; administrations, 

1540 
Safford, Mr.; planets, 1862 
Sagarelli; Apostolici, 300 
St. Arnaud, marshal ; Russo- 

Turkish war. Alma, 1854 
St. Charo ; concordance, 1247 
St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813 
St. George, Mr.; trials, 1798 
St. John, John de ; treasurer, 121 7 
St. John Long ; quack, 1830 
St. John, Henry, afterwards lord 

Bolingbroke ; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1 71 1 
St. John, O.; benevolences, 1615 
St. John, William ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1547 
St. Leonards, lord ; chancellor, 

lord high, 1852 
St. Mars, M. de ; iron mask 
St. Ruth, general ; Aughrim, 1691 
St. Vincent, earl ; admiralty, 1801 ; 

Cape St. Vincent 
Saladin, sultan, 1136-1193; Asca- 

lon, Damascus, Egypt, Syria, 

Aleppo 
Sale, lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 
Sale, sir Robert ; Moodkee, 1845 
Salisbuiy, bishop of; assay 
Salisbiny, marquess of ; Derby 

administrations, 1852, 1858 
Silisbury, Robert, earl of; admi- 
nistrations, 1603 
Salisbury, countess of ; garter 
Salisbury, earl of, 1604; coronets, 

Orleans 
Salkeld ; Delhi, 1857 
Sallo, Denis de; critics, reviews, 

1655 
Sallust, d. 34 B.C. ; Mauritania, 

Catiline 



Salnave, gen.; Hayti, 1865-8 
Palomons, D.; Jews, 1835 ; mayor 
Sa't, Titus ; alpaca, 1852 
Salvator Rosa ; painters, 1615-1673 
Salviati, Dr.; mosaic, 1861 
Salvino degli Armato ; spectacles 
Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 
Samuel rules Israel, 1140 b c. 
Sanballat ; Samaritan, 332 B.C. 
Sancho, king; Portugal, Spain, 

970 
Bancroft, abp., Canterbury, 1678; 

bishops, England 
Sanders, -will-forger; trials, 1844 
Sandwich, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1660 ; naval battles, Sole- 
bay, Aix-la-Chapelle 
Sandys ; administrations,i742,i767 
Sandys, B., abp.; York, 1577 
Sapor ; Persia, 240 
Sappho writes 611 B.C.; Sapphic 
Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 820 a. c. 
Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1623 ; thermome- 
ter, blood 
Saul, Jews, 1096 B.C.; Ammonites 
IBaumarez, sir James ; Algesii'as, 

1 801 
Saunders; trials, 1853 
Saunders, com.; Prankli , 1849 
Saunders, sir Charles ; Chatham 

administration, 1766 
Saussure, d. 1799 ; hygrometer 
Savage, John ; Babyngton's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Savage, abp.; York, 1501 
Savage, Rich., poet, i698?-i743 
Savage, W. ; printing ia colours, 

1819-22 
Savary; trials, 1825 
Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 
Savonarola, Jerome ; burnt, 1498 
Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 
Savstre, sir William ; burning 

alive, 1401 ; Lollards 
Saxe, count ; Eontenoy, 1745 
Saye and Sele, lord; administra- 
tions, 1660 
Saye, lord, beheaded, 1450; Cade 
Sayers, T. ; boxing, i860 
Scanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 
Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 
Schamyl ; Circassia, 1859 
Scheele, 1742-86 ; nitrogen, oxygen, 
prussic acid, tartaric acid, pho- 
tography, glycerine, chlorine 
Scheffer, Ary; painters, 1795-1858 
Scheibler, M. ; tonometer, 1834 
Scheiner, Chr. ; heliometer, 1625 
Soheutz ; calculating-machine, 

1857 
Schiaparelli ; planets, 1861 
Schilders, general; SUistria, 1854 
Schiller, P., poet, &c., 1 759-1805 
Schimmelpenninck ; Holland, 1805 
Schlegel, W., German writer, 

1767-184S ;— F. , 1772-1829 
Schmidt; organs, 1682 
Schoeffer, Peter ; printing, 1452 
SchOnbein, M. ; gun cotton, 1840 ; 

ozone 
Schomberg, capt. ; naval battles, 

1811 
Schomberg, duke of ; Boyne, Ire- 
land, Londonderry, Carrick- 

fergus, i68g 
Schomburgk, sir R. ; Victoria 

regia, 1838 
Sohriieder ; piano-forte, 1717 
Schrotter ; phosphorus, 1845 
Schwann ; cell theory, 1839 
Schwartz, C, missionary, d. 1798 
Schwartz, M. ; gTinpowder, 1320 



INDEX. 



847 



Schwartzenberg, prince of ; Dres- 
den, 1813 
Schwerin, marshal ; Prague, 1757 
Scipio Africanus ; honour, Nu- 

luantia, Rome, Zama, 202 b.c. 
Scott, G. Gilbert ; architect, 6.1811 
Scott, gen. Winfield, 1786-1866 ; 
Mexico, 1847 ; United States, 
1861-2. 
Scott; duelling, 1821, 1836 
Scott, Walter, 1771-1832 ; Waverley 
Scott, Dred ; United States, 1857 
Scribe, E., dramatist, il. 1861 

(tet. 80) 
Scudamore, lord ; apples 
Seabury, Samuel ; bishoprics, 17S4 
Seaforth, earl of; thistle, 1687 
Seal, J. ; trials, 1858 
Searle ; planets, 1838 
Sebacon ; Egypt, 737 B.C. 
Sebastiani, marshal ; Talavera, 

1809 
Sebert ; Westminster Abbey 
Seeker, abp. ; Canterbury, 1758 
Sefton V. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 
Sejanus, d. 31 

Selden, J., 1584-1654; seas, poet- 
laureate 
Seleucus Nicator ; Seleucides, 

Syria, omens, Ipsus, 311 b.c. 
Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 1512 
Selkirk, Alexander ; Juan Fer- 

mandez, 1705 
Sellis, the valet; suicide, 1810 
Selwyn, sir C. J., justice. Id., 1868 
Semiramis, queen ; Assyria, 

eunuchs, 2007 B.C. 
Semple ; trials, 1795, 1862 
Seneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova 
Sennacherib; A.ssyria, 710 B.C. 
Sennefelder ; lithography, 1796 
Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; 

purification, Koran 
Sertiirner, morphia, 1803 
Servetus, Michael, burnt, 1553 ; 

Unitarians, Avians, blood 
Servius TuUius ; coins, census, 

566 B c. 
Sesostris ; Egypt, 16 18 B.C. 
Setalla ; burning glasses 
Severus ; Rome ; emp. 193 ; Britain, 

Roman walls, Memphis, 202 
Sextus Pompeius ; Mylai, 36 b.c. 
Seymour, sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 
Seymour, sir M. ; China, 1856 
Seymour v. Butterworth ; trials, 

1862 
Seymour, Edward, duke of 
Somerset ; administrations, 1547 ; 
protectors, admiralty 
Seymour, lord ; duels, 1835 
Seymour, lady ; tournament, 1839 
Shad well, Thomas ; poet-laureate, 

d. 1692 
Shaftesbury, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1672 (present earl, b. iSoi) 
Shakspeare, W. , 1564-1616 ; Shak- 

speare, drama, mulberry-tree 
Shalmaneser ; Assyria, 730 b.c. 
Shai-p, A. ; circle Csqaared), 1717 
Sharp, archbp. ; Scotland, 1679 
Sharp, Granville; slavery, 1772 
Shaw, sir James ; mayor, 1805 
Shaw, sir John ; Greenock 
Sheares, the Messrs. ; trials, 1798 
Shedden v. Patrick ; trials, i860 
Sheepshanks, R. ; astronomy, 
standard, 1855 ; Sheepshanks' 
donations, 1858 
Shell, R. L. ; mint, 1846 
Shelburne, earl of ; Shelbtime ad- 
ministration, 1782 ; duel, 17S0 



Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 
Sheldon, William ; tapestry 
Shelley, Percy B., poet, 1 792-1 822 
Sheppard, Jack ; execution, 1724 
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- 
1816 ; Grenville adminstration, 
comedy, theatres 
Sheridan, Dr. ; trials, 1811 
Sherman, gen. ; United States, 

1861 
Shillibeer ; omnibuses, 1829 
Shipley ; arts, soc. of, 1754 
Shirley, bishop ; Man, 1846 
Short, bishop ; Man, St. Asaph, 

1841 
Shovel, sir Cloudesley ; Sicily, 

1707 
Shrewsbury peerage cases ; trials, 

1858, 1859 
Shrewsbury, duke of; administra- 
tions, 1714 
Shrewsbury, earl of ; Patay, 1429 ; 

Castillon, 1453 
Sibour, abp. ; France, 1857 
Sicard, abb:5 ; deaf and dumb, 1742 
Siddons, Sarah; retired, 1819 
Sidmouth, Henry Addington, vis- 
count, d. 1844 ; Addington ad- 
ministration, 1800 ; green bag, 
speaker 
Sidney, sir P., 1554-86; Algernon, 

1617-83 ; Rye house plot 
Si^yfes, abb^ ; directory, France, 

1799 
Sigismund ; Germany, Bohemia, 
Hungary, Nicopolis, Poland, 
Prussia 
Silius, ItaUcus, poet, about 25-99 
Sillim, Mr. ; trials, 1863 
Simeon the StyUte ; abstinence 
Simmons; trials, 1808 
Simnel, Lambert ; conspiracies, 

rebellion, 1846 ; Stoke 
Simon Magus; Adrianists, Simo- 

nians, 41 
Simonides ; letters, mnemonics, 

477 B.C. 
SimpUcius, St. ; collar of SS., 

1407 
Simpson, Dr. ; chloroform, 1848 
Simpson, the traveller ; suicide 

1840 
Sindercomb; conspiracy, 1756 
Singh, Runjoor; AUwal, 1846 
Sismondi, C, hist., 1773, 1842 
Sisyphus ; Corinth, 1326 B.C. 
Sixtus ; popes, 119 
Sixtus v., pope ; interdict, 1588 
Skrznecki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 

1831 
Slidell, Mr. ; United States, 1861 
Sligo, marquess of; trials, 1812 
Sloane, sir Hans, 1660-1752 : apo- 
thecary, Jesuit's bark, British 
Museum, Chelsea 
Sloanes ; trials, 1851 
Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856 
Smart; chimneys, 1805 
Smeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal, 

1759 
Smeaton, sir John ; Wigan, 1643 
Smethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 
Smirke, R. ; post-office, 1825 
Smirke, S. ; Bethlehem, British 

Museum 
Smith, sir Harry ; India, Aliwal, 

Kaffraria, 1850 
Smith, Joseph ; savings' banks, 

Mormonites, 1823 
Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 
Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor, 



Smith, Miss v. earl Ferrers ; trials, 

1846 
Smith, Adam , 1723-90 ; political 

economy, 1776 
Smith, sir J. E. ; botanist, 1759- 

1828 
Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 
Smith, Dr. R. Angus ; air, 1858 
Smith, Dr. Southwood, 1790-1861 ; 

sanitary legislation, 1832 
Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; exchequer, 

trials, 1841 
Smith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858 
Smith, rev. Sydney, 1769-1845 
Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843 
Smith, sir C. Eardley ; evangeUcal 

alliance, 1845 
Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799 
Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
Smith, J. ; bribery, trials, 1854 
Smith, and Markham, captains ; 

duels, trials, 1830 
Smith, Wm. ; geology, d. 1840 
Smithson, J. ; Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, 1846 
Smollett, Tobias, novelist, 1721-77 
Smyth (will case) ; trials. 1855 
Smyth, W. H., astron., 1788-65 
Snellius ; optics, 1624 
Snider, Jacob, d. 1866 ; fire-arms 
Snow, Dr. ; amylene, 1856 
Soames ; cocoa-nut tree oil, 1829 
Soane, sir J., architect, 1753- 

1837 
Sobieski, John ; Poland, Cossacks, 

Hungary, Vienna 
Sobrero, nitro-glycerine, 1847 
Socinus, Ltelius {d. 1562), and 

Paustus (rf. 1604) ; anti-trini- 

tarians, arians, unitarians 
Socrates, 468-399 u.c. ; Athens, 

philosophy 
Solomon ; Jerusalem, 1004 B.C. 
Solon ; Athens, 594 b.c; laws, tax 
Solyman ; Turkey, Belgrade, 

Vienna, 1529 
Solyman II. ; Hungary, Buda, 

Mohatz, 1526 
Somers, lord ; administrations, 

1690; corn 
Somers', sir George ; Bermudas, 

i6og 
Somerset the black declared free, 

1772 ; slavery in England, note 
Somerset, see Se>/mour ; admiralty, 

1859 

Sophia, princess; Hanover, 1659 

Sophia Dorothea, d. 1796 ; Eng- 
land, queens (Geo. I.) 

Sophocles, 495-405 B.C. ; tragedy, 
drama 

Sorel, Agnes; jewellery, 1434 

Soro, Zuan ; cipher, 1516 

Sostratus ; pharos, 280 b.c. 

Soto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana, 
1541 

Soult, mar3hal,i769-i85i; Albuera, 
Oporto, Orthes, Pyrenees, 
Tarbes, Toulouse, VOla Franca, 
Douro 

Southey, Rob., 1 774-1843 ; poet- 
laureate 

Soyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 

Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 

Sparks, George ; trials, 1853 

Speke, capt., 1827-64 ; Africa, 
1863-4; — J^-; London, 1868 

Speilman, sir John; paper-making, 
Dartford, 1590 

Spencer, earl ; Grenville admin., 
1806 ; Roxburghe club 

Spencer, Mr. : electrotype, 1837 



848 



INDEX. 



Spener, Phil. J.; theolog. 1635-1705 ; 

pietists 
Spenser, E., 1553-98 ; allegory, 

poet-laureate, verse 
Spert, sir Thos. ; . Trinity-house, 

1512 
Spina, Alexander de; spectacles, 

1285 
Spinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism 
Spohr, L., mus. comp., 1783-1859 

oUen, Jas. ; trials, 1857 
Spurgeon, C. H., 6. 1834; Surrey 

gardens, crystal palace, taber- 
nacle 
Spurzheim, J. G. ; craniology, 1800 
Stackpole, captain ; duel, 1814 
Stackpoles, trials ; 1853 
Stael, mad. de, novelist, c^. 1817 
Stafford, archb. ; Canterbury, 1443 
Stafford, lord ; popish plot, 1680 
Stafford, marquess of, d. 1803 ; 

Bloomsbury 
Staines, sir William ; lord mayor, 

1800 
Stair, earl of ; Glencoe, 1692 ; 

Dettingen, 1743 
Staite ; electric light, 1848 
Stalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 

1857 
Stanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 
Stanhope, earl ; Halifax adminis- 
trations, 1 714 
Stanhope, Charles, earl, 1753-1816 ; 
printing-press ; — present earl 
(before, lord Mahon, the his- 
torian), 6. 1805 
Stanhope, col. ; trials, 1816 
Stanhope, hon. col. ; suicide, 1825 
Stanhope, Ueut.-gen. ; Minorca, 

1708 
Stanislaus ; Poland, 1704 
Stanley, bishop ; Norwich, 1837 
Stanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 
Stanley, sir W. ; chamberlain ; 

Bosworth, 1485 
Stanley, lord; see Derby 
Stanley, lord, of Alderley, &. 1802 ; 

Aberdeen, Palmerston admin. 
Stanley, Edw., lord, 6. 1826; Der- 
by, Disraeli admins. 
Stapleton, J. ; ti'ials, 1858 
Stapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, 

1319 

Statins, Lat. poet, fl. 79 
Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 
Steele, sir R., 1671-1729 ; Tatler, 

Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club 
Steele, Mr.; murdered, trials, 1807 
Steenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 
Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 

1853 
Stephen; popes, England, Hun- 
gary, 997 ; Poland 
Stephens, Miss ; theatres, 1813 
Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 
Stepihenson, George, 1781-1848 ; 

railways, Chatmoss 
Stephenson, Robert, 1803-59 : tu- 
bular bridges 
Stemo, Laurence, humourist, 

1713-68 
Sternhold, T. ; Psalms, 1555 
Stesichorus ; choruses, 556 B.C. 
Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 
Stewai-t, gen. ; Madras, 1783 
Stewart, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
Stewart, Dugald, philosopher, 

1753-1828 
Stewart, Duncan ; Cesarean 
Stewarts ; trials, iS.^.g 
Stifelius; algebrx, 1544 



Stigand, abp. ; Canterbury, 1052 
Stillingfleet, B. ; blue-stocking 
Stock, Dr. ; Sunday-schools, 1781 
Stookdale ; trials, 1826 
Stoddart, JDr. ; Times, 1812 
Stopford, adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 
Storace, madame, d. 1814 
Storck ; levellers, anabaptists, 1524 
Storks, H. ; Ionian Isles, 1859 
Stormont, vise; Portland admin., 

1783 
Strabo, geog., writes, 14 
Strachan, admiral sir Richard ; 

Havre, Walchercn, 1809 
Straduarius; viol, 1700-22 
Strafford, lord, beheaded, 1641 
Strafford, earl ; admiralty, 1712 
Strangford, lord, bribery, 17S4 
Stratford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1333 
Stratford deRedoliffe, lord, b. 1788 
Strevens, Mr. ; trials, 1857 
Strickland, I3ugh ; nat. hist. , 

1811-S3 
Stromeyer ; clubfoot, 1831 
Strongbow ; Ireland, 1176 
Struensee, count; Zell, 1772 
Strutt, Edw.; Aberdeen adm., 1852 
Struve, P., astron., 1793-1864 
Strzelecki, A. ; Australia, 1840 
Stuart, Alexander; marquess 
Stuart, conf. gen. ; United States, 

1862 
Stuart, gen. ; Cuddalore, 1783 
Stuart, sir John ; Maida, 1806 
Stukeley, Dr. ; earthquakes 
Sturmius ; magnet 
Sturt, capt.; South Australia, 1830 
Succoth(St. Patrick), preaches,433 
Suchet, marshal ; Valencia, 1812 
Sudbury, abp. ; Canterbury,i375 
Sue, Eug., Fr. novelist, 1804-57 
Suetonius, C. T., hist., writes, 

118 
Suetonius Paulinus ; Menai, 61 
Suffolk, Thomas, earl of ; adminis- 
trations, 1540 
Suffrein, Thos. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Sugden, sir Edward (afterwards 

lord St. Leonards); chancellor, 

lord, 1852 
Suisse, Nicholas ; trials, 1842 
Sullivan, Mr. ; Lima, 1S57 
Sulpicius, Servius ; civil law, code, 

S3 B.C. 
Sumner, archbp. ; Chester, 1828 ; 

Canterbury, 1848 
Sumner, bishop ; Llandaff, 1826 ; 

Winchester, 1827 
Sumner, C. ; United States, 1856 
Sunderland, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1684 
Surajah Dowlah ; Black-hole, 

India, Plassey, 1757 
Surrey, earl of; Flodden, 1513 ; 

Roman catholics, 1829 
Susarion and Dolon; comedy, 

562 B.C. 
Sussex, Aug. Fred., 1773-1843 ; 

marriage, 1793 ; Royal Society 
Sutter, capt. ; California, 1847 
Sutton ; air-pipe, 1756 
Sutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1805 
Sutton, C. M. ; speaker, 1817 
Sutton, Thos. ; Charter-house, 161 1 
Suwarrow, marshal, 1730-1800 ; 

Alessandria, Ismael,Novi, Parma, 

Poland, Praga, Warsaw, Trebia, 

1799 
Swan, Mr., M.P. ; bribery, 1819 
Sweyn ; Denmark, 9S5 ; England 
Swift, dean J. .1667-1745 ; Drapier 
Swynfen ; trials 1858 



Sydenham, Floyer, d. 1788 ; literary 
fund 

Sydenham, lord ; Melbourne ad- 
ministration, 1834 

Sydenham, Thos , physic, 1624-89 

Sydney, Henry, viscount ; Ireland, 
lord lieutenant, 1690 

Sydney, see Sidnei/ 

Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; 
bribery, 1776 

Sylla ; Rome, Athens, 86 B.C. 

Symington; steam-engine, 1789 

Symonds, rev. Symon ; Bray,. 
1533-58 



Tacitus, M. C, hist., about 62-117 ;. 

Rome, emp., 275 
Tait, bp. ; London, 1856 
Talbot, Miss Augusta ; trials, 1851 
Talbot, H. F. ; photography, calo- 

type, &c., 1840 
Talfourd, sir T. N., poet, judge ; 

1795-1854 
Tallard, marishal; Blenheim, 1704 
Talleyrand, 1754-1838 ; Benevento 
Tallis, Thos., musician, d. 1585 
Talma, actor, d. 1826 
Tamerlane, d. 1405 ; India, Damas- 
cus, Tamerlane 
Tandemus ; Adamite 
Tankerville, Ford, earl of ; admi- 
nistrations, 1699 
Tantia Topee ; India, 1857 
Tarquin; Rome, kings, Sibylline 

books 
Tarquinius Priscus ; cloaca, 588B.C. 
Tasman, Abel ; circumnavigator, 

Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand, 

Van Diemen's Land 
Tasso, Torquato; poet, 1544-95 
Tate, Nahum, d. 1715 ; poet-laureate 
Tatian, about 170; aquarians, 

encratites 
Tattersall, R. ; races, 1766 
Taurosthenes ; parrier-pigeons 
Tavemier ; pearls, 1633 
Taw ell, John; trials, 1845 
Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 
Taylor, gen. Zachary ; presidents. 

United States, 1849 
Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 
Taylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics, 1714 
Taylor, rev. Robert; atheism, 

trials, 1827, 1831 
Taylor, rev. W. ; blind, bells, 1855-6 
Teba, countess ; (empress) France, 

1853 
Tekeli ; Hungary, revolts, 1676 
Teleki ; Austria, i860 ; Hungary, 

1861 
Telesphoms ; Lent, 130 
Telford, T. ; chain-bridges, 1819 
Tell, William; Switzerland, 1307 
Tempel; planets, 1861 
Temple, earl; Newcastle admin., 

1757 
Teniers, D. (two), 1582-1694 
Tenison, abp. ; Canterbury, 1694 
Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 
Tenniel, John, 6, 1S20 ; Punch 
Tennyson, Alfred, b. 1809 ; poet- 
laureate 
Tenterden, lord; king's bench, 

1818 
Terence, 195-159 B.C. ; drama 
Terentius Varro; Cannre, 216 B.C. 
Tertullian writes 197 ; cross, 

Montanists ■ 
Teucer ; Troy, 1502 B.C.- 
Teynham, lord ; trials, 1833 



INDEX. 



849 



Thackeray, W. M., novelist, 1811-63 
Thales, Miletus ; globe, 640 b.c. 

Ionic sect. , moon, water, world 
Thalestris ; queens 
Thanet, earl of ; riots, 1799 
Theola ; Alexandrine codex 
Theraistocles ; Mai-athon, Salamis, 

^&o B. c. 
Theobald ; civil law, 11 38 
Theocritus; verse, 265 b c. 
Theodore; Corsica, 1736; Samos, 

keys, lathe 
Theodore, emperor, Abyssinia, 

1855-68 ; Magdala 
Theodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 
Theodosius ; Eastern emp. , 379 ; 

Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massacre, 

paganism 
Theodosius, the younger; acade- 
mies, Bologna 
Theopbilus ; Antioch, chronology 
Theophrastus, nat.ph., 370-287 b c. 
Theopompus ; Ephori, funeral ora- 
tions, Sparta, 353 B.C. 
Theseus ; Athens, 1235 B.C. 
Thesiger, sir F. ; solicitor-general, 

1844 ; attorney-general, chanc, 

lord high, 1858 ; trials, 1850 
Thespis ; drama, 536 B.C. 
Thevenot, M. ; coffee, 1662 
Thierry ; Holland, 936 
Thiers, M., 6. 1798; France, 1836 
Thirleby; Westminster, 1541 
Thirlwall, bp. ; St. David's, 1840 
Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 
Thompson, Miss ; trials, 1821 
Thompson, major; suic'de, 1832 
Thompson, William ; lord mayor, 

1828 
Thomson, Mr. Poulett; Melbourne 

administration, 1835 ; calico 
Thomson, Jas. (the "Seasons"), 

1700-48 ; Kichmond 
Thornton, Abraham; appeal, 1817 
Thorpe, William de; bribery, 1351 
Thorpe, John T. ; lord mayor, 1820 
Thorwaldsen, Alb., sculp., 1777- 

1844 
Thoth; mythology, 152 B.C. 
Thrasybulus ; Athens, 403 B.C. 
Thucydides, Gr. hist., 470-404 B.C. 
Thurlow, lord ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1778 ; great seal 
Thurtell, J. ; executions, 1824 
Thwaites, sir John, &. 1815 ; metro. 

board of works 
Thyra, Dannawerke 
Tiberius, 903 B.C. ; Capri, Rome, 

emp. 14 
Tiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law, 

132 B.C. 
TibuUus, Lat. poet, 50-18 B.C. 
Tieck, L., Ger. poet, 1773-1S53 
Tiemey, George ; duel, 1798 ; Go- 

derich 
Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
Tigranes ; Armenia, 93 b c. ; Pon- 

tus 
Tildesley, sir Thomas ; Wigan, 1651 
Tilloch, Mr. ; stereotype 
TiUotson, abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; 

universaUsts 
Tilly ; Magdeburg, 1631 ; Palati- 
nate, Lech 
Times newspaper; Times, trials, 

1790 
Timoleon; Syracuse, 343 B.C. 
Timour; see Tamerlane 
Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible, 1526 
Tippoo Sahib ; Madras, Seringa- 

patam, Mysore, 1792 
Titian, painter, 1477-1576 



Titus, Borne, emp. 79 ; Jerusalem, 

Tyre, arches 
Tofts, Mary ; impostor, 1726 
Toler, Mr. ; »«., trials, 1853 
Tolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko, 

1812 
Tolmidas ; Coronea, 447 b.c. 
Tomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester, 

1820 
Tom Thumb ; dwarfs, 1846 
Tone, Theobald W. ; trials, 1798 
Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 
Tonti, Laurence ; tontines 
Tooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 
Tooke, W. ; prices 
Torrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 
Torrens, lieut. ; duel, 1806 
Torres ; Australasia, i6o5 
Torricelli ; d. 1647 ; air, micro- 
scopes 
Torrington, Herbert, lord ; Wal- 
pole admin., 1727 
j Totila ; Italy, 541 
! Toussaint, 1794; Hayti, St. Do- 
I mingo 
Tower, Mr. ; volunteer in 1803 and 

i860 
Townley, G. V. ; trials, 1863 
Townshend, lord; duel, 1773 ; Ire- 
land 
Townshends; Rockingham, Chat- 
ham, and Grafton admins., 

1765-7 
Train, G. F. ; street railways, i860 ; 

Ireland, 1868 
Trajan ; Rome, emp., 98 ; Trajan's 

pillar, Dacia 
Trauo-ott, R. ; Poland, 1864 
Travers, Samuel; poor knights of 

Windsor 
Treby, George ; Walpole, 1721 
Tresylian ; king's bench 
Trevelyan, C. ; Madras, 1859-60 
Trevethick ; steam engine, 1802 
Trevor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 
Troas; Troy, 1374 B.C. 
Troubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
True Sun, prop, of; trials, 1834 
Truman, Hanbury, & Co. ; porter, 

1815 
Truro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 
Truxo, Louisa; longevity, 1780 
Tucker, E. ; vine disease, 1845 
Tnckett, capt. Harvey ; duel, 1840 
Tuite, murderer; trials, 1813 
Take, W. ; hmatics, 1792 
TuU, William ; posting 
TuUoch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
TuUus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia 
Tunstall, bp. ; administrations, 

1529; arithmetic, privy seal 
Turenne, marshal, 1611-75 
Turnbull, W. B. ; trials, 1861 
Turner, J. W., 1775-1851 
Turner, Miss ; trials, 1827 
Turner, Richard; teetotaller, 1831 
Turner, Sydney ; reformatory 

schools, 1849 
Turner ; trials, 1817 
Turpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 818 
Turton, bishop ; Ely, 1845 
Tusser ; agriculture, 1562 
Tyce, John ; tafltety, 1598 
T3-cho Brahe, 1546-1601 ; astro- 
nomy, platonic j'ear, globe 
Tyler, John ; United States' presi- 
dent, 1841 
Tyler, Wat ; killed, 1381 
Tyndal, Wm. ; martyred, 1536 
Tynd.ill, J.; Roy. Inst., 1853; 
magnetism, Mont Blanc, 1857 ; 
calorescence, sound 



Tyndarus ; Sparti, 1490 B.C. 
Tyrconnel, earl of ; Ireland, 1687 
Tyrone ; rebellion, 1599 
Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 
epithalamium, 536 b.c. 

U. 

Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 

Ulfilas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 

Ulloa, Antonio ; platinum, 1741 

Ulpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228 

Ulysses ; Trojan war 

Upton, colonel ; Sebastopol, 1830 

Urban ; popes, 223 

Urban II. ; communion, crusades, 

1094 
Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence," 

1630 
Ursiila, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, 

IS37 
Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614 



Valens ; eastern empire, western 

empire, 364 
Valentia, lord ; duel, 1798 ; trials, 

1796 
Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 
Valentinian ; western empire, 364 
Valerian ; persecutions, 257 
Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 
Yallifere, madame dela; midwifery, 

1663 
Valverde, gen. ; Hayti, 1858 
Van Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 
Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726, Cla- 
rendon printing office, opera 
Van Buren (president); United 

States, 1837 
Vancouver; north-west passage, 

Vancouver, 1790 
Vander Heyden ; fire engines, 1663 
Vandyck, painter, 1599-1641 
Vane, sii- Henry ; administrations, 

1640 
Van Eyck ; painting, 1366 
Van Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 
Van Leyden ; engraving on wood, 

1497 
Van Marum ; electricity, 1785 
Van Mildert, bishop; Llandaff, 

Durham, 1826 
Vansittart, Nicholas ; Liverpool 

adm., 1812 
Van Tromp ; Holland, naval bat- 
tles, Portland Isle, 1653 
Varole, M. ; optics, 1538 
Varro ; writes "de Re Rustica," 
37 B.c ; grammarians, illumi- 
nated books 
Varus, Alfrenus; civil law, 66 B.C.; 

code, digest 
Vasali, or Basil ; Russia, 1270 
VascodeGama; Cape, 1497; India 
Vattel, E. de ; publicist, 1714-67 
Vauban, S., 1633-1707, fortifica- 
tions, Cherbourg 
Vaughan, sir Thos. ; Pomfret, 1483 
V.axighan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, 1816 
Vauquelin : chromium, glucinum, 

1798 
Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall, 1615 
Vega, G. de, 1503-36— Lope de, 

1562-1635, poets 
Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660 ; 

Cuba, 1511 
Venables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1S25 
Venner, T.; anabaptists, 1661 
3 I 



850 



INDEX. 



\ ere-street gang ; trials, 1816 
Vergemies, M. de ; notables, 1788 
Vermandois, comat de ; iron mask 
Vermuydeu, Cornelius; levels, 1621 
Vernet, 1714-89; 110^x06,1789-1863; 

painters 
Vernon, adm. ; gTog, Portobello, 

1739 

Vernon, abp. ; York, 1808 

Verres ; Sicily, 70 B.C. 

Verrocchio, Andrea ; plaster, 1466 

Vesaliiis ; anatomy, surgery, 1538 

Vespasian ; Rome, emp. 69 ; am- 
phitheatres. Coliseum, Bhodes 

Vespucius, Americus, 1498 

Victor Amadeus ; Sardinia, 1630 

Victor Emmanuel, 6. 1820 ; Sar- 
dinia, 1849 • Italy, i860 

Victor, marshal ; Talavera, 1809 ; 
Barrosa, Witepsk 

Victor; pope, 193 

Victoria, queen, b. 1819 ; England, 
Scotland, Ireland, India 

Victory, Espartero, duke of ; Spain, 
1840 

Vidil, baron de; trials, i86t 

Vieta, Francis ; algebra, 1590 

Vigilius ; pope, 537 

Villars, marshal ; Malplaquet, 1709 

Villeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 

Villeroy, marshal; Brussels, 1695; 
Bamilies, 1706 

Villiers, sir George ; administra- 
tions, 1615 

Villiers, bp. ; Durham, i860 

Vincent de Paxil, 1576-1660; sisters 
of charity 

Vincent, B., Boyal Inst, library 
catalogue, 1857 ; Bible index, 
1848 

Vincent, H. ; chartists 

Virgil, 70-19 B.C. 

Virginia ; killed, 449 B.C. 

Vitalianus ; pope, 537 

Vitellius, Bome, emp. 69 

Vitruvius ; abt. 27 B.C. ; ink 

Vivier ; trials, 1842 

Volta, Alex., 1745-1826; electricity, 
Volta 

Voltaire, P. M. A. de ; 1694-1778, 
miscel. 

Von Euchs, Dr., d. 1856; water- 
glass, stereoohromy 

Vortigem ; Wales, 447 

Voss, poet, 1751-1826 

Vyse, Mrs. A. ; trials, 1862 . 



W. 

Waddington ; trials, 1820 
Wager, C. ; admiralty, 1733 
Waghorn, lieut., 1800-50; Waghorn 
Waithman, Roberb ; lord mayor, 

1823 ; obeUsk, bank 
Wake, abp. ; Canterbury, 17:5 
Wakefield, Eliz. ; savings' banks, 

1804 
Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon ; marriages, 

S. Austi'alia, trials, 1827 
Wakley, T., Lancet, 1823 
Waldegrave, earl of; trials, 1841 
Waldegrave, bp. ; Carlisle, i860 
Waldemar ; Denmark, 1157 
Walden, abp. ; Canterbury, 1398 
Wales, George, prince of, v. Times: 

trials, 1790 ; regency 
Walker, Mr. ; Vauxhall, congela- 
tion, ice, 1782 
Walker, George ; Londonderry, 
Eoyne, 1689 



Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nica- 
ragua, 1855, exec, i860 
Wall, governor; trials, iSoz, Goree 
Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 
Wall, Jas. ; copying-machine 
Wallace, sir W. ; exec, 1305 ; Fal- 
kirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 
Wallaces ; trials, 1841 
Wallenstein, Albert, general, 1583- 

1634; Mecklenburg 
Waller, sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 
Wallis, circumnavigator; Otaheite, 

Wallis, 1766 
Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 
Walpole, sir Bobert, 1676-1745 ; 

Walpole adm. ; sinking fund 
Walpole, Spencer-Horatio, 6. 1806; 

Derby adnainis., 1852-66 
Walsh, Mrs.: murdered, trials, 1832 
Walsh, Nicholas; printing, 1571 
Walsingham, lord ; attorney-gen., 

1766 
Walsingham, sir Francis ; adminis- 
trations, 1587 
Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 
Walter, J., 1739-1812; Times, 1785 
Waltheof ; beheading, 1076 
Walton, Brian, 1600-61 ; polyglot 
Walton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling 
Walworth; Blaokheath, mace, 1381 
Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, 

1852 
Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 
Ward, N. B. ; aquarium. Ward's 

cases, 1829 
Wardle, colonel ; impeachment, 
Wardle -y. duke of York; trials, 
1809 
Warenne, earl of ; Dunbar, 1296 
Warham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503; 

administrations, 1509 
Warington, E. ; aquarium, 1850 
Warner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatres 
Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 
Warren, admiral sir JohnBorlace ; 

naval battles, 1798 
Warrington gang ; trials, 1806 
Warton, Thomas ; poet laureate, 

1785 
Warwick, earl of; Bftrnet, St. 

Albans, Wakefield, 1460 
Warwick, John Dudley, earl of; 

administrations, 1551 
Washington, George, 1732-99 ; 
United States, York Town, Vir- 
ginia 
Wason, Rigby; trial, 1867 
Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1782- 

1865 
Wathen, captain ; trials, 1834 
Watson, admiral; India, 1756 
Watson, bishop; Llandaff, 1782 
Watson, sir Wm. ; electricity, 1740 ; 
lightning conductor ; trials, 
1817 
Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 
Watt, Jas., 1736-1819 : steam en- 
gine 
Watteau, Ant., French painter, 

1684-1721 
Watts, Isaac, 1674-1748 ; hymns 
Watts ; theatres, trials, 1859 ; 

suicide 
Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1766 
Weare, Mr. ; triils, 1824 
Weathershed, abp. ; Canterbury, 

1229 
Webbe, Sam., music, 1740-1817 
Weber, Carl von, 1786-1826; music 
Webster, Daniel, d. 1852; United 

States 
Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 



Webster, sir Godfrey; trials, 

1797 
Wedgwood, Josiah, 1730-95: earth- 
enware, Wedgwood (porcelain) 
Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 
Weld, Mr. ; trappists 
Wellesley, sir A. ; see Wellington 
Wellesley, marquess ; India, 1798 
Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828 
Wellesley, Pole, v. Misses Long 

trials, 1825 
Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 

V. Mornington, trials, 1868 
Wellington, duke of, 1769-1852 
Wellington ; commander-in- 

chief, duels, 1829 ; trials, 1830 
Wells, W. ; dew, 1814 
Wells, lord Lyon; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1438 
Wensleydale, lord ; peers, 1857 
Werner, A. G., 1750-1817 ; geology, 

1775 
Wesley, J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyans 
West, Benj., 1738-1820; Boyal 

Academy, 1792 
Westbury, lord chancellor; Pal- 

merston adm., 1861 
Westerton v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 
Westmacott, sir R., 1775-1856 
Westmeath, lord ; trials, 1796 
Westmorland, earl of ; Ireland 

(lord-lieut.), 1790 
Weston, Ricliard lord ; adminis- 
trations, 1628 
Wetherell, sir Chas. ; attorney- 
gen., 1826 ; Bristol 
Wetherell, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1845 
Weylaud, Thomas de; bribery, 

1288 
Weymouth ; North- West passage, 

1602 
Weymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm., 

1767 
Wharncliflfe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834 
Wharton, Thomas, marquess of; 

Halifax adm., 1714 
Wharton, Miss ; marriages, 1690 
Whately, abp. R., 1787-1863 ; 

logic, isc. 
Wheatstone, C. , h. 1802; stereo- 
scope, electricity, 1834 ; electric 
telegi'aph, and clock 
Wheeler, sir Hugh; Cawupore, 

1857 
Whewell, W., philosopher, 6. 1795 
Whiston, W., theol., d. 1752 
Whitbread, Samuel ; suicide, 1815 
White, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 
White, Thos., Sion College, 1623 
Whitefield, G., 1714-70; Whitefield, 

Wesleyans, 1741 
Whitehead, W., 0!. 1785 ; poet lau- 
reate 
Whitelock, gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 

1807 
Wlaitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 1583 
Whitney, Eli ; cotton, 1793 
Whittington ; lord mayor, 1405 
Whittlesey, archbp. ; Canterbury, 

1368 
Whitworth, Mr. ; cannon, Shoe- 

buryness, 1862 ; Whitworth 
Whitworth, earl ; Ireland, 1813 
Whyte, maj.-gen. ; Demerara, 1796 
Wickham, William of, 1324-1405 ; 

education, Oxford, Winchester 
Wickliffe, John, b. 1324 ; WickUff- 

ites, Bible 
Wieland, C. ; Germ, miscel., 1733- 

1813 
Wigram, bp. ; Eochester, i860 
Wilberforce, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 



INDEX. 



851 



Wilbei-force, W., 17591833; slave- 
trade 
Wild, Jonathan; executed, 1725 
Wilde, sir James, b. 1816 ; probate 

court, 1863 
Wilfride, bp. ; Chicb ester, 673 
Wilkes, capt. ; circumnavigation, 

1S38 ; United States, 1861 
Wilkes, John ; Nortli Briton, 
obeUsk, warrants ; Wilkes, duel, 
1763 ; trials, 1764 
Wilkie, sir D., painter, 1785-1841 
Wilkins, Dr. ; Wadham, 1613 
Wilkinson, Catherine ; baths, 1832 
William I., 1066 ; England, Battel- 
abbey, conquest, Domesday, 
castles 
WiUiam II. ; England, 10S7 
William 111. ; England, 1689, revo- 
lution. Boyne, Enghien, Je 
maintiendrai, New Forest 
William IV. ; England, kings, 1830; 

admiral 
William ; Holland, Scotland 
Williams, Ann ; trials, 1753 
Williams, David, d. 1816; literary 

fund 
Williams, John, dean ; admiinistra- 

tions, 1621 
Williams ; see Burlcing 
Williams, Roger ; America, 1635 
Williams, gen. W. P.; Kars, 1855 
Williamson, sir Joseph; adminis- 
trations, 1629 
Willoughby, sir Hugh; north-west 

passage, 1553 
Willoughby de Eresby, lord ; 

chamberlain, lord great, 1626 
Willoughby, lieut.; Delhi, 1857 
Wills, gen.; Pre.«ton, 1715 
Wilmington, earl of ; Wilmington 

adm., 1742 
Wilson, capt.; Pelew Islands, 1783 
Wilson, sir A.; Delhi, 1857 
Wilson, H. H.; Sanskrit prof essor, 

1832 
Wilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 
Wilson, prof. John, 1785-1854 
Wilson, Mrs. C; poisoning, trials, 

1862 
Wilson, capt. W.; United States, 

1862, note 
Wilton, earl of ; trials, 1859 
Winchelsey, abp. ; Canterbury, 

1293 
Winchester, gen. ; Frenchtown, 

1813 
Winchester, Henry ; mayor, lord, 

1834 
Winchester, Wm., marquess of, 

administrations, 1554 
Winchilsea, earl of ; duel, 1829 
Winchilsea, earl of; Wilmington 

adm., 1742; Bath adm., 1746 
Windebank, sir Francis ; adminis- 
trations, 1635 
Windham, general ; India, 1857 
Windham, W. P.; trials, 1861-2 
Windham, Wm.; GrenviUe adm., 

1806 
Windischgratz, prince ; Vienna, 

1848 
Winsor, Charlotte ; trials, 1865 



Winstanley ; Eddystone, 1696 
Winwood, sir Ralph ; admmistra- 

tions, 1612 
Winzengerode, gen.; Kalisch, 1813 
Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802- 

65 ; ecclesiastical titles, papal 

aggression, Rome, Ireland, 1858 
Witts, De; massacred, 1672 
Withers, Dr.; libel, 1789 
Witherings, Thomas ; post-ofiSce, 

1631 
Witherington, W., painter, 17S6- 

1865 
Withing, Richard ; Glastonbury, 

1 539 
Witiktnd(Saxon chief), d. after 793 
Wittgenstein, general ; Polotsk, 

Witepsk, 1812 
Wodehouse, lord ; Ireland (lord- 

lieut), 1864 
Woden ; Wednesday 
Wohler, F.; aluminium, 1827 
AVolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; 

trials, 1807 
Wolfe, gen.; Quebec, 1759 
Wolfius ; anemometer, 1709 
WoUaston, Wm., 1766-1828; cryo- 
phorus, camera, blow pipe, pal- 
ladium, rhodium, hypsometer 
Wolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 
Wolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530 ; ad- 
ministrations, 1514; Hampton, 
AVhitehall, York 
Wood, sir Charles (aft. lord Hali- 
fax) ; Russell adm., 1846; Pal- 
merston adm., 1855 
Wood, Matthew; mayors of Lon- 
don, 181S 
Wood, sir W. P., justice, lord, 1868 
Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 
Woodfall, Mr.; trials, 1786 
Woodmason ; ruling machines 
Wooler, Mr.; trials, 1817, 1855 
Woollej-, Mr.; trials, 1863 
Worcester, marquess of ; steam, 

telegraph, 1663 
Worcester, Edward, earl of ; ad- 
ministrations, 1621 
Wordsworth, Wm. ; 1770- 1850; 

poet-laureate 
Wotton, sir Edward; sugar, 1546 
Wouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 
Wray, sir C; King's Bench, 1573 
Wrede, gen.; Hanau, 1813 
Wren, sir Christopher, architect, 
1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving, 
Greenwich, monument, St. 
Paul's, AValbrook 
Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society 
Wrench, Mr.; theatres, 1809 
Wright ; Mercator's charts, 1556 
Wright, sir Rob. ; King's Bench, 

1687 
Wright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 
Wriothesley, lord ; administra- 
tions, 1547 
Wurmser, gen.; Castiglione, 1796 
Wyat, sir Thos. ; rebellious, 1 554 
Wyld, S. ; globe, 1851 
Wynkyn de Worde ; angling, 1496 ; 

printing 
I Wynn, W. ; Canning adm., 1827 
I Wyon, W., medallist, 1795-1851 



X. 

Xavier, Francis ; 1506-52 ; Jesuits 

Xenophanes, d. 465 B.C. ; Eloatic 
sect. Pantheism 

Xenophou ; anatomy, couriers, 
cymbals, retreat of the Greeks, 
401 B.C. 

Xerxes ; Persia, 4S5 B.C. ; Myoale, 
Salamis 

Ximenes, card., 1437-1517; poly- 
glot 



Yale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 
Yeh, commissioner ; China, 1857 
Yelverton, major ; trials, i860 
Yonge, sir Geo. ; Shelburne adm., 

1783 
York, bishop; Ely, 1781 
York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
York, Fred., duke of, 1763-1827 ; 

York 
York, James, duke of ; Solebay, 

1672 
Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord 

high, 1770 
Yorke, sir Philip ; att.-gen. ; king's 

bench, 1733 
Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
Young; impostors, 1692 
Young, major ; Presoott, 1838 
Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 
Young, Brigham, b. 1801 ; Mor- 

monites 
Young, Edw., poet, 1684-1765 
Young, Thos., 1773-1829 ; Royal 

Institution, colour, spectrum 
Youngman, W. ; executions, i860 



Z. 



Zacharias ; pope, 741 
Zileucus ; sumptuary laws, 450 b. c. 
Zamoyski, count ; Poland, 1S62 
Zechariah prophesies about 520 b. c. 
Zeno (stoic), fl. 299 B.C. ; eastern 

empire, 474 
Zenobia ; Palmyra, 263 
Zenon ; Armenia, 18 
Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. 
Zephyrinus ; pope, 202 * 

Zeuxis, fl,. 455-400 B c. ; painting 
Zimmerman ; ishysiognomy, 1776 
Zinzendorf, 1700-60 ; Moravians 
Ziska ; Bohemia, 1417 
Zoe ; eastern empire, 1034 
ZoUicoffer, gen. ; U. States, 1861 
Zoroaster (supposed author of 

" Zendavesta"); about 555 B.C., 

fire-worshippers 
Zosimus ; alchemy, 410 
Zumalacarregui (Carlist) ; killed 

near Bilbao, 1835 
Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 
Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 



CORRECTIONS. 



PAGE 

2. Abdication.— Charles V. as king of Spam, 

i6 Jan. 1556. 
Abelard. — Heloise died 17 May, 1164. 
5. Accession. — Line 4, read 1702. 
18. Ahmedndggur. — Line 2, read 1493. 
21. Alderney. — Line 7, read Russell and Eooke. 
SO. Articles of War. — Read Bichard II. m 1385. 
70. Balaklava.— 2nd col. for 28 Oct., read 25 Oct. 

1854- 
73. Bangor. — Read 607. 
94. Behrino's Strait.— Line 4, for 1788, r«ad! 1778. 

121. Bribery.— 2nd col. for Edward, read W. H. 
Lcatham. 

133. Burning Alive.— Read Latimer, bishop of Wor- 
cester. 

205. Coronation. — Read William I. crowned 25 Dec. 
1066. 

249. Duels.— Lord Castlereagh wounded Mr. Can- 
ning, 21 Sept. 1809. 

254. Eastern Empire. — ist coL read Theodosius the 
Great. 

269. Emperors.— Peter I., Czar of Russia, assumed 
the title of emperor, 22 Oct. 1721. 

271. England.— ist col. read Henry VIII. marries 
Anne Boleyn privately, Nov. 1532, or Jan. 
1533 ; divorced from Catherine, 23 May, 1533. 

277. English Writers.— George Herbert, 1593-1633. 

285. Excommunication. — 2nd col. read Elizabeth by 
Pius v., published 25 April, 1570. 

287. Executions.— Martin Doyle, executed 27 Aug. 
1861, not 1862. 

309. France. — European coalition agaiast France, 
June, 1799. 

328. Generals. — Luie 3, read 1629. 

335. Gettysburg.— iiead George Mead. 

336. Gibraltar. — Jfote, read EUott. 

355. Hague. The De Witts torn to pieces, 24 July, 

1672. 
363, Hereford.— Cathedral reopened 30 June, 1863. 
369. Holy Uooi.— Read Boxley Abbey, in Kent. 
372. House Duty repealed ia 1864 ; reimposed 

iu 1851 
382. India.— Genghis-Khan died, 1227. 
387. 2nd col. 1. 36, read Nov. 1858. 
432. Leiningen. — For Enrich read Emich. 
438. LiGUORiANS.— Approved 1749. 
447. London. — Liiie 60, read Blackwall railway 

opened 2 Aug. 1841. 
456. Macao.— South China. 
468. Mar- Prelate Tracts. — Read, Henry Penry, 

executed 29 May, 1593. 
471. Maryland. — Liae 6, read McClellan. 



page 

487. Mint.— Line 2, read Henry I. 

489. Moluccas. — Line 3, read 1529. 

513. Newcastle. — Read, Newcastle surrenders to the 

Scotch, 1646, who here give up Charles I. to 

the parhament, 30 Jan. 1647. 
Newark. — John died 19 Oct. 1216. 
527. Nova Scotia. — Line 6, read 1763. 
541. Painters. — Leonardo da Vinci, 1452 - 1520 ; 

Mui-illo, 1618-85?; George Morland, 1763- 

1804. 
S43. Palmyra. — Omit " 'Rome." 
549. Parliament, 1833.— itcat^ Joseph /or Edward. 
561. Persia. — ist col. 1. 20, read 331. 
598. Printing. — 2nd col. 1. 22, read type-composing 

machine. 
605. Prussia, Kings.— King Frederick WiUiam IV., 

born 15 Oct. 1795. 
609. Quakers, 1833.— ilmd Joseph /or Edward. 
612. QuiNQUAGESiMA. — 2nd 1. read about 590. 
619. Rebellions.— ist col. 1. 28, read, sir Thomas 

Wyatt, son of the poet. Line 26, read 

Morton. 
637. Royal Academy, Presidents.- 1792, Benjamin 

West; 1805, James Wyatt; 1806, Benjamin 

West. 
639. Royal Society.— Line 10, read 3 Sept. 1658. 
643. Russia.— Sovereigns : Peter I. assumed the 

title of emperor, 22 Oct. 1721. 
650. Sandwich. — Last line, read 1561. 
657. Scotland.— ist col, L 26, reaci Robert Bruce. 
659. —1093. Donald VII. brother ; usurper. 
671. BiDon.— Omit admiral the hon. sir Robert Stop- 
ford. 
685. Spain.— 2nd col. 1. 42, read 7 Nov. 

721. Theatres.— Lincoln's Inn Theatre (the Duke's 

Theatre;, opened by sir Wm. Davenant's 
patent, 25 AprU, 1662 ; rebuilt, 1695. 

722. Covent Garden.— Omit Duke's Theatre, &c. 
735. TowTON.— Read Hem-y was made prisoner, and 

Margaret escaped to Scotland. 
746. Trials.— 2nd col. 1. 31, read W. H. Leatham. 

781. Vimeira.— iJead the British and Spanish forces, 

imder sir Ai-thur Wellesley, defeated the 
French. 

782. Vincent, Cape St.— Line 5, read 16, 17 Jan. 1780. 
785. Volunteers.- Review in Hyde park, 28 May, 

1864. 
792. Washington.— 2nd col. 1. 7, read shot by 

Booth. 
806. Witchcraft.— ist col. 1. 2, read Joan of Arc 

burnt at Rouen, 30 May, 1431. 



THE END. 



BRADBURY, EVANS, AND CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIAM. 



DICTIONARY OF DATES 

AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 
BY G. P. PUTNAM, A. M. 



ADMINISTRATIONS op tSE United States, sikce 1850.— See World's Progress. 
the death of President Taylor, July 9, 1850— 



On 



MiLLAHD FiLLMOKB, of New Yofk (Vice-President), became President. 
after, the following Cabinet, viz. : 



He appointed, soon 



Daniel "Webster, 
Thomas Corwin, 
Charles M. Conrad, 
William A. Griiliam, 
A. H. H. Stepheos, 
Kathan K. Hall, 
John J. Crittenden, 
William R. Kiug, 



Massachusetts, 
Ohio, 

Louisiana, 
North Carolina» 
Virginia, 
New York, 
Kentucky, 
Alabama, 



Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Treasury. 
Secretary of War. 
Secretary of Navy. 
Secretary of Interior, 
Postmaster-GeneraL 
Attorney-General 



Howell Cobb, 
Linn Boyd, 



was elected President of the Senate, and became Acting Vice-President of IT. 8. 
Georgia, {conthiued in office), I aw i. tt t. " 

Kentucky, December, 1851. J Speakers of H, Repa. 



Franklin Piekob, of Ifew Hampshire, inaugura.ed March 4, 185:{, President. 
Vice-President— vacant, by death of Hon. Wm. R. King, April 18, 1853— 



William L. Marcy, 
James Guthrie, 
Robert M'Clelland, 
James C. Dobbin, 
Jefterson Davis, 
James Campbell, 
Caleb Cushing, 
James L. Orr, 

James Buchanan, of 
John C. Breckinaio 
Lewis Cass, 
John Black, 
Isaac Toiicey, 
John B. Floyd, 
Joseph Holt, 
Howell Cobb, 
Philip Thomas, 
John A. Dix, 
Jacob Thompson, 

Joseph Holt, 
Horatio King, 
Jo-Ji Black, 
£. M. Stanton, 
Kathl. P. Banks, 
Wm. Pennington, 



THE CABINET. 

New York, 
Kentucky, 
Michigan, 
North Caroliaa, 
Mississippi, 
Pennsylvania, 
Massachusetts, 
South Carolina, 



Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Treasury. 
Secretai-y of Interior. 
Secretary of Navy. 
Secretary of War. 
Postmaster-GeneraL 
Attorney-General. 
Speaker of H. Reps. 



Pennsylvania, inaujzurated March 4, 1857, President, 
GB, of Kentucky, Vice-President. 

Michigan, j 

Appointed Dec. 1860. \ Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Navy, 



Pennsylvania, 

Connecticut, 

Virginia, 

Kentucky, 

Georgia, 

Maiyland, 

New York, 

Mississippi, 

Kentucky, 

M.lne, 

Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 

New Jersey, 



Appointed Jan. 1861. ( Secretary of War. 

> Secretary of Treasdiy, 
i Secretary of Interiot. 

> Postmaster-GeneraL 

! Attorney -GeneraL 
Speaker of H. Eep* 



Appointed Dec. 1860. 
Appointed Jan. 1861. 

Jan. 1861. 

Dec. 1860. 

1856. 
1869. 



Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 186li President. 
Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, Vice-President. 



"Wm. H, Soward, 



New Yorki 



Secretary of State 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



[aoh 



Salmon P. Chase, 
Wm. P. Fessenden, 
Hugh McCuUoch, 
Simon Cameron, 
Edwin M. Stanton, 
Gideon Welles, 
Caleb B. Smith, 
John P. UshtT, 
Montgomery Blair, 
Wm. Dennison, 
Edward Bates, 
James Speed, 
Galusha A. Grow, 
Salmon P. Chase, 



Ohio, 

Maine, 

Indiana, 

Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania, 

Connecticut, 

Indiana, 

Indiana, 

Maryland, 

Ohio, 

Missou •!, 

Kentucky, 

Pennsylvania, 

Ohio, 



Appointed July, 1864, 
Appointed March, 1865. 



Secretary of Treasury. 



Appointed Jan. 1862. \ Secretary of War. 



Appointed Jan, ISeS. 

Appointed Sept. 1864. 

Appointed Sept. 1864. 

1861-2. 
Appointed Dec. 1864. 



Secretary of Navy. 
> Secretaiy of Interior 

( Postmaster-General 

i Attorney-General. 

Speaker H. Repe. 
Chief Justice, 



Abeaham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1865, President. 
Akdeew Johnson, of Tennessee, Vice-President. 

[President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by Wilkes Booth, April 14, 1865.] 
Andrew Johnson became President, April 15, 1865. 
Lafavb4;te S. Poster, of Connecticut, elected President of the Senate. 
[Succeeded by Ben. P. TV ade, of Ohio, 1867.] 



Wm. H. Seward, 
Hugh McCul loch, 
EJwin M. Stanton, 
Gideon Welles, 
John P. Usher, 
James Harlan, 
Orville H. Browning, 
W. Dennison, 
Alex. W. Randal], 
James Speed, 
Henry Stanliery, 
Schuyler Colfax, 



New York, (continued in office), 
Indiana, do 

Pennsylvania, do 
Connecticut, do 

Indiana, do 

Iowa, Appointed March, 1865. 

Illinois, Appointed June, 1866. 

Ohio, {continued in office), 
Wisconsin, Appointed June, 1866. 
Kentucky, {continued in office), 
Ohio, Appointed June, 1866. 

Indiana, 1863-'65-'67. 



The salary of each memher of the Cabinet was raised in 1853 from i 



Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Treasury. 
Secretary of War. 
Secretary of Navy, 

> Secretary of Interior. 

V Postmaster-General. 

[ Attorney-General. 

Speaker H. of Reps. 
6,000 to $8,000, 



ADMINISTRATIONS of GREAT BRITAIN. 

[Palmerston dies, Oct. 1865.] 
Earl Russell's Ministry — With 
Gladstone Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer; Lord Cranworth, Lord 
Chancellor ; Earl Granville, &c. 

Dec. 1865. 



Derbt Administration — Earl of 
Derbj', First Lord, &c.; D' Israeli, 
Chancellor of Exchequer; Lord 
Stanley. Sec. for Foreign Afl'airs, 
&c. ' June 19, 1866. 



ADMIRALTY. There is no separate court of admiralty in the U. S, By Statute of 
1^89, the District Courts hare " cojinizance of all civil causes of admiralty and maritime 
Jurisdiction." They are also Prize Courts and hear all cases of trespass and civil injuries on 
the Sea. Capital crimes committed at sea are tried by the U, S. Circuit Courts. 

ADVERTISING. The rate of charge of American Dailies is from 5 to 20 cents per line ; 
of weekly papers, up to $2.00. A few monthly and quarterly periodicals charge |2.50 per line. 
The price of One page for advertisements in Harper's Magazine is $250. In 1865, the adver- 
tising receipts of the N. Y, Tribune were above $359,000. By act of July, 1861, advertise- 
ments in American papers are taxed 3 per cent, on gross receipts. Papers of less than 2,000 
copies circulation are exempt. The duty on advertising in England was abolished in 1853. 

AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the most important material interest of the United 
States. It is estimated that seven-eighths of the population are engaged in agricultural 
pursuits or in occupations immediately dependent thereon. In 1860 the number of acres 
in cultivation was 163,000,000, valued at 6,600 million dollars. In the same year the value of 
agricultural implements was $247,000,000. 
Statistics of 1860—1862—1865: 

I860. 1862. 1865. 

Bushels of Wheat, 132.000,000 .. 181.000,000 .... 148,000,000 

Bushels of Oats 17-^,000.000 .... 171,000,000 .... 235,000,000 

Bushels of Rye 20,000.000 .... 21,000,000 19,000,000 

Tons of Hay 19,' 00,000 .... 20,000,000 .... 23,000,0110 

PoundsofWool 60,000,000 . 114,000,000 

Bales of Cotton 4.000,000 1,000,000 

Bushels of Cum 800,000,000 500,000,000 600,000,000 

In the Statistics of 1862 and 1865 the States in rebellion are not included. In 18('2 ihe 
shipment of wheat from the U. S. to Great Britain alone amounted to 29,700,000 bui-h« Is. 
Total exports of grain 1863 were 77,300,000 bushels. The cereals of the Northern States in 
1865 amounted to 1,228 million bushels, valued at $1,047,000,000. The Southern cotton crop 
for 1866-'7 is estimated at 2,000,000 bales. " Department of Agriculture " established May 
15, 1862, at Washington, D. C, Its object, to diffuse information on subjects connected with 
agriculture among the people of the U. S. 



aob] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 9 

AGRI CULTURAL SCHOOLS. The earliest attempt at one was the Abbe Rosier at 
Chambord, France, 1Y75. In 1844 Mr. Colmaii found but nine agricultural schools in exist- 
ence " worth notice." Seven years after ( 1 8!>1), Professor Hitchcock enumerated no less 
than 352 in Europe, of which five were in England, sixty-three in Ireland, and seventy-five 
in France. Among the first in the United SiuLes is that at Ovid, Seneca county, New York, 
founded in 1856. The Westchester N. Y. Farm School, founded 1856, was the first private 
institution exclusively agricultural. There are now (1860) agricultural profiessorships in Vir- 
ginia, Georgia, &c., as well as in Yale College. An annual course of thirty lectures on agri- 
culture established in 1850, at New Haven, by Professor Norton. Michigan Agricultural 
College, established by the legislature in 1850. By act of July 2, 1862, Congress made pro- 
vision for " donating public lands to the several States and Territories which may provide 
Colleges for the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts." Up to Sept. 1863, 15 States had 
taken advantage of the act, and many colleges introduced Agriculture among the branches 
of their scientific course. Agricultural college at Amherst, Mass., in process of constructic q 
(186Y). 

ALA.BA\[A. One of the United States; most of its territory was included in the origin- 
al patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi territory in 1817; admitted into 
the Union as a State in 1820. Population in 1810 was less than lO,0Oi) ; in 1816, 29,683 ; in 
1820, 127,901; in 1830, 308,997; in 1840, 590,756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of 
the State in 1840 amounted to $12,854,694; imports to $574,651. The governor in 
his message, November, 1861, recommends a discriminating tax on all articles from 
those States that continue slave agitation. Population in 1850: white, 426,515; free 
colored, 2,250. Total free, 428,765 ; slaves, 342,894. In 1855 : white, 464,456 ; free col- 
ored, 2,466; slaves, 374,784. Population, 1860: white, 520,444; slaves, 435,473. The 
slaves have increased more rapidly than the whites. Ordinance passed "seceding" from 
the United States January 7,1861. During the war the State was untouched by the national 
army until March, 1865, when Gen. Wilson with 17,000 cavalry penetrated its most produc- 
tive region. In June, 1865, L. E. Parsons was appointed Provisional Governor. The State 
sent 1211,000 men to the war, and lost 35,000. Estimated loss in wealth, $500,000,000. 
Present debt (1865) is $3,400,000. 

ALBANY, N. Y. Population in 1850, 50,700; in 1860, 62,367; in 1865, 62,613. It 
became the capital of the State in 1807. The most important article of commerce is lumber ; 
in 1863, $7,000,(100 worth was received there. Its Law Library, the best in the country, 
contains 70,000 volumes. 

ALE AND BEER, U. S. By act of Congress, July 13, 1862, a tax of $1.00 is levied on 
every barrel of ale and beer manufactured and sold. 

ALIENS, U. S. In 1850 there were 2,210,800 in the United States. In 1866, 233,408 
arrived. Of these, 106,000 came from Germany ; 68,000 from Ireland ; 36,000 from 
England. Aliens now pay income tax. (Act of Congress, July, 1666.) See Emigration. 

ALMANACS (American) :— 



Franklin's " Poor Richard's Almanac" (Phil. 1732) 
waa the first of any note in the U. S. 

"The American Nautical Almanac " was establish- 
ed in 1849 and superintended by Capt. Davis, 
U. S.N. It lias few equals in scientific accuracy. 

The "American Almanac'' of Boston was discon- 
tinued in 1857 [?] after being published 29yeais. 



The " National Almanac " (valuaUe and compre- 
hensive), published by Childs of Phila., appeared 
only 1863 and 1864. 

At the present time (1867) no general almanac of 
any special value is published in the U. S. 

The " Family Christian Almanac" of the Tract 
Society has a wide circulation. 



AMBASSADORS. The U. S. has never sent any person of the rank of ambassador in the 
diplomatic sense, but is represented by ministers plenipotentiary. {Kent). In 1867 the U. S. 
had her ministers at the courts of Austria, Brazil, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, 
Peru, Prussia, Russia, Spain. To the smaller states, "ministers resident" are sent, 22 in all 
Number of consuls from U. S. to foreign countries in 1862, 272. Some of these are known 
as agents simply. 10 are stationed in England and 10 in France. The highest salaries are 
given to the consuls at London and Liverpool, $7,500 each. Number of foreign consuls in U 
S. in 1863, 356. 

AMERICA. See United States. 

AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776, the colors used by the American army exhibited 
a snake with thirteen rattles, in a crimson ground interlaced with white. On the 14th June, 
1777, Congress resolved, " that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes alter- 
nately red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars, white, on a blue field — representing 
*a new constellation.'" 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. [aba 



and a controversy on the respective cl& ms 
was ■ omiiiued for several years. 

Bill introiiuced in U.S. irenate to pnrchape Dr. 
Morton's patent for $100,000 Aug. 28, 1863 

Claim of the widow of Dr. Horace Wells, of 
Hartford, Conn., that he originated the use 
of ether prev'ous to Morton. ('1 hese various 
claims fully discussed in Morton's t-tatements 
of Evidence, 1853, and Littell's Living Age, 
vols. 16 & 17.) 

Use of cliloroform first proposed for same pur- 
pose as sulphuric ether, by Dr. Simpson of 
Edinburgh , 184" 



ANJESTHETICS. Substances to alleviate pain :— 

Carbonic acid gas, recommended by Dr Hick- 
man 1828 

Chloroform or its use discovered nearly at the 
same time by Dr. G. Gutlirie, Sackelts Har- 
bor. N. Y., M. r'oubeiran in France, and frof. 
Lirb g in Germany 1831 

Use of ether to reln've pain tir.-^t etTpctcd at the 
in-tanoe of Dr. W. T. (i. Morton at the M;iss. 
H ospital > . ct. 16, 1846 

Patent for it secured by Dr. Morton 

Nov. 12, 1846 

Dr. Chs. T. Jackson appeared as claimant of 
the discovery, Jan. 2, 1847 

In 1863 Dr. Oolton (dentist) of N. Y. used nitrous oxide. No ill effects followed in the 
8,000 cases he had up to 1865. (See this subject in Appleton's Cyclopaedia, 1864.) 

ANIMALS, Society to Peetent Cruelty to. A society, chartered by the State of N. Y. 
in 1866, chiefly through the exertions of Mr. Henry Bergh, who became its Secretary in 1866, 
Its object is to prevent cruel treatment to animals, by bringing offenders to trial. Laws 
prohibiting cruelty to beasts and also "game fighting," passed April, 1866. The Pennsyl- 
vania Legislature incorporated a similar society in the Spring of 1867. 

ANNUITIES. An annuity is a sum of money allowed to a person yearly during his life. 
Governments borrow money and grant annuities in return. The U, S. gives pensions as 
annuities for services rendered. They are granted generally by incorporated companies. In 
Louisiana the " contract of annuity is that by which one party delivers to another a sum of 
money, and agrees not to reclaim it so long as the receiver, pays the rent agreed upon." 
(CivirCode.) 

ANTIETAM, Battle of. Antietam Creek is in the western part of Maryland, and flows 
into the Potomac. Great battle fought there (Sept. 1*7, 1862) between the army of the Union, 
under Gen. McClellan and the Confederate army under Gen. Lee. It was commenced on 
the right by Gen. Hooker ; next to him in line were Sumner, Mansfield, Porter, Burnside, in 
all 87,000 men. Opposed to these were the corps of Longstreet, Jacksor, and the Hills — • 
70,000 strong. The fight raged fiercely all day. Burnside at length carried a bridge across 
the creek and stormed the heights beyond. At night the advantage was with the national 
army, and Lee retreated across the Potomac. Entire loss in McClellan's army 12,469 ; in 
Lee's, 13,533, with 13 guns, 39 colors and 6,000 prisoners, captured by the Union army. 
General Mansfield, U. S. A., was killed. Two Confederate generals killed, 8 wounded ; 1 
Union general killed, 6 wounded. 

APPEALS. In the U. S. nearly all courts can hear appeals from those next inferior. 
The highest courts of the States are courts of appeal only. The Supreme Court of the U. S. 
sits on appeal from Circuit and Territorial Courts, and also from the highest State Courts, 
•whenever the question turns upon the validity of a treaty or law or authority of the U. S. 
(Statute of 1789.) 

APPLES. The Romans knew of 22 varieties of apples, according to Pliny. Ray reckons 
78 kinds in hi^ day, in England (1688). In the U. S. 200 varieties exist. Apple-trees of 
finest quality last 80 years. Some reach the age of 200 years. Throughout the U. S. the 
following appear to be the favorites : For summer apples, the Early Harvest, Sweet Bough and 
Red Astrachan ; for autumn, the Fall Pippin, Porter and Gravenstein ; for winter, the Bald- 
win and Rhode Island Greening- The demand for the fruit is greatly in advance of the 
supply, and in London the American apple commands fabulous prices. In 1860, the yield of 
orchard fruit amounted to $19,000,000, the greater part of which was derived from the 
apple product. In 1865, the orchards in the State of New York yielded 16,275,605 bushels 
of a|)i)le8. 

APPRENTICES, In the U. S, apprenticeship is not so common as in England. The 
Amei ican apprentice rarely pays a fee to the master. In some Eastern S<ates, farmers take 
tliem to learn husbandry, clothe them, and, when they leave, present them with a sum of 
money. Whole number in the U. S. in 1860 was about 55,000. There is a Library in 
Mechanics Hall, N. Y. City, containing 16,000 volumes, for youthful appi entices. For laws 
respecting them, see Kent's Commentaries. Number of apprentices in N. Y. State, in 
1865, 1,361. 

AQUEDUCT. The greatest of modern or perhaps of any time is the Croton aqueduct, 
which supplies the City of New York with water from Croton lake, 40 miles distant. It was 
commenced 1837 ; its completion was publicly celebrated in 1842 ; its cost was $10,875,000. 
It is carried across the Harlem river on a bridge 100 feet high. Chief engineer John B. 



AQC] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 1 

Jervis ; centractor for the bridge, Geo. Law. 'The aqueduct which supplies Boston from 
lake Cochituate, 23^ miles, was commenced in 1846; its completion celebrated Oct. 25, 
1848; cost 8i5,.370,818. That which supplies the ciiy of Brooklyn, L. L, was finished 1858 ; 
engineer J. P. Kirkwood ; cost $640,828. Jersey City, N. J., is supplied by an aqueduct 8 
milesjong from the Passaic river at Belleville; W. S. Whitwell, chief engineer. It was 
completed in 1856 and cost $640,(00. Washington, D. C, is furnished with water from the 
Potomac by an aqueduct 15 miles long, commenced in the administration of Pres. Pierce. 
The water was first admitted into it Dec. 5, 1863, at which time the cost amounted to 
$2,900,000 ; Capt. M. C. Meigs (U. S. A.) chief engineer. This aqueduct discharges 
67,596,400 gallons in 24 hours, or nearly 3 times as much as the Croton aqueduct. 

AQUARIUM, or Aquavivarium. Mr. C. E. Hammett, Jr., of Newport, R. I., published 
1859 his observations and experiments with Aquaria, which were very remarkable. Aquaria 
have been introduced into several public museums in the U. S., and they are also largely 
cultivated in private houses. In 1860 there was but one regular establishment for their 
manufacture in the U. S. Annual value of products $5,5oO. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See Northwest Passage, and Franklin's Expeditions. Lieut 
Hartstein with the Arctic and Release leaves Brooklyn May 31, 1855, and finds Dr. Kane at 
Lieveley, Greenland, Sept. 13, 1855; and returns to New York with him Oct. 11, 1855. 
Steamer Fox, Capt. McClintock, sails from Aberdeen (sent by Lady Franklin), in search of 
remains of Franklin's Expedition, July 10, 1857. Capt. McClintock returns, bringing relics 
and remains of Franklin's Expedition, and ascertaining his fate, 1859. Mr. C. F. Hall sailed 
from New London, Conn., in ship George Henry, May 29, 1860. Returned Sept. 13, 1862. 
He went again with strong hopes of finding some of Franklin's men. Discovered the fate of 
four who died from cold and starvation, June, 1864. Dr. Hayes sailed from Boston in 
schooner United States, and returned in fifteen months. Valuabte surveys and experiments 
made by him, July 10, 1860. Capt. Parker Snow sailed from England in schooner Intrepid, 
in search of Franklin's companions, June, 1861. Expedition from Sweden blockaded by 
ice and unable to accomplish its objects, May 9, 1861. 

ARIZONA, known as the Gadsden purchase, a territory of 30,000 square miles, purchased 
from Mexico by the U. S. for $10,00O,0iiO in 1855. It had in 1856 about 5,000 inhabitants, 
chiefly Mexicans. By act of Congress, Feb. 24, 1863, the territory was organized and part 
of New Mexico added to it, the whole containing 131,000 square miles. The capital ia 
Prescott. The first Governor appointed, in 1863, was R. C. McCormick. Population in 
1866, white, about 8,000. 

ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was 
made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Population in 
1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves. Population in 1860, 435,450, of whom 
111,115 were slaves. The State " seceded " from the Union May 6th, 1861. Being unaided 
during the war by the Confederate Government, she manufactured her own war material. 
At the close of the rebellion I. Murphy was appointed provisional Governor (1865). Many 
of the plantations have been divided up for sale, and laud can be bought at $1 to $5.00 per 
acre (1866). 

ARMY OF THE U. S. ' InchJding Volunteers. The following list is oflScial : 

Date. Regulars. Volunteers. Present/or duty. Aesresate. 

July, 1861 14,108 .... 169.480 .... 183,588 .... M6 751 

Jan. 1,1862 19,871 507,333 627,204 .... 1''5 917 

Jan, 1,1863 19,M9 .... 679,633 .... 698,802 918 j 91 

Jan. 1,1864 17,237 .... 59i,013 .... 611,250 .... 860 737 

Jan. 1, 1865 14,661 .... 606,263 .... 620,9:4 .... 959,460 

May], 1865 797,807 .... 1,034,064 

From May 1, 1865, to Jan. 20, 1866, 918,722 volunteers were mustered out of service. 
Entire number of colored troops during the war, 178,975. By act of Congress, July, 1866 
the regular army comprises 45 regiments of irfantry, 10 of cavalry, 5 of artillery : 2 ret^i- ' 
nients of cavalry and 4 of infantry are colored troops. Total number of regulars in service 
Jan. 1867, 54,300. The higher oflBcers are: 1 General, 1 Lieut.-General, 5 Major-Generals| 
and 10 Brigadier-Generals. During 1861-5 the Pay Department disbursed $1,029 ".'SfljOOO 
among the troops. The loss of life in the Northern armies during the war was 28<y,751, of 
whom 5,221 oflScers and 90,886 men were killed or died of wounds, and 2,321 officers and 
182,329 men died of disease. See Enlistment. 

The following is a list of ordnance and ordnance stores furnished to the army durios ^ 
1861-65 : ® 

Cannon— number ,, 7,892 

Artillery carriages— number.. 11,787,' 



8 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [art 

' Artillery projectiles (shot and shell) — number 6,335,695 

Grape and canister snot — pounds 6,539,999 

Field artillery ammunition— rotu ds 2,&62,177 

Bmall-arms, muskets, rifles, carbines, and pistols 3,477,655 

Swords, sabret^, and lunces '. 544,475 

' Infantry accoutrements— coinplcte pets 2,146,175 

Cavalry accoutrements— complete sets 216,371 

Horse equipments — sets 539;544 

Two-horse art.Lery harnebS— sets 28,164 

Horse blankets— number 732,526 

Cartridges ior small arms — number 1,022,176,474 

Percussion caps for small arms — numb'er 1,220,555 435 

Cannon-primers , 10,281,305 

Fuses for shell 4.226,377 

Gunpowder — pounds 26,440,054 

N 1 1 re— po unds 6,395,1 52 

Lead in pigs and bullets— pounds 90,416,296 

This only includes what was consumed in the army, and not what was used by the navy. 

ARTISTS' FUND SOCIETY, N. Y. In Nov. 1865, sixty pictures were contributed to it by 
members, which sold for $7,500. The object of this society is to assist indigent and disabled 
artists. Established in 1859, and has an exhibition and sale, annually. 

ARTS, Fine. The progress in the fine arts has been very marked in the TJ. S. since 1850. 
The National Academy of Design founded 1828; its new building, the first in the United 
States wholly designed for such a purpose, was completed and dedicated 1864. The amount 
annually expended in the U. S. for works of art, has increased ten-fold in as many years. 
In 1864, 30 collections of pictures in N. Y. sold for $500,000. The Academy 
of Fine Arts, in Philadelphia, had on exhibition in April, 1865, a collection of over 800 
pictures and sculptures. A handsome building for the Yale School of Fine Arts was com- 
pleted at New Haven in 1866, the gift of Mr. Street. The first exhibition was opened with 
much distinction July, 1867. Over 70 paintings and 13 sculptures were sent to the Paris Ex- 
position (1867) by the American Committee ; see Paintings; Tuckerman^s Book of the Artists. 

ART-UNION. For distributing works of art by lot. The first was in Germany, founded 
at Munich in 1823; followed by those of Berlin (1828), Dresden, Leipzic, Bremen, Dusseldorf, 
Frankfort, Vienna, etc. "Roman Catholic Art-Unions" were started in 1851. London Art- 
Union founded 1837 ; its receipts increased in nineteen years from |500 to $90,000 per ann. 
The first in the U. S., the American Art-Union (originally the Apollo Association) was found- 
ed at N. Y. in 18^9. It continued thirteen years, purchasing and distributing works to the 
amount of $453,853. It was closed in 1851 as being forbidden by the State laws against 
lotteries. 

ASSAY OFFICE, U. S. The one established in N. Y. City, in 1854, assayed more than 
$180,000,000, of gold, in the seven years prior to 1866. The following table, taken from the 
ofiBcial returns tn the Treasury Department, shows the collections on bullion and the amount 
of bullion assayed in each State and Territory of the United States during the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1866: 

States and Territm-ies. Collections on Bullion. BuUion Assayed. 

California $294,121 $49,020,250 

•Coloradi 1,219 219,860 

Idaho 3,210 535,05 

Missouri 4 S15 

Nevada.. 91,635 15,272,246 

NewJersey 82 13,688 

New York 43.774 7,295.803 

Oregon 28,711 4,785,221 

PennsylvaniH ;. 24,205 4,044,218 

Rhode Island... ;. 13 2,211 

'Utah 361 602 8 

Washington 837 139,533 

total f4S8,377 '.'.'.'.'.'.'.*. $81,389,541 

The foregoing compilation does not include the coinage of the United States Mint, at San 
Francisco, which amounted to $20,000,000. 

ASTRONOMY. Astronomy received little attention in the IT. S. prior to 1843. At 
thai time, a large comet suddenly appearing, public interest in the science was awakened. 
Profs. Bond and Pierce, of Cambridge, Mass., Capt Davis, U. S. N., Prof. Hubbard, Naval 
Academy, Profs. Olmstead and Loomis, of Yale, Prof. 0. M. Mitchell, of Cincinnati, and Miss 
Mitchell, of Nantucket, have contributed largely to the science. Asteroid No. 66 was first 
seen from Harvard College, April 10, 1861. Others have since been discovered. The La 
Lande Astronomical Prize, of 500.francs. was. awarded by the French Academy of Science to 



axl\ AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 9 

Mr. Alvan Clark, of Cambridgeport, Mass., Jan. 1863, for his discovery of the companion of 
Sirius. Mr. Clark produces telescopes equal to any in the world. His discovery was made 
through an object glass, 18| inches in diameter. The instrument cost $11,187. Astronomi- 
cal observatories are established at Cambridge, Washington, Cincinnati, Chicago, Albany, 
New Haven. See Observatories. 

ATLANTA. An important central town in Georgia. In 1864 there was heavy fighting 
in its vicinity. On July 20 and 22, Gen. Hood made desperate attacks on the left of the 
National Army under Gen. Sherman, but was repulsed, with severe loss. Sherman then 
moved to the south of the city, compelling its evitcuation, and beating the rebels at Jonesboro. 
Sept. 2d, 1864, Gen. Slocum with the 2ilth Corps entered the place. The loss of the Con- 
federates in the various contests about Atlanta, from June 20, were about 24,000; that of the 
National force, 11,800. The town was almost entirely destroyed by fire Nov. 15, 1864. 
Chartered as a city in 1847. Population in 1860, 9,554. 

ATTORNEYS. In 1860 the number of judges and lawyers in the U. S. was 33,980. In 
1866 there were 3,500 attorneys in N. Y. city. 

AUCTIONS. From 1817 to 1831 there was a strong feeling on the part of American 
merchants against auctions. At the present time (1867) they are greatly favored. By Act 
of Congress (1861) there is a tax of ^^ of 1 per cent, on the gross amount of auction sales. 

B 

BALLOON. On June 23, 1859, Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis in a 
balloon. After travelling 1150 miles they descended in Jefferson county. New York, very 
narrowly escaping with their lives. A monster balloon, constructed by Mr. Lowe for the 
professed intention of an air-voyage to Europe, waainflated and exhibited at New York, May, 
1860, and again in Pennsylvania, but the weather or accident defeated the project. In an 
ascent over Washington, D. C, June 18, 1861, Mr. Lowe telegraphed a message to the Presi- 
dent by means of a wire conducted by the rope which held the balloon. Height, 600 feet. 
Balloons were used for military purposes in Gen. McClellan's campaign (1862). At the battle 
of " Seven Pines " one ascended 2,000 feet, from which Richmond could be seen. One used also 
at the battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 1862. In New York city, in the summer of 1866, a bal- 
loon was suspended daily by a rope, and used to convey parties up and down for sight-seeing. 

BALTIMORE, the third city in pooulation and fifth in commerce in the United States; 
founded 1729 ; named from Lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the Maryland patent. In 1765 
it contained but 50 houses; chartered as a city in 1797. Population in 1790, 13,503; in 
1810, 35,583; in 1830, 80,625; in 1840, 102,313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome 
moimment in the city commemoi'ates its successful defence against the attack of the British 
under General Ross, Sept. 12, 1814. Population in I860, 214,037, including 2,213 slaves. 
On the 19th of April, 1861, U. S. troops passing through the city to the defence of Washing- 
ton were fired upon and two men killed. Military occupation of the place by Gen. Butler, 
May, 1861. President Lincoln, who passed through Baltimore (1861) in disguise, to his first 
inauguration, was nominated with great enthusiasm for his second term by convention there 
assembled (1864). 

BANK OF THE UNITED STATES; first one established 1791; capital $10,aOO,000. 
A new one, with capital of $35,000,000, 1816. The Act of Congress re-chartering it vetoed 
by President Jackson, July 10, 1832. The removal of the deposits of the U. S. Government 
from the bank, by order of President Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, Sec. of the Treasury 
(W. J. Duane, the late Sec, having refused to sign the order), Sept. 23, 1833. Resolution 
of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the responsibility assumed by the 
President unconstitutional, &c., introduced by Mr. Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 
1834. Senate refused to enter on their journal the President's protest against their resolu- 
tion. May 7, 1834. Noted resolution of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their 
resolution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837. Sub-Treasury Bill passed Jan. 1840, 
repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by Pennsylvaria, March 29, 
1S36 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for establishing a "Fiscal Bank of the U. S." 
passed the House of Representatives August 6, 1841 ; vetoed by President Tyler Aug, 16. 
Another bill for a "Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of 
all the Cabinet except Mr, Webster. 

BANKING SYSTEM, U. S. Before the outbreak of the war, paper currency issued from 
incorporated independent banks. In 1860 there were in the U. S. 1562 Banks, hiving an ag- 
gregate capital of $421,880,000, and a circulation of $207,104,400. In 1861-2 many banka 
were compelled to suspend payments. The government established by act of Congiesa 



10 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 



[b-M 



Feb. 25, 1863, a uniform national banking system. An additional act was passed June 3, 
1864. In Jan, 1866, there were 1,519 National Banks. Capital, $403,350,000. Circulation, 
$213,000,000. These Banks deposit bonds with the U. S. Treasury to the extent of one third 
of their capital. There are 14 cities containing 218 Banks, which are selected as points oi 
redeniptiou. Jan. 1S6Y, the national bank-note circulation was $291,093,294 ; total currency 
of the United States (circulation and deposits), $1,496,6T2,065. 

BANK PAYMENTS. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New England ana 
New York, May 10-16, 1837 ; legalized for one year by legislature of New York. Banks 
of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same month. Specie payments generally 
suspended in the U. S. 1861. 

BANKEDPT LAW, U. S. A general bankrupt law was passed by Congress, April 
4, ISOO, aihd repealed .1803. Another was passed Aug. 19, 1841, and repealed 1843. An act 
" estabUshing a unilbrm system of Bankruptcy in the U. S.," passed Congress, March, 1867, 
and is now in operation (July, 186'7), the " Registers in Bankruptcy" throughout the Union 
having been appointed by Chief Justice Chase, as prescribed in the law. 

BAPTISTS IN U. S. In 1858 they had 12,000 churches with about 1,000,000 members. 
In 17(>2, they had 56 churches only ; 1792, 1,000 ; 1812, 2,432; 1832, 5,322 ; 1852, 9,500. In 
.1866 (Baptist Almanac) they had 592 associations, 12,702 churches, 7,867 ordained mini.sters 
and l,04'.i,300 members. 

BASTARDS in the U. S. A bastard has no inheritable blood in him, and therefore no 
estate can descend to him. But be may take by testament, if properly described, after he has 
obtained a name by reputation. This rule has been somewhat mitigated in some of the 
.States, where, by statute, various inheritable qualities have been conferred upon bastards. 
They may be legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their f'ather and mother. Bouvier. 

BATTLES, Cr. S. In the War for the Union, 1861-5 :— 



Fort Sumter, Uhurleaton, S. C, bombarded 

by the Coiifederates April 12, 1861 

Wilson's Creek, Missouri, (Federals retreat 

and Gren. Lyon killed.) Aug. 10, 1861 

Carthage, Mo. (Fed. v.ctory) July 10, 1861 

Rich Mountain, Va., (Fed. victory)..July 11, 1861 

Bull Kun, Va., (Feds, defeated) July 21, 1861 

Lexington, Mo. (Feds. surreiider)....Sept. 20, 1861 
Balls Bluir, Va., (Feds, defeated. Gen. baker 

killed) Oct 21, 1861 

Mill Spring, Ky. (Feds, victorious) Jan. 19, 1862 

Roanoke Island, N. C. (Feds, capture 4€ 

guns, 2,500 prisoners) Feb. 7-8, 1862 

Fort Donelson, Tenn., ^Fed8. capture 13,300 

prisoners, 55 guns.) Fel>. 16, 1862 

Pea Ridge, Ark., (Feds, victorious)... M:irch 

6, 7, 8, 1862 
Shiloh, Tenn., (Rebels retreat after des- 
perate fighting) April 6-7, 1862 

Island No. 10, Miss. River, surroi ders to 
TJ. S. forces, with 125 guns, 6,000 prisoners. 

April 7, 1862 
■Williamsburg, Va., (Rehs. retreat) ....May 5, 186i. 

Winche.ster, Va., (Feds, retreat) May 25, 186'J 

Fair Oaks, Vu., (Feds, deflated) May 31, 186^ 

Seven Pines, Va., (Feds. victoriiiiis)...June 1, 1862 
Seven Days' Battles near Richmond (Kedsl 

repulsed) June 26-July 1, 1862 

Bull Run, Va, (Feds defeated) Aug. 80, 1862 

Antietam, Md. (Rebs. defeated;... .Sept. 17, 1862 
Fredericksburg, Va., (Feds, defeated). Pec. 13, 186;; 
Murfreesborii', Tenn., "Stone River" (inde- 
cisive ; Rebs. retreat. Fed. loss very 

heavy) Dec. 31,1862 to Jan. 3, 1863 

Grierson's raid through Mississippi. April 17 

to May 2, 1863 
Chancellorsvillc, Va. (Feds. repulsed)May 2-4,1868 
Chami)ion FTllls, Miasissipji. 'Feds. victorious. 

Siege of Vicksburg begins) May 16, 1863 

Gettxsburg, Pel n., (Kebs. defeated).July 1-4, 1863 

Chickamauga, Ga., (Rebs. defeated;.... 

Sept. 19-20, 1863 
Vicksburg. Miss. (30,000 prisoners and 220 guns 
surrendered to IJ. 8. forces under Gen. 
Grant) July 4, 1863 



Port Hudson, La., (7,000 prisoners surrender to 
XJ. S. forces) July 8, 1863 

Chattanooga, Ga., (Feds, victorious) 

Nov. 23-26, 1863 

Federal " Red River Expedition" unaer Gen. 
Banks, (defeated) April 8, 1864 

Wilderness, Va. (indecisive ; loss heavy on 
both sides) May 5-6, 1864 

Spoltsylvania, Va., (Heavy lighting, but Reb- 
els retire) May 10-12, 1864 

Resaca, Georgia, (Rebs. retreat) May 15, 1864 

Cold Harbor,~Va., (Feds, repulsed).. June 1-3, 1864 

Battles about Petersburg, Va., (indi cisae)... 

June 15-19, 1864 

Sherman fails in an attack on Kenesaw Moun- 
tain, Ga., June 27, 1864 

PetersburgMine.Va., (Feds. defeated) July 30, 1864 

Terrible fighting about Atlanta, Ga., (Rt bs. 
defeated) J\dy 20-22, 1864 

Continued lighting about Ireiersburtr, Va., 
until ....'April, 1864 

Atlanta, Ga , taken by tjherman Sept. 2, 1864 

Opequan, Va., (Gen. Sheridan defeats Early, 
Rebel).... Sept. 19, 1864 

Fisher's Hill, Va., (Early again defeated) .... 

Sept. 22, 1864 

Cedar Creek, Va., (Early totally defeaton after 
gaining some success) Oct. 19, 1864 

Sherman starts on his march across Georg a, 

Nov. 14, 1864 

Franklin, Tenn., (Rebs. defeated) N.iv.30, 1864 

Nashville, Tenn., (Rebs. completely routed, 
losini; 60 guns) Dec. 15-19, 1864 

Shi-rman enters Savannah, Ga., Dec. 21, 1864 

Fort Fisher, N. C, taken by assult of T7. S. 
forces ....Jan 15, 1865 

Kingston, N. C, (Rebs. repulsed)... March 10, 1865 

Grant defeats Lee at Five Forks, ai d coti- 
tinues lighting until the Irtter surrendered 

at Appomatox Court House, Va., 

April 1-9, lf65 

Gen. Johnston (Rebel) surrenders to Slier- 
man near Raleigh, N. C April 26, 1865 

The last rebel army under Kirby Smith sur- 
renders west of the Mississippi May 26, 1865 

See 



For complete list of battles and skirmishes, see Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia, 1865, 
Naeal Battles, Atlanta, Antietam, Gettysburg, Vickisburgf Nashville, Corinth. 



BAf] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 11 

BATTLES, Austrian and Prussian. Battle of Onstozza between Italians and 
Auslrians, June 24, 1866. [Italians defeated]. Battle of Skalitz in Bohemia between Aus 
trians and Prussians, July 2*7, 1866. [Austriaus retreat]. Great Battle of Sadowa between 
Austrians and Prussians, July 3, 1866. [Nearly 500,000 men engaged. Prussians com- 
pletely victorious.] July 15, 1866, Austriaus defeated at Olmutz. July 20, 1866, Naval 
fight off Lissa between Italians and Austrians. [Italians lose two war ships.] 

BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. The receipts of some of the principal benevolent societies of 
New York, for the year ending April .So, were : 

1856 1857 1858 1859 I860 1866 

Amer. Tract Society $393,163 $441,805 $390,759 $415,011 $348,1)49 $642,625 

« Bible " 307,318 388,932 334,000 350,815 429,799 734,000 

«« Board For. Missions 193,548 178,060 175,970 188,139 435,956 446,000 

" Home Missonarv See 202,426 185,216 

" Sunday School Union 234,486 

* See Charities, Missions, etc. In New York City, in 1866, there were about 300 
religious and benevolent societies, hospitals, dispensaries, asylums, &c. Total receipts of 
28 leading societies in 1866, $4,766,698.81. These are national organizations, and the pro- 
portion contributed by New York city is from 10 to 15 per cent. The American Board of 
Foreign Missions, founded 1810, had an income, in 1849, of $260,000, and in 1866, $446,000. 
American Bible Society, founded 1816, income in 1849, $284,000 ; in 1866, $734,000. 
American Tract Society founded in 1814, income, 1849, $308,428. American Home Mis- 
sionary Society, founded 1826, income, 1849, $157,000. American Sunday School Union, 
founded 1814, income, 1849, $207,600, I860, $234,436. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. The most important work on English and 
American bibliography is Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, 2 vols. R. 8vo. 1859-67. In 1866, 
Mr. John R. Bartlett published the bibliography of the American Civil War, containing 6,073 
titles of books and pamphlets relating to that struggle, and issued between 1860-6. 

BISHOPS, U. S. A. In 1866, there were 41 Episcopal Bishops in the U. S. Methodist 
Episcopal Bishops in 1 865, numbered 22. Lt. Gen. Polk (Confederate), Protestant Episcopal 
Bishop, was killed near Kenesaw Mt., Georgia, June 14th, 1864. In 1859 the Catholic Bishops 
numbered 45. 

BLIND, Asylums FOR the. The number in the U. S. in 1860 was 20. The first one was 
the " Perkins Institution and New England Asylum," founded at Boston in 1832, by Dr. Howe 
and Col. Perkins. New York Institute for the Blind, 1832. Philadelphia Institute, 1833. 
Institute at Columbus, Ohio, 1837. At Raleigh, N. C, 1848. Number of blind persons in 
the U. S. in 1860, 11,125. Estimated at about the same number in 1866. 

BOOK-TRADE of Great Britain. Number of new publications in 1850, 4,400. In 1859 
there were 5,507 different works entered for copyright, and 4066 volumes and pieces of music* 
This is an increase of 700 per cent, on the returns of 1838, about 400 per cent, on those of 
1836, and about 50 per cent, on those of 1854. In 1864, there were 3,553 works published 
in London. United States. The number of new books recorded as published during 
one year ending June 30, 1851, was 1261. No accurate statistics have been compiled in 
recent years. In 1855 the number of new works and new editions recorded as then first 
published in the U. S. was about 2400. There are in the U. S. (1860) about 3,000 booksel- 
lers and 400 publishers. In 1864, there were 2,028 distinct publications; in 1865, 1,802, of 
which about 80 were histories and stories of the late War. The increased value of paper 
and labor has raised the price of books very materially since 1863-4, an average increase of 
more than 60 per cent. 

BOSTON, the capital of Mass., founded in August, 1630. Here commenced the Ameri- 
can Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. The celebrated "Tea Party" 
here took place 1773. The port closed by parliament, 1774. British army evacuated Boston 
March, 1776. [See Lexington and Bunker Hill.'\ The cause of American freedom was no- 
where more actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benj. Franklin was born here 
Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a 
Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a citv, 1822. Population in 1700, 70iiO ; in 1790, 18,038 •, 
in 1810, 33,250; in 1820, 43,298; in 1830, 61,391; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels 
in 1840, 220,243 tons. The population in 1850, was 136,881 ; in 1855, 160,508; in 1860, 
177,902. Free Public Library, a noble institution, first opened 1858. Population in 1867, 
estimated at 200,000. In 1867, an act was passed by the legislature uniting Roxbury witk 
Boston ; this was vetoed by the governor. During the last twelve years, she has spent for 
teachers, $3,668,000; for school-houses, $1,600,000; incidentals," $1,367,000— a total of 



12 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [bou 

$6,629,358, which is claimed to be a larger proportionate expenditure than that of any other 
city in the world for educational purposes. The salary of the Principals in the several high 
schools is $4,000. 

BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the Netherlands 
on the boundary between Maine and the Biitish possessions, Jan. 10, 1841 (rejected by both 
parties). Collisions between the people of Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed ter- 
ritory on the Aroostook 1838-9, suspended by a mutual agreement between Sir J. Harvey, 
Governor of New Brunswick, Governor Fairfield, of Maine, and General Scott, of the U. S. 
army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washington, 1842. Oregon 
boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern boundary of the United States, in Ore- 
gon, by treaty signed at Washington, June, 1846. 

BRAZIL. First steamship line from New York to Brazil, established through the agency 
of Rev. J. 0. Fletcher, 186-. Kidder and Fletcher's work on Brazil (the most comprehensive) 
published in successive editions 1869-1867. Prof. Agassiz' scientific explorations in Brazil,' 
1866. Pi-eliminary steps taken to abolish slavery in the empire, April, 186*7. The plan is the 
gradual emancipation of the slaves in 20 years. 

First SteHmship line to Europe 1850 1 Railwiiys commenced ,. 1852 

Slave trade suppressed 1852 | Rio Janeiro lighted ■with, gas 1854 

BREWERIES, U. S. The number of them in the Northern States in 1860, was 969. In 
that year .S, 235, 345 barrels of ale and beer were manufactured. Number in New York 
State in 1865, 201. Philadelphia has a greater number of breweries than any other city. 

BRICKS. In the U. S. very fine bricks come from Baltimore, Philadelphia and Mil- 
waukee, Wis. Number of brickmakers in 1860, 13,'700. The time for burning bricks is 3 or 
4 days; 16 cords of wood are necessary to 100,000 bricks (Prof. Mather). A patent for pres- 
sing brick was granted in 1847 to Mr. Sawyer of Baltimore. A brick-machine patented by 
Mr. Gard of Chicago, 1866, turns out by steam power 25,000 bricks per day. Number of man- 
ufactories in U. S. in 1860, 1,595. Annual value of products, |10,253,734. 

BRIDGES, U. S. The famous natural bridge in Virginia, Rockbridge Co., is 100 feet long 
over a chasm 215 feetdeep.*. Another in Walker Co., Alabama, 120 feet long and 7^0 high. 
There are also two in California, Calaveras Co. remarkable for their immense arches. The 
finest stone bridge in the U. S. is High Bridge across Harlem river, N. Y. ; it is 1,450 feet long, 
114 feet high, and is supported on 14 arches. The Schuylkill R. R. bridge at Philadelphia has 
a single span of 340 feet. The first suspension bridge in the U. S. was built by Mr. Finley 
about 18()0. The Wheeling Bridge over the Ohio, with a span of 1,000 feet, was put up in 
1848 and blown down in 1854. The R. R. suspension bridge over the Niagara was built by Mr. 
Roebling; completed in 1858. Its span is 821 feet ;' height 245 feet; 14,500 wires are used 
in the cables. The Covington and Cincinnati suspension bridge is 2,252 feet long. Height of 
pier, 80 feet; width, 45 feet; size of cable, 12 inches; cost, $1,750,000. The R. R. bridge 
across the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace is 3273 feet long; completed in 1865, after 4 years 
work of about 1,000 men. It is a trestle-work with arches, and rests on solid piers sunk in the 
River. Cost, $1,500,000. 

BROOKLYN, on Long Island, but really a suburb of New York, in 1820 hud 7,T75 inhab 
itauts; in 1830,15,292; in 1855, consolidated with Williamsburgh ; in 1860,266,661; in 
1865, 296,378. In 1866, 2,178 new buildings were erected in the city. 

BUILDING SOCIETIES, for mutual benefit of persons of limited means who would build 
or buy their houses economically, are said to have originated at Kirkcudbright, Scotland. A 
large number were organized in New York in 1848-9, but they do not appear to have been 
generally sustained. In 1866-7 they were again revived to a limited extent. _ 

BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, and the 
Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 1,054 killed and wounded; 
American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for want of powder. But this, the first impor- 
tant battle of the Revolution, has always justly been regarded as a great victory for the Amer- 
ican cause, and is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which 
the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette in 1825. It was finished July 23, 1842, at 
the cost altogether of about $10n,000, raised by voluntary contributions. The height is 220 
feet. Its completion celebrated by a procession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster, 
president Tyler and 60,000 people present, June 17, 1843. 

BUTTONS, IN the U. S. In 1864, $415,863 worth of buttons were imported to New 
York. The number of button factories in 1860, in the U. S. was 59 ; annual value of 
products, $964,350. 



ecr] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 13 

BURGLARY. Defined to be a "breaking into and entering, in the night-time, the dwell- 
ing house of another, in which there shall be a human being, with intent to commit some 
crime.." It is punishable by a term of years' imprisonment, which varies in the different 
States. 

C 

CABRIOLET. One-horse cabriolets (vulgo, cabs) were introduced in London as public 
conveyances in 1823, when the number in use was 12. In 1830, they had increased to 165. 
In 1859 there were in London 5,500 cabs, of which, about 1500 ply on Sunday. Hackney- 
coaches there are now almost extinct. In 1853 the legal fare was made 6d. per mile. In 
New York and other American cities, a clumsy style of cab was introduced in 1844-5, but 
not being a desirable shape they were not popular, and soon disappeared. The carriages 
known as the " Victoiia " and "Brougham " answer the description of the Cabriolet, but the 
latter term is not used. " Coupees," close carriages drawn by one horse, have been lately 
introduced as private conveyances, (1867), and a few have appeared in New York for public 
use.. 

CABINET, U. S. See Administrations. 

CAIRO, U. S. A town at the southern limit of Illinois, situated at the junction of the 
Mississippi and Ohio, an important military post during the war. First occupied by Illinois 
troops, April, 1861. Expeditions into the States of Tennessee and Kentucky fitted out at 
this point, also part of the gunboat flotilla of the Western waters. 

CALABRIA. See JVnples. 

California, Lowkr, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, 
1534 ; explored by Cortes himself, 153tJ, and by his subordinate Ullon, 1538. First settle- 
ment by Yiscaino and a small colony sent out by Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Yiscaino ex- 
plored the coast and founded St. Diego and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper 
California, 1602. 

CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by Francis Drake, and named New Albion, 1596. 
The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used natives, tlie country was granted 
by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits in 1697. Jesuit missions and Pre&idios established in 
New California, 1769. Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of 
Mexico, 18-i4; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California explored by 
the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with that of Fremont, overland, in 
1811-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San 
Francisco taken possession of by Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes 
possession of Upper &difornia May, August, .1846, and institutes United States military gov- 
ernment. Movements of General Kearney, Lieutenant Emory, &c , 1846. California secured 
to the United S.ates by the treaty with Mexico, 18t8. Gold placers first discovered on the 
grounds of Captain Sutter, February, 1848. Great emigration from the United States com- 
menced November, 1848. Convention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 
31, 1849. Constitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, 
Dec. 1849. In 1831 the population (Mexican) was estimated at 23,0(i0. Bv the census of 
1850 the number was 92,597 ; by that of 1852 it was 264,435, of whom only 22,193 were 
white females. In 1856 the population was 518,380, of whom 336,380 were Americans; 
15,000 Mf>xicans; 10,000 Irish; 10,000 Germans ; 2,000 English, and 15,000 various (white) 
nationalities; 50,0o0 Chinese ; 65,000 Indians. From 1849 to 1847 inclusive, 75, Sol Chinese 
arrived at San Francisco, of whom 17,524 returned during the same time. Population in 
1860, 380,000; in 1866, nearly 5n0,000. In 1865 there were 947 schools in the State and 
over 100 newspapers and periodicals. From 1848 to 1864, hermines produced $816,500,000. 
Of this $541,600,000 has been coined at the mints. In 1866, the export of gold was $44,360, 
000. Over 18,000,000 bushels of cereals were produced in 1863 ; 17,000,000 vines were 
growing in 1866, giving 1,252,000 gallons of superior wine. 

C.VLORIC ENGINE. First reduced to practice by John Ericsson in London in 1833, 
and then considered a success, but not made practically available till 1852. In that year it 
was introduced in a ship of 2,000 tons, which it propelled from New York to Alexandria in 
the Potomac, and back in very rough weather February, 1853. This achievement created 
great excitement in the scientific world, but the speed attained was not comnrercially suffi- 
cient. Sub.sequently Ericsson devised an engine that for all purposes requiring a moderate 
power, has proved entirely successfid, and is now extensively used in the United States, Cuba, 
Canada, and in most South American and European States. It is inoxplosive, entirely free 
from danger, consumes but little fuel, and requires no water. Innumerable motors' have 
been planned and patented by men of science during the last hundred years, but the only 



14 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [cab 

one (otiier than steam engines) that has become an article of use and commerce is Ericsson's 
Calciic Engine, patented in the United States, Dec. 14, 1858. It establishes an epoch in the 
history of motive power. 

CANALS IN THE United States. Act for commencing the Great Erie Canal in New 
York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1S17. The c»nal (363 miles 
long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesapeake and Delaware Canal opened, &c., 
July 4, 1829. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal (Md.), cost $10,000,000, completed 
The Lachine Canal, in Canada, 3f miles, cost $235,934 per mile; the Erie Canal cost 
$19,679 per mile. Number of miles completed in 1858, 388; cost $90,000,000. Tolls 
received from U. S. canals in 1866, $4,436,«39. Number of boats, 485. By the Erie Canal 
2,235,700 tons of produce from the West were brought to tide-water. 

CANCER. A hospital to receive persons suffering from this fearful disease was founded 
by Miss Burdett Coutts, at Brompton, near London, on May 30, 1859. Experiments to cure 
it by acetic acid in progress in New Haven and New York {18Q6-1). 

CANNON, U. S. In 1820 the maximum size of guns in American forts was a "24- 
pounder; in 1850 the largest was a lO-inch bore, carrying balls of 124 lbs. A volume of 
reports of experiments in gunmukiiig was published by the U. S. Ordnance Department in 
1856. Just before the rebellion Capt. Parrott invented at West Point a rifled gun of great 
efficiency. The 10-pounder has a range of 5,000 yards. The 30(i-pounder can throw a shot 
of 250 lbs. 5^ miles. The guns invented by Mnjor Rodman during the war have a smooth 
chamber ; calibre, from 8 to 20 niches. The first 20-inch gun was cast at Pittsburg in 1864; 
weight, 116,000 lbs.; weight of shot, IcOO lbs.; charge, 100 lbs. of powder. The guns 
generally in use in the navy were invented by Capt. Dahlgren, U. S. N. The 9 and 11-inch 
bores are unequalled for powerful effect in close action. An enoinious Columbiad is mounted 
at Fortress Munroe, carrying shot of 526 lbs. weight. From 1861 to 1866 the Oidnance 
Department (U. S.) provided '7892 canijon for the army and navy. Steel cannon were first 
manufactured in the U. S. by Mr. N. Kiard of New York, June, 1861. 

W 

CAPITOL OF the United States. The corner-stone of the original edifice was laid by 
Washington, Sept. 18, 1793. It was burnt by the British 1814; restored 1818. Corner- 
stone of the new wings laid by Pres. Fillmore, July, 1851. The present structure is 751 feet 
long, and covers 3-^ acres. The colossal Statue of Freedom, by Crawford, was raised to the 
top of the dome Dec. 2, 1863. The iron dome cost $900,000. Up to Nov., 1862, the cost of 
the marble and the cutting and setting of the same was $2,402,000. 

CAROLINA. See N. and S. Carolina. 

CARPET MANUFACTURE. The value of carpets manufactured in Mass. in 1855 was 
$1,362,000. Carpets imported into the U. S. in 1857, valued at $2,181,290. In 1866 there 
were 200 carpet manufactories in the country, but of these " only six were capable of pro- 
ducing the fine class of carpeting required in the best houses." 

CASUALTIES for 1865. During the year 1865, there were 354 fires in the United 
States where the amount of loss was $20,000 or upwards, at which property was destroyed 
amounting, as estimated, to $43,139,000. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865, inclusive, 
were $214,588,000. During the year there were 183 railroad accidents, by which 335 persons 
were killed and 1,427 wounded; and 32 steamboat accidents, by which 1,788 were killed and 
265 wounded. During the last twelve years there were 1,413 railroad accidents, by which 
2,204 were killed and 8,356 wounded; and 324 steamboat accidents, by which 5,372 were 
killed and 1,579 wounded. 

CEMETERIES. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially that at 
Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened in 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelpliia (183-), and Green- 
wood, near New York (1839), are far more beautiful in their natural features than any of 
those near London or Paris. National — For soldiers of the U. S. who fell in battle or died 
in the service. In June, 1866, there were 41 National Cemeteries, with 104.528 graves. Ten 
more were to be added, containing a total of 249,397 graves. The " Antietam National 
Cemetery" has 8,000 graves, half of them marked "unknown." Provision made by Con- 
gress in 1867 for substantial headstones and improvements. Oration delivered by President 
Lincoln at the dedication of the Gettysburg Cemetery, July 4, 1864. In the suburbs of 
New York, several new rural cemeteries have been opened — (1840-67) — viz., Woodlawn, 
Calvary, The Evergreens. 

CENSUS OF the United States has been taken at six different periods, viz., I'ZOO, 
1800, 1810, 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, and I860. See Population. The Census is taken by tho 
general government every ten years ; that of New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Florida is bj 



cs>f] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 16 

those States taken decennially at intermediate periods, thus giving returns every five years. 
Other States have different periods for a census. In 1S65, it was taken in the State's of Illinois, 
Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Alabaraa, Rhode Island, and Iowa. Tlie numbei 
of persons employed in taking the U. S. census of 1860 was 4,481 ; expense to the Govern- 
ment, $1,045,206. 

CENSUS REPORTS, U. S. In lYOO, the entire population of the Anglo-American col- 
onies was 262,000; in 1750, it was 1,000,000 ; in 1775,2,389,800. In 1790, the population 
of the United States alone was 3,929,827 ; and in 186(i, 31,443,321. Anticipated population 
in 1900, 107,000,000. 

The unimproved lands of the United Sta'es, in 1860, amounted to 244,101,818 acres; im- 
proved lands, 163,110,720 acres; cash value of the whole estimated at $6,645,045,007, 

Estimated product of our manufactures in I860, |4,00i»,000,0n0. 

Commercial railroads in the United States, 35,985 miles, costing $1,432,649,000. 

City railroads, 402 miles, costing $14,862,84'). 

Slack-water caiuils and branches, 118, of which 68 cost $147,393,997. 

Real and personal property estimated at $19,089,156,289. 

Educational institutions reported, 113,006 ; teachers, 148,742; students, 5,417,880. Col- 
legiate institutions, 445 ; students, 54,969. Churches, 64,000. 

Newspapers, 4,051 ; circulation, 928,00u,00O copies. 

Revolutionary army, from 1775 to 1783, 281,791; vessels, 4. 

In 1812, regulars, 32,360; volunteers, 6,000; militia, 30,000; navy, 8 frigates and 170 
gun-boats. In 1815, 276 vessels, with 1,636 guns. 

In March, 1865, we had 684 vessels of war, with 4,477 guns, many of them of large 
calibre; and the aggregate number of men raised for the Union armies was 2,688,o00. If 
the Confederate forces be added, the grand total would be reached of 4,0o0,000 of men at 
arms — the largest force ever yet raised in any country or age of the world. — Christian 
Almanac. 

CHANCERY. In the U. S. federal courts equity and law are both administered, and this 
system was adopted by the State of New York in her Constitution of 1846. 

CHARITIES OF THE WAR m the U. S. A careful statement made of the amount 
contributed by the people of the loyal states for philanthropic purposes connected with the 
war, not including the donations for religious or educational objects, gives the following 
noble record : The total contributions from States, counties, and towns for the aid and relief 
of soldiers, amounted to $187,209,608 62; the contributions of associations and individuals 
for the care and comfort of soldiers were $24,044,865 96; for sufferers abroad, $380,040 74; 
for sufferers by the riots of July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633 13: making a 
grand total, exclusive of expenditures of the government, of $212,274,248 45. 

CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French refugees, 
exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in Carolina, and some 
of them in Cliarleston : from them are descended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. 
At the close of 1779 the city was taken by the British, and held bv them until May following. 
Population in 1790, 16,359'; in 1810, 24,711; in 1820, 24,780; "in 1830, 30,289; in 1840, 
29,261 — (a decrease of 1,< (28 in ten years) including 14,673 slaves ; Population in 1860,40,578. 
A severe fire destroyed the business portion of the city, December 11, 1861 ; 17 old hulks 
were sunk by U. S. forces to blockade the channel, December 21, 1861. The city surrendered 
to National troops, February 18, 1865. 

CHATTANOOGA, Battle of, U. S. Fought on Nov. 23, 1863, between the Union armies, 
under Gen. Grant, and the Confederates under Gen. Bragg. The Confederates were driven 
from every position. On the right, Hooker stormed Loolvout Mountain, Thomas in the cen-. 
tre carried the rifle pits, Sherman forced the left after hard fighting. On the 25th the whole 
of Missionary Ridge was in the hands of the Union army, and the enemy completely routed. 
This has been regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. Union loss 
about 4,000 ; 6,000 Confederate prisoners and 42 guns were captured. 

CHICAGO, Illinois. The growth of this place has been of a remarkable and extraordi-. 
nary character. In 1831 it contained about a dozen families. The "town" was organized by 
the election of five trustees, 1833,. there being in all 28 voters. First census, 1837, showed a 
population of 4,170. Population in 1850 was 28.269; in 1855, it was 83,509. 
It is now the largest primary grain depot in the world. Moie than 100 trains of cars arrive 
and depart daily. Receipts of grain in 1857 were $21,856,000. Population in 1860, 109,260; 
in 1865, estimated al 180,000. This city is the largest pork-packing depot in the country; 
1,000,000 hogs are annually killed and packed here. Loss by fires in Chicago in 1866, 
$2,467,673. 



16 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [chi 

CHICKAMAUGA, Battle of, U. S. A creek by this name was the scene of a severe bat- 
tle between the Union and Confederate forces, Sept, 19, 20, 1863. The Union right was 
completely broken and retreated. The left under Gen. Tliomns withstood the fierce assaults 
of the enemy, and saved the army from a total defeat. Gen. Bragg (Confed.) had been re 
inforced by Longstreet from Va. Gen. Rosecrans (Union) withdrew to Chattanooga, and 
acted entirely on the defensive for sometime after. The entire Rebel loss, as stated in their 
papers, 18,OuO. Union loss, 16,350, and 36 guns. 

CHINA TRADE. A large trade is developed with China through the city of San Francisco. 
"Flour, wheat, lumber, bacon, butter, cheese, lard, wine, and vegetables are exported from 
that city in increasing quantities." The value of exports from the U. S. to China in 1862, 
was $4,328,500. In 1866, 2,530,000 lbs. of tea were received through San Fiancisco; in the 
same year one shipment reached New York, via California and Panama, in 60 days. In 1867 
a regular line of steamers was established between China, Japan and California, owned by the 
Pacific Mail Steamship Co. of New York. Anson Burliugame appointed U. S. Minister to 
China, 1861. 

CHOLERA. The Cholera visited America again in 1865-6, and was most severe at the 
West, especially at Chicago, St. Louis, and Nashville. Fiom July to Sept. 1866, there were 
5*73 deaths from this disease in Brooklyn, and 583 in N. Y. city. 

CINCINNATI, Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the LTnited 
.States, was founded in 1789, bv emigrants from New England and New Jersey. Population 
in 1795, 500; in 1800, 750; "in 1810, 2,540; in 1820, 9,642; in 1880, 24,831; in 1840, 
46,338; in 1850, 115,486; in 1860, 161,044. 

CIDER. In the State of New York (1865), 691,879 barrels lof cider were manufactured. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The largest circulating library in the U. S. is the Mercantile 
■of N. Y. city. It contains 86,000 volumes, and has 10,000 members; 12,000 volumes were 
added in 1866, costing $15,000 ; 200 copies of the "Court of Joseph II." were bought to 
supply the demand, and liberal numbers of all new books of general interest. 

CLUBS IN THE United States. In New York: The most Important are ihe Athen<eiim, 
founded 1859, in 5th avenue, afterwards in Union square; now (1867) in Madison square; 
Cerdvry, founded in Broadway in 1848, now in 15th street; Eclectic, founded 186- ; Jockey. 
founded 186- ; New York, 18-; TraveUcrs\ 1865; Union, 5th avenue and 21st street; 
Union League, founded Feb. 6, 1863, incorporated Feb. 16, 1865; University, founded 1866. 
The Century and the Athenceum were originated as " associations ibr the advancement ot 
literature and art." The Union League was started on the basis of " unconditional loyalty " 
to the government, and to aid in the suppression of treason and rebellion. It was said to 
have made loyalty " fashionable in the best circles."' It raised three regiments of colored 
troops for the U. S. volunteer forces, and otherwise rendered important services. In Phila- 
delphia, the Union League Club, founded Dec. 27, 1862, was the foremost of its kind in the 
U. S. It raised ten regiments for the government. It numbers 2,00() members, and has a 
magnificent club-house. One of the oldest clubs in Philadelphia was the Wistar. In Boston 
the Union League Club was founded in 1863. 

COAL IN the United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined 
and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 
700 miles. The "Statistics of Coal," by R. C. Taylor, published in Philadelphia in 1854, give 
a full and reliable account of coal products in all parts of the world. The anthracite coal of 
Pennsylvania was first used by a blacksmith in the Wyoming Valley in 1775. Bituminous 
coal first mined in U. S. in 1845. Total amount produced in 1860, 6,218,080 tons. Amount 
of all coals in 1860, 14,333,992 tons. Coal is worked in fifteen of the States. The upper 
seam of the Pittsburg coal fields is estimated to contain 53,516 million tons. A single 
lump of coal, weighing 4 tons, was sent to the Paris Exposition of 1867. The area of coal 
in the U. S. is 206,939 square miles ; 470 miles is anthracite in Pennsylvania. The product 
in 1865 was 22,000,000 tons, of which 10,000,000 was anthracite. 

COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods is report- 
ed by the Secretary of the Treasury thus : 

1821 Tea, 4,586,223 lbs Coffee, 11.886,063 Ihs. 

1830 " 6,873,0911be " 38,363.687 lbs. 

1835 " 12,331,638 lbs , " 91,753,002 lbs. 

1842 " 13,482,645 lbs " 107,387,667 lbs. 

1846 " 16,891.021) lbs " 124,336,054 lbs. 

1856 " 240,676,227 lbs. 

In 1867 a company was being organized to introduce the cultivation of coffee in Soutl 
Florida. The duty on imports of coffee, by tariff of July, 1862, is five cents per pound. 



coi] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 17 

COIN OF THE U. S. Tlie U. S. Mint was established in 1*792. The gold coinage consists 
of double engles $2i), engles, haif-eagies, quarter-eagles, and dollars. Gold doUlirs were first 
coined in 1849. The first deposit of California gold for coining was made by Mr. David 
Carter, l,8(i4 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. 

COINAGE of the U. S. Mint from 1'793 to 18G6,- inclusive :— 

Gold. TDtal. 

1793 to 18,50. alh J-oars, $117,569,ci25 $196,054,037 

1S51 10 ISliO. 9i yeais, 470,838,180 S^O.irS.ftSo 

ISbI to 18Q0, ij yuai-s, 257,128,585 171,194,133 

Total, 1845,536,590 $987,424,026 

COLLEGES IN THK Untted States. The first establislied was Harvard^ at Cambridge, 
Mass., by John Harvard, 1638 ; and this is now the most important and best endowed in the 
United States. The second was William and Mary, in Virt^inia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New 
Haven, 1700. Fourth, College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Columbia, New York, 
1734. Sixth, Uiuvcruti/ of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 17f>.5. ■ Seventh, Broiun University, 
Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. Ninth, Rutgers, New 
Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the Revolution. The first medical school 
was that at Philadelphia, founded 1734. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 
1782. In 1857 there were 118 colleges in the United States; 47 theological schools; 15 law 
schools ; 39 medical schools. See Education, Schools, &c. 

COLORADO, U. S. A territory of the U. S. organized M.arch, 1861. Area, 104,000 square 
milrs. Capital, Denver City. In 1862, $12,000,000 in gold was produced from its mines. 
Population in 1860, 34,230, and about 6,000 Indians. A bill to admit the territory as a state 
passed Congress, but was vetoed. May, 18o3. 

COLUMBIA, District of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Virginia and 
Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the seat of government. It in- 
cluded the cities of Washington, Georgetown, and Alexandria; but in 1843 the latter was re- 
ceded to Virginia. P.)pulation in 18iO, 14,093; in 1840, 43,71^, including 8,361 free 
colored persons, and 4,694 slaves. In 1850, 51,687, including 3,687 slaves ; in 1860, 61,403; 
in 1864, 75,00.1, Including 31,-5i)0 blacks. In 1866, 74 colored schools weie in operation in 
the district. Its area is 60 square miles. Population in 1867, 118,800, of whom there were 
several thousand more women than men. Impartial suffrage bill passed by Congress, admit- 
ting colored voters in the district, 1867 : first in force at the municipal election of 1867, when 
colored votes were cast for city officers. 

COMMANDERS IN CHIEF, U. S. Army :— 

, Jacob Brown, 1821. Geor£je T!. McCIellan, 1361. 

Alexander Macomb, 1835. Hsnry W. Haileck, 1862. 

Winfleld Soott, 1341. U. S. Grant, 1864. 

COMMERCIAL FAILURES. The circular of Dun, Boyd & Co. of New York, gives the 
following statistics of failures in the U. S. 

1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 

Failures 1.917 4,225 3,913 3,676 

Amouat $291,750,000 $95,7.')0,000 $64,294,000 $78,807,000 

Of the 3,676 failures in. 1860, 695 are set down as swindlers; tlieir debts amounting to 
$lii,6H4,000. In the Northern States, in 1862, the number of failures was 1,652; liabilities, 
$23,049, 30;->. In 1865, 530; .$17,625,000. 

COMETS. Two new comets were discovered in 1862; one at Athens, Greece, July 2d, 
another at Cambridge, Mass., July ISth. Besides these, the regular return of Encke's comet 
took place in the beginning of the year. In 1S63, five new comets were found, none of them 
in the U. S. ; one only was visible to the n;;ked eye with any certainty. 

CONCORDANCE. Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to Shakespeare, a remi-irkable 
monument of a woman's intelligent and patient industry, was completed in 1844, after tea 
years' labor. 

CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates from nine 
of the colonies (Mass., R. I, Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. C), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 
1765 ; Tim. Ruggles, Pres. The Contiuental Congress met at Phila. Sept. 5th, 1774; again 
May 10, 1775: adopted Deck Indap. July 4, 1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. 
March 4, 1777 ; at Lancaster. Pa., Sept. 27,1777; at York, Pa., Sept. 30, 1777 ; at Phila. July 
30, 1778; at Princeton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 
1784; at N. York, Jan. 1785; and that continued to be the place of meeting until the adop- 
tion of the constitution, 1789: removed to Phila. 1790.; to Washington, 1800. The ap« 



Ig DICTIONARY OF DATES. [com 

portionment made by Congress, March 4, 1862, under the census of 1860, increased the mini- 
ber of Representatives to 242. There were also 9 Delegates from the Territories, wlio 
deliberate but have no vote. The Senators in 1860 were 62 in nimiber. Each Senator and 
Representative is allowed $10,000 compensation for each Congress (two years), deducting 
for absence ^1866). In the 39th Congress there were 52 Senators and 192 Representatives, 
the Southern States not yet being represented. In the 40th Congress (1867), the same 
number, with the addition of Senators and Representatives from Tennessee. 

CONGRESS, " Confederate." Delegates from seven Southern States met at Montgom- 
ery, Alabama, Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a congress ; Howell Cobb, chairman. On the 8th, a 
constitution was adopted similar to that of the (J. S. On the 9th, a President and Vice Tres. 
were elected for the " Confederacy," Jeff. Davis and Alex. H. Stephens. Virginia was admit- 
ted into it May 1, 1861. May 22, it adjourned to meet at Richmond, Va., on July 20, 1861. 
The Confederate Government was compelled to leave the city in haste, by the approach of 
the National army, April 3, 1865. Its Congress never assembled again. 

CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States : first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by a colony 
from Massachusetts. Hartford settled by the English in 1635, the Dutch having previously 
built a fort there which they did not permanently hold. English colony founded at New 
Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles 
II., in 1655. This charter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an 
oak, near Hartlbrd, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in the Revolu- 
tion ; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by the British during that strug- 
gle. It became one of the original 13 States, adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, 
by a vote of 128 to 40. Population 1Y13, 17,OuO ; 1790, 237,946; 1810,261,942; 1830, 
297,655 ; 1840, 309,978 ; 1850, 370,792 ; 1860, 460,670. 

CONSERVATIVE, U. S. A term used in American politics to denote the opposite of ex- 
treme and sectional views. In the Presidential campaign of 1860, Mr. Fillmore was known 
as the candidate of the " Conservative party," in distinction from the anti-slavery party of the 
North and the pro-slavery party of the South. 

CONSTITUTION or the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of delegates from all 
the (then) States, May, 1787. Ratified by the several States at difierent times. See the re- 
spective States. The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration v>'as celebrated in New 
York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced an oration before 
the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. The great amendment to the constitution abolishing 
slavery in the U. S., passed Congress, Jan. 1865. Three fourths of the States, 27 in number, 
ratified it, and it became the law of the land, Dec. 18, 1865. Another amendment passed 
Congress, June 13, 1866, declaring all men to be equal before the law ; that Representatives 
shall be apportioned according to the whole number of persons in each State ; that no person 
who shall have engaged in the insurrection shall hold any office under the U. S. Govern- 
ment ; and that the validity of the National debt shall not be questioned nor the Rebel debt 
recognized. This amendment has not yet (1867) been ratified by three fourths of the 
States. 

CONSULS, U. S. See Ambmmdors. 

CONTRABANDS, U. S. In May, 1861, some slaves coming into the lines of Gen.Butler 
at Fort Monroe, Va., he refused to surrender them to their owners on the ground that they 
were " Contraband of War." Since then the term has been used for "blacks or slaves." 

CONTRIBUTIONS, in aid of the Government of the U. S. (1861-65). See Charities. The 
contributions from States, counties, and towns for the aid and relief of Union soldiers, amount- 
ed to $187,209,608. The contributions of associations and individuals for the care and com- 
fort of soldiers were $24,044 865 : for sufferers abroad, $380,040 : for sufferers by the riots of 
July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633. Total voluntary contributions of the people 
of the loyal States, $212,274,248. The famous Sanitary and Christian Commissions, in which 
hundreds volunteered their services for the rehef of soldiers, were of invaluable assistance to 
the Government during the war. 

CONVENTIONS in the U. S. • In Feb. 1861, a Convention of distinguished menfrotn the 
States met at Washington, D. C, as a Peace Conference to propose compromise measures 
between the North and South. Their propositions were referred to Congress, which re- 
jected them, hovvever. 

COPYRIGHT IN United States. The first act for the protection of literary property in 
the United States, passed chiefly through the influence of Noah Webster, the lexicographer, 
May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, April 29, 1802— granting copyright for 14 
years, subject to renewal for 14 years if the author is living. Memoiial of 56 British authors 



cop] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 19 

asking for loternational Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr, Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. Act 
to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of boolcs to secure the copyright 
must be deposited in there as well as in tlie library of Congress, and office of Sec. State, Aug. 
10, 1846. This act modified so that the copy must be sent to the library of Congress. The 
law of 1831 gives an author exclusive right to his works for 28 years, and a right of renewal 
to himself, his wife and children for 1-1 years more, making 42 years in all. No foreigner 
can secure a copyright unless residing in the U. S. So far (1867) the American Government 
has refused or failed to respond to the British offer of reciprocity in literary copyriglit. A 
treaty for this purpose was framed by Mr. Everett in 1854, but never acted upon. 

COPYRIGHT OF BOOKS, Produce of. The most profitable copyrights in the TI. S. have 
been those on school-text-books, many of which have yielded large sums to the authors. Of 
literary and historical works the most profitable have been the works of Prescott, Bancroft, 
Irving, Longfellow, Kane, Mrs. Stowe, and the several Histoiies of the late Rebellion. 

COPYRIGHT, International. In England in 1838 and 1852 acts were passed to secure to 
authors, in certain cases, the benefit of international copyright (1 & 2 Vict. c. 59 & 15 Vict. c. 
12), and conventions were in consequence entered into with France, Russia, Saxony, &c. Up to 
1854, American and other authors were (inlbi'mally) allowed a copyright in EngUmd when their 
works were first or simultaneously published there ; but the House of Lords, in the case of 
Jeffrey vs. Boosey, decided in 1854 that the privilege should be enjoyed only by authors of 
those nations which reciprocated it, unless the author resides in England. 

CORINTH, U. S., a town in northern Mississippi; important during the war as a mili- 
tary position. After the battle of Pittsburg Landing Gen. Beauregard (Confed.) entrenched 
himself there and was partially besieged by U. S. forces under Gen. Halleck. Heavy fight- 
ing there May 27, 1862. The place was evacuated by the Rebels, May 29, 1862. 

CORN (INDIAN), U. S. See Agriculture. The monthly report of agriculture for December 
contains a final estimate of the corn crop of 1866. The total result is 880,000,000 bushels. 
Corn used for fuel in Iowa in 1865. It is said to give as much heat per bushel as coal. E.'c- 
porcs of corn in 1866 amounted to $12,299,879. 

COSTUME. An attempt to introduce a semi-masculine female costume known as 
Bloomers (from Mrs. Bloomer, of Seneca, N. Y.) was made in 184 — , but with very limited 
success. It was overshadowed by the other extreme, the crinoline, ascribed to the empress 
Eugenie, originating a few months before the birth of the heir to the French throne (about 
1854). The latter was the prevailing fashion until 1866-7, when itwas superseded by a walk- 
ing dress with a very small expansion. 

COTTON, U. S. The exports of cotton since 1821, have thus advanced (stated in millions 
of pounds weight) : — 



1821 


124 


1830 


298 


1840 


743 


1S49 


1026 


1850 


635 


1855 


1098 


1856 


13.51 


1857 


1048 


1S58 


1118 



124 millions, average price 16 cts. 



16 cts. 


1859 


1386 


9 " 


1^60 


176T 


14 " 


1861 


807 


6 " 


1862 


5 


11 » 


1^63 


11 


8 " 


1864 


lOJ 


9 " 


1865 


6i 


12 '« 


isee 


650 


11 " 







1386 millions, average pr'ce 11 cts. 

' " "II " 

« « 111 « 

u 23J " 

" •' 66 " 



Total value of cotton exported in 39 years, 2383 millions of dollars. Value in 1859, 161 mil- 
lions. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the 5 years 1844-9, were as follows: 
U. States 78^ per cent ; India lOi^ ; Brazil 7 ; Egypt 3| ; W. Indies, &c. | per cent. In England 
a cotton supply association to oljtain from Africa, India, &c., was formed at Manchester about 
1857. Lieut. Burton, who explored the inteiior of Africa in 1859, states that cotton grows 
there in great profusion, and a decent kind of cotton cloth is manufactured by the natives. 
In the U. S. the estimates show a total product of l,750,(iOO bales of 400 pounds each in 1866. 
The estimates are made up as follows: North Carolina, 91,(»00 bales; South Carcliua 152,0()0; 
Georgia, 205,000; Florida, 36,000; Alabama, 220,000; Mississippi, 270,000; Louisiana, 
100,000; Texas, 300,000; Arkansas, 182,000; Tennessee, 148,000; other States, 87,00o bales. 
In 1860 the product of the U. S. was 5,198,077 bales. Revenue to the Government, from the 
pntduction of cotton in 1866, $18,409,655, Exports of cotton in 1866 amounted to $281,385,223. 
Imports of cotton manufactures in 1866, $30,166,300. 

COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following was the 
estimated number of spindles in actual operation: Great Britain, 17,000, .500; France, 
4,300,000; Zollverein States, 815.000; Russia, 700,000; Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 
420,000 ; Spain, 300,000 ; Italy, 3oO,UO0. Total, 27,485,000 



20 DICTIONARY CF DATES. [coi 

In the tJ. S. iu 1850, the number of spindles employed in the five New England Statoa 
was 2,751,078 ; in 11 other States, 236,480. Number of spindles in the whole couuiry in 
1860, 5,235,727. 

COTTON-GIN. This invention, in 1793, by Eli "Whitney of New Haven, gave an extra- 
ordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and prepares 300 lbs. per 
day ; by the old mode only a single pound a day could be cleansed. 

COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By Act of Congress, May 29, 1830, officers commanding 
distinct posts, and all general officers, can convene Courts-Martial. There are several limit- 
ations to the act. The number forming a court is from 5 to 13. Great numbers of these 
Courts were in session during the late war. In 1866, 8,188 records of Courts-Martial and 
Military Commissions were received and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice, Wash- 
ington, D. 0. 

COURT, SUPREME, of the U. S. By Act of Congress, July 23, 1866, no vacancy in 
this Court is to be filled, until the number is reduced to one Chief Justice and six associate 
Justices. Before this there were eight associate Justices. 

The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Courts. 

CRIME, New York City. Who Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent pub- 
lication states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one months, 31,088 were 
natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners; of whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 
Germans, and 4,!)00 Eughsh. Of 28,821 persons admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 
22,468 were foreigners ; 15,948 were Irish, 1,240 Germans, and 1,297 English. During the 
same time, of 50,015 admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,335 in- 
mates of the lunatic asylum, 3,360 were foreigners. Of 251,344 committed to the city prison, 
only 59,385 were natives, while 86,431 professed to be members of the church of Rome. 
— ^Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616. — 11,222 were convicted in the 
court of Special Sessions. During the war, there was a marked diminution of punished crime 
throughout the country. See Prisons. 

CRYSTAL PALACE in Nkw York, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a cross, 
with a dome, was connnenced Oct. 1852. Exhibition opened to the public (Pres. Pierce 
being present) August, 1853. The building destroyed by fire, with its contents, as exhibited 
by Amer. Institute, Sept. 1859. 

CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in the United States. The amounts collected were, in 



1789 . 


. $4,399,473 


1825 


$20,098,714 


1847 


123,747,864 


ISOO 


. 9.0S0,93S' 


1830 . 


. 21,922,391 


1^48 . 


31,757,070 


1805 . 


. 12;936;4.S7 


1835 


19,391,311 


1850 


39,000,000 


ISIO 


. 8,583.309 


1840 . 


. 13,499,940 


1855 . 


53 000,000 


1815 . 


7,282,942 


1S45 


27,528,113 


1863 


69,000.000 


1820 . 


. 15,005,612 


1846 . 


. 26,712,628 


1865 . 


. 179,000,000 



Total amount from 1789 to 1861, $1,575,152,679 92c. Expenses of collecting Customs 
duties in 1863, $3,238,936 00. 

D 

DAGUERREOTYPES. In 1855 not less than 15,000 persons were engaged in this busi- 
ness in theU. S. In 1867 the number must be nearer 30,(i00. The art of photography on 
paper, however, is rapidly superseding the Ibrmer use of metal plates. See Plioiography. 

DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 1840 
there were 6,916 Wind persons, or 1 in 2,4b7 of the population ; 7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 
in 2 228 ; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 23 asylums 
for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. In the United States in 1860 there were 14,269 
Deaf and Dumb persons. The Iftstitution for such persons situated at N. Y. City, is the 
laro-est for the " instruction of deaf-mutes only, iu its accommodations and number of pupils, 
in "the world," (National Almanac). Number of teachers in Dec, ]8(i3, 16, of whom 8 were 
deaf-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded in 1817. Whole nimiber of 
graduates 1300. In 1862 there were 22 institutions in the country for the deaf and dumb, 
with 130 teachers and 2000 pupils. Their annual support requires about $'3:0,000, of which 
$300,000 is appropriated by the Legislatures of 29 States. Among the most pi eminent and 
successful of the pliilanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of 
the above ] er.~ons in the United States are Dr. Amariah Brigham, Dr. Butler, and Rev. T. 
H. Gallaudet, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe, of Boston. 

DEATH. Punishment of, U. S., is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and arson 
in the first degree. Capital punishment is abolished in the State of Wisconsin. 



deb] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 21 

DEBT, NATIONAL, U S. See National Debt. 

DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinap:e, Weights, &c., was established in France in lYOO, and 
shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the English Parliament in 
1824,"l838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1865. The decimal currency was adopted in Canada, 1858. 
Internatioiuil Decimal Association formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed law? 
legalizing the use of the Metric system in the country, in 186-, without at once substituting 
it for our present system. It is already used in some arts and trades. By act of Congress, 
July 27, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each State with one set of the 
standard weights and measures of the Metric System. 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDEN^CE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence 
(North Carolina) was passed in May, 1775, two months before that drawn up by Jefferson at 
Philadelphia. 

DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on students, in 
testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of pontifical origin. — Boumer. 
Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of Arts, A. B. By a further course of study 
for three years, they become Master of Arts, A. M. The title Doctor of Medicine, M. D. is 
conferred on students on their graduation from Medical schools ; but Doctor of Divinity 
(D. D.), and of Law (LL. D.), is an honorary degree conferred by Faculties on distinguished 
persons. 

DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled in IGoO, by 
the Swedes and Finns under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus, and received the name of 
New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the Dutch, wlio in turu surrendered it, with 
New Netherlands, to the English in 1664, and then named Delaware. Tlie Duke of York 
granted it to Wm. Penn, in 1682, and it remained nonnn:ilIy united to Pennsylvania until 
17T5. This State bore an honorable part in the Revolution, and suffered much in the 
struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. bv a unanimous vote in Convention, 
Dec's, 1787. Population,— 1790, 59,094 ; 1840, 78,085'; including 2,605 slaves. Popula- 
tion in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves ; in 1860, 110,.548, and 1,805 slaves. The Delaware 
Breakwater, two-thirds of a mile long, cost the Government $2,0()0,000. 

DETROIT, Michigan, U. S. Established as a military post by the French, 1670. Cnme 
into the possession of the British, 1760. In 1783 surrendered to the United States. In 1812, 
captured by the British, but evacuated in the same year. In 1805, the town was completely 
destroyed by fire. It was the capital of the State until 1850. Population in 1865, about 
60,000. 

DESIGN, ACADEMY OF, of N. Y. Founded in 1826. A beautiful building, in the Gothic 
style, was erected in 1863. Architect, P. B. Wight ; cost, $150,000. There is an annual ex- 
hibition of paintings, lasting from April to July. 

DICTIONARY, U. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English hmguage, 
in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 1828. It was reprinted in Lon- 
don, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The revised edition of Webster's Diction- 
ary, in one volume quarto, was issued by its present proprietors (Messrs. Merriani), in 1S44-5. 
A new and enlarged edition appeared in 1864 : it contains 114,000 words, and 3,000 illustra- 
tions. Worcester's edition, in quarto, was published in 1860. It is also illustrated, and con- 
tains 104,000 words. The former is edited at Yale College, the latter at Cambridge, Mass. 

DIPLOMACY OF THE UxiTKD States. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britain 
and France. 



Great Britain. 
1783 John Adams. 
1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 
1792 Thomas Pincknev, of B. 0., min.plen. 
1794 .Tohn .J ly, of N. Y. do. 

l79(i Rufiis King, do. do. 

180S, J inies Monroe, Va } Jointly 

180G W lliam Pinckney, Mass. \ in 18C6. 
1808 Willinm Pickuey, do. alone, min. plen. 
1815 .Tolin Qui cy Adams, Mass. do. 

1817 Richard Rush, Pn. do. 

:826 Albert Gallatin, N. T. do. 

1828 .Tames Barbour, Va. do, 

ISoO liouis McLiine, Del. do. 

1831 M. Van Buren. N. Y. do. 

1*^32 A:iron Vail, ohartre d'affaires. 
1S.'56 And. Stevenson, Va. minister plen. 
1841 Edward Everett, MasB. <lo. 

1S45 Louis McLaue, Md. do. 



France. 
1776 B. Franklin, B. Deane, and A. Lee, cora'ra. 
1790 Wm. Stiort, of Va., charge d'utlaires. 
1792 Goiiv. Morris, N. J., minister pleii. 
1799 James Monr^ie. Vu. do. 

1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. ) do. 

1797 E. Gerry ai d J. Marshall, \ do. 
1799 01. Ellswrtli, P. Henry. } , 

and W Vans Murrav, ( "O- 
1801 Janiee A. B .yard, Del. do. 
1801 K. It. Livii gston, N. Y. do. 
1804 John Arnistionir, do. do. 

1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. do. 

1813 Wm. H. Crawlord, Geo. do. 
1815 Albert G.allatin. Pa. do. 

1823 James Brown, La. do. 

1830 Wm. C. Rives. Va. da 

1833 Eilward Livingston, La. do. 
1836 Lewis Cass, Mich. do. 



22 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [mr 



1846 George Bancroft, Mass. min. plea. 
1849 Abbott Lawrence, do, do. 

1S52 James Buchaniin, Pa. do. 

1653 Jaiiies K. Ingtrsoll do. do. 

1S56 George M. Dallas, do do. 

1801 Olis. Francis Adams, Mass. do. 



1844 Wm. R. King, Ala. min. plen. 

1849 W. C. Rives, Va. do. 

1853 James Y. Mason, Va. do. 
1857 Cliarles J. Faulkner, Va. do. 

1861 Wm. L. Da\ ton, N. J. do. 

1865 John Bigelow, N. Y. do. 

1866 Jolm A. Dix, do. do. 



DIPHTHERIA, U. S. The number of deaths by this disease in NewTork State, from Dec. 
1864 to June 1865, was 2942. 

DIRECTORY, New York City. The earliest published was in 1*786: a small volume of 
eighty-two pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The names of the individuals 
and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty-three pages, the remainder being filled with 
general statistics of the city, United States Government, Post Office Regulations, &c. In liis 
address, the editor states it was the " first directory ever attempted in this country." The 
New York Historical Society possesses a complete set from its first publication. The Direct- 
ory of 1866-7 contains 176,511 names; increase of 10,867 over 1865-6. The volume for 
1867-8 contains 177,317 names ; a further increase of 806 only. 

DISPENSARIES, U. S. There are eleven in New York City. The oldest was founded in 
1795. The poor receive treatment and medicine in them free of charge. 

DISTILLATION, U. S. The number of Distilleries in the U. S. in 1860 was 1,138, em- 
ploying a capital of $24,253,000. Number in New York State in 1865, 67. The consump- 
tion of distilled spirits in IT. S. in 1865 was about 40,000,000 gallons. It appeared in that 
year that for every three gallons that paid the revenue tax, five evaded the payment. The 
revenue amounted to $29,198,000. 

DIVORCE FOR ADULTERY. In this country adultery is a ground of divorce in all the 
States. In Massacliusetts, Maine, and New Jersey, wilful desertion for five years, and in 
some other States desertion for two and tliree years, and some other causes, are ground for 
divorce. Divorce has been granted most frequently in Yermont, Connecticut, and Indiana. 
In Connecticut cruel treatment is a ground of absolute divorce. The Ministers of the Gos- 
pel in that State have called the attention of the Legislature to the laxity of its Divorce 
Laws (1867). 

DOGS, LAWS ABOUT, F. S. In New York dogs are required to be muzzled during June, 
July, and August. A reward of fifty cents is given for every dog brought to the pound un- 
muzzled. Unless redeemed in 24 hours they are drowned. In 1866, 4,819 dogs were drown- 
ed in New York City, at an expense of $3,000. 

DUELLING. The most noted American duels were these : two during the Revolution, 
viz., Gen. Charles Lee and Col. John Laurens; and Gen. Cadwallader and Conway (1778). 
Gen. Greene was challenged by a Capt. Gunn of Geoi'gia, but refused to fight, and his refu- 
sal was approved by Washington. Gen. Hamilton killed by Aaron Burr, July 11, 1804. 
Com. Decatur killed by Com. Barron, March 22, 1820. Henry Clay encotmtered John Ran- 
dolph, April 8, 1826. Gen. Jackson killed Mr. Dickinson, and had other duels. Col. Benton 
killed a Mr. Lucas, and had other duels. Cilley, of Maine, killed by Graves, of Kentucky, 
both mem. of Cong.), 1838. Dewitt Clinton exchanged five shots with John Swartwout, 
1802. See Millingen's Hist, of Duelling, and Sabine's Notes on Duels, 1855. 

E 

EDUCATION IN THE U. S. has been largely promoted and systematized since 1835 by 
the efforts and publications of Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, Dan P. Page, Alonzo Potter, 
Barnas Sears, and others. Am. Inst, of Instruction organized at Boston Ang. 19, 1830, and 
has held annual meetings since. During the last two years of the war, 1864-5, the very large 
sum of $848,0(10 was donated to New England colleges. The New England seminaries for 
young ladies meanwhile received less than a fiftieth part of the above noble subsidy. The 
munificent donation of George Peabody ($2,000,000) to promote education in the Southern 
States was corfided to a Board of Trustees, Robert C. Winthrop of Boston, President, 1867; 
and Barnas Sears, President of Brown University, accepted the general agency of this 
Trust. See Colleges and Schools. 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Prof. Morse's services to the world as the originator of the 
practical application of electro-magnetism to telegraphing, were acknowledged by the French 
<jOvernment in 1859, by the voluntary presentation to him of $80,000 (?); and by public 
fconors and rewards from other governments of Europe in 1860. 

ELECTRIC Telegraph Lines. Ir 1860, in America, 45,000 miles; in England, 10,000; 



emb] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 2S 

in France, 8,000 ; in Germany and Austria, 10,000 ; in Prussia, 4,000 ; in Russia, 5,000 ; ia 
the rest of Europe, 7,650; in India, 5,0()0; in Australia, 12,000; elsewhere, 500. Total in 
1858, 96,350. Overall the lines in the United States the number of messages per year 13 
estimated at 4,000,000. It is supposed that a telegraph could be laid around the globe for 
less than half the cost of the Erie railroad. See Submarine Telegraph. In the United States 
the overl.md line from Missouri to Cahfornia was completed Oct. 22, 1861. A cable wna 
laid across Chesapeake Bay from Fortress Monroe in 1861. Ninety-live lines of telegraph 
are laid under American rivers. 

EMBARGO IN THE United States. Embargo on all vessels in the ports of the 
United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with Gi'eat Britain after the 
attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Repealed, and non-intercourse act passed, 
1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. 

EMIGRATION to the United States. The total number of alien emigrants who 
arrived in the U. S. from 1819 to 1856, was 4,212,62-1. From 1784 to 1819, the number did 
not probably exceed 150,000 ; in all, say 5,000,000 arrived from 1784 up to January, 1859. 
Of this number about 2,600,O0i) came from Great Britain and Ireland ; 1,600,000 from 
Germany; 200,000 from France ; 50,000 from Sweden and Norway; 40,000 .from Switzer- 
land, and 18,o(iO from Holland. [Appleton's Cijclo.) The commission for receiving emigrants 
at Castle Garden, N. Y. City, was established m 1847. From that time to 1867, 3,658,800 
emigrants have landed there. See Aliens. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA. The Iconographic Cyclopedia., 6 vols., based on a German work, pub- 
lished at New York, 1853-4. The English Cyclopedia (Charles Knight), based on the Penny 
Cyclopedia, 1855-60. The 8th edition of Encyclop. Britannica completed 1860. Appleton's 
Cyclopedia, 1857-62, 16 vols. (X. York). Appleton's " Annual Cyclopedia," begins with the 
year 1861, and is a complete review of the great events in the world, of each year. The 
volumes, 1861-5, contain a valuable history of the war. 

ENLISTMENT, U. S. The following is a list of the various " calls" for troops by the 
Government during the war: — 

Date nf Call. Number of Msn. 

April 15, 1862 75,000 

May to .lune 25, 1862 530,300 

July 2, 1S62 300,000 

Aug. 4, 1862 300,000 

Oct. 17, 1863 300,000 

Feb. 1,1864 200,000 

March 1 4, 1864 200,000 

July IS, 1864 500,000 

Dec. 19, 1 864 300,000 

There were other calls for 30 and 100 days' men. The whole number called for was 
2,759,049; total obtained, 2,656,553. By Act of March 3, 1863, called the "Conscription 
Act," the Piesident was authorized to draft troops. The act provided for an enrollment, a 
draft, the reception of substitutes, and arrest of deserters. About 3,000,000 men between 
the ages of 20 and 45 were enrolled. The calls from Oct. 17, 1863, were orders for drafts. 
But probably not more than 50,000 drafted men performed personal service. Substitutes 
were obtained. " The Substitute Fund" of the Government, consisting of money paid in 
as a release fiom service, and which was used as a "Bounty Fund" for volunteers, amounted 
to $25,902,029. See Army of U. S. 

EPISCOPAL CHURCH in the United States. Episcopacy established in New York 
bylaw, 1693; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church in America were Bishops White of Peimsylvania and Provost of New 
York, consecrated in London, 1787. First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, 
New Jersey, Kentucky, and Ohio consecrated at New York, Nov. 2, 1832. 

EQUITY COURTS of U. S. In New England, New York, and several other States, 
the same Judge may try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are no Chancellors in 
these States. In New York the distinction between "actions at law and suits in equity," 
was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey, Delaware, and other States, the English form of 
Chancery Courts and practice is still preserved (1867). 

ESQUIRE, title of, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of almost every des- 
cription, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to it by law, and, therefore, 
it confers no distinction in law. — Bouvier. 

ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind to each 
other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was published in 1826, and Dr. 



n. Termof Service. 


Number nhtained. 


3 months ... 


93,328 


3 years 


714,213 


3 years 


431,358 


9 months 


87,000 


3 years ) 

3 years \"' 


374,807 


3 \i'ar8 


284,021 


1-2-3 yoars 


384,882 


1-2-3 years 


204,568 



24 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [exo 

Pricbnrd's grent work, Researches on the Physical History of Mankind, 1841-1. Tlie London 
Eihnologicul Society, esiabliyhed in 1843, publishes its tr;insactions. Dr. R. S. Latliani'a 
woriis, on the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnolo- 
gical Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first president. It 
has published S or 4 vols, of " Transactions." The works of Schoolcraft on the history of 
American Indians are coi^ious and valuable. The belief in the original unity of the human 
race \v,\s been opposed in the works of Nott and Gliddon {Etlinological Researches), Agassiz 
and others, 1854-9. Mr. George Peabody, in 1866, donated to Yale College $150,000 to 
maintain a museum and Professorship of ArchEeology and Ethnology, also a like amount lor 
the same purpose to Harvard College. 

EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue. 

EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New York. The present building, on the site of the one 
destroyed in the great fire of 18S5, was commenced in 1836, and finished in 1840. It is of 
blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was purchased by the U. S. government 
lor use as the Custom House. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. 

EXPLORING EXPEDITION (IJ. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, 
ditto ; Porpaise, biig ; Relief, Flying Pish, and Sea Gull, snuiller vessels, under Lieut. 
Wilkes, TJ. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Vn., Aug. l9th, 1838. Antartic continent dis- 
covered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 
1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (tiag- 
ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly iour years, June 11, 1842. Captain 
Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 
1845. The scientific reports of the expedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS of the U. S. 

Exports of Produce. of 3IanuJacture.s. Tola}. Imports. 

$131 millions 16 millions 147 millions 147 millionB, 

15 " 149 " 178 " 



1849 


$131 


IS.'iO 


134 


1860 


816 


1861 


204 


1862 


182 


186-5 


249 


1864 


217 


1865 


254 


1866 


466 



.48 " 364 " £G2 

.43 " 247 " 286 

.S3 " -^15 " 275 

.50 " 299 " 252 

.45 " -'(12 " 8l9 

.64 " 318 " 2o4 

.64 " 530 " 437 



F 

FENIANS (See p. 29*7). A society of Irishmen in the U. S. and in Ireland, pledged to 
work for the liberation of Ireland. Organized in. 185Y. First attracted notice in the 
U. S. in I860. In that year, Nov., a Fenian Congress met in Chicago, composed ol 200 dele- 
gates. In 1865 the regr.lar members of the order numbered 80,(00. " Head Centre " 
Stephens figured conspicuously as the leader. In 1S66, Fenian meetings were held all over 
the country. In the Spi ing considerable numbers assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, 
Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towai ds Canada. June 1, 1866, a body of them 
ci'ossed over and engaged in a skirmi.'-h with Canadian troops. Tl.ey were compelled to 
re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian ofiicers were arrested by the U. S. government, and the 
men sent to their homes. In 1867, the excitement over this organization had greatly sub- 
sided. Attempts to create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessful. Several of the leaders 
were arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted to im- 
prisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and carried on by men 
of Irish birth and immediate descent, and was not an American movement, as indicated by 
Haydn, p. 297. 

FIRES IN THE U. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865 inclusive were $214,588,000. 
In 1865 there were 354 fires, where the loss was upwards of .f 20,000, at which property was 
destroyed to the amount of $43,139,000. The largest fire of late years was at Portland, 
Maine," July 4, 1866. 1600 buildings were burned ; loss, |9,f 00,000 ; insurance, $3,500,000. 
Fire in Nashville, Tenn., .July 24, 1866, loss, $1,000,000. Colt's Armory, Hartford, bninrd, 
Feb. 8, 1864 ; loss, $1,000,000. Academy of Music and rniversity Medical Colli ge, N. Y., 
burned. May 'H, 1866. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati, March 23, 1866. The Smithsonian 
Institution,'Washington, partially burned Jan. 24, 1865. The Meteorological Department 
suffered heavily. 

FIRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In 1867, the following 
cities bad introduced the new system : — 



fir] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 25 



Steamerg. 


Men . 


Oust. 




Steamers. 


Men. 


Co»t. 


Baltimore, 7 


114 


$73,000 


Chicnsro, 


13 


110 


$245,300 


Bosion, 11 


2S1 


162,098 


Cincinnati, 


12 


140 


141,000 


Biiffiilo, 7 


189 


40,470 


New York, 


34 


564 


869,957 


Clefeland, 5 


66 


89,000 











FIREARMS, U. S. The Sharp's Rifle was the first breech-loader used in this countr}'. 
During the w;ir, great improvements were mude in this branch of ordiiatice. The Spencer 
Repeating Rifle, patented in IStiO, carries seven cartridges. The Henry Rifle can be fired 15 
times before reloading; patented 1861. 120 shots have been fired from it in b^ minutes, iu- 
cluiling the time for re-loading. The standard musket used in the U. S. Arnjy, is the Sprhjg- 
field Rifle, muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsenal 
(1866-7). 

FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, sailing under 
the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adventurer from Hispaniola, explored 
the country 1512 and 1516. In 1539, Hernando de Soto, who had been an oflicer under 
Pizarro, overran the peninsula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off 
a few years after. In 1763, Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spaui, in exchange for 
Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United States in 1819. It 
was admitted into the Union in 1S45. First war with the Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when 
General Jackson subdued them. Another protracted and expensive warfare then commenced 
and continued until 1842. General Jessup, General Taylor, and others, were engnged in it. 
Tlie Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 183V. Population in 1830, 34,723 ; in 1840, .i4,477, 
including 25,717 slaves. Passed an ordinance of secession from the U. S., Jan. 11, 1861, and 
seized the U. S. Navy Yard atPensacoia. Population, 1850, 87,445. In 1860, 81,885 free, 
and 63,800 slaves. Population in 1866, 77,747 white; colored, 62,677, total, 140,424. Wni. 
Marvin appointed Provisional Governor of the State, July 13, 1865. 

FRANKING PRIVILEGE, U. S. This privilege was granted to the widows of Presidents 
Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb. 
10, 1866. 

FRENCH WAR in Nokth America. The first war between France and England, which 
was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. The French destroyed Schenectady, N. 
Y., Casco, Me., &c., 1690; but were defeated by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Pence of 
Rysvvick, 1697. "Queen Anne's war," 1702. French and Indians raviiged Maine, 170.3. 
French and Spanish invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French 
in Port Royal, 1707; and against Canada, 1710; both failed. Peace of Utrecht, 1713. 
Another war declared by Englnnd, 1744 ; Louisbourg and Cape Breton taken by the En- 
glish colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French encroachment on Enghsh colonies, 1750, leads 
to the noted French war, 1762-3. Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755, 
Oswego, &c., taken by French, 1756, and Fort William Henry, 175Y. Louisbou g taken by 
the English General Amherst, and Fort Du Quesiie by General Forbes, 1758. Ticonderoga, 
Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec, takim by the English (Sir W. Johnson and General 
Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by 
the peace of Paris, 1763. French alliance with the United States, in the war of the revolution, 
Feb. 6, 1778. French revolution and politics, caused dissensions in the United States, 
1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, introduced in the U. S, Senate by Mr. Mason of Va., and passed, 
Sept. 1850. It imposed a fine of $1,000 and 6 mos. imprisonment on any pei'son harboring 
fugitive slaves or aiding their escape. It was declared by. the Sup. Court of Wisconsin to 
be unconstitutional, Feb. 3, 1855. This law was repealed by Congress, June 23, 1864. 

G 

GEOGRAPHY, U. S. The N. Y. Geographical and Statistical Society was incorporated 
April 3, 1852. It publishes occasionally a Journal chiefly of onglnal papers. 

GEOLOGY, Works on, U. S. "Geology of the Globe" by Prof. S. Hitchcock, 1853. 
Prof. St. John's Elements of Geology, 1855. " Text book of Geology," Prof. Dana, 1863. Be- 
sides these text books there are many treatises and reports on Geology which are to be 
found in most of tiie large libraries in the country, such as Prof Hall's Geology of New 
York; Owen's, of Indiana; Percival's, of Wisconsin; Hitchcock's, of Massachusetts; each 
in quarto volumes. 

GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Oglethorpe, whc 
with forty followers founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savannah taken by the British in the 



26 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [get 

revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1'?'78 ; the town and St.nte evacuated by tliem in July 1782. The 
State unanimously adopted the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 
82,584 ; in 1840, 691, .S92, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. 
Population in 1860 (including 4(i2,198 slaves) 1,057,286. Act of " Secession " passed Jan. 
19, 1861. Debt of the State iti Oct. 1866, $5,706,5(.iO. 

GETTYSBURG, Battle of, U. S. Fought July 1, 2, 3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Penn. near 
the Mnryland line. Union forces 60,000 and 200 guns ; Confederate about 80,000. On the 
first day the 1st and 11th corps (U. S. forces) were attacked and beaten by the superior 
numbers of the enemy : Maj. Gen. Reynolds (U. S. A.) killed. On the second day, the 12th, 
3d and 2d corps came up, and the whole under command of General Meade formed line on 
Cemetery Ridge. No fighting until 4. P. M. when a terrible artillery fire was opened by the 
Rebels, and fierce assaults made on the left and then on the riglit of the Union Army. The 
contest was heavy and doubtful until evening, when the enemy retired. On the third day the 
same furious charging and stubborn resistance was continued. The Union army bravely held 
its ground, and at night the enemy retreated. Union loss 2,834 killed, 13,709 wounded, 6,643 
missing. In the brief campaign which ended with this battle, the Rebels lost 3 guns, 41 stand- 
ards, 13,621 prisoner.'?, besides an enormous number of killed and wounded. Over 6lKiO men, 
loyal and rebel, were buried on the field. The Union victory was of immense importance to 
the country at that critical period. 

GOLD AND SILVER. The exports of gold from the U. S. in recent years were as follows 
(stated in millions of dollars.) 

1860. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854-. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1P66. • 
7i. 29J. 424. 27i 41. 56. 45. 69. 53. 64. 66^ 28. 36. 63. 69. 54. 86. 

" GREENBACKS," U. S. A term given to legal tender notes issued by the U. S. Treas- 
Tiry, in 1862. So called on account of the green print on their backs. All national bank 
notes are known by this name. The merit of the green tint is that it cannot be photograph- 
ed or in anyway counterfeited. It was first discovered by a Canadian. The "American Bank 
Note Company" print the notes. 

GUTTA PERCHA is procured from the sap of the Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, 
growing in the Malayan Peninsula, and on the islands near it. Previous to 1844, the very 
name of gutta percha was unknown to European commerce. In that year two cwt. were 
shipped experimentally from Singapore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port 
rose in 1845 to 169 piculs (the picul is 1,330 lbs.) ; in 1846, to 5,364 ; in 1847, to 9,292 ; and 
in the first seven months of 18*8, to 6,768 piculs. In the first four and a half years of the 
trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at $274,190, were shipped at Singapore, the 
whole of which were sent to England, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to 
the continent of Europe, and 9'/2 to the United States. The gieat variety of articles for 
domestic use, the ornamental arts, &c., to which this material has been applied, has given 
employment to thousand.'^, not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also 
to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of their 
most profitable articles of export. In 1848, S. T. Armstrong, of Brooklyn, N. Y., first 
applied it for coating telegraph wires. J. J. Craven, of Newark, N. J., claims to have ap- 
plied it thus at the same time or before. Charles Goodyear used it, in connection with 
caoutchouc, for various articles of common use ; a large boat made of gutta percha was 
exhibited in New York, 1858. 

H 

HABEAS CORPUS. The constitution of the U. S. provides that this law (adopted from 
that of England) "shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebellion or invasion the 
public safety may require it," 1787. President Lincoln authorized Gen. Scott to suspend the 
privilege if it became necessary, April 27, 1861. In Sept., 1862, it was not allowed to re- 
lieve persons arrested by military authority for disloyal practices. The President (authorized 
by express Act of Congress) proclaimed a general suspension of the privilege of habeas cor- 
pus, to "continue throughout the duration of the rebellion," Sept. 15, 1863. C. L. Vallan- 
digham, ex-member of Congress, being arrested for disloyal utterances, was refused the 
privilege of the writ, and sent into the rebel lines. May, 1863. Great excitement among hia 
friends and sympathisers in the country. 

HANOVER. Population in 1864, 1,923,492, of whom 1,584,700 belonged to the Lutheran 
church, and 226,000 to the Catholic. The army numbered 26,900 men. 3,618 ve.ssels of ail 
kinds composed the merchant navy. This State was annexed to Prussia, Aug., 1866, against 
its will. 



BAR] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 47 

HARPER'S FERRY, Va. A village at the junction of the Potomac and ShenaiKloali. 
Populition in 1860, about 5,000. The 8eene of ".John Brown's raid." On Oct. 1*7, 1859, he 
with 16 wiiite and 5 colored men seized the U. S. arsenal at this point, took ttO citizens 
prisoners, and gave out as his object " to free the slaves." The insurgents were overcome 
on the morning of the 18t,h. Those who did not escape or were not killed, were executed. 
This affair created intense excitement throughout the country. At the breaking out of the 
rebellion, Lieut. Jones evacuated and blew up the arsenal, Af)ril 18, 1861. Sept. 16, 1862, 
Col. Miles and ll,OiiO U. S. troops surrender to "Stonewall Jackson," at Harper's Perry, In 
186*7 it was decided not to re-establish the arsenal there. 

HARVARD COLLEGE, U. S. Established 1638, at Cambridge, M^iss. Denomination, 
trnitarian. In 1863, it had 44 instructors ; 814 students in all departments ; 7,440 alumni, 
of whom 2,679 were living. Value of its buildings and endowments, over S2,000,(l00. 
Annual expenses of the University, $130,000. Its commencement occurs the third Wed- 
nesday of July. President : Rev. Thomas Hill, H.D. 

HEALTH, BOARD OF, N. Y. Act passed by the Legislature of New York, Fob, 26, 1866, 
establishing a " Board of Health and Sanitary District for the preservation of life and health, 
and to prevent the spread of disease." It was organized March 5, 1866 ; Dr. E. B. Dalton, 
Superintendent. The district includes the counties of New York, King, Westchester, Rich- 
mond, and part of Queens. First report, Nov. 1, 1866. It issued 22,592 orders requiring 
nuisances to be removed. Death rate in New York City, 1 in. 33.33; in London, 1 in 45. 

HISTORICAL SOCIETIES, U. S. The one in New York City was organized Dec. 10, 
1804, and incorporated Feb. 10, 1809. It now numbers nearly 2,0i)0 members. After occu- 
pying rooms many years in the New York University Buildings, it was removed in 1857 to a 
new fire proof building on 2d avenue, corner of 11th street, which was dedicated Nov. 17 
of that year. The Society possesses a library of over 30,000 volumes particularly rich ia 
historical works and manuscripts, a choice gallery of paintings, and a collection of an- 
tiquities, coins, medals, and charts. Among its collections are a series of large tablets of 
Assyrian sculpture, the gift of James Lenox, Esq. Tiie Massachusetts Historical Society, 
founded 1791, is limited to fifty members. This Society has a valuable liljrary, including a 
very choice collection of books in English literattire, bequeathed to it by the late Thomas 
Dowse, of Cambridgeport, a leather-dresser, whose library was one of the best of its kind 
in the country. The Massachusetts Hisrorical Society has published about 30 vols, of 
transactions and historical collections. There are historical societies also in nearly every. 
State in the Union, several of which have valuable collections, and have published 
transactions. 

HOMCEOPATHY. This science — the essential characteristic of which consists in the use 
of such remedies against any disease as, in a healthy person, would produce a similar but 
not precisely the same disease its fundamental principle being siniilia similihus curantur — - 
was introduced by Samuel Hahnemann, a native of Meissen, in Saxony (born April 10, 1755, 
died at Paris, 1843). The first periodical organ cf the system was established 1822. Al- 
though violently attacked and ridiculed by "allopathic" practitioners, the system was prac- 
tised in 1860 by about 1,200 physicians in Europe, and 2,500 in the United States. It 
has 3 hospitals, 3 colleges, and 3 journals, and abcut 30 societies in the U. S., and all these 
are numerous in England, France, and Germany (ISSl). An attempt to establish a State 
Homceopathic Hospital, in Connectitut, was strenuously opposed (1866). The matter was 
compromised, the Legislature allowing the Honioeopathists certain rights in the hospitals. 

HYDROPATHY. Hydropathic Society formed in London, 1842. First Hydro, estab- 
li.«hment in U. S., at 63 Barclay St., N. Y., 1844. Those at New Lebanon, N. Y,, and 
Brattleboro, Vt., opened 1845. 

I 

ICE TRADE, THE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of Boston, 
in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to Calcutta, in 1833. The 
ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are capable of containing 141,332 tons. In 
1854, Boston shipped 156,540 tons. In New York in 1655, 305,000 tons were stored up. The 
exports of Ice from 1860 to 1866, averaged about 48,0(i0 tons. During the four years ending 
June 30, 1861, $712,000 worth was exported from the U. S. In 185ti, $8,000,000 were iti- 
vested in the ice trade, giving employment to 8,<i00 or 10,000 men. Ice is not subject to 
duty in the U. S. 600,U00 tons were provided for the consumption of N. Y. City in 1867. 

IDAHO, U. S. Organized as a territory March 3, 1863. Area, 326,373 square miles. 
Population in 1864 about 24,000. This territory has been settled rapidly by adTenturers and 



28. DICTIONARY OF DATES. [in 

gold seekers, witliin the past few years (1867). Boise City is the capital. Estimated prod- 
uct of gold and silver in 1865, $'7,000,()00. 

ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Cahokia by the 
French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 1763. Chiefly settled by emi- 
grants from other States since 1800. In 17&9 it was part of the Northwest territory. la 
1809 it was made a separate territory, and 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d State. 
Population in 1810, 12,282; in ISHO," 157,575; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free State, and has 
always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn; it has inexhaustible lead- 
mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. Population in le 50, 851,470; in 1860, 
1,691,233. Increase 1840-50, 80 per cent. ; 1850-60, 99 per cent. Population in 1865, 
2,151,007 ; gain since 1860 of 459,774. Assessed valuation of property in 1865, S391, 683,- 
284. From April 1861 to Jan. 1863 the State placed in the field 119,400 men. Amount 
expended for school purposes in 1862, $2,007,000. Number of schools 9,811. There are in 
the State 1 institution for deat-mutes, 1 for the insane, 1 for the blind. 

IMPORTS, U. S. The value of imports during the war greatly decreased. In 1860 they 
amounted to $362,ii00,0u0; in 1862, $205,000,000; in 1865, $234,000,000; in 1866, $437,000,- 
000. See Exports. 

INCOME TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress July 1, 1862. Tax on incomes from 
$600 to $10,000, 3 per cent; over $10,01)0, 5 per cent. Receipts from this source in 1863, 
$455,741 ; in 1864, $14,919,280 ; hi 1865, $20,740,451 ; in 1866, $61,071,932. In 1866 a 
single merchant of New York paid the sum of $407,125 as a tax on his income for 1865, 
the hicome being stated by himself as amounting to $4,071,250 ; probably the largest personal 
tax of the kind ever paid." The law of 1866 taxed all inciomes over $1,000, 5 per cent. 

INDIANA. One of the western United Stales, first settled at Vincennes by the French ; 
ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made by them until 1787. Was 
part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered much during the war of 1812. See battle of 
Tippecanoe. Admitted into the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,- 
178; in 1840, 685,866 ; in 1860, 1,350,428. Number of public schools 6,098 in 1862. Com- 
mon school fuTid $4,991,202. The State sent 195,147 men to the war. In 1865 the Legis- 
lature voted that negroes could be competent witnesses in courts. The " fiUibuster " Gen. 
Morgan invaded the State, July 9, 1863. In 24 hours 60,nii0 men offered their services to 
drive him out. He effected no damage and retreated rapidly. 

INDIANS, U. S. According to the best data in the possession of the Indian Department, 
at Washington, there are now (1867) between 320,000 and 350,(iOO Indians within the Hmits 
of the U. S. comprised in about seventy-five tribes and occupying about one hundred 
localities. 

INDIAN WARS, U. S. In the war of the rebellion, the Choctaws, Chicasaws, and 
Cherokees, took sides with the Confederates. They furnished three regiments. The war 
upon the plains commenced in April, 1864, in Colo-ado. It was inaugurated by apparently 
too hasty action of the U. S troops towards the Cheyennes. An Indian village was soon 
destroyed and 40 warriors killed. Fearful massacre of Indians near Fort Lyon, Nov. 28, 

1864, by forces under command of Col. Clivington. After this several Indian tribes formed 
an alhance and committed murders and depredations on the lines of travel. On Dec. 21, 

1865, the Sioux massacred a company of soldiers at Fort Kearny. A general Indian War 
fairly begun in May, 1 867. Gen. Sherman takes the management of it into his hands. Gen, 
Meagher declares war against the Indians of Montana Territory, April 24, 1867. 

INSOLVENCY in the U. S. In May, 1837, a • commercial crisis ' was at its height. Tho 
'heavy failures' in two months in New York alone amounted to 260, besides countlei^s smal- 
ler ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 
168 failures from Nov. 1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended 
specie payments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generahy, immediately after. See 
bankruptcy. 

INSURANCE. The marine risks assumed by Insurance Companies of New York alone, 
iu 1860, amounted to $80,379,892; in 1866, thev were $378,880,003. The fire risks in 1860, 
were $1,049,551,594; in 1866, $2,753,493,107. The losses paid in 1866 were $15,312,750. 

INSURRECTIONS in the United States. Shay's Insurrection in Massachusetts, (caused 
by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insurrection in Pennsylvania, caused by 
duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, d'c. 

INTEREST OF Money in the United States. The rates vary in different States, viz :— 
In La. five per cent., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., Bel., Md., Va., K 



iNTj AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 59 

Ca., Tenn., Ky., Ohio, Iiid., 111., Mo., Avk., and the United States government claiins, the 
rate is six -per cent. In N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wis., seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Miss., 
and Flor., eight joer cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole d(b', in 
Maine, Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury and double, treble the usury in 
14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. 

IN'TERN'aL revenue, U. S. See Revenue. 

IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French possessions, and 
was inchuled in the vast tract of country purchased in 180-3 under the general name of Lou- 
isiana. Fiist purchase of land from the Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated 
from Wisconsin as a territory, 1838. Admitted into the Union as a State, Dec. 28, 1846. 
Population in 1810, 42,924; in 1850, 101,881 ; in 1856, 519,148, and 271 colored; in 1860, 
682,000. In lS(i3 she had 80;) miles of railroad completed. Value of the exports from her 
river ports in 1862, $8,200,000. Population in 1865, 754,'732, of whom 3,607 weio black. 
The State furnished 72,300 men for the war. In 1865 the women of Iowa made 14,538,216 
pounds of butter, and 1,000,738 of cheese. There are institutions for the insane and blind 
in the State. 

IRON. The value of the annual product of the U. S. in 1860, was about .$7,000,000, or 
about 1,200,000 tons. The quantity of pig iron produced in the U. S. in 1866, was 939.956 
tons. 339,764 tons were manufactured into new and reroUed rails ; 129,858 in nails ; 946,613 
in castings over 10 pounds weight. The mountains of Missouri, it is computed, would yield 
1,000,000 tons of wrought iron yearly for 400 years. 



JAPAN. U. S. exped. under Com. Perry (7 ships of war), entered the Bay of Yeddo, 
Feb. 1854, to demand protection for American seamen and ships wrecked on the coast, and 
to eifct t a ti'caty of commerce, which was agreed upon, March 31. A British squadron for 
the same purpose reached Nagasaki, Sept. 1854, and effected a treaty. The Russians fol- 
lowed ; and the Dutch made a new treaty, Nov. 9, 1855. Mr. Townsend Harris, consul-gen- 
eral for the U. S., made a new treaty, June 17, 1857, by which Nagasaki, Simoda, and 
Ilakodadi were opened to American trade. Harris was received in Yeddo in 1858, and 
effected another treaty. Lord Elgin's treaty opening several ports to British trade, Aug. 26, 
1858. Dear,h of the Tycoon, Auiiust, 1858. Japanese embassy to the U. S. (with attendants, 
70 persons), reaches San Francisco, March 28, 1860; Washington, May 14; Philadelphia, 
June 9 ; New York, where they were received with a great military display, June 16; em- 
barked for home in U. S. frigate Niagara, July 1 ; reached Yeddo, Nov. 10, 1860. A troup 
of Japanese jugglers arrived in the U. S. in 1866. In the spring of 1867, their performances 
in N. Y. city excited much sensation. Their proprietor is under bonds to return them to 
Japan in two years. Commissioners from Japan again visited Washington in 1867, and made 
purchases of large quantities of school books for public schools in Yeddo, and also bought 
from the government the iron-clad frigate Stonewall, for the sum of $400,000. Ministers ot 
the U. S., England, France, &c., notified May, 1867, that Yeddo and other ports would be 
opened to foreign nations in Jan., 1868. 

JOCKEY CLUBS, U. S. One was organized in N. Y. city in the summer of 1866, by 
Messrs. Jerome, Belmont, and others. lis object is to improve the breed of horses, and es- 
tablish a better system of races. A park and course have been laid out at Foidham, near 
the city, at the expense of Mr. Jerome. The races were inaugurated Sept. 25, 1866. The 
celebrated horse "Kentucky" won the 4 mile heat in 7.25. 

JUDGES IN THE United States. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in number, are ap- 
pointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and Senate. The chief justices of 
the Supreme Court of the United States have been John Jay, appointed 1789; Wiliiam Gush- 
ing of Miss., 1796; Oliver Ellsworth, 1796; John Marshall, 1801; Roger B. Taney, 1836; 
Salmon P. Cha-^e, 1864. U. S. Circuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the 
several States are thus appointed : — 

By the Governor and Legi.dature. or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New Hampshire, Massa- 
chusetts, Louisiana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. By the Legislature alone, ih Vermont, 
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolitia, South Carolina, Georgia, 
Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. By the Governor alone, in Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, and Kentucky. By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York, and Maryland 
The TERM OF OFFICE of the stiperior judges is /or life (or " during good behavior ") in Massa- 
chusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryhuid, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Louisiana, Hentuckj, ar.d Illinois. Until sevtnty y:;.ars of age, in Maine, New Ilampahire, 



so DICTIONARY OF DATES. [kas 

Connecticut. Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri. For periods varying from two to 
twelve yars, in New Jersey, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Oliio, In- 
diana, Michigan; and for one year in Rhode Island and Vermont. They are removable — 
By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court of law, in 
Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate and two-thirds of Assembly, in New York. 

K 

KANSAS. One of the United States (the 34th), organized as a territory. May, 1854, and 
by tiiC same act the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was declared "inoperative and void" in 
both Kansas and Nebraska. Emigrant companies from Mass. began to arrive in July and 
founded the town of Lawrence. An association formed in Missouri, July 29, to "remove all 
emigrants" coming " under the auspices of northern emigrant jiid societies ; " another form- 
ed Aug. 12 to introduce slavery. A. H. Reeder of Pa., app. governor, arrived Oct. 6. Elec- 
tion for delegate to Cong., Nov. 29; the polls mobbed by armed bands from Missouri; of 
2,8'7l votes cast 1,729 were estimated illegal. Another election March 20, 1865, similarly 
controlled. Reeder removed July 26. Wilson Shannon of Ohio, his successor, assumed of- 
fice Sept. 1. Topeka ("free State") Convention promulgates a Constitution Nov. 11. Col- 
lisions with bloodshed between the "free State" and " pro-slavery " people commenced at 
this time, and continued more or less for many months. Topeka Const, accepted by the 
people Dec. 15, and under it Charles Robinson chosen governor, Jan. 15, 1856. Armed men 
from Geo., Alabama, &c., arrived in the territory April, 1856. Report of 11. Repres. of U. S. 
on Kansas affairs, proving fraud and violence of pro-slavej-y invaders. Robinson arrested 
for treason, May 5, and imprisoned four months for taking office under Topeka Constitution, 
Raid of pro-slavery men on the town of Lawrence, May 21. Fight at Potawatamie, May 26, 
and several other collisions for several months. Free State legislatuie at Topeka dispersed 
by IT. S. troops under Col. Sumner, July 4. Shannon removed, and John W. Geary of Pa. 
appointed in his stead Aug. A party led by Ex-Senator Atchison of Mo. repulsed in an at- 
tack on Osawatomie Aug. 29. Free State men driven by Missourians from Leavenworth 
Sept. 1. Robinson and others released on b;iil Sept. 8, and Geary promising protection to 
free State men they gave up their arms. Topeka legislature met Jan. 6, 185*7 ; the Speaker 
and others arrested by U. S. Marshal. Pro-slavery legislature at Lecompton provides for a 
convention. Geary resigned in conseq\ience of illegal acts of Lecompte, U. S. judge, 185*7. 
Robert J. Walker appointed governor, and F. P. Stanton of Tenn., secretary, June. M. J. 
Parrott elected delegate to Cong. Lecompton Constitution promulgated, and caused great 
excitement i)ec., 1857. Walker denounces it as a fraud, and resigns because the Const, is 
approved by the President. J. W. Denver of Calif, app. governor Dec, 1857. Lecompton 
Const, submitted to the people and repudiated by 10,226 votes. Convention at Wyandot 
adopts a Const, prohibiting slavery, July 27, which is ratified by the people (4,000 majority), 
Oct. 4. Under it Charles Robinson chosen governor Dec. 6. A famine and great suffering 
prevails in the territory 1860, relieved by contributions from many States. Kansas admit- 
ted into the Union under the Wyandot Constitution Jan. 29, 1861. Population in 1859, 
69,950; in 1860, 143,645. Act establishing an "Agricultural College" passed Jan., 1863. 
The State furnishad 19,500 men to the war. Efforts to advance the internal condition of 
the State are being made by the legislature every year. Asylums for the deaf, blind, and 
insane, have been organized. 

KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, an enter- 
prising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. Was a part of Vir- 
einia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Admitted into the Union 1792. 
Population in 1790,73,677 ; in 1810, 406,511 ; in 1830, 688,844; in 1840, 779,828. including 
182,258 slaves. Population in 1850, 771,424 and 210,981 slaves. In 1860, 933,707, and 
225,902 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years 19 per cent., inc. of slaves 7 per cent. 
There was a slight decrease of the population, caused by the war, in 1865. The State sent 
63,995 vrbite and 20,400 colored soldiers (Unron) to the war. Population in 1865, 1,156,66&, 



LANGUAGE. Hon. George P. Marsh, in a lecture, stated that there were nearly 100,000 
English words found in use by good writers, but that no single writer employed more than a 
very small proportion of the whole. Few scholars used as many as 10,000 English words, 
and ordinary people not more than 3,000. In all Shakespeare there were not 15,000 words, 
and in all Miltun but 8,000. There were but COO of the Egyptian hieroglyphics. 



tAw] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 81 

LAW. The number of lawyers in the United States, in March, 1851, was 21,079, or 
about one to every fifteen hundred inhabitants. Monthly Law Magazine. Estimating their 
average receipts at $1,000 pei- annum, their aggregate income vvouhl reach within a fraction 
of twenty-two millions of dnUarx. In 1851 there were in New York, 4,740 hiwyers ; in 
Pennsyh'ania, 1,848 ; in Ohio, 2,031 ; in Massachusetts, 1,132 ; in Kentucliy, 1,066"; and ia 
Georgia, 9n8. Livingstones Law Register. See Attorneys. 

LECTURES, Popular, in the U. S. They are a prominent source of entertainment 
and information among the American people. Lectures on all subjects, and by persons of 
every degree of ability, are delivered in the winter season throughout the country. Prof. 
Agassiz, of Harvard College, lectured on Geology for $500 a night (1867). 

LEGACY DUTY, Intkrnal Revenpk, U. S. By the Revenue laws of 1861-62-63, 
Legacies were included on the taxable list. A tax of 75 cents to $5 is imposed on " every 
hundred dollars of the clear value of interest in such property." In 1863, the revenue from 
legacies to parent, child, &c., was $25,869, to nephew, niece, &c., $11,333, to uncle, &c., 
$921, to corporations, strangers, &c., $18,470. Total Revenue from legacies and successions 
in 1864, $310,836 ; in 1865, $546,703 ; in 1866, $1,170,979. 

LEXINGTON, Battle of. This battle, or rather skiriuish, claims distinction as being 
the first between Great Britain and the American colonies in the war of Independence. The 
British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Boston to destroy the American stores at 
Lexington, were attacked by the Americans and 273 of them killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. 

LIBEL LAW OF the U. S. Action for libel lies against the proprietor of a newspaper, 
edited by another, though the publication was made without the knowledge of such pioprietor. 

LIBERIA. The number of American Africans in 1860 was about 10,000 ; natives under 
jurisdiction of the republic about 250,000. In 1856 the sugar-cane was introduced, and in 
May, 1860, a cargo of sugar was sent to N. Y. Palm oil reported in 1859, $500,1^00. A 
college, several schools, 2 newspapers, and several churches had been established (1859). 
Population in 1863, 422,000, of whom 16,000 were born in the U. S., and 6,000 rescued 
from slave-ships. The government is Republican. Capital, Monrovia. Revenue of the Re- 
public in 1861, $149,550. 

LIBR,.A.RIES IN THE U. S. The number of volumes in the chief public and college 
libraries in the United States in 1849, was stated to be 1,294,000. The number of libraries 
is 182. Of these, 43 contain over 10,000 voluntes each ; 9 over 20,000 ; and only 2 over 
50,000. In 1849, the precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus: 

Vols. I Vols. 



1 Harvard College, including Divinity 
and Law Schools 72,000 

2 Philadelp'iia mid Loganitin Lib., 60,000 

3 Ronton Athenaeum, 50,000 

4 Librarv of Congress, 50.r.00 

5 New Yoik Society Library, 32,000 



6 Mercantile Library, New York 30,000* 

7 Gcowtowii College, D. C, 25,000 

8 Brown TJniver.-ity, 24,000 

9 Now York St.ite Library, 24,000 

11) Y-la Co'lege, 21,000 

11 Astor Library, New York, 20,000t 



The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the State of New York, in 1849, 
was 1,338,848. There were 10,621 school districts, and 1,785 incorporated or private 
schools. Tlie mercantile libraries, chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of 
comparatively recent date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, 
and contains 30,000 volumes ; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes ; in Philadel- 
phia, foiuided 1822, contains 12,200 volumes. There are similar ones in Baltimore, Cincin- 
nati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. The public libraries containing over 5,000 volumes, were dis- 
tributed (according to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus: 

Vols. 

34 453,009 

had 3, 2S,500 

" 12, 157,411 

" 1, 10,000 

" 1, 30,497 

" 14 159,200 

" 3 37.1S5 

«' 2, 30,000 

" 2, 16,000. 

«' 2 16,254 

" 4, 41,000 

Total 72 979,656 





Vo's. 
6,000 


Brought up, 
12 New Jf rspy, 
i;; Niw York, 




53,000 




81,449 




.. 13,0r)0 






7,000 


15 O'lio, 




5 500 


16 Peniisylv;mia, 

17 R'>odc Island, 


7 Miine, " 3, 


?8,860 


8 Mirvland, " 1, 


12,000 


18 Sontli Cariilina, 


9 Ulissichusetts, " 14, .... 


200,000 




10 Missouri, " 2 .... 


14,300 






22,500 











34 453,609 



The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school, parish, and' 
♦ In 1867, 86,000 vols. t In 1860, 120,000 voId. 



82 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [lib 

town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. The city of Paris alone has 
1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries ; i. e. half as many again as the whole of the 
United States. See Pari. Rep. Brit. Mus. ; Prof. JeweWs Rep. Smithaonian Inst. ; Q. Liver- 
more in N. Amer. Rev., July 1850, &c. 

LIBRARIES. The Aster Library, founded by the late J. J. Astor, who loft, by will, 
$400,000 " for the establishment of a public library in New York," " which should be open 
at all reasonable hours, fiee of expense, to persons resorting thereio." The original building 
opened to the public Jan. 9, 1854. Another building of similar style and extent was added 
by W. B. Astor, 186u. The whole contained in I860 about 120,000 volumes, including the 
most valuable, rare, and costly works purchasable. The free Public Library in Boston, 
opened Sept. 17, 1858, is a noble institution of a similar kind founded at a similar expense 
by several munificent citizens. It is wholly free to the public, and about 80,000 volumes are 
provided, which may be taken fiom the library by any resident of Boston. It is a remark- 
able fact that these 30,000 volumes had thus been freely loaned to all comers without loss or 
damage to the amount of $100 in 2 years. In 1864 there were 104 libraries in the U. S. of 
over 100,(iOO volumes distributed among 23 of the States and containing 2,404, fOU books, or 
about ^ the total number in ail the public hbraries of the country. The Church and Sunday 
School libraries were estimated to contain frcm 5 to 6 million volumes. In the work en- 
titled "Private Libraries of New Yoik " (Dr. Wynne) are found notices of over 40 collections 
of 4000 and 12 with lO.COO volumes (1864). In 1859 the following statistics were compiled : 
Number of Libraries in the U. S. with volumes reported, 1,297, estim.atcd, 1,663 ; libraries of 
common schools, 18,000 ; Sunday Schools, 30,000 ; total, 50,890 hbraries, number of vol- 
umes, 12,720,686. See Circulating Libraries. ' 

LICENSE TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Total receipts from 
this source in 1863, $6,824,178; in 1^64, $7,145,389; in 1865, $12,618,478; in 1866, 
$18,038,098. In 1865, the largest amount was received from wliolesale dealers, $5,428,345. 
Eetiiil dealers in hquors paid $2,807,225. Receipts from bowling aheys were the smallest, 
$19,749. 

LIGHTHOUSES. In 1859, there were 491 light stations on the coasts of the U. S. inclu- 
ding the Pacific and the lakes, the annual cost to gov. being $932,000. The No. of buoys and 
beacons was about 5(100 A large number of the lighthouses from Cape Henry to the Rio 
Grande were destroyed by the Confederates in the late war. 
LITERATURE, American. See Books. 

LOANS, U. S. The following are the principal loans of the Government in support of 
the war against the Rebellion. 

Ifcime nf J^oiin. Length of Loan. Amount Ts>iii,ed. 

Loan of Feb 8, 18C1 20 years $18,415,000 

7.30 notes.. 3 " 139 989,750 

Five Twtnties 5 or 20 years 514,780,000 

Ten Forties 10 or 40 " 172,770.100 

Five Twenties 5 or 20 " 91,789-000 

Tre'isury Kotes 3 yenrs 178. 756.000 

7.30 Notes " " 234,400,000 

" " " " " 437,210,400 

See Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia, 1865. Pinances. 

LONGEVITY, IN THE U. S. In 1860 there were 2960 persons over 100 years of age. 
In the State ofN. Y. (1865) there were 108. 

LOTTERIES. In N. Y. and Pa. Lotteries have been declared by law to be "public 
nuisances," and to be indictable as such. The Am. Art Union was pronounced illegal, as a 
lottery, 1851. About 1820 there was a lottery at Natchez for building a Presbyterian church. 
At other times colleges, roads, ferries, hospitals, &c. have been aided by lotteries. They 
were still tolerated in Maryland, Georgia, and perhaps other States (1861) Tlie "Crosby 
Opera House" Association, in 1866, was a lottery, in which the "opera house" at Chicago 
was the principal prize. All who invested received a prize equivalent to their amount im- 
mediately on payment. The proprietors made large profits, as subscriptions came in from all 
parts of the country. 

LOUISIANA. One of the U. S. first explored by the French, and received its name in 
1862, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIY., and a settlement was attempted in 1684, but 
failed. In 1699 a more successful attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., 
and founded a colony. His efforts were fohowed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, who 
heir, the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the year 1717, he 
tran.'sfevred his interest in the province to a chartered company, at the head of which was the 
notorious John Law, who.'^e national bank and Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half 



lun] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 33 

the Fron<,h nobility. In 1731, the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, 
codi'd the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In ISOO, Spain reconvoyed the province to the 
French, of whom it was purcliasod by the United States, in 1803, for $15,000,000. The pur- 
chase includod the teriitory of the United States W. of the Mississippi. In 1812 the present 
State of Louisiana formed a constitution, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 
1810, 76,556; in 182.), 153,407; in 1830, 215,575 ; in 1810, 352,411, including 168, 452 slaves. 
Population in 1850, 517,762. In ' 1855, by state census, 5s7,774, including 244.000 slaves. 
In 1860, 666,41o, including 312,186 slaves. Ordinance of secession from the U. S. passed by 
Convention, Jan. 26, 1861. Motion to submit the question to the people was defeated by a 
large niiijority. Tlie principal portion of the State came under the authority of the Govern- 
ment before the close of the war. Number of men furnished to the Union army, mostly 
blacks, 40,000. Debt of the State in 1867, $18,358,000. 

LUNATICS, U. S. The number of asylums in 1860 was 47 ; number of insane persons, 
24,000 ; number of idiots, 18,865. Only about one half could be accommodated in the 
public institutions. 

LYNCH LAW, U. S. "A common phrase used to express the vengeance of a mob, 
inflicting an injury, and committing an outrage upon a person suspected of some offence. 
In England this is called Lidford Law." — Bouuier. 

M 

MAGAZINES, U. S. See Periodicals, Reviews, and Magazines. 

MAUSTE, one of the United States ; first permanent settlement in, at Bristol. The disti'ict 
was granted in 1635 to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a governor and council. It 
was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652, by the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334; 
annexed to Massachusetts, under charter from William and Mary, in 1691 ; became a separate 
State in 1820. Popuhition in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705; in 1840, 501,793; in 
1850, 583,169 — increase in 10 years, 16 per cent. ; in I860, 619,958 — increase in 10 years, 
6^ per cent. The State sent 71,558 men to the war in 1861-5. 

MARRIAGE, Laws of, U. S. The common law requires no particidar ceremony to the 
valid celebration of marriage. Oidy the consent of the parties is necessary. In the State 
of New York marriage is valid if declared before witnesses. In Maine, Connecticut, Massa- 
chusetts, and other States, the marriage must be made in the presence of a magistrate or 
ndnister. 

MARYLAND, one of the middle United States, was oi'iginally included in the patent of 
Virginia, granted under charter to Calvert, Lord Baltimore, inl6:i2; named in honor of 
Henrietta M.iria, Queen of Charles I. ; first colony were Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, 
on the Potomac, 1634; free toleration of all religions and creeds graiited by Lord Baltimore ; 
Constitution settled in 1650, and again in 1776 ; the State bore an active part in the Revo- 
lution; adopted the Federal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population in 1790 
was 319,728 ; in 1810, 380,546 ; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,485 slaves ; in 1850, 
588,034, including 74,723 fi'ee colored, and 90,368 slaves. Increase in ten years, 24 per 
cent. In 1860, the population was 646,183, and 85,382 slaves. Increase of free persons in 
ten years, 11 per cent.; decrease of slaves, 6 per cent In 1865 the Legislature passed an 
act refusing all who fought against the Union the right to vote. 

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by a colony of 
Enghsh Puritans from Holland, who latided Dec. 22, 1620. This was called the Plymouth 
colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. 
These colonies united in 1692. The American Revolution originated here, at Boston and 
vicinity, and this State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston, 
Banker Hill, Lexington, &c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780 ; revised and altered 
in 1820; slavery abolished in 1783; Shay's rebellion in this State in 1786; Federal Consti- 
tution adopted "Feb. 6, 1788, by 187 against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000; in 1790, 
388,727; in 1810. 472,040; in 1820, 523,287; in 1840, 737,699; in 1850, 994,514; 
incre:ise in 10 years, 34 percent. Population in 1855 (state census), 1,132,369, 
increase in 5 years, 16 per cent. These returns placed Mass. the 6th in the Union in popu- 
lation. In 1860 the population was 1,231,494. Increase in 10 years, 24 per cent. Total 
industrial production in 1855, 295 millions of dollars. Exports, 1859, 18 millions. Rail- 
roads, 1,602 miles, which cost 63 millions. Number of troops sent to the war in 1861-6, 
159,166, of whoai about 6,500 were blacks. Population in 1865, 1,26'7,?29. 
o 



34 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [mat 

MATCHES, U. S. The tax on matches, imposed Aug. 1864, is one cent per hundred. 
The revenue from this source, in 1865, was about |;1, 000,000. 

MEDICAL COLLEGES, U. S. There were 54 medical schools and colleges in the IJ. S. in 
1862. The oldest is the University of Penn. at Phila., 1765. 

MERCHANTS' EXCHANGES, U. S. Orgiinizations of business men established in the prin- 
cipal cities of the country, for mutual acquaintance and discussion. 

METHODISTS. The first Methodist organization in the U. S. was at Baltimore, 1*784, 
Wesley sanctioning it as the "Meth. Episcopal Church of America." Introduced in S. Caro- 
lina and Georgia, 1785. Secession of Anti-Episcopal branch, 1830. Secession (on account 
of the slavery question), of the "Methodist Episcopnl Church South," 18-14. The northern 
branch had, in 1860, 956,555 members, and 13,000 preachers, under 51 "annual conferences," 
24 colleges, 2 biblical institutes, and 120 seminaries. The " M. E. Church South," in 1845, 
had 6 bishops, 24 conferences, 330,710 white members, 124,811 colored members, 2,978 In- 
dians. In 1859, the total membership was 721,023, with 21 colleges for males, 28 colleges 
and 27 high schools for females ; and a publishing house at Nnshville, which issued 600 mil- 
lion pages in 5 years. The Meth. Prot. Cliuroh, in 1858, had 90,000 members, and 2,000 
ministers. Number of Methodists in the U. S. in 1863, 1,650,000; number of churches 
11,638; ministers, 10,911. 

MEXICO. In Juh', 1863, an assembly of notables in the city of Mexico declared Mexico a 
moderated monarchy, and offered the crown to Maximilian, arch-duke of Austria, who accepted 
it ; entered the city of Mexico June, 1864 ; defeated the liberals in several engrgcments. In 
the spring of 1867, the French troops who had been sent in 1861, to enforce certain claims 
made by Frai.ce, and by whose assistance Maximilian had established himself in Mexico, were 
■withdraw<n. The liberals after this regained their lost ground, besieged Maxin)iliau in Quere- 
taro, and compelled his surrender. The Juarez government declared him to be a usurper, 
and sentenced him to be shot. His execution took place against the protest of all I'oreign 
ministers, June 19, 1867. Miranion and Mejia executed as traitors at the same time. A 
state of anarchy has existed in Mexico for years, and Maximilian's object was to reduce the 
country to order under a monarchy. The contest was waged with great bitterness and 
cruelty. City of Mexico surrendered to the Republicans, June, 1867. 

MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit in 1647. 
Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted to the Catholic faith by tie 
Jesuits. The territory ceded to England by the peace of 1763; made a separate territory of 
the United States in 1805; admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 
1812-13, the territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered hv General 
Harrison. Population in 1810 was 4,528 ; in 1820, 9,048 ; in 1830, 31,639 ; in 1840", 212,267. 
Population in 1850, 399,654; in 1860, 754,291. Increase in 1840-50, 87 per cent. ; 1850-6ii, 
89 per cent. Population in 1864, 803,745. 600,000,000 feet of timber were sawed in the State 
in 1864. Number of men sent to the army in 1861-5, 90,119. 

MILITIA, U.S. The militin force of the United States in 1860, as near as can be ascertained 
from official reports, consisted of 53,589 commissioned officers, and 2,036,520 non-commission- 
ed officers, musicians, artificers, and privates; a total of 2,090,109 men. Since the late 
war, most of the States have organized their militia into a more efficient system than formerly. 
Volunteers in the war are exempt from duty for a certain period ; in Conn, for 3 years. 

MINES, U.S. The famous Hayward gold mine, in Amadon county, California, extends 
1200 feet below the surface of the earth. lu thirteen years, $7,000,000 have been produced 
from it. The greatest silver mine is known as the " Comstock lode," in Nevada, disco\ ered 
in 1860. It is owned by about 100 different companies. The length of mining sliafts in the 
West varies from 500 to 1000 feet. The annual yield of gold and silver mines in the U. S. 
in 1860 was nearly $150,000,000. 

MINNESOTA, U. S. Made a territory, 1849 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 1857. 
Population, 1850, 6,077 ; 1860, 176,535 ; "l865, 248,848. A terrible Lidian massacre occur- 
red in this State in August, 1862. The Sioux rose in a body, and commenced a series of 
fiendish outrages. 500 whites were murdered in cold blood, and millions worth of property 
destroyed. Their depredations extended over an area of 2(>,( 00 square miles in the western 
part of the State. Gen. Libbey finahy checked and defeated them ; 2,000 prisoners were 
taken, of v/hom 38 were hung as murderers. In Sept. 1862 over 8,000 fugitive whites ^ere 
receiving aid in Eastern Minnesota. 

MINT OF THE United States established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at New 



His] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 86 

Orleans, 1838; at Charleston, N. C, ISoT; at Dahlonega, 1838; at San Francisco, 1854; 
Assay office at New York, 1854. See Coining. 

MISSIONS, Protestant. The number of Protestant missionaries in the world in 1860 
was 1369, who are distributed as follows: North America, 125; South America, 11; the 
Antilles and Guiana, 218; Northern Africa, 6 ; West Africa, 107 ; South Africa, 152; West- 
ern Asia, 74; India and Ceylon, 419 ; Burmah and Slam, 39 ; China, 72 ; Oceanica, 146. To 
the above must be added 934 assistant missionaries, and 2737 native helpers (1860). Modern 
missionary effort has given to 20 millions of people the benefits of a written language. 20 
dialects of Africa have been tli us supplied, and 500,000 persons enjoy oral teaching. See 
Benevolent Societ:es. 

MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Natchez, and 
claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony dcsti-oyed by the Indians. The country ceded 
to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern 
part to Florida. The territory, together with Alabama, constituted the " Mississippi Terri- 
tory " until 1817, when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 
45,929; in 183.1, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves. This State repudiated 
$5,000,000 of its bonds In 1839 (?). Populaton 1850, 606,325; 1860, 791,303; increase from 
1840 to 1850, 61 percent. " Ordinance of Secession " from the U. S. passed Jan. 9, 1861. 
Win. D. Sharkey appointed Provisional Governor, June 13, 1865. The delegates of the State 
Convention petition for the pardon of Jefferson Davis Aug. 1865. 

MISSOURI, one of the United States. Was included with Louisiana in the purchase from 
the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French in 1764, but was tittle more 
than a trading post until 1804, when the territoriid government was formed. Missouri admit- 
ted into the Union as a State in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending'^n the Missouri 
Comproinise,vfh\ch prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Missouii. 
Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, including 58,240 slaves. 
In 1850, 682,044, including 87,422 slaves. In 1856, 911,(j0i, including 101,605 slaves. In- 
crease ill 10 years, 77 per cent. From 1830 to 1840 it was 133 per cent. Pop. 1860, 
1,201,214, including 115,619 slaves. Desperate attempts were made by rebels in this St;ite 
to effect secession, but they were defeated. This State was the scene of numerous minor 
conflicts and some important battles, during the slaveholder's war 1861-5. See United States 
and Battles. War debt, $7,546,575 ; Common School fund in 1865, $678,660. 

MORAVIANS, U. S. In 1863 they numbered 32 ministers, 46 churches, and 5,760 
members. 

MORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to " Joe Smith," is said 
to have been made in the State of New York, about 1835. Surrender of a body of 700 
Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Joe Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri militia, un- 
der Gen. Atchison, Oct. 28, 1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, 
June 27, 1844. The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, 
and the Mormons emigrated to Deseret and California, 1848-9. In Utah, their chief settle- 
ment, Brigham Young, their leader, wns made Governor by Pres. Fillmore in 1850. The 
U. S. chief justice being repudiated by Young, and the U. S. laws disowned. Col. Steptoe, 
U. S. A., was appointed governor in place of Young, and sent with a battalion to enforce the 
U. S. authority, Aug., 1854. His authority being defied he resigned. Alfred Cummings 
appointed gov. by Pres. Buchanan, and arrived with 2,5(i0 U. S. troops, Oct. 5. His 
trains were attacked and open rebellion proclaimed ; but in March, 185S, the Mormon lead- 
ers submitted and order was restored. Army withdrawn May, 1860. In April, 1851, their 
elders and preachers were gathering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, 
and especially among the Waldenses ; also in Paris. Their celebrated " Bible," professed to 
have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as 
a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula Co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have 
been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it, and subsequently printed it. In 
Europe the cumber of Mormons has been estimated as high as 100,000 ; and some are re- 
ported in Asia, Africa, and Polynesiii. Their number in Utah was estimated at 50,000, in 
1862, and composed the greater part of the white population. They denominate themselves 
the ''Church of Jesus of the Latter Day Saints." Their church organization is composed of 
a series of hierarchies, the highest being the First Presidency, consisting of their chief 
prophet Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and Daniel II. Wells ; next the Twelve 
Apostles ; then the quorums of Seventies, of which theie are said to be 62 organized in the 
territories, each having seven presidents and 63 members ; then follow quorums of High- 



86 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



[mor 



Priests, Elders, Priests, Teachers, aud Deacons. A somewhat anomalous office is that of 
patriarch, which has been conferred on John Smith (son of Hyrum and nephew of tlicir first 
prophet, Joseph Smith) and on a few others. There is also in each settlement a High-Coun- 
cil, composed of 12 members, and a bishop for each ward, the wards containing from 500 to 
1,000 persons. {National Ahnanac.) Reported schism among the Mormons, 1867. 

MORTALITY IN WAR. The Provost-Marshal-General has compiled a complete list oi 
all the deaths in battle and from wounds and disease, of every regiment from all the Northern 
States during the war. This record shows that 280,751 officers and men lost their lives in 
the service; of whom, 5,221 commissioned officers and 90,886 enlisted men were killed 
in action or died of wounds, and 2,321 commissioned officers and 182,329 men died oi 
disease. 

MOUNT VERNON. The home of Washington, on the Potomac ; purchased for the 
nation for the sum of $200,000, raised by ladies' associations, originated by Miss Pamela 
Cunningham, of South Carolina, 1858-60. During the war this place was protected and was 
undisturbed by the conflict. 

MUSIC, U. S. Music seems to have engaged public attention first through the theatre. 
There was one established at the Capital during Washington's administration ; also after- 
wards at New Orleans. About 1825 an opera troupe appeared in New York, under Signor 
Garcia, a fine artist. Madame Mahbran, his daughter, met with gieat success as an opera 
singer. Otlier Italian troupes i'ollowed. Large Opera Houses are at Boston, Brooklyn, New 
York, New Orleans, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. Miss Kellogg, the American 
Prima Donna, first appeared on the stage early in 1861. Hei" success has been complete. 
Philharmonic and musical societies are to be found in all large towns of the U. S., and 
musical concerts are greatly encouraged. The excellence of American Pianos is acknowledg- 
ed. Among eminent players are Gottschalk, Mason, Mills. About $15, 000,lOO worth of 
Pianos are manufactured yearly. See Pianos. 

N 



NASHVILLE, U.. S. The capital of Tenn., occupied by the Union forces, Feb. 23, 1862. 
Great battle fought here Dec. 15, 1864, between the forces of Gen. Thomas (Union) and 
Hood (Confederate). The former had been besieged for several days, when he marched out 
and attacked Hood, taking 16 guns. On the 16ih he completely routed him, taking 20 guns. 
This was the last campaign of the Southern army of the West. 

NATIONAL DEBT, U. S. At different times :— 'See Loans, U.S. 



In 1791 tlie debt was 175,463,476 

In 1800 " " 82.976,294 

In 1810 '• " 53;i7a,217 

Id 1815 " " 99,833,te0 

In 1816 « " 127,3;:4,9:34 

In 1820 " " 91,015,566 

Jan. 1, 1861, it -was $66,243,721 

Dec. 1, 1861 " 267,654,153 

Jmii. 1, 1863 " 764,535,854 

Dec. 1, 1863 *' 1,293,243.544 

Pell. 13, 1865 " 2,279,652,484 



In 1830 the debt was $48,565,406 

Inl835 " " 37,733 

In 1839 " " 11,9^3,738 

In 1845 " " 16,^01,647 

In 1»48 " " 65,804,450 



Aug. 31,1865 it was 2,757,689.571 

(It reached its hiizLest fiuiire tit ibis dat' .) 

Jan.], 1866 it was 2716,581,536 

Nov. 1, 1866 " 2,.' 51 ,3 111,005 

May 1,1867 " 2,520,786,096 



NATIONAL DEBTS. Mr. Gladstone's estimate in 1866 :— 



Spain $725,000,000, or $46 per head. 

Holland 425,000,00m, or 121 " 

Turkey 255,00ii 000, or 115 " 

FnissiH 215,000,11(10, or 12 " 

Portugal 175,000,000, or 40 " 



Kiiglard J'3,995,('00,000, or $125 per head 

TJiiited SlateB 3,000,000,000, or 100 " 

France 2,400,000,000, or 53 " 

Austria 1,580,000,000, or 45 " 

EusBia I,3!'5,r0i',0(l0or 43 " 

Italy.... 760,000,000 or 34 » 

Great Britain's revenue has never exceeded $370,000,000 per year ; but the United States 
government are now raising $540,000,000 per year. 

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN (at New York), founded 1826 ; the first President waa 
Samuel F. B. Morse, who was succeeded by A. B. Duraiid in 1845, and he by D. Huntington 
in 1861. Corner stone of new .Academy building laid Oct 21, 1863. Building opened aud 
inaugurated Ap. 17, 1865. 



NAV] 



AMERICAN SUPrLEMENT. 



87 



NAVAL BATTLES or the United States. 



Paul Jones, in the Providence privateer, 

takes 16 prizes 1776 

His descent on Whitehaven April, 1778 

He captures the British frigate Berapis, 

Sept. 23, 1779 

Frigate Phiiadelphia taken by the Tri- 

politans 1 803 

Recaptured by Decatur Peli. 1, 1804- 

Tripoli bombarded by Cotniiiodore Preiile Aug. 1804 

Frigate Chesapeake tired upon by the 
British ship Leopard, for refusing to 
be searched 1807 

Frigale President vs. British sloop Little 

Belt May 16, 1811 

[Delaware and Chesapeake Bays block- 
aded by the Brilisti.] 

Frigate Ch' saiieake surrendered to the 

British trigatp Shannon June 1, 1813 

Sloop Artfus captured by Br.tsli sloop 

Pelhan Aug. 14, 1813 

Brig Enterprise captures the British brig 

"Bi )xer Aug. 1813 

Fleet on Lake Erie, Commodore Ferry, 

captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 

Flotilla, Commodore Chaun-ey, capture s 

Briti.-h tlotil a on Lake Ontario,. . .Oct. 5, 1813 

Frigate E^sex, Commodore Po.ter, cap- 
tured bv frigate Pnoebe and sloop 
Ch.rnb." March 28, 1814 

Sloop Frolic, Commodore Bainbr dge, sur- 
rendered to British frigate Orpheus, 

April 21, 1814 

In the war of Secession : — 

The Confederate forts at Hatteras Inlet, 
N" C, bombarded by fleet of Com. 
Strineham, and taken liy land forces 
of Gen. Builer Aug. 28, 29, 1801 

Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Com. Foote. 

Feb. 6, 1802 

Great naval action in Hampton Roads, 
Va., March 8, 9, If 62. The Eebel 
ram Merrimac from Norfolk, att cks 
theU. S. frigates "Cumberland" and 
" Co gress," and si ks them. On ihe 
following day the U. S. "Mimitor" 
(battery of 2 gnns), arrived in time to 
save the frigate M nnesota, and finally 
forced the Merrimac to withdraw in 
a d'sabled condition. 

Com. Farragiit, with a fleet of 50 vcs-els 
and 286 guns, passes forls Jackson 
and F'hilips, destroys the enemy's 
rams, and takes New Orleans, April 18, 26, 1862 

Grand military and naval expedition, un- 
der Dujiont, captures forts at Hilton 
Head, 8. C Js^ov. 7,1861 

Fierce action at Port Hndson, Miss. Ad- 
miral Farrau-nt, in attempting to pass 
the batter es, loses his flag s'dp 
"Misaiss.ppi," March 14, 1863 



Constitution captures British frigate 

Guerriere .Aug. 13, 1812 

Captain Elliott captures two British frig- 
ates on Lake Erie ."Oct. 8, 1812 

Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Frolic, 
Oct. 18 ; loth vessels captured by 
British 74, Poictiers Oct. 20,1812 

Frigate United States, Captain Ueeatur, 

captures British frigate Macedonian 1812 

Constitnlion, Captain Bainbridge, cap- 
tures British frigate Java... I Oct. 29, 1812 

Hornet, Captain Lawrence, cajitures 
British sliip Peacock, Captain Feake, 

Feb. 23, 1813 

Sloop Peacock, Captain "Warrington, cap- 
tures British brig Epervier. April 29, 1814 

Sloop Wasp, Captain Blakeley, captures 

British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814 

Flotilla, Commodore Macdonoutrli, victori- 
ous over Ihe British on Lake Cham- 
plain Sept. 11, 1814 

Frigate President surrendered to the 

Brilii-h frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1815 

Frigate Constitut on, captures British 

liriL's Cyane and Levant, oft' Madeira, Feb. 1815 

Sloop Hornet, Commodore Biddle, cap- 
tures British br.g Penguin, off Brazil, 

Feb. 23, 1815 

U. S. naval force under Commodore Con- 
ner bombards Vera Cruz, (jointly 
with the land force under General 
Scoit,) 1847 



Combined attack of iron-clads iipon Fort 
Sumter, S. C, five disaljled, the fort 
receiving no gnat injury April 7, 

The Rebel ram Albemarle attacks U. S. 
gunboats at Plymouth, N. C, sinks 
one and disperses the rest .April 19, 

Brilliant engagement off Cherbourg, 
France, between U. S. gunboat 
"Kearsarge," and Rebel privateer 
"Alaljama." The latter sunk in 2 
hours June 19, 

Admiral Farragnt, with 32 vessels and 
231 guns, enters Mo! ile Bay, silencing 
the forts and capturing two heavy 
iror-c ads One XJ. S. Monitor sunk 
by a torpedo Aug. 5 

Gunboat fight near Merai:hi8, Tenn. The 
Union fleet completely routed the 
enemy's, capturing 3 and disabling 4 
of their vessels June 6, 1864 

Formidalile fleet of iron cladsand fr gates 
with 300 guns, under Admiral Porter, 
attack Fort Fisher, N". C. Under cover 
of the terrible fl.re, land forces storm 
and capture the fort Jan. 15, 

For list of mitior engagements, see Gree- 
ley's Amer. C(nijiict, Vol. II. 



1833 
1834 



,1864 



1864 



1865 



NAVY OF THE United States. The fir.st ship of war of the United States was built un- 
der the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jone.'^, at Portsmouth, N. H., 1781 ; but 
the regular navy was commenced by act of Congress, authorizing the building of .*ix frigates 
March 30, 1794. The Constitution launched at Bo.ston, Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. 
In 1860, consisted of 10 ships of the line, 10 frigates, 21 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 8 steamers 
first class, 6 screw do. '2d class, 15 do. 3d class, 9 side-wheel steamers, 3 store ships, 6 receiv- 
ing ships. Total, 91 vessels. At the opening of the war in 1861, there were 58 serviceable 
vessels, with 1,110 guns. The home squadron consisted of but 12 ships, with 187 guns. In 
1862 there were 427 vessels and 3,268 guns; in 1863, 588 vessels, 4,443 guns; in 1864, 671 
\essels, 4,610 guns. At the close of 1864, there were 62 "iion-clads" completed dp 
on the docks. Total number of seamen in 1861, 7,600; in 1865, 51,500. Since 1861, 208 
vessels were conmienced, and 418 bought, of which 313 were steamers, costing 5:18, 3f;6, 681. 
Total expenses of Navy department from March 4, 1861, to June 3n, 1865, $314,170,960. 
The first "iron-clad" was the "Monitor," built by Capt. Ericsson at N. Y. in 100 days, com« 



88 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [nav 

pleted March 5, 1862. In 1866, the navy was reduced to 278 vessels, 2,351 guns. In com- 
mission, 115 vessels, 1,029 guns. .Number of seamen in the naval and coast survey service 
in 1866, 13,600. 

NAVAL ACADEMY (U. S.) at Annapolis, Md.,founded during the presidency of Mr. Polk, 
chiefly at the instance of Geo. Bancioft, sec. of the Navy. During the war it was removed to 
Newport, R. I. It has since been re-established at Annapolis. 

NATURALIZATION, Laws, U. S. By the constitution, Congress has power to establish 
" one uniform rule of naturalization." Over fifteen different acts have been passed since 
1787 on the subject. In 1860, the law required a residence of five years in the country to 
entitle any one to citizenship. In the city of New York, between 1850 and 1860, about 
60,000 persons were naturalized. 

NEBRASKA, IT. S. Organized as a territory 1854. Capital, Omaha City. Area, about 
100,000 square miles. Population in 1860, 28,841 ; also 5,000 Indians. Admitted into the 
Union March 1st, 1867. 

NEVADA, U. S. Organized as a territory, March 2, 1861. Capital, Carson City. Area 
about 80,000 square miles. Population, 1860, 50,5G8, of whom 16,260 were Indians on res- 
ervations, and 7,5.50 tribal Indians. Admitted as a State, Oct. 31, 1864. It is one of the 
richest mineral States in the Union. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdinando Gorges 
in 1662, first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It came voluntarily under the ju- 
risdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was made a separate province by an act of Charles I. 
in 1679. It was several times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since 
which it has remained a separate Slate. Consiitution formed in 1784, and amended, 1792. 
Population in 1790 was 141,885; in 1800, 138,858; in 1830, 269,328; in 1840, 284,574; 
in 1850, 317,976 ; increase in 10 years, 11 per cent. In 1860, 326,072, increase, 3 per cent. 
Number of troops furnished to the army in 1861-5, 33,427. 

NEW JERSEY. One of the United States ; first settled by the Dutch from New York, at 
Bergen, 1614-20. A Colony of Swedes and Finns on the Delaware, 1627. The province 
included with New York in the grant by Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664; granted 
by the duke to lord Berkley and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. 
Subdued by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674 ; purchased by a company of 
English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at Salem, 1674 ; goverimient sur- 
rendered to the crown (in consequence of difSculties about titles, &c.,) and accepted by queen 
Anne, 1702; continued under royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This 
State suffered much in the Revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal 
Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732,47,000; in 1790, 184,189; 
in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306 ; in 1850, 488,552, including 22,269 colored persons; 
in 1860, 676,084. Increase in 10 vears, 35 per cent. Number of troops furnished to the army, 
(1861-5,) 79,348. Population in 'l865, 773,700. 

NEW MEXICO, U. S. Ceded to the U. S. in 1848. Organized as a territory, 1850. 
Capital, Santa Fe. Population in 1860, 83,000 ; besides 65,100 tribal Indians. 

NEW ORLEANS, U. S. The chief city of Louisiana, called the " Crescent City " on 
account of the circular bend of the river on which it stands. Founded by the French, in 
1718. Ceded to the U.S. in 1803. Population then, 8,(i00_; in 1840, 102,000; in 1860, 
168,800, of whom 13,300 were slaves. In the war for the Union, New Orleans surrendered 
to the U. S. forces, — the naval commanded by Admiral Fnrragut, and the land forces com- 
manded by Gen. B. F. Butler, April 26, 1862. The misrepresentations as to Butler's "brutal 
tyranny, especially towards females," as recorded by Haydn, (p. 513), and believed in England, 
have been long since exploded. Butler superseded in the command of the city and the Depart- 
ment of the Gulf by Gen. N. P. Banks, 1863. Gen. Canby appointed to the post,— 1864. 
Rebel riots against the negroes and their friends, in the " Radical Convention," July, 1866. 

NEWPORT, R. I. One of the principal places of summer resort in the U. S. In 1861 
the Naval Aciidemy was removed from Annapohs to this place. In 1865 it was re-estab- 
lished at Annapolis. 

NEWSPAPERS, &c., in the United States. The first was the " Boston Keiv!<-Letter,'\m 
1704, which was continued till 1774; the second was the Boston Gazette, 1719; the third 
the American Weekly Mercury, at Philadelphia, stiirted one day after the last. First New 
York Gazette, m 1725; first newspaper in the Caroliuas at Chaileston, 1731-2; "first itViodfl 
Island Gazette at Newport, 1732; first Virginia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736. In 1775 



new] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 89 

there were in all the colonies SY newspapers; in 1810, in the United States, 368; in 1828, 
802; in 1839, 1,555. In 18(i0 there were 3,864 newspapers published in the U. S., of which 
613 were in New York ; 419 in Pennsylvania; 382 in Ohio; 221 in Illinois; and 219 la 
Mass. In England and Wales there were 2*72; in France, about 600; in Germany, 1,600; in 
Russia, 100. In 1866, number of newspapers in U. S. about 4,000; circulalion 928,UOO,000 
copies. In 1865, number in Slate of New York, 623; circulation 412,591,90(1. 

NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of Manhat- 
tan, where New York City now stands, W3re discovered by Henry Hudson, an Englishman, 
in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanenily settled on Manhattan Island by.the 
Dutch in 1621; surrendered to the English, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 
1664; confirmed to England by the peace of Bieda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in 
1673; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674; first legislative assembly, 1683; 
Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689; episcopacy established by law, 1693; negro conspiracy, 
1741 ; colony took an active part in French war, 1756, and the war of Independence; city 
captured by English, 1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. •^!i, 1783; State adopted the Federal Con- 
stitution bv 30 to 35, 1788; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in 1732, 
65,000; in" 1790, 340,820; in 1810,959049; in 1820, 1,372,812; in 18t0, 2,-128,921; in 
1850, 3,097,394; increase in ten years, 26 percent.; in 1860, 3,851,563; incrense in ten 
years, 24 per cent. No. of school districts, 11,621. Pupils in public schools, 851,533. Vol- 
umes in school libraries, 1,360,507(1860). Population in 1865, 3,831,777; decrease of 2 
per cent. No. of voters in 1865, 823.484, of whom 583,611 were natives. The number of 
widows in the State — principally a result of the war — was 187,980. It sent 473,443 troops 
to the war. Number of convicts in State' Prisons in 1865, 1,873. 

NEW YORK, City of. Founded by the Dutch, 1614; fort built by them at S. point of 
the i.sland, 1623; surrendered to the English, 1664; assessed value of all the property in the 
town in 1668 was £78,231; city taken by the British, 1776; evacuated Nov. 25, 1783; 
meeting of first United States Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of 
the United States, at the City Hall in W^ll street, April 30, 1789; yellow f.ver prevailed 
here in 1795 and 1805 ; cholera in 1832, 1831, and 1849. Great fire "in the business part of 
the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property valued at about .$20,000,000, Dec. 16, 
1835; another in same neighborhood, 1845; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly 
after; celebration of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 
1790, 33,131; in 1810, 96,373; in 1830, 202,589; in 1840, 312,710; in 1850, 514,547; in 

1860, 805,651 ; in 1865, 726,386. The density of the population is about 82,000 to the 
square mile, including 1,100 acres of p irks. Delit of the city in 1867, $51,000,000. Value of 
real and personal property in 1865, $608,784,355. On the eleven street raihoads in the city 
of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept; 30, 1864, t!ie enormous num- 
ber of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The 
earnings of the roads for the same period were $4,623,583, and the expenses $2,821,625. 

NORTH CAROLINA. One of the United States. First permanent settlement at Albe- 
marle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious persecution about 1660. The 
district granted to Lord Clarendon, who induced the celebrated John Loi-ke to prepare a 
constitution for it, 1663. The chief masristiate was called the palatine, and there was an 
hereditary nobility. This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas pur- 
chased by the crown for £17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. The popula- 
tion wus as follows : — 

Whitos. Slaves. Free-Col. Total. 

1810 484,870 24.5,817 22,7;i2 IhSA'Q 

1S.50 .'=53,028 288,r48 27,463 86-i.n39 

1860 679,965 328,377 1,008,342 

It was at Mecklenburgh, in this State, that the first declaration of independence of the 
British crown was made as early as May, 1773. Ordinance of "secession" pa,s,sed May 21, 

1861. Loss by the State in the war, .$2o0,000,000. Gen. Sherman marched across the State 
in the spring of 1865. May 29, W. W. Holden was appointed provisional governor. Legis- 
lature declared the ordinance of secession "null and void" Oct. 7, 1865, 



OBSERVATORIES, U. S. The fir.st one was established in the country in 1834 at 
Washington, for the Naval Depot of Charts. It was equipped with a three and three- 
quarter inch transit-instrument. In 1835, a five-inch telescope was placed in a tower at Yale 
College. In 1838, a small observatory was established at Hudson, Ohio, through the exer- 



40 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [oHi 

tions of Prof. E. Loomis. In 1840, one at Philadelphia for the " High School." In 1841, 
one at West Point, for the TJ. S. Military Academy. Bill to provide lor a U. S. Niival Obser- 
vatory piisscd Congress, Aug., 1842. In 1844, under the superintendence of Litiit. Giiliss, 
U. S. N., a building was completed at Camp Hill, Washington, and fun,i.«hcd with Euro- 
pean ii.siruments. Lieut. Maury assigned to its charge, Oct., 1844. Capt. Giiliss api oiiitrd 
in 1861 vice Maury absconded. First volume of astronomical observatioiis appeared in 
1842, compiled by Lieut. Giiliss. The Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y., founded by Mrs. 
B. Dudley 1858. The one at Cincinnati founded by Prof. Mitchel, 1843. Canibrid<.e Ob- 
servatory, 1845. Ann Arbor Observatory, 1854. The Chicago Observatory has the largej-t 
toleSoope'in the country. The Yale "Scientific School" has a revolving turret for observa- 
tions. Telescopes have been mounted at various places by private individuals ; the princi 
pal one at Nantucket, Mass., under the charge of Miss Mitchel. 

OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta, April 1788 ; 
second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincinnati, 1789; third by French 
emigrants at GaUipolis, 1*791 ; fourth by New Englanders, at Cleveland and Conneaut, 1796. 
First territorial legislature met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction 
of Connecticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her "School fund" in 1800. Ohio 
formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 18(i2. Population in 1790 
was 3,0(10 ; in 18(l(i, 45,365 ; in 1810, 230,760 ; in ISP.O, 937,637 ; in 1840, 1,519,467. The 
total population of this State in 1850, was 1,980,408, viz. white, 1,956,000 ; colored, 24,300. 
Farms in cultivation, 143,887 ; manufacturing establishments producing annually over $500,- 
110,550 ; houses, 336,098. Census Returns. In 1860 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 
30,000,000 bushels. April, 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers 
entered Ohio. Population in I860, 2,377,917 ; increase in ten years about 20 per cent. Num- 
ber of men sent to the war in 1861-5, 317,133. In 1866 there were erected in Ohio, at 
a cost of $4,889,900, 4,850 houses, 1,158 barns, 78 mills, 311 factories. 

OIL WELLS, which supply a good burning oil, were discovered at Titnsville, Pa., 1859. 
The first was through 29 feet of earth, and 30 feet of rock. There were in 1861 numerous 
wells in that vicinity yielding about 15 barrels per day. In August, 1861, the excitement on 
petroleum increased wonderfully by the discovery of wells which threw up immense quanti- 
ties of oil in the valley of Oil Creek, Pa. 30( barrels were obtained from a single well in 
one day. Wells were discovered later in Ohio, California, Kentucky, and West Virginia. 
FromPenn. in 1860, 2,000,000 galls, were sent to market; in 1861, 20,000,000. In 1862, 
$60,(00,000 worth was exported to foreign countries from the U. S. The yield from the 
wells of the Oil Creek region was stated to be 5,717 barrels per day in 1862. From 1861-65, 
Petroleum was the subject of numberless speculations, and fortunes were daily made and lost. 
In Jan. 1862, the price of refined oil was 40 cer.ts in New York ; in Nov. it rose as high as 
$1 10 ; in Dec. it full to 40 cents again. In 1866-7 the" petroleum fever had greatly dimin- 
ished. 

OMNIBUSES, U. S. In New York City, in 1866, there were 8 lines of omnibuses with 
204 vehicles. Their average number of trips a day is 10 up and 10 down the city. 

OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. First visited 
by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuea, 1592 ; by Sir Francis Drake, 1578 ; by Vancouver, 
1792. The Columbia river discovered and entered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Colum- 
bia, of Boston, United States, May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent 
out by Jefferson, 1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808 ; Pacific 
Fur Companv (J. J. Astor) at New York, 1810 ; Astoria founded at the mouth of the Colum- 
bia, by Astor's colony, 1811 ; sold to the N. W. Company, 1813 ; occupied by the British 
until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of the Hudson's Bay Company (Eng- 
lish) commenced 1821 ; the territory divided at the 49th parallel of lat., leaving all north 
of that line, with the whole of Vancouver's island, to Great Britain, remainder to the United 
States, bv Mr. McLane's treaty, signed at London, raiihed by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 
1846. Population at thai; time about 20,0( 0. Territorial government established by the 
U. S. Congress. Aug. 2-13, 1848. Admitted into the Union 1859. Capital, Salem. Popula- 
tion in 1860, 52,566 ; in 1865, about 70,000. 

OPERA, U. S. See Music. 

OPIUM. The Custom-house returns state that in 1858, 300,000 lbs. of opium were im- 
ported in the United States, and it is calculated from reliable data that not more than one- 
tenth of this is used for medicinal purposes. Druggists and physicians say that the habit of 
taking opiates is very prevalent, and extending every year. The duty on opium is $2.60 per 
lb. ; on opium prepared for smoking, 100 per cent, (acts of Congress, 1864-5). 



org] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 41 

ORGANS. The largest organ in the U. S. is that in the Music Hall at Boston, Mass., 
completed 1862. The next largest in H. W. Beecher's church at Brooklyn, 1866. 

OYSTER TRADE, U. S. The oyster product of the Chesapeake Bay in 1858 was valued 
at $20,000,000. From Baltimore, iii 1860, $3,500,000 worth was distributed through the 
country. The trade of the town of Fair Haveu, Coun., is almost exclusively devoted to the 
cultivation and export of oysters. 



PAINTING, IN THE U. S. The first practising artist of celebrity was John Watson (born 
in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting portraits in New Jersey, 1715. Natlianiel Smy- 
bert, of Edinburgh, began in Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American 
artist ; born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708 ; painted his first portrait in Lancaster, 
Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738 ; first painted in 1760; he was the 
father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. Clias. W. Peale (born in Mary- 
land, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), 
William Dunlap (New Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), AUslon of S. C. 
and Bostou, Morse of New York, historical painters. More recently, C(jle, Doughty, and 
Dtirand, in landscape, and Inman, Sully, Harding, and Elliot in portrait. In landscnpe paint- 
ing dining the last 20 years great advances have been made; and the works of Church, 
Bierstadr, GifFord, and others have won fame and honor beside the best EuT'opean works. 
See List of Painters in Biographical Index, also Tuckerman's Book of (he Artists, Spooner's 
Bioff. Hid. of F.ne Arts, J. J. Jarves, Works, etc. 

PALEONTOLOGY. Prof. James Hall of Albany is the author of an elaborate work on 
the Palaeontology of New Y"ork. A Professorship of Palaeontology established at Yale Col- 
lege in 1866. It was endowed by Geo. Peabody, Esq. 

PAPER. The manufacture of printing and writing papers in the United States has been 
greatly advanced in the last 20 years. Printing paper is now made, especially in Conn., 
Mass., Maine, N. J., and Pa., fully equnl in quality to the best in England. The amount of 
capital employed in this business is estimated at $'i0,000,000. The quantity produced can- 
not be precisely calculated, but it is now (1867) probably greater than the product of Great 
Britain. Mass. manufactures more paper than any other State. Number of mills in 1865, 
77; value of stock $5,381,671 ; capital $3,875,000. The materials for making paper in the 
U. S. are various, such as rags, flax, worn out bagging, cable-rope, straw, hay, hendock, corn- 
husks, midberry leaves and bark, canes and reeds. In 1855 there were in the U. S. 750 paper 
mills, 3,000 engines, producing 280,000,000 lbs., which at 10 cts. per lb. would amount to $28,- 
000,000. The manufacture of printing and stationery papers in 1860 was 153,766,000 lbs. 
An examination of the returns of the incomes paid by persons and firms interested in the manu- 
facture of paper, in a single collection district of the United States, for the years 1865-'66, gives 
the following results : Total income of ninety-nine persons, firms, and corporations, $948,988. 
Of these, one corporation reported an income of $178,000, and ten individuals an aggregate of 
$314,000 ; being an average of $31,400 each. The annual value of paper produced in the U. S. 
is estimated at $17,500,000, nearly as large as in England. 

PAPER CURRENCY. In 1857 the Bank of England had $98,800,000, other banks in 
England, $89,585,(100, total, $188,385,0'iO ; France, $121,070,000; Unit.'d States, $148,- 
929,000. In 1863 the circulation of the 1466 Banks in the U. S. was $238,677,218. 

PARKS. The great " Central Park." N. Y. city, originated 1851 by the suggestions of 
the late A, J. Downing, and first officially recommended by A. C. Kingsland, then mayor. It 
was authorized both by the Common Council and by the Legislature, within 100 days after ; 
the awai'd of the commissioners of Assessments, made July 2, 1855. The park came into 
possession of the city, Feb., 1856. It originally extended from 69th to 106th St. : in 1859 it 
was extended to 110th St., and then included in all 843 acres; being 2^ miles long, ^ mile 
wide. The cost before extcn.^ion was $5,444,369, of which $1,657,590 was assessed on ad- 
joining property ; the net cost being greater than was ever before known to be expended on 
a public park. It is now more than twice the size of Hyde Park in London ; hut of its area 
142 acies is occupied by the two Crofon reservoirs. Preliminary surveys by Mr. Viele (1856) 
were followed by the adoption of plans by Olmsted and Vaux, April 28, 1858, and the ap- 
pointment of Mr. F, L. Olmsted as Superintendent and " Architect-in-chief." Work on this 
plan commenced June 1, 1858, since which from 500 to 3500 persons have been employed to 
this time (1867) under the general direction of commissioners appointed by the Legislature. 
A park of about equal extent to the " Central Park," is projected but not yet (1867) com- 
pleted for the city of Brooklyn. 



42 D CTIONARY OF DATES. [pat 

PATENTS, U. S. The Patent OflSce of the U. S. at Washington, nr extei?ive and impo- 
sing edifice, was completed 1858. The number of Patents issued lias rapidly incrrased 
during the lust seventren years, being nearly nine tiaies as great in 1856 as in 184.S. The 
numbers in some of these years are thus stated : 



Ye:n's. 
1843 


Applied for. 
819 


Granted. 
531 


Tears. 

1857.. 

185S 

1859 


Applied for. 
4771 


Granted 
2710 


1850 


2193 


995 

20'i4 


5364 

6225 


3710 


]8'i5 


4435 


4538 


1856.... 


4960 


2910 









The receipts of the office increased from $35,315, in 1843, to |245,942, in 1859. Of the 
patents granted in 1859, 4,491 were to citizens of the U. S. (1,237 being from N. Y.), 23 to 
British subjects, 16 to French, and 8 to other foreign applicants. Nimiber of patents issued 
in 1863, 3,887; rt'ceipts of the office, $179,378; expenditure, $189,803. 

PEABODY FUND, U. S. Mr. George Peabody, the great American banker at London, 
during a visit to the U. S., donated in 1866-7 the sum of $2,000,000, to be used as an educa- 
tional fund for the benefit of the Southern States. It was committed to a Board of Trustees, 
who have absolute discretion as to the manner of its distribution. Dr. Sears, of Brown 
University, appointed General Agent. The promotion of Primary and Normal School 
educatioQ is to be the leading object. Mr. Peabody delivered over bonds, covering the 
amount of his gift, March 4, 1867. 

PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James IL to William Penn, of 
the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes and Finns, and conquered by 
the Dutth in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres sold by Penn for £400 to a colony whicli formed 
a settlement at Philadelphia. The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 
1776, wheu the legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors £130,OoO in lieu of quit-rents. 
Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important actions in this State in the war 
of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 
1787, by 46 to 23. Continental Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 
1790 to 1800, when it was removed to Wasliington, Population of State in 1732, 30,0(iO; 
1790, 434,373; in 18(iO, 602,545; in 1820, 1,049,13; in 1840, 1,724,033; hi 1860, 
2,906,115. Number of common schools in the State in 1865, 12,930. The State furnished 
862,284 soldiers for the war. It had under its care (1866), about 1200 soldiers' orphans, 
appropriation having been made by the legislature to support such. 

PENSIONERS, U. S. The whole number of pensioners of all classes on the rolls in 1860, 
■was 11,585 ; and the aggregate amount required per annum for their payment, $1,183,141. 
Of revolutionary soldiers, 165 were on the rolls in 1860, In 1866, only 5 were on the rolls. 
Congress granted in 1866, to each of these, $300 annuity, in addition to the $100 pension. 
The war of the rebellion produced a new list of pensioners. The entire number on the rolls, 
July 1, 1866, was 126,722. The amount paid to them, including expenses of disbursement, 
was $13,459,996. The Naval Pension Fund amounts to $11,750,000 (1866). 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE, U. S. See Reviews and Magazines. 

PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colony under 
Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay in 1627]. Named after a 
city in Asia Minor, and first laid out with a view to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan 
was restricted to its present limits by the charter of 1701. First or " Continental" Congress 
at Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 4, 1776, in 
the State House, still standing in Chestnut street. The city taken by the British, Sept. 26, 
1777 ; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Convention met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th 
of Sept. following, agreed on a constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 
and 1798. Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established here, 
1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. Population in 1732, 
12,000; in 1790, 4-J,000; in 1810, 96.664; in 183o, 167,811 ; in 1840, 220,423 ; in 1860, 
340,045; in 1860, 585,529. During the war for the Union, 1861-5, Philadelphia wa« diii- 
tinguished for its enthusiastic patriotism and benevolence. Northern troops going to the field 
were most hospitably entertained by her citizens, and a very liberal and efficient provision 
was made for the sick and wounded in hospitals, &c. See Clubs. 

PHOTOGRAPHY in the U. S. M. Gourard, of Paris, first introduced Photography in the 
U. S. in 1839, exhibiting some daguerreotype views in the course of a lecture at the Broad- 
way Tabernacle, early in that year. Professors Morse. Draper, and Wollcott, simultaneously, 
before the end of the year, improved Daguerre's process, and during 1840 appjied it to por- 
traiture. Ambrotypes were introduced in 1853, and paper photographs in 1851; although 



PHO] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 48 

very little was done in the business-way until 1854. Early in 1855, Mr. C. D. Frediicka 
m;ule the first successful life-sized photogniplis, with an apparatus invented by Mr. H. H. 
Snelling ; and it is mainly to the introduction of this iipparatus by Mr. Fredricks, that pho- 
tography owes its I'apid progress and po|)ularity in this country, almost entirely superseding 
the earlier daguerreotypes. Stereographs were introduced in 1852, but commanded no atten- 
tion until 1B57. Professor Bond, of Cambridge, Mass., first exhibited a photograph of the 
moon in 1851. Photogiaphs of rai)idly moving objects are taken in a fractional part of a 
second. Ingenious counterfeits of bank notes have been effected by photography. 

PHOTO-SCULPTURE has been introduced in New York in 1867, by Messrs. McKaye 
& Co. ; among the earUest specimens are statuettes of Grant, Farragut, Greeley, and others. 

PIANO-FORTES, Those made by Stein way of New York, and Chickering of Boston, re- 
ceived the highest award (gold medal), at the Paris Exposition of 186*7, July 1. This manu- 
facture has advanced very largely in the last 15 years, and is one of the most important 
branches of American industrv. There are iu New York city alone 113 piano-makers 
(186'7). 

POLICE. The " Metropolitan Police" law for the city of New York and suburbs, passed 
1857, resisted by the mayor (Wood), and a serious collision resulted between the old and new 
police force, June 16, 1857. The new law pronounced to be constitutioual by the Court of 
Appeals, July 2, and the old force is disbanded next day. The present police force of 
New York (1867), is unquestionably the most effective and the most perfect that has ever 
been organized on this continent. In 186(i the police force consisted of 26 captains, 105 
sergeants, 42 roundsmen, 60 detailments, 1,250 patrolmen, 56 doormen. There are 26 Po- 
lice districts. Expense to the city for supporting this force in 1866, $1,836,120. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY. In the U. S. the most elaborate works on this subject, ' are 
those of Mr. Henry C. Carey, of Phila., who has published (as a protectionist), several vol- 
umes which are highly esteemed also in Europe. Works favoring free trade have also been 
issued here by Opdyke and others. See Free Trade. 

POPULATION OF THE U. S. In 1850, 23,191,000; in 1860, 31,429,000. In 1860, the 
following cities had over 10'»,000: New York, 8)5,651; Philadelphia, 585,529; Biooklvn, 
266,661 ; Baltimore, 212,418; Boston, 177,812; New Orleans, 168,675; Cincinnati, 161,044; 
St. Louis, 160,773 ; Chicago, 109,260. By an unofficial but accurate census taken by an offi- 
cer of the government in Dec. 1866, the total population of the U. S. was found to be 
34,505,882. 

POST-OFFICE IN THE United States. The first post-office in the colonies was established 
in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general post-office for all her majesty's do- 
minions. During the Revolution this department was, of course, controlled by Congress, and 
the Constitution of the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the 
Postmaster-general being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of the cabinet. For 
successive Postmasters-General, see Administrations. The following table gives the statistics 
of the post-offices in the United States at different times since 1790 : — 

Year. No. of Post Ammmt of Net. Revenue. Extent in miles 

Offices. Pusta^p. of Post Roads, 

1790 75 *37,'.>35 ?5,795 1,875 

]8()0 903 ^^Oj-^Oi 66,810 20,fI7 

leiO 2,300 551,6^4 55,715 36,406 

1 f<20 4,500 1,1 1 1.927 72,492 

1830 8,0(10 850,f>83 1 15,000 

1840 13,408 4,ri39,265 155,7.39 

1845 14,183 4,289,842 143,940 

1846 14,601 3,4-'7, 99 152,^65 

]847 15,146 3,955,893 153,^18 

1 84-' 1 6, 1 59 4,37 1 ,"77 44,227 163,208 

1854 7 miliioMS Iciss lA millions 

1S55 Ti do 

1856 7^ do 

1857 8 di) 

1858 8 do 

1859 8| do 

18tiO 8J do 

Number of post-offices in 1863, 29,047 ; mail routes, 139,598 miles ; revenue, $11,163,000 ; 
expenditures, $11,314,000. In 1865 $12,099,787 worth of postage stamps were sold ; $724,135 
worth of stamped envelopes; $23,315 worth of stamped wrappers. 467,500,000 letters were 
conveyed in the mails, of which 2,352,000 were lost or destroyed ; number of dead letters, 



2i 


do 


Z 


do 


^ 


do 


^ 


do 


^ 


do 


5| 


do 



44 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [ppa 

4,368,000. There were 74,27T money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,122. The revenues 
of the year 1865 exceeded the highest annual receipts from all the States previous to the re- 
bellion by $6,038,090. Length of postal loutea in 186'7, 180,900 miles. The revenue of the 
department for the year ending June 30, 1865, was $14,556,158, and its expenditures $13,694,- 
'728 ; the rate of increase being lY per cent., and of expenditure 8 per cent., compared with 
the previous year. Postage stamps to the value of $12,099,787 were sold, also $724,135 
worth of stamped envelopes, and $23,315 of stamped wrappers. The average annual increase 
of the revenue for the last four years over the preceding four years was $3,353,845. The 
Postntiaster-General .thinks that in a few years letter postage may be reduced to the rate 
adopted by Great Britain. 

POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. On Aug. 2, 1866, 300 new money-order offices were added, 
making 700 such post-offices. The largest amount that can be sent by any one order is now 
$50. The fees also have been changed — the charge now being 10 cents on any order from $1 
up to $20 ; and 25 cents on any order over $20. 

PRESBYTERIANS. The Presbyterian church in the United States was divided into the 
" Old School," and the New School, 183-. In 1850, the aggregate No. of churches was 4,584, 
accommodating 2,0l0,00i) persons. The Presbyterians of the Southern States formed an in- 
dependent organization, Dec. 1861. The Now School assembly in May, 1863, at Phila., 
passed resolutions " that to support the President and the Government of the U. S. is re ig- 
iously the duty of all good citizens" in the present crisis. Number of "Old School" Presby- 
terians May, 1865, who were communicants, 232,450 ; ministers, 2,301 ; churches, 2,629. 
"New School" communicants, 143,645 ; ministers, 1,694; churches, 1,479. Aggregate in 
other "schools "in 1862,200,000. Contributions of "Old School" in 1865, $2,400,000; 
" New School," $2,2uO,000. 

PRESS, FREEDOM OP THE, U. S. Several papers were mobbed in the North in 1861, 
f)r expi-essing Southern sentiments. The N. Y. "Journal of Commerce," " N(>\vs," "Day 
B )ok," "Freeman's Journal," were complained of by a Grand Jury of the U. S. District Court 
at New York, as treasonable in their declarations; the Government accordingly refused 
th 'in the privilege of the mails, Aug. 1861. Orders from the War Department prohibiting 
the publication of military movements, Feb, 1862. In June, 1863, Gen. Burnside suppressed 
the "Chicago Times." In 1864, about 35 newspapers were mobbed or suppressed for disloy- 
alty in the Northern States. In 1863 the editors of the N. Y. papers passed resolutions that 
the restrictions on them were dangerous in their tendmicy. During the war the Press was 
free, so long as it did not express treason or give information to the enemy. 

PRINTING. In the United States this important art has made great advances during the 
last 15 years (1867). The best presses of Boston and Cambridge, Mass., of New York, and of 
Philadelphia, have produced specimens, nearly or perhaps fully eqinil to the best in England 
or France. Excellence has been especially aimed at of late in this country, while economy 
aud cheapness have been more studied in England. 

PRINTING PRESSES. The largest presses more recently constructed by Hoe & Co., of 
New York, will throw off 25,000 impressions per hour. These are the " ten-cylinder type- 
revolving printing machines." Two of these have been supplied to print the London Times, 
and a similiar one is used by four daily newspiipers in New York. The cost of each press is 
about $30,000. Of the eight and six cylinder machines Hoe & Co. have supplied 20 in Great 
Britain, 4 in Paris, and 2 in Australia! The Adams printing presses are now manufactured 
by Hoe & Co. Sir Morton Peto, in his book on "American Resources," declares that in 
Printing Presses, Americans have excelled every European nation. See Typesetting MacMnes. 

PRISONERS during the "Rebellion," U. S. At the close of the war, 174,223 were sur- 
rendered by the Confederates to the Union Armies. The Government also had in prisons in 
the North, 98,800. In 1863 there was a geneial exchange of prisoners, the U. S. giving up 
121,900 in return for 110,800 Union soldiers. During 1863 the Confederates held an excess 
of prisoners. From 186*1 to 1864, 225,000 Union soldiers passed the doors of Libby Prison, 
Richmond ; 35,000 were at one time at Andersonville, Geo. Capt. Wirz (Confederate) tried at 
Washington, D. C. for inhuman treatment to U. S. prisoners at the latter place, and executed 
Nov. 10, 1865. Union officers 'prisoners) placed under fire of Federal guns at Charleston 
S. C. in retaliation for bombarding the city, 1864. 

PRISONS, U. S. Number of state prisons in 21 Northern States, in 1865, 25. No two 
are alike in their general construction. Average number of prisoners in them in 1865, 6,650. 
The Aubui-n silent system, inaugurated in 1821, is in practice in most of the States. The Amer- 



PRi] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 45 

ican Prison Discipline Society was founded at !^oston, 18-. The Prison Association at N'ew 
York was founded chiefly by the efforts of Isaac T. Hopper, about 1850. 

PRIVATEER. A vessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing with a 
license from Government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. The 
practice first became general during the war between Spain and the Netherlands, about the 
end of the seveiiteentl) century, and was very general during the last French war. Priva- 
teering was abolished by the great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856; but the 
U. S. government declined to join in this treaty. During the war of 1812 tliere were 250 priva- 
teers commissioned by the U. S. of which 58 were from Baltimore, 55 from New York, 40 from 
Salem, and 31 from Boston. Duriiig that war 2,000 Biri.'-h vessels were captured by the 
American.s, a large portion being by privateers. About 500 American vessels were captured 
or destroyed by the British. See CnggeshaWs Hist, of Am. Privateers. The thirty-seventh 
Congress (18G3) passed a Letter of Marque Bill enabling the President to cover every sea with 
Privateers. None were commissioned, the regular navy being sufficiently effective. The 
Southern Confederacy fitted out about 30 vessels as Privateers. Seven of them proved for- 
midable. They captured 275 vessels of Ameiican merchants, 100,000 tons in all, and valued 
at many millions. The fleetest of these Privateers were of French and British build, and some 
of them manned by seamen from those nations. 

PRIZE MONEY, U. S. From May 1, 1861, to the close of the war in 1865, 1149 Rebel 
blockade-runners and privateers were captured. Net proceeds for distribution among sea- 
men, $20,501,927. The crew of the Kearsarge which sunk the Alabama (Rebel) in the Eng- 
lish Channel, received $300 a piece. 

PROPERTY IN THE U. S. In 1856, the real and personal ])roperty of the U. S. was esti- 
mated by Mr. Guthrie, Sec. of the Treasury, at $11,317,611,672 (more than 11,000 millions). 
By the census of 1860, this had increased to $14,282,726,088, but this estimate is probably 
too low. The value of similar property of Great Britain at the same time was about $31,000 
millions. 

PRUSSIA. War was declared by Prussia and Italy against Austria June, 1866. Bavaria, 
Saxony, and Hanover sided with Austria. The Prussian army occupied Hanover and 
Saxony June 17 and 18, 1866. [See Battles, Aitstrian and Prussian.) Negotiations for an 
armistice commenced July 12, 1866. Prussian advance in sight of Vienna, July 22. Treaty 
of Peace signed Aug. 30, 1866. Prussia acquired Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein, Hesse- 
Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, parts of Bavaria, and Hesse-Darmstadt. By these annexations 
her population became 23,583,000. The strength of Austria remained united, but she paid 
Prussia $28,ii00,0O0, Venetian Province ceded to Italy, Oct. 19, 1866. A vote on the 
question of annexation of Venetia to Italy was had in that province, resulting in 641,758 
afiirmative, 68 negative. The King of Italy entered Venice Nov. 7, 1866, amid great dem- 
onstrations of joy. 

PUBLIC LANDS, U. S. From 1838 to 18P.0 the sales of public lands reached 122,038,290 
acres, which produced $136,401,302 (1860). In Sept. 1.863, the amount of surveyed public 
lands undisposed of was 133,487,495 acres ; the quantity disposed of in 1863 was 2,966,690 
acres, of which 91,354 were sold for cash, the remainder granted for bounties, railroads, &c. 

PUBLIC WORKS, American. The Croton Aqueduct carries more water than any other 
in the world, and is but two miles shorter than the Julian Aqueduct at Rome, the longest in 
the world. The sto~e arch over Cabin John's Creek, in the Washington Aqueduct, is abont 
50 feet longer span than any stone arch in the world. The suspension bridge at Lewiston, 
and the railroad s<is pension bridge, both over the Niagara river, have each the largest span 
in the world. The United States Dry Dock at Brooklyn is not equalled in dimensions, nor 
surpassed in workmanship, by any of the kind anywhere. 

R 

RAGGED SCHOOLS. In New York, and other large cities of the United States, "Rag- 
ged Schools" have been established by benevolent individuals to the great benefit of many 
thousand destitute children, who would otherwise have received no instruction. "Mission 
Schools" also have gathered in thousands from the cellars and gutters, who have been pre 
vided not only with oral teaching, but with lodging, food, and raiment. The "Howard Mis- 
sion" in the Fourth Ward and "Five Points" Missions are of this character. 

RAILROADS in the United States. The first r.aflway in the United States was the ' 
Quincy and Boston, to convey granite lor Bunker Hill Monument, 1827 ; Boston and Provi- 



46 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [rai 

dence Railroad, opened June 2, 1835 ; Boston and Lowell, Juue 2Y, and Bos^ton and Worces- 
ter, July 6, same year; Uiica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, ]836; Baltimore to Wil- 
mington, July 19, 1837 ; Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 1837 ; Worcester and Spring- 
field, Ma?s., Oct. 1, 1839; Housatonic, Feb. 12, 1840. In June, 1859, the lengih of riiihvaya 
in operation in the United States » as stated to be 27,857 miles; cost, $9f>l,0-J7,3c.4. In- 
crease since 1847, 24,057 miles. In 1865, the length of completed railroads was B5,935 miles; 
cost, $1,432,649,000; cost per mile, $40,00i), Pennsylvania had 3,967 miles ; Ohio, 3,393 ; 
Illinois, 3,206 ; New York, 2,956. Railway accidents in 1866, 183, in which 335 persona 
were killed. 

RAILWAYS IN Cities. On the eleven street railroads in the city of New York there 
were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 1864, the enormous nnmber of 60,328,795 
passengers, exceeding that of the previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the 
roads for the same period were $4,623,583, and the expense $2,821,625. 

RAPE, Punishment of, U. S. In New York state the extreme penalty is ten years im- 
prisonment. Military laws impose death on the guilty party. During the rebellion, death 
was inflicted in several instances, on soldiers convicted of rape. 

RECIPROCITY TREATY WITH Canada. Ratified at Washington, June 5, 1854. It allowed 
certain privileges of trade to both parties, and either could withdraw from it upon notice of 
one year. In Dec. 1864, the President was authorized to terminate the treaty. It expired 
March, 1*7, 1866. It was argued against the treaty, that under its operation, the balance of 
trade proved to be against the U. S. One great advantage of it was, that American fishermen 
could have the same rights as the English in the bays and inlets of Canada and the British 
Provinces. > 

REPUBLICAN PARTY, U. S. first appeared as a distinct organization in 1854. The whig 
party dissolved when the south united on the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, and the 
repudiation of the Missouri Compromise. All who opposed the bill were called "anti-Ne- 
braska," and afterwards "Republicans." In 1854, they carried most of the free state elec- 
tions. {Greeley^ History.) Their first presidential convention was held at Philadelphia, 
1856. Gen. Fremont was nominafed for president but was defeated. In 1860, Republican 
Convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for prcf^ident, who was elected. The 
south considered this a cause for seceding from the Union. In 1864, the vote of the country 
was overwhelmingly "Republican." 

REVENUE OF THE United States, The, up to 1863, was derived chiefly from customs and 
sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 

1840 $16,993,858 

1845 29,7( 9,134 



1850 4:!,000,000 

1855 65,000.000 

1859 53.000,000 

1860 56,054,.'i99 

1861 41,476,299 

1862 51,9o5,720 



1790 $4,399,473 

1800 10, (".24,997 

1-105 13.320,31 2 

1^10. 9,299,737 

1815 15,411,634 

18J0 16,779,831 

1825 21,:<42,906 

1-3') 24,2r 0,888 

1835 34,163,C36| 

. Revenue of the U. S. for years ending July 1, (exclusive of loans) : 

"Year. Internal. Customs. Total. 

1863 $37,640,787 $69,059,642 $112,687,290 $895,796,630 

1864 109,741,134 102,316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144,656 

1865 209,464,215 84,928,'260 333,714,605 1,897,674,224 

1866 309,226,813 179,046,651 558,032,620 1,141,072,666 

REVENUE, Internal, U. S. The aggregate revenue from 1789 to 1861, was $1,800,000,000. 
Between 1817 and 1861 no internal taxes were imposed on the people of the U. S. by the 
general government. During the years 1861-2-3, Congress passed laws for increased rev- 
enue to maintain the war. The Excise law of July 1, 1862, levied a heavy tax on about 500 
diflerent articles. The revenue from this source in 1862 to 1866 is stated in above table. 

REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the United States. Before the American revolution, va- 
rious attempts were made to establish religious and literary journals in several places in this 
country, particularly Boston, New York, and Philadelphia; but no one of them obtained a 
liberal support, or had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and 
religious reviews and magazines: 

Boston. Founded. Monthly Anthology, Prof. Ticknor, A. H. Eve- 
American Monthly Magnzine, (the first) estab- rett, Buckminster, &c. (to 1811) 1803 

lished by Jeremy Giidley, continued 3 General Repertory and Review, (Ist Amer. 

years, abirat 1745 quarterly), edited at Cambridge by An- 

Maseachusetts Magazine', (lasted to 1795) 1784 drews Iforton 1812-13 



ret] 



AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 



47 



North American Rev'ew, commenced by W. 
Tudor ; 1815 

Chiistian Exaiiiiner, (quanerly), Obanning, 

Dewey, Wiire, &« 1818 

American Biblie. Kepositnry. founded by K. 

Roliinson, D. D.. at Andover 1831 

Christian Review, (Bipli t) qutir;eily 18a5 

Busion Quarterly llevlew, (I?rowneon) 18:j7 

Kew England Magazine, Buckingham 1833 

American Quarterly Reuister, Edwards 18 — 

The Dial, (quarterly) Eiiierso.i, to 1843 1811 

Ma.-sachiiS' Its Quarterly, Theo. Parker, &c.. .1846 
Atlantic Monthly 1859 

NKW YOI'.K. 

N. T. Magazine and Literary Repc-'itory, (to 

1792) 1787 

Literary Review. R. 0. Sands, &c. (to 18:!3) 18^2 

Atlantic Mair., Sands, afterwards New York 

Monthly Review 1824 

Knickerlio ker Mag., (J. F. Hottmaii, succceiled 

by Flint, and then L. G. Clark I!- 32 

Democratic Review, (ui. til 1841 at \Vashing;on) 1837 
American Monthly Magazi e, X Y., (to 1838) 

Herbert, Hotiman, He.jamin 1835 

N. Y. Review, (quarterly) J. G. Cogswell, (to 

1842) 1837 

American Review, G. H. Clton 1844 

Hunt's Merchani'e Magazine 1S39 

Harper's Mont My Magazine 18.50 

Putnam's Monthly 1 853 

Galaxy 1^66 



NEW HAVEN. 

Christian Observer 182- 

Araerican Jnurnal ol Bcieiice and Arts, (S Ill- 
man's) quarterly 1313 

New Eiiglai der, theol. (qnarieiiy) 1S4:} 

Church Review, (quarterly) Ib48 

PHILADELPHIA. 

Aitkin's Pennsylvaiiia Magazine, was the most 
poinilar before the Revolution ; Thos. 
Paine and Francis Hopkinson, editors. 

Amei-. Museum, pub. by Matthew Carey, (to 
1792) 17S7 

Literarj' Masaz'ne and Amer'can Register, C. 
Brockden Brown, (to 1810) '. 1805 

Portfolio, Pub. monthly from 181 9, by Jo-e: h 
Dennie ; edited bv Nicholas biddle, 1^12-16, 
and 1S16-21 by J. E. Hall 1801 

Analeciic Mag., Moses Thomas, (lo 1820) 1813 

Amer. Quar. Review, Robt. "W-alsh, (lo 1S37)...1S27 

Graham's Magazine 

Lady's Bnok, Mrs. Hale 

Stryker's American Register, (quarterly) 1847 

Southern Quarterly Review, at Charleston, (to 

1833, recommenced 1842) 1823 

Southern Lit. Messenger, at Richmond, by T. 

"W. Wh te 1834 

Biblical Reperioiy ai.d Theological Review, 

Princeton, N. J 18— 

Russell's Magazine, at Charleston, 1858, stopped 

1860 



REVIEW, Military, U. S. Grand review of a part of the national army at the close of 
the war, at Wushiugton, D. C, May, 1865. The army of the west under Sherman, and of the 
east under Meade, reviewed by the Pre.'^ident, Cabinet and Gen. Grant. About 200,000 
troops marched by the White House, occupying two day.s. Great numbers of citizens from 
all parts of the country were present to witness the sight, 

RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States; first settled by Roger Williams and his as- 
sociates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution, and founded the town of 
Providence, in 1636. Williams obtained a patent from Plymouth Co. in 1644, including 
Providence Plantations and Rhode Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by 
Charles II., in 1663, which has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution. 
Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in June, 1842, de- 
feated by the military force of the government. New constitution adopted in convention, 
September, 1842. Constitution of the United States adopted May 29, 1790; this state being 
the last to accede to it. Population in 1790, 58,825; in 1810, 76,931; in 1830, 97,212 5 in 
1840, 108,130; in I860, 174,621; in 1865, 184,695, of whom 112,207 were born in the 
state. It sent 25,355 soldiers to the war. War debt, $4,000,000. 

RICHMOND, Va. Founded in 1742. It became the capital of the State in 1779. 
Population in 1800,5,730; in 1830, 16,060; in 1850, 27,570; in 1860, 37,910, of whom, 
11,700 were slaves. It was distinguished for many years for the eminent men it furnished 
to the couticils of the nation. On the secession of Virginia, Richmond was made the capital 
of the " Southern Confederacy, " June, 1861. During the war it was the main object 
aimed at by the " Union army of the Potomac." The place was fortified with great skill. 
It fell April 2, 1865. A severe fire broke out during its evacuation by tlie Confederates, 
which consumed the business portion of the city. The notorious "Libby Prison" was 
situated in Richmond. 

RIOTS m THE U. S. The largest and most alarming was the riot caused by the enforce- 
ment of the draft in N. Y. city, July 1,S, 1863. It lasted three days. The lioters destroyed 
and burnt property to the amount of $2,500,000. They were finally put down by the police 
and military. Loss of life estimated at 1,000. Similar but smaller riots occurred in Boston, 
Portsmouth, and Holmes County, Ohio. Threatened disturbances in many other places. 
Bread riots in Mobile, Ala., Sept., 1863, by women ; also at Salisbury, N. C, March 18, and 
at Richmond, Va. Riot at New Orleans, July 30, 1866 ; a State Convention broken up by 
ex-rebels and policemen ; 30 negroes and a few whites killed. Attack on Judge Kelley at a 
public meeting in Mobile, May, 1867. Attack on negroes at Memphis, 1866. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS in the United States, in 1839, 1849, and 1859 ; from the Metro- 
politan Catholic Almanac for 1859 : 



48 DICTIONARY OF DATES. • Lrus 

1839 1849 1859 1S.39 1849 1859 

Provinces 1 3 7 1 Priests 478 lOOo 2108 

Dioceses 16 30 48 Chuiches 418 966 2334 

Bishops 18 26 45 | 

The estimated number of Roman Catholics in the U. S., in 1863, was Z,l'11fiOO. 

RUSSIA, American Intercourse with. Commercinl relations : In 1861, exports 
from Russia to U. S. were $1,290,000; imports, $800,000. 8,220 tons of shipping from 
Russia entered U. S. ports ; 9,800 tons cleared for Russia. Diplomatic relations between the 
two countries have been most cordial. Julj', 1861, the Emperor of Russia communicated to 
the American Government his sincere hope that the Union would not be dissolved. Reso- 
lutions passed Congress May, ISC'/, congratulating the Emperor on his escape from assassi- 
nation. 

S 

SANITARY COMMISSION, U. S. Organized under appointment of the Secretary of 
War, dated June 9, 1861, H. W. Bellows, D.D., Frost., Fred. Law Olmsted, Secretary. [The 
Women's Central Relief Association had been previously organized, April, 1861.] Supplies 
furnished through the Com'n estimated by Sec. at $15,000,000. Cash receipts at central 
treasury to May 1, 1866, |4,962,014.26, of which New York contributed $229,328, and Cali- 
fornia, $1,233,977. The Metropol. Fair, N. Y. produced $1,184,487 ; that at Phitadelpliia, 
$1,035,368; 12 others about $425,000. See Histort/ Savitari/ Commission, 8vo. Philadel- 
phia. 1866. The Freedmen's Union Commission rec'd and disbursed for teachers at the 
South, in 1863, $318,670 ; for supplies, $490,755. Total, $809,425. 

SANITARY REFORM, U. S. The ventilation of buildin'gs has been greatly improved 
since the publication of Perry's Essays on School Houses, 1833, and Barnard's School Archi- 
tecture, 1838. This reform was specially needed in printing-offices, book-binderies, and 
manufactories generally. 

SANITARY LEGISLATION, U. S. Resolution authorizing the Secretary of the Treasury 
to carry out regulations of quarantine to guard against cholera, passed Congress May 26, 
1866. States and cities enact local sanitary laws. Board of Health of N. Y. city, organ- 
ized, 1866. See Sanitary Commission. 

SATIRE, U. S. Among the best American humorous and satirical publications are the 
Biglow Papers and Fable for Critics, by J. R. Lowell; the New Gospel of Peace, castigating 
secessionists and peace democrats during the recent war ; the broadly humorous essays of 
" Artemus Ward, " Petroleum V. Nasby, and others ; and the very clever pictorial satires of 
Thos. Nast. 

SAVINGS BANKS, U. S. The number of savings banks in the New England states, 
New York, and Pennsylvania, was about 300 in 1862. The amount of deposits, $70,000,- 
,0i)0. Mtissachusetts has more banks than any other state, the number being 93 ; deposits, 
$44,785,400. There are comparatively few savings banks in the states not mentioned 
above. 

SCHOOLS, Public, in United States. Schools both English and classical were almost 
instantly established by the first settlers of New England on their arrival ; were soon made 
obligatory by law, and have since grown with the population, being, however, fewer and 
worse in the southern states. The present era of pubHc schools commenced about 1800. 
Its important dates are : Connecticut school fund, established 1795 ; first state school sup't.. 
New York, 1812 ; first state school system, Ky., 1821 ; Colburn's arithmetic, 1821 ; second 
movement (if 1825-40. commenced by publications of Carter, Gallaudet, and Johnson ; 
Cousin's report on Prussian schools, published here 1835 ; Horace Mann, sec'y of Board of 
Education in Mass., 1837 ; Stowe's report on European schools, 1837 ; first normal school, 
at Lexington, Mass., 1839. From 1840 to 1860, the improved principles and methods thus 
introduced have been increasingly put into practice. The following totals for the United 
States are approximate for 1858 : children of school age, 6,933,441 ; public schools, 97,021 ; 
school funds, $49,324,884 ; expended for public schools in the year, $20,159,268. 

SCIENCE in the U. S. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American Phil- 
osophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. First 
course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1702. Botanic 
garden and Professor of Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American 
Association for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845. National Academy of Sciences, 
founded at 18 Among the important National and State publications are 

the U. S. Exploring Expedition under Com. Wilkos, with its Scientific Reports, to be in some 



BCD] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 49 

30 quarto and folio volumes ; the Reports on the Mexican Boundaries, Pacific Railway &c •, the 
Xaturai History of the State of New York, in about 20 quartos, the great work of Agaasiz 
on Natural History, pub. by subscription, etc, etc.. See Astronomy, Observatories, (kc. 

SCULPTURE, U. S. No progix'ss was made in this art iu the U. S. before the time of 
Horatio Greenough, wtio resided some years in Italy, and died 1852. His chief successors 
have been Hiram Powers, Clevenger (died 1843), Crawfoid (died 185V), Ball Hughes, W. W. 
Story, Miss Hosmer, E. D. Palmer ; Quincy Ward ; Launt Thompson, Mead ; Akers. Sec Tuck- 
ermau's Book of (he Artists, 1867. 

SECRETARIES OF STATE, U. S. Bee Admhiistrations. Each State iu the Union 
has a '' Secretary of State " in its government. 

SEWIN^G MACHINE. To America unquestionably belongs the honor of giving to the 
world the first practical sewing machine. Here also, it has received its fullest development. 
Mr. Howe's patent was granted in 1846. Very Utile advance was made for the next six 
Tears. Since that period the sales of reliable machines have been as follows: 1853, 2,509- 
1854, 4,469 ; 1855, 3,515 ; 1856, 7,225 ; 1857, 12,715 ; 1858, 17,589 ; 1859, 46,245. The ma^ 
chine lias been improved, and adapted to all branches of sewing. Indeed it has revolution- 
ized and developed every department of needlework ; introduced new branches of industry ; 
rendered healthful, pleasant and profitable an employment hitherto proverbially unhealthful, 
and proved itself the most beneficial invention <^f the age. In the domestic world it ranks as 
do railroads and telegraphs in the commercial. The following table exhibits the economy 
of the sewing machine in stitching the various parts of the following garments. 

BY MACHINE. BY HAND. 

ITorirs. Minuten. ITo^irs. Minutea, 

Ge-.tlemrn's shirt? 1 10 14 26 

Frock coats 2 38 16 35 

Satin vests 1 14 7 19 

S Ik dres:* 1 13 8 27 

Merino dress 1 4 8 27 

Se;ims of considerable length are ordinarily sewed with the best machines at the rate of a 
yard a minute, and that, too, in a manner far superior to hand sewing. The manufacture of 
sewing machines has i)ecome a well established branch of industry. The capital invested is 
immense, employing an army of mechanics, and extending the reputation of American science 
and mechanical skill over the globe. The number of machines manufactuied in the U. S. up 
to 1866, was about 750,0 0; 200,000 are made yearly at the present time. In N. Y. City, 
Philadelphia, Cincinnaii andBosion the manufacture of clothing by machine-sewing amounted 
to .^40,000,000 worth in 1860. Sewing-machine manufactories in the U. S. in I860, 74 ; capital, 
$4,247,00;i. At the Paris Exposition of 1867, the highest prize (gold medal) was awarded to 
Wheeler & Wilson of New York for the best machines. Elias Howe, Jr., was also, as the in- 
ventor, awarded the gold medal and badge of Legion of Honor. 

SHEEP, U. S. They have generally been reared to supply mutton rather than wool. 
Of late, liowever, much attention has been paid to breeding them for their value in producing 
wool. The number of sheep in 1850 in the U. S. was 21,723,000; in I860, 22,471,000. 
Ohio, New York and Indiana, produced the most. California in I860, had 1,075,000 sheep ; 
in 1867, 3,01)0,000. The ravages among sheep by dogs is very great. In 1866 about 
500,000, worth $2,000,000, were killed by dogs. 12 merino ewes from Westminster, Vermont, 
took the first two premiums at the A<:ricultural Exhibition at Hamburg, in 1863, against all 
the best breeds of England, France, Saxony, Prussia and Silesia. They were sold for $5,o00 
to a Count of Silesia. This result, .surprising to Americans, gave a new impetus to sbeep 
raising in the U. S. 



SHIPPING OF THE U S. Tonnage at different periods :— 



Tearn. Tonnage. 

1701 502,146 

1800 972,492 

1810 1,424,783 

1820 1,280,166 



Years. Tonmigf. 

1830 1.191.776 

1840 2,180,764 

1848 3,1'J0.502 

1860 5,853,868 



Yffirs. Ton-narje. 

ISRl 5,539,813 

1802 5,112,165 

1S63 5,1-26 081 

1864 4,986,081 



Team. Tonnnge. 

1865 (old) 3,516,787 
" (new) 1,579.994 

1866 (old) 942,299 
" (new) 3,368,479 



The above table shows the loss of American shipping, or its transfer to foreign flags, du- 
ring the rebellion. The total tonnage of the LTnited States, June 30,1858, was 5,049,808 
tons ; of which registered for foreign trade, 2,499,741; enrolled and licensed, 2,502,086; 
steam navigation, 7:29,390. Increase for the year, 108,965 tons. In I860, the tonnage of the 
U. S. was 5,353,868, tons. Iu the same year there were built 212,892 tons. Amount of 
licensed tonnage in 1866, 2,259,947 tons. Since the year 1860, American ship-building has 
greatly declined. In November 1866, there was but one vessel in the course of construction 
in N. Y. City, and but two in Boston. This is due to the great cost of material and labor in 
4 



60 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [se: 

seaboard citie.i. Ships which cost $100 per ton in N. Y. cost only $60 in the same cur. 
rency in the British Provinces (1867). In 1860, two-thirds of American imports were carried 
in American ships; in 1866 nearly three-fourths m foreign vessels. Number of ship-carpen- 
ters in the U. S. in 1860, 13,392. 

SHIPPING. Before the war, the Stars and Stripes led the carrying trade of the world. 
Not only was there a larger tonnage afloat under our flag than under any other, but Ameri- 
can ships had the preference for enterprise, speed, and care of cargo, which gave them the 
lead in every port and on every ocean. The entire tonnage of Great Britain in 1861 was 
4,806,826 tons, and that of the United States, 6,539,813 tons. In the trade of this country 
we kept the lead without the assistance of discriminating legislation. During the five years 
ending with 1861 the carrying trade of New York amounted to $1,644,000,000, of which 
over $l,000,00u,000 was done under the American flag, leaving but little more than half that 
amount for the flags of all other nations on the globe. With the advent of war there came 
a disastrous change. The few privateers fitted out in English ports, chiefly through the assist- 
ance of British capitalists, turned the scale against us, and almost the entire fleet of Ameri- 
can vessels were forced to engage in the government service, lie idle at the dock, or transfer 
their ownership to a foreign flag. Thus in the four years which followed, out of $1,700,000,- 
000 of foreign trade for the city of New York, less than $400,000,000 was done under the 
Stars and Stripes, while over $1,300,000,000 was carried under ibreign flags. In 1865, the 
entire foreign commerce of New York was $429,100,229 ; of which $34.0,750,622 was in for- 
eign ships, and only $82,349,607 in American ships. This is a humiliating and exasperating 
record; yet in the recent Fenian movements our government and people refused to retaliate. 
— Chr. Almanac. 

SILVER COIN, U. S. The silver coinage of the TJ. S. Mint, for one year, ending June 
SO, 1859, was -$7,336,609. From 1793 to 1859 inclusive, it amounted to $1'J2, 694,836. In 
England, in the first ten years of Victoria, the amount of silver coined was $-J, 440,614. It is 
supposed that the silver coinage of the world amounts to twelve hundred millions of dollars. 

The largest amount coined in any one year in the U. S., was $9,077,571, in 18r)3. In the 
year ending June 30, 1863, the coinage was $1,564,297, in 3,053,150 pieces. Of this, $1,040, 
638 came from the mint at San Francisco, Cal., and the rest from Philadelphia and I^ew York. 
The coinage in 1866, including two and three cent pieces, was $1,183,330. A tax of three 
per cent is levied on silverware in use, by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Revenue from this 
source to the government in 1863, $18,372; in 1866, $128,522. 

SLAVERY IN THE United Sates. Before the War of Independence, all the states contained 
slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All men are born free 
and equal," was declared in the Supreme Court at Bosion to bar slaveholding in that State. 
Before 1790 the further introduction of slaves had been prohibited in live other slates. On 
July 13, 1787, Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordinance "for the government of 
the territory to the N. W. of the Ohio," which contained an ^^ unalterable^' article forbidding 
slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory. After 1800, several of the states 
prayed without effect, to be relieved of this prohibition. In 18')3 Louisiana was pnichas-ed, 
which act was considered by many as fatal to the constitution. lu February, 1820, the cele- 
brated MisKouri Compromise, drawn up by Mr. Clay, was carried, by which slavery was per- 
mitted in that state, but was piohibited in all that part of it to the north of 36° 30' N. Lat. 
In 1845, a fresh contest arose between the slaveholders and their opponents, at the annexa- 
tion of Texas. The utmost the advocates of freedom could obtain was a similar division to 
that of Missou'-i, Dec. 25, 1845. In 1850 another compromise was effected. Cidifbrnia was 
admitted as a free state, but the fugitive slave act was passed (lohich see). In 1854 the Mis- 
souri compromise was abrogated with the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slaveholding 
states, in the latter of which civil war ensued. See Kansafi ; United States. An attempt to 
create a slave rebellion took place in Virginia, headed by John Brown, and failed, in October, 
1859. Number of slaves in 1850, 3,204,313; in 1860, 3,999,283. 

Upon the secession of the southern states, Mr. A. H. Stephens, of Georgia, declared that 
" slavery " was the corner stone of their confederacy (1861). During the war slaves were 
held to be " contraband of war" by the U. S. Government. By act of Congress, June 19, 
1862, slavery was forever excluded from the territories. Jan. 1, 1863, the great " Emancipa- 
tion Proclamation " of President Lincoln was issued, declaring all slaves in the rebellious 
states /ree, on the ground that it was a "fit and necessary war measure for suppressing such 
rebellion." Slavery was finally abolished from the United States by act of Congress, January 
1865. See Constitution. 

SOCIETIES AND Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in the United States. Se« 
Academies. 



800] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. M 

American ethnological Society at N. Y. I American Geograpl.ical and Statistical Society, N. Y. 

American Orieutal Society at New Haven. 1 American Institute (for Agriculture and Useful 

I Arts), N. Y. 

In nearly every State of the Union there is an Historical Society, devoted to the collection 
and preservation of historical recoids, printed and in MS. Several of them have published 
transactions and collections. Tiiat of the Mass. Hist. Soc. comprises about 30 vols. The N. 
Y. Hist. Soc. has published 6 or *? vols. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made under Gover- 
nor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1610, and at Charleston 1671 ; received a colony of French 
refujrees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England estab- 
lished by law, 1703 ; proprietary government in the two Carolinas superseded by one estab- 
lished by the people in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- 
liament in 172J, when the country was divided into North and South Carolina ; received 
colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. This state early resisted the claims 
of the mother country, and was active in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large 
part of the S'.ate taken by the British iii 1780;. battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; federal 
constitution adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73 ; "nullification ordinance" passed Nov., 
1832. Population in 1790 was 249,000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830, 581,458 ; in 1840, 
594,398, including 327,538 slaves. Population 1850, whites, 274,463; free colored, 8,960 ; 
slaves, 384,984 ; 1860, whites, 308,186 ; slaves, 407, 185. Ordinance declaring "secession" 
from the United States, passed Dec. 20, I860. The "Star of the West" with U. S troops 
for Fort Sumter, fired on and repulsed from the harbor, Jan. 1861. Gen. Sherman marched 
unopposed through the state early in 1865. B.Perry appointed provisional governor June 
80,1865. Act of secession repealed Sept. 15, 1865, by the state legi.-lature. Debt of the 
state in Sept. 1866, exclusive of past due-coupons and military debt, $4,426,440. South 
Carolina included in the " Second Military District," by act of Congress 1867, and Gen. 
Sickles ajjpointed Governor. 

SPEAKERS, House op Representatives. See Administrations. 

STEAM NAVIGATION. The Collins line of steamers from New York to Liverpool, com- 
menced running April, 1850. The Pacific of this- line ciossed the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 
hours, May 1851. The Adriatic, the largest of the line, first left N. Y. Nov. 23, 1857. The 
City of Glasgow, first of a line between Philadelphia and Liverpoo', arrived Jan. 1, 1851. 
In 1865, there were 12 steamship companies employed in the tran-iit between Europe and 
the U. S., none of which were American! The difficulty is that steamships cannot be con- 
structed in America to the same advantage as in England. See Shipping, 

STEAM-BOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation, gives the 
following aggri'gate of the number of steam-boats built in the United States since 1824 — 
thirty years — in periods of five years each : 



Prom 1^*24to 1829 194 

" lfi'29 tol834 304 

" 1834 to 1839 504 

" 1839 to 1844 522 



Prom 1844 to 1=49 960 

" 1849 to le54, 1203 



Tot.al 3087 

Since 1860 steamship building has fallen off very materially (except for inland navigation). 
In 1860 the whole registered " steam tonnage" built in the U. S. was the small amount of 
97,296 tons; iu 1865 it decreased to 69,500 tons. 

STRIKES. The iailors of London struck for increase of wages in April, 1834. The 
strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1853. A general strike among the shoe- 
makers of New England continued for several months, 1859-60. 1,700 miners strike at Do- 
ver, New Jersey, April, 186*7. Moulders strike at Ironton, Ohio, May, 1867; riot and loss 
of life Carpenters', laborers', and plasterers' strike in New York City, April, May, 1867. 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, Atlantic. A plan to unite Europe and America by the 
electric telegraph was entered at the British registration office in June 1845, by Mr. J. Wat- 
kins Brett, who made proposals to the government, which were not accepted. This plan 
was attempted to be carried out by a company in 1857 and 1858, chiefly promoted by 
Cyrus W. Field, of New York, with the concurrence of the British and American govern- 
ments. 2,500 miles of wire were manufactured and tested in March, 1857. The laying it 
down commenced at Valentia, in Ireland, on Aug. 5. The vessels employed were the Kiaf/ara 
and Susquehanna (American vessels), and the Leopard and Agamemnon (British vessels). 
After sailing a few miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; hut on Aug. 1 1, after 
300 miles of wire had been paid oat, it snapped again, and the vessels returned to Ply- 
mouth. In 1858 a second attempt to lay the cable failed, through a violent storm on 
June 20-21 ; but the third voyage was successful. On Aug. 6, the junction between the 



62 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 



[sub 



two continents was completed by the laying down of 2,056 miles of wire from Valentia in 
Ireland to Newfoandland. The first two messages, on Aug. 5, were from the Queen of 
England to the President of the United States, and his reply. The event caused grt at re- 
joicing in both countries ; but unfortunately the insulation of the wire became gniduallv 
more faulty, and on Sept. 4 the power of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased. The 
grand celebration in New York of the (supposed) completion of this enterprise, Sept 1, 1858. 
In 1865. another attempt to lay a cable was made. A new one was manui'actured 2,'600 
•nautical miles long, and 2^ times stronger than the old one. Diameter, a little nioreilian au 
inch. It was coiled in the mammoth ship Great Eastern. The expedition started July 23j 
1865 from Valentia Bay. 1,200 miles were successfully laid when suddenly the Ciible parted, 
in water 2^ miles deep. 4 attempts to grapple it were made, but the cable could nOt be 
raised to the surface without much stronger wire ropes. The ships returned tc England, 
but the enterprise was not given up. A new company was formed at once, called the 
"Anglo-American Telegraph Company"; capital, £600,000. A more peifect cable was 
constructed, and the Great Eastern started again with it, July 13, 1866. On the STth she 
reached Heart's Content, Newfoundland, with the cable in perfect order. The news was re- 
ceived with great enthusiasm in both countries, and ovations tendered to Cyrus W, Field, 
the American, to whose energy the success was in great part due. The Great Eastern re- 
turned to the spot where the cable of 1865 parted, and after many attempts it was discover- 
ed Sept. 2, 1866, and continued to the American side, making two cables across the 
Atlantic. One of the cables was injured near the Newfoundland shore in May, 1867, but was 
soon repaired, and both cables have now been in constant and successful use for 13 months. 
(Aug. 1867.) 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS Completed. The cable froip Key "West to Cuba success- 
fully laid August, 1867, by a New York company. More than sixty submarine cables have 
been completed to this date. The most important are these : 



Geographical Position. 



1855.. 

1856.. 
1857. 

185S!. 



1859. 



I860.. 



1861. 



Time 

Laying. 

1851 .. ..Dover to Calais 

] 853 Dover to OBtend 

1S54.... Sweden to Denmark 

.Italy to Corsica 

. Italy to Sicily 

...Newfoundland to ( ape Breton.... 

, . .Across Norway Fjords 

...Ceylon to Hi i dost an 

.England to Holland 

....Enprland to Hanov. r 

....South Australia to King's Island.. 

....Ceylon to H'ndo.sta!' 

..England to Denmark 

..Folkstone to Bou ogne 

..Malta to Sioiiy. 

..Liverpool to lloiyhead 

. .Across Bliss's Hi rait 

..Dacca to Ptuu 

..Barcelona to Po t Mahon 

..Cape San Antonio to Iviza 

..TouV>n to Corsica 

..Holylieid to Howih ^uiar Dublin). 

. . Malta to Alexandria 

.. N"e-5v- Haven (England) to Dioppi-... 
..B'ortress Monroe to (lape Charl( s... 

..England to Holland 

..Sardinia to S;cilv. 



1862.. 
1863'.*. 



Lenath 

in 
Miles. 

27 

80^ 

12 

110 

5 

85 

49 

SO 
140 
280 
140 

30 
368 ' 

24 

60 

25 
240 
IHi? 
180 

76 
195 

64 
1,535 

80 

23 
130 
211 



.Pers'an Gulf to Kurrachee (H ndostan) 1,450 



1865.... Sweden to Prussa. 
]8( 



55 



. Corsica to I>egliorn 66 

.Across Pnget S'Uind 32 

" .... Valentia to Newfoundland 1,8"4 

" . . . .Valentia to Newfoundland (completed frouu 1565, about) 1,864 

" ....Newfoundland to Cape Ureton 85 

1867. . . .Key West to Havana. 191 

SUGAR. The following is the oflicial statement of the amount of sugar imported into 
this country from 1851 to 1860: 



No. of 
Con- 
ductors. 

4 

6 

3 

6 

3 

1 

1 

I 

4 

2 

1 

1 

3 

6 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 
« 4 

1 

4 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

7 



Time in Opera- 
tion, to Juiy, 
1 867, aho' >V. 
lii J ears. 
14 " 
i:i « 
13 " 
12 " 
II " 
10 " 
10 " 

9 " 

9 " 

9 " 



18 months. 
14 " 
11 " 
10 " 
10 " 



Value of Sugar. Duty paid. 

1851 $13,478,700 f4.(143,600 

1852 13,977,300 4,183,200 

1853 14,168,300 4,250,500 

1854 11,604,600 3,481,3(10 

1855 13,284,600 3.989.400 

1856 21,255,100 6,388,500 



Value of Sugar. 

1857 |41,596,2"0 

1S5S 18.9 6,6t0 

1859 28.345 300 

18G0 28,931,100 



Duty paid. 

fl2,478,f00 
4,5£7,1C0 
6,802,800 
6,943,400 



Ton years $205,557,800 $57,118,7t.O 



otn] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 68 

The sugar crop of Louisiana in 1860 was valued at $24,988,000. The average for five years 
ending 18iU was $17,000,000. In New York State in 1865, 9,635,200 pounds of maple-sugar 
were produced. Pennsylvania produces 2,500,000 pounds a year. The soighum-sugar plant 
has lately been introduced from China, and sugar produced from it in considerable quantities 
Sugar from beet-root is also pronounced a success. 100,000 pounds were manufactured in 
Livingston County, Ilhnois, in 1867. 

SUNDAY LAWS. In the State of New York, the laws against selling liquors and against 
certain theatrical performances on Sundays have caused much discussion and some resist- 
ance, chiefly on the part of the German and Irish population, but are still enforced (1867). 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES, U. S. See B^-idges. 

T 

TAXATION, U. S. Before the rebellion the revenue of the U. S. general government 
was raised wholly from customs and sale of lands. Subsequently, to support the war, direct 
taxation was imposed. The direct taxes in 1865 amounted to $211,129,529. See Revenue^ 
Debt, &c. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that the first 
great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this country. Temperance so- 
cieties began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the most prominent of the first promoters of 
the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of 
Temperance. The exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total 
abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general liabits of the peo- 
ple. Several thousand temperance societies, under various name^, have been formed, and a 
large number of vessels now sail from various ports of the United States, the crews of which 
are unsiipplied with spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some ex- 
tent in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters there was the Rev. Theobald 
Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who administered the "total abstinence" 
pledge to about two millions of his countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause 
iti 1830. In Germany there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. Legislation against ih- 
temperance in the U. S. has been attempted in several States. The " Maine Law," passed 
chiefly through the influence of Neal Dow, 1851, was adopted essentially by Connecticut 
(1862?), New York (1856?), and Massachusetts (1856?). It wac strongly enforced in the latter 
State, although vigorously opposed by many, 1866-7. It was repealed in Maine, 1856. 

TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the charter of North 
Carolina by Charles II., in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga river, 1757 ; attacked, and 
200 men, women, and children massacred by the Indians in 1760; the Indians chastised next 
year, but continued frequent contests with the colonists for .several years. The territory 
ceded bv North Carolina to the United States in 1790; admitted into the Union as a state, 
1796. Popiilntion in 1790, 35,691 ; in 1810, 261,727 ; in 1830, 681,904; in 1840, 829,210, 
including 188,059 slaves; in 1850, 763,154, and 239,460 slaves; in 1860, 859,528, and 
287,112 slaves. Ordinance of " separation " passed May 6, 1861. The eastern part of the 
State was noted for its loyalty to the Union during the war. State debt in 1865, $1,213,700. 
At the state election, Aug. 1, 1867, Governor Brownlow, of the " Union" or Radical ticket, 
was re-elected by a majority of nearly 50,000, chiefly made up by the negroes, who voted in 
this state for the first time. 

TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Francisco in 
1690; made one of the federal states of Mexico, in conjunction with the adjacent state of 
Co:»huila, on the formation of the Mexican republic — an unpopular union to the Texans, and 
productive of the first disagreement with the ccniral government; colonization of Texas by 
emigrants from the United States commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for independence com- 
menced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican president, Santa Anna, at 
San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the independence of Texas; admitted into the 
Union as a state (the 28th), after active opposition with reference to the exchisior, of slavery, 
Feb. 20, 1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its annexation 
was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.] Population in 1850, 154,- 
431, and aa.iSi shives; in 1860, 416,000, and 184,956 slaves. "Ordinance of secession" 
from the United States passed Jan. 1861. Debt in 18C5 $8,192,000. Alter the war Gen. A. 
J, Hamilton was appointed provisional governor, by Pres. Lincoln; but at the first election 



H 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



[tob 



after the restoration (1866) a secessionist (Throckmorton) was elected. Texas it chided in 
6th Military District, under Sheridan, March 1861. 

TOBACCO. In a recent lecture in England, the Dean of Carlisle stated that in 1856, 
83,000,00 ), pounds of tobacco vvere consumed in that country, at an expense of $40,0u0,000, 
over $26,000,000 of which went in duties to the government. In 1S21 the avenge annual 
consumpcion was 11| ounces to each piTson ; in 18.).3 it had risen to 19 ounces. In France 
much more is consumed in proportion to the population, the emperor clearing $20,000,000 
annui>lly by the government monopoly. In Denmark the annual consunipticn averages 'JO 
ounces to each person, in Belgium 73 ounces, and in America the average is vastly higher. 
It is calculated that 2,00i>,000 tons, or 4,480,000,000 pounds of tobacco are annually used in 
the world, at a cost sufficient to pay for all the bread and corn used in Great Britain. It is 
boasted that 100,000,0(10 of the human race are smokers. In New York city it is stated 
that there are about 200,000 smokers, each using two, cigars daily, making, at an average of four 
cents each, the sum of $16,000 daily, or $5,840,000 a year, wasted in smoking in this city, 
alone. There are about 900,000,000 cigars manuiactured in the same city annually, amount- 
ing, at the same price, to $36,000,000. The total exports of tobacco from the United States 
in 39 years (1S21-59) amounted to $339,274,520. The production of tobacco in the north- 
ern stales has increased wonderfully since 1850. In 185i), N. Y. state produced 83,000 lbs ; 
in 1860, 5,765,000 lbs; Conn, produced in 1850, 1,267,000 lbs ; in 1860,6,000,000 lbs. 
The exports of tobacco from the U. S. in 1862 amounted to $12,325,356, being almost en- 
tirely from the North. 



TREATIES OF thk U. S. Some of the most 

Alliance with France Feb. 6, 1779 

Treaty of Paris ( ndepeudence secured) Sept. 3, 1783 

Treaty of lommerce with Prussia 17S5 

Treatj' with Morocco 17S7. 

Treaty of comtnerce vvith Great Britain (Jay's) 1794 
Treaty with the Six Natiotp and other Indian 



tribes 



.1794 



Treaty with Spain, l>y Pincliuey ; and Algiers, 

by liumphries 1795 

Treaty with Tunis ; with Prussia (by J. Q. 

Ad:lm^) 1799 

Treaty witii France, by Ellsworth, P:itrick 

Hen ry &c Sepl , 30, 1800 

Tre:\ty with Great Biitain, by Monroe and 
Pinckney — rejected by the American gov- 
ernment". 1 806 

Treaty of Ghent, with Grreat Br tain, signed 
by J. Q. Adams, Gallatin, and H. CJMy, for 
the United States, closing t!'e " war of :812," 
but leaving the oriyiniil dispute much as 

before 1814 

Ratified by the United States Feb. 17, 181o 

Treaty with the Choctaws and the Cherokees.. 1816 

Treaty with the republic of Colombia 1825 

Treaty with the Creeks, Os:iges, &c Ie25 

Treaty with Great Britain, idemnifyi.ia Amer- 
ican cit zens for spoliatiiins during the W'lr 

with Napoleon Nov. 13, 1826 

Treaty with Brazil Mnvch IS, "829 

Treaty with Turkey May 7, 1830 

TRIALS, U. S. Noted trial of Aaron Burr, on the charge of treason against the TT. S. in 
preparing an expedition against Mexico, held at Richmond, May 1807. Burr acquitted. 
Trial of John Brown for treason against Virginia. (See Harper^ s Ferry.) The assassins of 
Lincoln tried at Washington, 1865. Trial of Capt. Wirz, for cruelty to Union prisoners at 
Andersonville, 1865 ; he was convicted, and executed shortly after. Jeff. Davis, president of 
the Southern Confederacy, admitted to bail in the sum of $100,000, by U. S. District Judge 
Underwood, Richmond Va., May, 186*7, to appear before him on the charge of treason at the 
succeeding term of the Court. Trial of John H. Surratt, for complicity in the muider of Pres. 
Lincoln, lasting about thirty days, ended Aug., 1867, by the disagreement of the jury. 



important : 

Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap. 5, 1831 

Treaty with do April 5, 1832 

Treat y with Napies Oct. 14, 1832 

Tr. aty with Russia (commerc al) Dec. 18, 1832 

Treaty with Great Britain, respecting the N. 
E. boundary, signed at Washii.gtoii by Lurd 
Ashburt^n and Mr. Webster ; ratified by tlie 

senate (89 to 9) Aug. 20, 1842 

Treaty With China, negotiated Ijy C. Cushii g; 

ratified by the senate Jan. 16, 1845 

Treaty of peace with Mexien, signed at Guad- 
aloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1S4S ; ri.tified by 
the senate (with modifications); ratified at 
Queretaro by American con m.se oners 
Sevier and Cliftbrd, and Mex can miiiister 

Kosas May :-0, 1848 

Treaty with Great Britain, resjiecting Nica- 
ragua, on the Isihmns between North and South 
Amor ca; signed at 'Washington by Sir H. 

L. Bnlwer and J. M. Clayton June,1850 

Treaty with Chinasigned at'TierTsin. June 13,1858 
Tnaty with Japan, negotiated by Com Perry, 

signed March 31, 1854 

Another treaty with Japan, by Towiisend 

Harris, signed June 17, 1857 

Treaty with Mexico, negotiated iiy Mr Mc- 
Lane, but rejected by the U. 8. Sen;tte.. ....I860 

Treaty with Russia to purchase Russian 
America, ratified June 1867 



u 

UNITARIANS, U. S. Number of churches in the U. S. in 1863, 339 ; ministers, 263 ; 
members estimated at 30,000. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. See America ; and the separate States, Maine, &a 



tjNi] AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. fif 

The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, consisting of delegates from the 
several colonies, met at New York, June 7, 17tJ5. The Continental Congress at Philadel- 
phia adopts Declaration of Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, 
April 19, 1775. See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4 
1776. The title of " United States''' adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776. Independeiiceac- 
knowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted 
Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty 
of Peace signed at Ghent, Dec. 3. 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty 
of peace signed May SO, 1848. War against rebellion and secession, begun by rebel attack 
on Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861 ; end(^d by surrender of rebels in Texas, April, 1867. See 
Wars of the United States &c. ; also Naval Battles ; also Administrations, Exports, National 
Debt, Treaties, Population, &c. For succession of events, see World\<i Progress, p. 138 to 190. 
The following thirteen states formed the Union at the declaration of independence in 1776: 

New Hunpsliire. | New York. | Delaware. | North Carolina. 

Massachusetts. I New Jersey. I Maryland. I South CaruUua. 
Rhode Island. Pennsylvania, Virginia. Georgia. 

"Conuecticut. | | | 

The following have been added : 

Vermont (from New York) 1791 Arkansas ISjS 

Ti'Uiies^^ee (from N:)rth Caro.iiia) 1796 Iowa 1S45 

Kentucky ffrom Virginia) 179o T'xas 1845 

Columbia District (under the iiiime Wiscoj.siii 1846 

diate government of Cougrfss) C'difon.ia I84S 

contains Washington, the seal of Florida... 1854 

government 1800 Minnesota 1858 

Oh o (admitted) 18U2 j Oregon 1859 

Louisiana (bought from France in ! Kan -as 1861 

1803) 1812 New Mexico (tern^or, ) 1848 

Indiana (admitted) 1 8] 6 Ui al i ( tf rr, toij ) ' 1 850 

M ssissippi (from Georg.a) 1817 i Was iinu;ton (lerr.lorv) 1853 

Illinois (admitted) 1818 Nebraska (terr toi-y).! 1845 ^tate 1S67 

Alabama (from Georgia) 1819 Colorado (t rritiu-y) 

Maine (from Ma^saoliusettt) 1820 ; Nevada (terntorv) 

Missouri (ffom Lou si ana) 1826 Arizona (teri-itory) 

Michigan 1331 Idaho (territory) 

POPULATION. 

1776 2,616,300 11810 7,239,903 I 1851 23,347,894 

1800 5,300,000 I ISol 12,856,171 [ 18()0 31,649,869 

UNIVER.SITIES in the U. S. See Colleges. Tho.<e of Harvard, at Cambridge, Mass. ; 
Yale, at New Haven ; Brown, at Providence, and Mlcldgan, at Ann Arbor, Mich., and Vir- 
ginia, at Clnirottesvilie, are the chief institutions called universities — but they differ little 
from the other colleges. 

V 

VERMONT, one of the U. S. First settled by colonists from Massachusetts, 1723. The 
territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 1764 : cl timed also by New York, 
and granted to that colony by Parliament in 1664. Owing to these conflicting claims, the 
Htate Wiis not admitted into the Confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its 
part in that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by Gen. Stark, in 1777. Claims 
of New York withdrawn on pavment of $30,000, in 1790. The state admitted into tlie 
Union, 1791. Population in 1790, was 85,589; in 1810,217,895; in 1830, 280,679; in 
1840, 291, 948; in 1850, 314,120 ; in 1860, 315,827. War expenses $8,811,600. The state 
sent 34,650 soldiers to the army in 1801-5. 

VICKSBURG, Miss., U. S. A town on the Mississippi river, made famous during the 
war. It completely blockaded the navigation of the river, and its batteries were intpregnable 
from the water side. After various attempts, Gen. Grant moved to the south of it, crossed 
the river from the west side, and marched towards the rear of the town, M^y 1, 1863. He 
defeats the enemy at "Port Gibson," "Champion Hills," and "Big Black River Bridge" 
and on the 18th reaches the fortifications. He at once invested the place. After many 
assaults and constant bombardment, the garrison surrendered July 4, 1863. Number of 
prisoners, 30,000 ; guns, 220 ; small arms, 70,000. Union loss during the siege, 545 killed 
3,682 wounded, and 303 missing. 

VIRGINIA. One of the United States ; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," havin^ 
been settled, April, 16()7, at Jamestown, on James river — the first white settlement in the 
Uuited States. Named Virginia in honor of Queen Eliz ibeth, who had granted the country 
to Sir Walter Raltigh. A settlement attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was 



66 DICTIONARY OF DATES. [vol 

vacated onliis attainder and execution. The country granted by James T. to two companies, 
the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and named in honor of 
tlieir royal patron. The colony suffered much irom the Indians, and by various di.-a^ters ; 
proved loyal during the English revolution ; was the first to proclaim Charles 11 on his res- 
toration ; established the Church of England by law, 1662 ; took an early and prominent 
part in the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Cornwallis, at 
Yorktown, October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United States adopted June 25, 1788, by 
89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presidents of the United States, viz. : Washington, 
Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Harrison, and Taylor ; and also, Patrick Henry, John Mai shall, 
and many distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610 ; in 1810, 974,622 ; in 
1830, 1,211,272; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. According to the census re- 
turns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia, 1850, was $530,000,000, viz. : Real estate, |278,000,- 
000 ; value of slaves, $147,000,(00 ; other personal estate, $105,000,0(10. The returns fur- 
ther show that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read nor write ! 
The new constitution of this state, adopted in 1851, in the 111th article has the following 
clause : "And no person shall have a right to vote who is of unsound mind, ov a pauper, 
or a non-commissioned officer in tlie service of the United States." Population in 1850, 
1,421,081, including 478,026 slaves. In 1860, 1,593,199, including 495,826 slaves. The 
State " seceded " May 1861. Soon after, the western counties formed a new and loyal state. 
See West Virginia. Debt of the old state in 1865, |41,06l,300. 
VOLUNTEERS, U. S. See Army. 

W 

WAGES IN THE U. S. In 1866 laws were enacted in some of the states making eight 
hours a legal day's labor unless otherwise agreed upon by the parties. Under this law, what 
a laborer would have received for ten hours' work, he can claim for eight hours' labor. 

WAR, Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, commenced by 
the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended by the treaty of Paris, 1783. 
This war cost $135,193,7()0. 

WAR, THE, OF 1812, between the United States and Great Britain. 

War declared Ju'e 19, 1812 



Gen. H. Dearborn appo nied CoTOinauder-in- 
ohief. (See Buttles nnd Nd-vnlBnltleH). 

The war opposed in New England, and levies 
of troops refiiseiJ by Mass., Conn., :md R. I. 

Treaty of peace ratified June 17, 1815 



First difficulty respecting the search of Amer- 
ican vesaelf^ 1806 

Chesapeake United Stales frgate tired on 1807 

Non-intercourse act passed 1809 

United States frigate President, engaged the 
British sloop of-war Little Belt, ....M.ay 16, 1811. 

President Madison's war message to Cmigresp, 

• Jui.e 1,1812. 

WAR AGAINST Algiers, to punish piracies, etc., declared by the United States, 18] 5. 
Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels and ''conquered a peace," 
July 4. 

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED States AND MEXICO. (The annexation of Texas to the 
United States having been completed by the vote of the Senate of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845). 
See Batles. 



American army of occupation, (3,500) xmder 
Gen. Taylor, took post on the Rio Grande, op- 
posite Miitumoras March 28, 1846 

Treaty of pe;ice ratified at Queretai'o, by the 
Hon. A. H. Sevier and N. Clifi'ord, for the | 



U. S., and the foreign Mexican Minister, S'g- 

nor De la Rosa May 30, 1848 

American trooiis finally withdrawn from the 
city of Mexico June 12, 1848 



WAR IN THE U. S. The war of the rebellion commenced April 12, 1861, by the firing of 
South Carolina forces on Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. The battle of Bull Run, Va., 
July 21. adverse to the Union army, was decisive of a prolonged conflict. Until the smrimer 
of 1863, the Confederates maintained their grotmd successfully. But after the fall of Vicks- 
burg, and the battle of Gettysburg, the National army was almost uniformly victorious until 
the final surrender of the rebels. See Army, Battles, Volunteers, &c. 

WASHINGTON, D. 0. The Capital of the United States, founded in 1791, and first 
made the seat of the Government in 1800. The House of Representatives was opened for 
tile first time, May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late war by the British forced 
under Gen. Ross, when the Capitol and the President's bouse were consumed by a general 
conflagration, the troops not sparing even the National Library, Aug. 24, 1814. Gen. Ross 
was soon afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, following. See 
United States, and Dist. Oolutnbia. 



T» .) AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. 61 

WA.!. xNGTON, GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1'732 ; in the expedition of Brad'lock iigainst 
Fort Duquosne, 1755; appointed commander-in-chief of the American army, 17V5 ; elected 
presideut of the Convention for forming constitution- 1787 ; elected President of the United 
States, 1789 ; again in 1793 ; died 1799. Washington monument at New Yorlf, corner stone 
laid July 4, 1848; oration by Robert C. Wintlirop. Virginia monument to Wasliington, cor- 
ner stone laid by President Taylor, February 22, 1849. 

WEST VIRGINIA. On Oct. 24, 1861, the western counties of Virginia voted to separate 
themselves from the old state and form a new state, called West Virginia; admitted to the 
Union, June 20, 1368 ; capital. Wheeling; area, 23,n00 square miles. Population by census 
of 1860, 393,200. The new state sent 31,880 men to the Union army. 

WINE, U. S. lii 1866, California produced 1,252,700 gallons of wine ; Kentucky, 180, 
000 ; Indi:ina, 88,0ri0; New York, 61,000; N. Carolina, 54,000; Illinois, 47,000; Connnecti- 
cut, 46,000; Virginia, 40,000; Pennsylvania, 38,000. During the year ending June 30, 1866, 
9,476,814 gallons were imported into the U. S. 

WHALE FISFIERY of the United States. In 1845 this trade employed 650 vessels 
aggregate tonnage, 2o0,000 toas; cost, $20,000,000; manned by 17,500 officers and seamen. 
" Commercial history furnishes no parallel to this whaling fleet. It is larger than those of all 
other nations combined." — Speech of Mr. G-rhinell, But in recent years, by the introduction 
of petroleum and other burning fluids, and of gas, the whaling business has become reduced 
to much smaller dimensions. 

WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from 1790 to 1838 
was 10,283,471 bushels, average, 209,666 bushels per annum. In 1845 the amount exported 
was valued at $5,735,372 ; in 1846, $13,350,644. This was exclusive of corn, rye, &c. The 
amount was greatly increased by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland. See AgrU 
culture. 

WHITEPLAINS, Battle or, U. S, Fought Oct. 28, 1776. Washington was attacked 
here by the British and Hessians, under Howe. The loss on both sides was considerable. 
The Americans retained their ground until the 30th, when Lord Percy arriving with British 
reinforcements, tlie former withdrew to North Castle and Fort Lee, on the Hudson. 

WISCONSIN. Population in 1850, 305,391 ; increase in 10 years, 900 per cent. : in 1860, 
768,485 ; increase in 10 years, 152 per cent. Debt in 1866, $2,664,550. The state sent 
96,100 soldiers to the army, 1861-5. Number of miles of railroad, 1,631 in 1865. Number 
of school-houses, 4,338 ; scholars, 241,590. 



YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the British army 
under Lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7,000 men, to the Americans and their allies under 
Washington and Count Rochauibeau, Oct. 19, 1781. This event decided the contest for 
independence in favor of the Americans. This place was fortified by the rebels, and with- 
stood the siege of Gen. McClellan, from April 4 to May 6, 1862, when it was evacuated ; 71 
spiked guns were found in the works. 

YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS, U. S. First one under this name 
founded in Boston, Jan. 1(», 1852; in N. Y. city, June 30, 1852. They are now (1867) es- 
tablished in many of the principal cities. At a general convention of Young Men's Christian 
Associations, at Montreal, in June, 1867, 215 associations iu the United States and Canada 
were repiesented. 

WRECKS. Ar tir, U. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog, with the Vesta, French 
steamer, off Newfoundland ; above 300 lives lost, Sept. 27 1854. Philadelphia, Liverpool 
to Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1854. U. S. sloop of war Albany, from Aspinwali, Sept. 28, 1854, 
never heard from. Lyonnaix, French steamer, New York to Havre, collision with barque 
Adriatic, 134 lives lost, Nov. 2, 1856. Steamer Niagara, burned on Lake Michigan ; 60 lives 
lost, Sept. 24, 1856. Central America, steamer, Lieut. Herndon, Aspinwall to New York, 
foimders, 427 lives lost, and $2,0( 0,0()((in gold, Sept. 8, 1857. Russian line of battle ship in 
the Baltic, founders, all on board (825) lost, Sept., 1857. The total number of American sea- 
going vessels reported during 1859, as lost or missing, wns402, valued at $5,599,000, being an 
increase over the previous year of 114 vessels, ami SI, 128,000 in value. Of the whole number 
8 were steamers, 84 ships, 48 barks, 64 brigs, and 198 schooners. 

YACHT. The ancient thalamegus or navia lusorice was a vessel for pleasure, like the 
modern yacht. The English are very fond of yachting. Tlieir yachts are commonly cutter* 



*8 i)ICTIONARY OP DATES, 



[YAi 



'■'Ff ^o?^ "^'iv ^"^^ ™''^^- ^^f'^*'"^ has come into vogue in the United Stntes only since 
about 1830. Ihe American vachts are sloops or schooners. The vacht America, mo<]elled 
and built by a young ahip-builder, George Steers, of New York (died 1856, aged 85), beat all the 
English yachts in a regatta at Cowes, Aug. 22, 1851. She was a schooner, with her greatest 
breadth abaft the beam, and with " hollow lines " forward. A yacht race from New York to 
Cowes, Isle of Wight, Dec, 1865, between three New York yachts, Henrietta, Vesta, and 
J'leetwtnff; Menrietta winner by seven (?) hours. 

YANKEE. The derivation of the word is generally accredited to the Indian pronuncia- 
ti^on of the word Enghsh, which they render Yengeese. In New York it is applied to th- 
NewEnglanders; in the south to all northerners; and in Europe to all Anglo-Americans" 
In a curious book on the Round Towers of Ireland, published some years ago the origin of 
the term Yankee Doodle was said tp have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki douniah, 
or Inhabitants of the New World." Layard, in bis "Nineveh," also mentions Yankhidunia 
as the Persian name of America. 




BUEEAU OF STATISTICS, U. S. TREASURY DEPAKTMENT. 



[Few the following statistics we are Indebted to the courtesy of Hon. Alexandsb Dblmj 
Director of the Bureau.] 

CUSTOMS jOuties Keceivkd in 1866. 

* During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,59'7.83 

* " " June 30, " 46,1'75,132.33 

* " " Sept. 30, " 50,843,774.24 

I «« " Dec. 31, " 37,803,027.64 

$181,467,531.94 
♦ Official. t Commercial and Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867. 



SHIPPING Statistics: Tonnage of the United States. 



Sail. 

2,448.941 

2,540,020 

2,177,253 

1,892,899 

1,475,376 

1,031,465 

482,110 

341,619 

953,018 



EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the year ending 
June 30, 1867: 

Pomestic Foreign. Total 

In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. In Am. Vessels. In For. VesseU. 

298,854 8,425,227 none. none. 8,724,081 

1,418,853 19,902,626 



Tear. 




1860, 




1861, 




1862, 




1863, 




1364, 




1865, 5 


old, 


1865, I 


new. 


1866,1, 


old. 


1866, 1 


new. 



tered. 


Enrolled and 1 


jicensed. 


Total. 


Steam. 


Sail. 


SUam. 


Tonnage. 


97.298 


2,036,990 


770,641 


5,353.868 


102,608 


2,122,589 


774,596 


5.539,813 


113,998 


2,224,449 


596,465 


5,112,165 


133,215 


2,660,212 


439,755 


5,126,081 


106,:M9 


2,550,690 


853.816 


4,986.401 


60,539 


1,794.372 


630,411 


3.516,787 


28,469 


730,695 


338,720 


1,579.994 


42,776 


443,635 


114,269 


942,299 


155,513 


1,489,194 


770,754 


8,368,479 



Gold Bullion,.. 

Gold Coin, 

Silver Bullion, 
Silver Coin,... 



Total, 



1,600,041 
706,081 
248,978 

2,753,954 



15,800,152 
8,186,837 
1,581,753 

33,993,969 



18,939 
1,521,062 



8,911,857 
3,658,974 



1,490,761 



2,958,854 41,197,538 



COFFEE Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consumption of coffee in the 
United States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, ]864, 
1865, and 1866 : 

Tear. Pounds. Tear. Pounds. 

1861, 187,046,000 1861, 109,087,000 

1862, 88,900,000 1865, 128,146,000 

1863, 79,720,000 1866, 169,916,840 



UNITED STATES TEEASURY STATISTICS. 



133 



See page 63, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given 
for the first five years are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the 
New York Chamber of Commerce for 1865-66. 

The quantity for 1866 is talceu from the Supplement to H. E. Moring's Monthly 
Coffee Circular, 186*7. 



rON Statistics. 














Production. 


Exported, 




Average Price 


Tear. 




Bales. 


Pounds 


Bales. 


per pound. 


1860-61, 




3,656,086 




3,126,622 


17.42 cents. 


1861-62, 


est. 


4,800,0UO 


5,064,564 = say 


12,000 


42.15 " 


1863-63, 


est. 


1.500,000 


11,384,986 = say 


26,000 


71 08 


1863-64, 


est. 


500,000 


10,830,534 = sav 


25,0(10 


$111.14 " 


1864-«5, 


est. 


300,000 


6,607,186 = say 


15,000 


75.75 " 


1865-66, 




2,214,476 




1,554,744 


44. " 


1866-67, 


est. 


1,900,000 


est. 


1,500,000 


32.5 '« 



The figures relative to production, except for 1866-67, were derived from 
Neil Bros. & Co.'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866. The receipts at all 
ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and 
the total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & 
Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, 
1867, as 1,809,500 bales. 

The nnnibei* of pounds exported are take i from Table 19, page 349, Finance 
Report, 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,628,- 
489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the 
exports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. 



TEA Statistics, 
States during 
and 1866 : 
Tear. 



Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United 
the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 



Oreen, Japan, Slack. Total 

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,00) 

1862, 13,871,600 13,597,'000 27,468,600 

1863, 14,490,680 12,415,685 26,906,365 

1864, 13,564,295 9,573,251 23,137,546 

1865, 18,874,199 10,979,234 29,853,433 
1886, 29,643,187 

See Reports of Revejiue Commission, 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are 
estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in 
New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery's Tea Cir- 
cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000 
pounds. 

The Pacific States are not included in the above, ejccept for 1866, nor is any 
allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one 
pound per capita. 

TOBACCO Statistics. \ 



Tear. 



1861, 
1862, 
1863, 
1864, 
1866, 
1866, 



est. 



Production 
Pounds. 

200,000,000 est. 
136,736,596 est. 
276,850,870 est. 
197,460,229 est. 
185,316,953 est. 
330,501,500 



Exported. 
Leaf , pounds. Manufd, lbs. 



160,000,000 
107,000,000 
112,000,000 
110,000,000 
149,000,000 
190,826,248 



14,783,363 
4,071,963 
7,025,248 
8,586,494 
7,294,165 
6,615,709 



Total. 
174,788,363 
111,071.963 
119,025,248 
118,586,494 
156.294,165 
197,341,957 



Average pric* 
per lb., Leaf 

9. cents. 
11.9 « 
14.9 " 
14.85 " 
12.6 » 
13. " 



134 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1865 is given as found in tbe He- 
ports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 ia 
taken from the Tobacco Circular of M. Radar & Son. 

The quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns of 
commerce and navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865. The 
quantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified, 
are taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years. 

In 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and 
the disloyal States being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included, 
and in 1866 all the States. 

WHEAT Statistics. 
Tears. 

1861, 
1862, 
1863, 
1864, 
1865, 
1866, 

No returns of the production of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry was 
made at the Department of Agriculture. 

The figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 are 
taken from the Monthly and Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture, 
and embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29 
States and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from California in 1864 
and 1865, the crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, which ia 
believed to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushUa. A 
barrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat. 



IS. 
Production. 


Exported. 


Av. Trice perhu 


Bushels. 


Wheat, hushels. 


Flour, bbls. 


at Ke,w York, 




31,238,057 


4,323,756 


$1,18 to $1.46 


180,993,500 


37,289,572 


4,882,038 


1.30 to 1.50 


191,068,239 


36,160,414 


4,390,055 


1.33 to 1.53 


171,695,823 


23,681,712 


3,557,347 


1.48 to 1.83 


169,522,827 


9,937,152 


2,604,542 


2.22 to 2.70 


151,999,906 


5,579,103 


2,183,050 


1.85 to 2.75 



"V, 



BIOGEAPHIOAL IITDEX 

TO 

UNIVEESAL HISTORY. 



N. B. Tliis list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended 
to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in theii 
several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full 
lists are given in their proper place. 

This list may be useful in two ways, viz. . 

First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " "World'i 
Progress ; " and 

Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- 
temporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. 

Thus : Socrates, the Greek philosoplier, was born 470, and died 400 b. c. The tables 
on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' 
Ufe. 

Milton was bom a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; 
six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended 
the throne ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year 
before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden; two years before Louis XIII. became 
king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he 
was 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- 
headed. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, 
Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in 
England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America; Richelieu, Mazarine, 
Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moli6re, Corneiile, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent, 
He died a. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London, 14 years after Charles IL 
was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. 

And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be 
found at a glance, on referring to the tables. 

Abbreviations. — See list in the Introduction. Bar. (^Barbarian) includes several different 
nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ 
are indicated by B, c; all others are a. d. In some cases the dates are necessarily left 
blank, 

NATION. NAMB AND PBOFESSION. 

Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian .... 
Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest . . , 

Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician 

Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Ali) 
Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . 
Amer. Abbott, Benjamin, distinguished educationist 
Amer. ^.bbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works . 
Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer , 
Arab. Abd'el Kader, distinguished wurnor . , , 

Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey . , . 

Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer . , , 

Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels . 

{for, Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician • • . 

1 



BOEN. 


DIED. 


, f. 1188 




B. c. 1570 


1453 


, f. 622 




1813 


1854 


1662 


1623 


1763 


1849 


1803 




1805 




1806 


1866 


1822 




1810 


1866 


1804 


1846 


1802 





THE WOBLD'S PBOGEESS. 



NAME AND FBOFESSION. 



BORN. 
1119 

1784 
1781 
1738 
1764 
1606 



Sp. Abenezra, an astronomer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &o. 

Eng. Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary . , 

Scot. Abercrombie, John, author of IntellectualPowers' . 

Eng. Aberoromby, Sir Kalph, military commander . , 

Eag. Abemethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer 

Fr. Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the Classics . . 

Fr. About, Edmoiid, novelist, traveller, &c. , , . 

Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation . b. c. 1995 b. 

Pr. AbrantSs, duchess d', biograplier .... 1784 

Dan. Absalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., 8w., and Nor. 1128 

Ara. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet . , 561 

Syr. Abulfeda, the geographer .... 1273 

Bom. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) , b. c. 171 

Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic . . , 

Qm. Accum, B'red., operative chemist (in England) . . . 1769 

Pruss. Ackerman, Budolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 

(Jr. Achilles, one of the leadei-s In the Trojan war . f. b. c. 1100 

(jr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 

ItaL Achilli, Giovanni G., protestant preacher . ^ . 

Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 

Eng. Adiim. Alexander, schoolmaster and author , 

Eng. Adam, ilobert, an architectural author . . , 



DIED 
1174 

1860 
1844 
1801 
1831 
1664 

3. 1821 

1838 

1203 

624 

1346 

1229 
1838 
1834 



Amer. Adams, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. 



Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Ire. 

Bom. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Bum. 

Bom. 



— -, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. . 

-, Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic 



Add'son, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 
Adelung, John C, philologist and lexicographer 
Adolphus, John, author of history of England, &c. . 
Adi'ain, Robert, mathematician (at New York, &c.) 
Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) 

jfElfrii, archbishop of Canterbury, author of Anglo-Saxon works 

JElHn, the historian and rhetorician ... 160 
^neas, son of Priam, king of Troy . ' . . f. b. c. Ilc3 
^schinee, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates , 
, orator 



3d cent. 
1803 
1220 
1741 
1728 
1735 
1767 
1726 
1672 
1732 
1766 
1775 
76 



1282 
1809 
3794 
1826 
1848 
1808 
1719 
1806 
1846 
i843 
IbS 
IOCS 



323 



^sop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . . 

.^■tius, military commander (defeated Attila) 
Africanus, Julius, historian . . , 

Sp.Moor , Leo, author of travels in Africa , 

Gr. Agamemnon, " the king of kings" . , 

Gr. Agathius, historian and poet , , 

Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist , , , . 

Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) 

Scot. Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne . 

Gr. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings . . , 

Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible , , 

Bora. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander . , , 

Ger. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Antinomians . , 

Bom. Agrlppa, military eommaiider, governor of Judea , • 

Fr. , Cornelius, philosopher, &c. , , , 

E. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist • • . • . 

Pers. Ahasuerus, king of Persia (Artaxerxes Long.) . . 



B. c. 393 B. c. 
f. B. c. 600 

232 

1487 152e 

B. c. 904 

. f. 565 

1807 

B. c. 361 

771 839 

B. 0. 251 

1610 

40 93 

1490 1566 

40 94 

1486 1535 

1816 1847 

f. B. 0. 456 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



HAtlON. NAME AND PROFJBSSION. 

Eng. Aikin, John, M. D., an elegant writer, editor of poets, &c. 
Eng. — — , Lucy, biographer and historian , , 

Fr. Aime-Marlin, Louis, writer on education . 

Eng. Ainsworth, Robert, grammarian and lexicographer « 
Eng. — — , VVm. Francis, traveller, geologist, &o. . 

Eng, , Wm, Harrison, novelist , , 

Eng. Airy, Geo. B,, astronomer-royal . . , 

Tartar. Akbar, Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign . , 

Eng. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet ... 
Swe. Akenblad, philologist . • . . 

Bar. Aiaric I., king of the Visigothg . . , 

Span. Alberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman . . 

Eng. Albert Edward, Prince of "Wales, hoir to the British throne 
Ger. Albert, Prince, husband of the Queen of England 
Itol. AJbeiti, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, &c. 
Ger. AlbertUb-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinas 
Bar. Alboin, the Lombard conqueror . 

itah Alboni, Marietta, eminent contralto singer . , 

Port. Albuquerque (the great) military commander • 

Gr. Alcseus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet . . , 

Ital. Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author . 
Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman . 
Gr. Alciphron, author of Letters, &c. 
Amer. Aicott, A. Bronsoii, philosopher and educationist . 

Amer. , Wra. A., writer on education and philosopher 

^rtg. Alcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, &c. , 

Amer. Alden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony . 
Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet . , 

Aldus, see Manutius .... 
Pr. Alembei-t, John Le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher 
Eng. Alexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling 
Amer. , Archibald, theologian and author . 

Amer. — — , J. Addison, theologian and commentator 

Amer. ■ , James W., theologian . . . 

Bom. • — — ) Severus, emperor 

Bar. the Great, founder of the Macedonian Empire 

Rus. , Nevskoi, a saint and hero ; def. of the Tartars, 

Rus. , I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) 

Sus. , II., (became emperor 1855) , , 

fj-r. Alexius Commenun, emperor of the East . 
ital. Alfieri, an eminent tragic poet . , , 

Sng. Alfred, justly called the Great, king , 

Ital. Algarotti, a general, scholar, and critic . • 

Bar. Ali Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks 
Bur. Ali Tepelini, pasha of Jannina . . , 

Scot. Alison, Archibald, rev., ' Essays on Taste' 

Scot. , Archibald, sir, ' History of Europe,' ' Essays ' 

Amer. Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution . 

Amer. , Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary . 

Eng. Alleyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp. Shakspeare) 
Amer. Allston, "Washington, painter and poet . , 

Sar. Almamon, caliph, patron of learning . , 





BOBN. 


DIED. 




747 


Ui» 


• 




184S 


• 


1660 
1807 


1743 


• 


1805 
1801 




. 


1555 


1605 




1721 


1770 


• 




1819 
411 


, 


1664 


1762 




1«41 




■ • 


1819 


1861 




1398 


1490. 


• 


1205 


1280 
574 


. 


1826 






1452 


1516 


*f.B. 


c. 606 






1492 


1550 


B. 


c. 450 B. 

f. 170 


C. 404 


• 


1799 
1798 




. 


732 


804 




1598 


1687 


• 




709 


• 


1717 
17S3 


1783 


• 


1772 


1851 




1809 


1860 


, 


1804 


1859 




209 


235 


B 


C. 356 B 


0. 323 


&0. . 


1218 


1262 




1777 


1825 




1818 




. 


1048 


1118 




1749 


1803 




849 


900 


• 


1712 


1769 




1728 


1773 




1744 


1823 




1757 


1839 


• 




1867 




1737 


1789 


, 


1784 






1666 


162# 


• 


1779 


1843 
883 



THfi WOULD'S PROGRESS. 



17ATI0K. NAME AND PROFESSIONk 

Saj;. Almansor^ fealiph, patron of learning « « 

Eng. Almon, John, political writer • • • * 

Mexi Almonte, Juanet, general and statesman * * 

Span, Alphoneo X., king of Castile, Leon, and authot . • 

Port. Alphonso I., Henriques, founder of the Portuguese monarchy 

Amer. Alsop, Richard, poet and linguist . . . 

Eng. Althorp, Viscount, statesman and book collector . 

Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander 

Me£k Alvarez, Juan, leader of Mexican Revolutiou » * 

Ger. Amalie, duchess of Saxony, dramatic poet ■ . 

Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah ...» 

ItaL Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author . • . 

Ital. Americus Vespueius (of Fiorence), explored the S. American 

coast , . . • ' • m 

Amer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and oratof , « 

Amer. — =^^, Nathan P., machinist and bronze founder . 

Eng. Amherst, Jeflfrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &o. * 

Rom. AramianuB, Marcellinus, historian . . . 

Geri Ammon, Christ. F. von, Protestant theologian • \ 

Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher > • 

Eng. Amory, Thomas, humorous writerj ' Jno. Buncle' 

Fr. Ampere, Jean J., traveller and essayist . . 

Ft. ' , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat, philosopher 

Fr. Amyot, James, bishop of Auxerre, translator of Plutarch 

Bar. ..j-iiacharsis, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon 

Gr» Anacreon, a celebrated poet . . • 

Gr» Anastasius I., emperor of the East . . 

Gn Anaxagoras, a philosopher . • . • 

Gr. Anaxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great b. c 

Gr. Anaximander, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher . 

Gr. Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher • 

Fr. Ancelot, J, A. P. F,, poet and novelist ., • 

PrusSi Ancillon, J. P. F., historian and statesman • • 

Dari. Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist . 

Scotch. Anderson, Adam, commercial writer . • . 

Eng, , Sir Edmund, a judge and author • 

Swe. Andersson, Chas. John, explorer in Africa . • 

Fr, Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine • 

Eng. Andfe, John, British oflBcer in American war . • 

Eng. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of "Winchester , 

Gr. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, . 

Amer. Angell, Jos. K., author of legal works 

Eng. Anglesey, Henry "W., marquis of, general at Waterloo . 

Ft. AngoulSrae, duchess d', daughter of Louis XVI. 

Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo), a fisherman of 

Naples, who rose to great power ' . , , 

Gr. Anna Commena, daughter 6f the Emperor Alexis L, historian 

Anst. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France . 

Sng. Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII, . • 

£ng. Annet, Peter, a deistical writer . , , 

Cal\ Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthagininn general • 

Fit Anquetil du Perron, a classical scholar and author « 



BOBN. 

* 712 


UJKU. 

775 


1738 


1805 


Ebt. 1800 




1203 


1284 


1094 


1185 


1761 


1815 


. 1758 


1834 


1508 


1583 


. 1790 




1794 




. B. 


0. 809 


340 


387 


n 

1451 


1517 


1750 


1808 


1803 


1847 


1717 


1797 




30' 


1766 


185/ 


• B. 


c. 24 


1719 


1789 


, 1800 


1864 


1775 


1836 


1513 


1593 


B. 0. 592 




• B 


0. 474 




518 


B. C. 500 E. 


C. 428 


B. c. 840 




B. C. 611 B 


0. 547 


. B. 


0. 504 


1794 




1767 


1837 


1805 




. 1692 


1765 




1605 




1856 


1797 




. 1751 


1780 


1555 


16C6 


f. B. c. 63 




1794 


1857 


1768 


1854 


1778 


1851 


. 1623 


lB4e 


1083 


1118 


1604 


1C66 


1500 


153d 


1703 


1778 


B. C. 247 B. 


0, 183 


1735. 


iei5- 



B10GEAI»HICAL IKIHX 



HATIOK. name AJtD PBOFESSION. 

Eng. Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, a learned divine 

Eng. Ansoti, George, lord, celebrated naval commander 

Eug. AnBpach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs . 

Irish. Ai£ter, Jno., translator of ' Faust ' . , 

Amer. Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author . 

Egypt. Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions 



Ital. 

Mace. 

Mace. 

Gr. 

ItaL 

Bom. 

Rom. 

Eom. 

Pars. 

Fr. 

Kom. 



, of Padua, a divine . , , 

Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great 
Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great • 
Antisthenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics 
Antonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX. . 

Antoninus Pius, emperor , . , 

— ' — , Marcus Aurelius, emperor, surna;„ec. the philosopher 



Antony, Mark, military commander and statesman 
Anveri, a celebrated poet . . . • 

Anville, Jean B. d', geographer . , , 

Apioius, the name of three Roman epicures , , 

Egypt. Apion, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jews 
Gr. ApoUodorus, the name of several writers and statesmen 
Apollonius, surnamed Rhodius, a poet . . , 

— ■■- , Peigamensis, a geometrician • , 

— ^ ' — , Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher . 



Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 

Gr. 



Appian, an historian 

Amer. Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theologia; 

Bom. Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer , 

Ital. Aquinas, St. Tbomas, a celebrated theologian 

Fr. Arago, Dom. Fr. Jean, astronomer and statesman . 

Eng. Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder 

Gr. Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman 

Scotch. Arhuthnot, John, Dr., a poet . , • 

Gr. Archelaus, Ionic philosopher • , 

Gr. Archius, a poet . . • . 

Gr. Archilochus, a poet . , » 

Gr. Archidemes, a celebrated matheitiatician , 

Gr. Archytiis, a mathematician . , 

It:l, Aretino, Guide, inventor of the gamut of music 

Ital. , Leonard, an historian , . 

ItaL , Peter, a satirist .... 

Eng. Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy-goverttor of Virginia 

PruSB. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer 

Span. Argensola, Lupcrcio, historian and poet 

Span. ■ ■ ■ , Bartholomew, historian 



Scotch. Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman . 

Ital. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . , 

Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . , 

Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosophet 
— -, grammarian and critic . , , 



M6X 

Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr, 
Gr. 



Aristides, an Athenian statesman . , , 

-■ , jElius, an orator and sophist , , 

' — , one of the fathers of the church . , 

Aristippus, of Gyrene, philosopher, founderof the Cyrenifli 
Aristomenes, a warrior and patriot , , 



BOBN. 

1033 
1697 
1750 
17S3 
1797 
251 
1195 



B. C. 423 

1806 

86 

121 

C. 86 

1697 

A. D. 



i)i£n. 

1109 

1762 
1828 

1867 
35d 

1231 
B. c. 301 
B. c. 319 



161 

180 

B. c. 30 

1201 

1782 

1st cent. 



£ .0 
B. 0. 5th to 2d cent. 

B, c. 194 
f. B. 0. 242 



f. 143 
17T2 

A. D. 

» 1224 
1786 
1705 

B. 0. 273 



f. B. 0. 450 

f. B. c. 719 

f. B. c. 685 

B. c. 287 

B. C. 408 

995 

1369 

1492 

1572 

1779 

1665 

1566 

1678 

1474 

1802 

280 

160 



91 

1819 
2d cent. 
1274 
1853 
1759 
B. 0. 213 
1735 



B. 0. 212 
B. c. 360 

1414 

1656 
1S39 

1613 
1631 
1V43 
l.r3 

1855 



f. B. 



129 

f. 127 

f. B. c. 392 

f. B. o< 663 



0. i"? 

15*, 



e 



THE world's progress. 



KAIION. 

Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 

i^pan. 

Eug. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

PruBB. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Elem. 

Eng. 

Amer 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

G«r. 

Amer. 

Gr, 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Bar. 

■a?. 

ififtg. 

.7:ora. 



NAME AND PKOFESSION. 

Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet . 
Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the Peripatetics 
Arins, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arlan sect 

— ^ MoiitaiiUB, Benedict, orientalist 

Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spiDnlng jennies 
Arlinoourt. Victor, vicomte d', novelist 
Armliiius, the deliverer of Germany 

- , James, a celebrated divine, founder of a sect 
Armstrxig, John, M D., poet - . . 

— , John, general, statesman, and historian 

Amaud, Daniel, troubadour . 

, Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet • 

Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer . 
Arnoblus, a defender of Christianity , . 

Arnim, L. A., poetand novelist . 

Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country , 

— ^ , of Brescia, alearned monk, disciple of Abelard 

— ; , Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Qxon. 



, Thomas, D. D,, theologian, histt)rian, and philologist 

, Thomas K., author of classical text-books . . 

Arnott, i"^iel, popular scientific writer . . . • 

Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus . . • 

Arrowsmlth, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts . 
Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . , 

Artaxerxes I., king of Persia . . . 

— ■■ , founder of the new Persian kingdonl , , . 

Artevelie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader .• 
Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable . . . 

Arthur, Timothy S., author of tales and essays 
Arundel, Ihos. H., earl of, ipiporter of the Arundelian mafbles 
Asbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States 
Ascham, L?/02er, a learned ■wcriter.. . , . . 

Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general ... • 

Ashb-artoa, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . . • 

Ashmun, John K., jurist, professor of law . . 

Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfleld • • 

Aspasia, the accomplished.wlfeG) of Pericles . . 

Assei-, John, historian .... * 

Ast, George A. F., philologist, ' Lexicon Platonicum' . 
Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York , 

Atchison, David i., senator. United States, from Missouri 
Athanasius, St., oi e of the fathers of the church . . 

Athenagoras, philoiipher . . 

Athenais, Empresses the VTest and authoress, called also EU' 

-doxia . . . 

Atbenseus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Vafro . 
Attains, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of 
parchment 

-, Rhodius, mathen.atician 



BOHN. 

B. c. 389 
B. c. 884 

1527 
1732 
1789 

1560 
1709 

1758 

1718 
1710 
f. 303 
1781 
1740 

1822 
1795 
1800 
1788 
f. 140 

B.C. 250 



Atterbury, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy 
Atticns, a knight and author (works lost) . 

Auber, D. F: E., famous raueical composer . . . 



43a 
1598 
1792 
1856 
20 
1610 
1T79 
1843 
1220 
1805 
1778 

1831 
1801 
1555 

1842 
1853 



1823 



B. C. 425 



472 
1809 



1745 
1515 



1774 

1800 



1778 

1763 

1807 

296 

: 177 



f. 190 



1832 
542 

1646 
1816 
1568 
B.C. 220 
1848 
1833 
154". 

P09 

rn 

1848 



'. 173 
1662 

B. 0. 109 

1T84 



371 



B. c. TjS 



1731 
B. 0. 32 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



NATiOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Swiss. Aabigii6 J. H. Merle d', historian of Reformation . « 

Eng. Auckland, William, lord, statesman . • 

Fr. Audoin, J. F. zoologist ... • , 

Fr. Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com . , 

G. Jew. Auerbach, Berthold, novelist . . , . 

Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church 

, the Apostle of the English — 1st archbishop of Cante 

Rom. Augustulus Romulus, the last emperor of the West 

Bom. Augustus, Oaius Julius Ceesar Octavlus — 1st emperor , 

Aurungzebe, last Mogul emperor in India . , 

Rom. Ausoiiius, Eecimus Magnus, poet , , . , 

Eng. AuBten, Jane, novelist . . . . . 

Eng. , Sarah, essayist and trans'ator . (a 

Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas 
Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus — republican — military commander . 
Ala. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . 
Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York . 
Ara. A vicenna, philosopher, phj-sie' an and author . 
Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &c. . 
Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist 
Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer . . , 

Ital. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', Btatesman and author 



Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist 

Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author 

Port. Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . , . 

Gr. Bacchylldes, lyric poet , . . , £ 3 

Amer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer 

Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian 

Eng. Back, Geo. Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author 

Amer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . 

Amer. Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare , . 

Amer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher 

Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge 

Eng. , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and t 

man ...... 

Dan. Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature , 

Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin's Bay 

Ger. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist . , , 

Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &c. . 

Eng. , Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer . • 

Eng. , Philip James, poet, author of Festus , , 

Er.g. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist , . 

Fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist . . 

B(!> t. , Matthew, physician and anatomist . . 

Pr, Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader In the revo- 
lution ..... 

En". Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician , . 

Amer. Bainbridge, William, naval commander , (Princeton) 



BORN. 


DIBi\ 


1794 


. 


• 


IfeH 


1797 


isa 


1757 


1816 


1813 




3W 


^1 -WO 


.•■Sjory 


^ 604 


. 


476 


.:. a. 63 


14 


. iS18 


1707 




394 


. 1775 


1817 


bt) 1800 




. 


1836 


17z3 


180G 


. 


119T 


1797 




980 


1087 




1801 


. 1813 


1865 


17!56 


1845 


i7<j'; 


1866 



17:0 




1754 


1707 


1724 


1806 


450 




1806 


1867 


17fl0 




1796 




1724 


1806 


1802 




1214 


1292 


1561 


1626 


1735 


1804 


1584 


1622 


179S 




Uil 


1857 




1742 


1787 




1649 


170fl 


1762 


1851 


1761 


1323 


1736 


1793 


1774 


i344 


1774 


».-;3a 



THE WORLD'S PBOaBESg. 



r An ION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBIT. 

Amer. Balrd, Robert, D. D., author of travels • • • 1798 

Scot. . , Sir David, military commander • • « 1757 

Turk. Baja'jet, sultan — conquered by Tamerlane ... 

Am3r. Baker, Edward D., U S. senator and general . (Ball's Bluff) 1811 

rtal. Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer . 1782 

Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America • 

Fr, Baldwin, who became emperor of the East * . 

Irish. Balfe, "</m, Michael, musical compoeer • • • 1808 

Scot. Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . . • 1259 

Scot. Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott • 

Amer. Ballou, Hosea, universalist minister and author . • 1771 

Eng. Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland « 1582 

Fr. Baluc, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Iiouis XL . • 

Fr. Balzac, Honors de, novelist ... « 1799 

Amer. Bancroft, George, historian of the V. S., eecaretary of navy, &c. . 1800 

Swe. Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . . 1596 

Irish. Banim, John, novelist ..... 1800 

Amer. Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author 1778 

Amer. Banks, JSTath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. 1816 

Eng- Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Royal Society < 1743 

Fr. Baraguay d' Hilliers, Achille, marshal of France . • 1795 

Fr. Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . . . 1782 

Pruss. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age . 1721 

Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer . 1743 

Turk. Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers . • 

Amer. Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army • • 1751 

Fr. , Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer • • • 1674 

Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . • Va, 1775 

Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court , Va. 1783 

Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . 1648 

Ital. Bare tti, Joseph, lexicographer— author of Travels, &o, • 1716 

Eng. Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist — ' Ingoldsby Legends' 1788 

Amer. Barker, Joseph, noted financier • . . • 1779 

Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet . • • 1756 

Amer. Barnard, Henr3', distinguished educator • • . 1811 

j^tnei. Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. m 1798 

3ng. -, Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar . • • 1654 

Amer. , Daniel H. a distinguished conchologist . • 

Dutch. Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) , . . 1S47 

Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . 1759 

Fr. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution . 1755 

Eng. BMr6, Isaac, colonel, M, P., friend of America . . 1726 

Irish. Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author ... 1767 

Amer. BaiTon, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) . 1768 

Eng. -, Isaac, a divine and mathematician . . 1630 

Eng. , Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty . 1764 

r.ish. Barry, John, the first American commodore . , . .1745 

Eng. ———, Sir Charles, architect of houses of parliament . 1795 

Amer. , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, , , Va. 1785 

Ger. Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa . . . 1821 

Fr. Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' &o, , • 1716 

Amer. Bartlett, John R., author of explorations, &c , . 1805 



BIES 

l86l 
1829 
1413 
1861 

1517 
1206 

1314 
1833 
1852 
1632 

1850 

1641 
1842 
1862 

1820 



1740 
1825 
1518 
1783 
1728 
1842 
1841 
1690 
1789 
1845 

1812 



1712 
1818 
1619 
181» 
1829 
1802 
1834 
1851 
1667 
1848 
1803 
1860 
1835 

i79a 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



NATIOS. NAME AND PROFESSION, 

Amer. Barllett, Josiah, Btatesman, gov. N. 11.) &o» . . , 

Eng. ■-, Wm. E.., artist and author . . . 

Amer. Baxton, Benj. Stiiith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist 

Eng. ' J Bernard, the Quaker poet . , . 

Amer, Bartram, John, an eminent botanist , . • 

Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church • • 

Eng. Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher « 

Fr. Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian - . , 

Fr. Baseano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman 

Fr. Bastiat, Frederick, political economist . . • 

Amer. Batesj Edward, statesman and jurist . . • 

Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, • 

Eng. Bath, William Pulteneyj earl of, statesman . * 

Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. . , 

Fr. Batteux, Uliarles, rhetorician and miscellaneous write? 

Hung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman . . , 

Hung. — i — ' , Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) , 

Ger. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity . 

Ger. Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author . 

Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author . , 

Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . . . 

Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer . 

Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer .... 

Ger. — — — , Theophilus, chronologist and historian . . 

Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle's D 

tionary') ..... 

Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet . • • . 

Eng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet , , , 

Fr. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-q^neen of Holland . . 

Fr. — ^, Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil. com, 

viceroy of Italy, &'c. .... 

Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C, de, an eminent dramatist . , 

Fr. Beaumont. Eliede, mineralogist and geologist , • 

Eng. , Francis, dramatic writer . ■ , 

Fr. Beauz6e, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . . 

Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher . 

Ital. — ' 1 Marquis, professor of political economy and author 

Amer. Beck, Lewis C, chemist and mineralogist . . 

Amer. , Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudenoe . 

Eng. Becket, Thomas k, celebrated prelate and statesman . 

Eng. Beckford, Wm,, traveller and novelist (' Vathek') • 

Ger. Beckmaiin, Johann, ' History of Inventions,' &c. . , 

Fr. Becquerel, AntDine Caesar, natural philOf^opher . 

Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian 

Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator • 

Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander • 

Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (son of Lyman) . • 

Amer. , Henry Ward, theologian and politician * 

Amer. ■ — , Lyman, theologian and preacher . , 

Eng, Beechey, Frederick "W., admiral, Arctic voyager . , 

Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer) 

Ger. Beetlio\en, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer 



SORN. 


DIED, 


. 1729 


1795 


1809 


1854 


1766 


1815 


IT-il 


1849 


. 17-1 


1777 


326 


379 


. 1706 


1775 


1653 


1723 


17.'i8 


183d 


1-Cl 


1850 


1790 




17'i8 


1864 


1682 


1764 


1684 


1775 


1713 


1780 


1507 


1854 


. 1809 


1849 


180'J 




. 1792 




1615 


1691 


1476 


1524 


1767 


1815 




1627 


1694 


1738 


)ic- 




1647 


1706 


1797 


1839 


1735 


1803 




1837 


. i7 


1824 


1733 


1799 


• 11t)8 




lu55 


1616 


. l',_4 


1789 


1716 


1731 


. 1735 


1793 


1800 


1853 


. 1701 


1855 


1119 


1170 


. 1760 


1844 


1739 


1811 


1788 




n 672 


735 


1793 


183i 




14.36 




186S 


1796 


1856 


1800 


1838 


1770 


1827 



10 



THB WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATlOJr. NAME AND PROFESSION, 

Ger. Behaim, or Behem, navigator and geographer . • 

Eng. Behn, Aphra, dramatic writer . . • • 

Rttss. Behrlng, Vitus, Arctic navigator . • . 

Ger. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist . . • 

Eng. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral; Arctic navigator . . 

Rem. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror . 

Ital. Belgiojoso, Christiiia, princess of, accomplished & philanthropic 
Amer, Belknap, Jeromy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . 
Scot; Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe . 
— — , John, statesman . . . • 

, John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist • « 

, Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . , 

Bellamy, Josepti, D. B., a learned divine and author . 

Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 
Bellau, Remi, poet . . ... • 

Beileisle, count-de, military commander . . • 

Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachuset^ts . 
Be'lini, Vincenzo, musical composer . . • 

Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author . x 
Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c., 
Belcn, William, naturalist and traveller . 
Belsl: im, William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer 
B^lzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt . . 

Bem, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria < 
BemT o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature . 

Bemb ■ 7, John, a gallant admiral . . • ■ 

Benetict, ist., one of the originators of monasteries . 

-, XIII., pope, theological writer . . . 

, XIV., '. " " . 



Amer, 

bco/. 

Hoot. 

Attier, 

Ita- 

Ft. 

Fr. 

H»g. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Vr. 

Eng. 

Ital, 

Pol. 

Ital, 

Eng, 

Ital, 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Fr, 

Ger. 

Eiig. 



Benei.et, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (died in America 
Bengel, Johann A.j Lutheran theologian and philologist 
Bengar, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical ^^emoirs • 
Benjamin,- Park, poet, lecturer and journalist . . 
, of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East • < 



Arner. 

Sp.'Jew 

Bar. B6ntadad,-king of Syria •. • . . 

Scotch. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist • • 

Fr, Bunserade-, Isnac, a wit and poet . . 

.Eng. Bentham, Jeremy, a political and philosophio'al writer 

Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar , 

Amer. Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian • 

Fr. B6ranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . 

Fr. Berenger, A. M. M, F., statesman and jurist . 

Egypt. Berenice, the ftam€^ of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria 

Ger. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer , . 

Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upstd. . • 

Beli Boriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . . 

iBisn. Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher 

Amer. , William, governor of Virginia . . • 

£r. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer ... 

Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XlV. 

Brig. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . . 

Amer. ————, Francis, governor of Massactusetta . ■ 



BORN. SIRD, 

1459 1500 

1640 1689 

1680 1741 
1785 
1799 

565 
1808 

17*4 1798 

1767 1830 
1797 

1763 1825 

1781 1842 

1719 1790 

1542 1626 

1528 1577 

1684 17 "l 

16:;4 1''72 

1808 1 35 
1814 

1756 1817 

1518 1564 

1752 1827 

1778 1823 

1795 1^5*5 

1470 1542 

1650 17C2 

480 547 

1649 1728 

1675 1758 

1713 17^4 

1687 1752 

1778 1827 

1809 1864 
1173 

B. 0. 895 
1800 



1601 
1S32 
1742 
1S58 
1857 



1612 
1742 
1662 
1782 
178t 
1<85 
B. c, 1st to 3d cent 
1797 

1786 1784 
1802 
1684 17S3 

16C7 
:i-03 

: M 1844 

1638 1697 

177» 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



11 



NATIOX. MAME AND FKOFESSION. 

Dutch. Rernard, John Frederick, bookseller, tditor and author 

Ft. , St., preacher of Crusades and author . 

Fr. , Simon, engineer and military commander 

Amer. Berrien, John McPlierson, IT. S. Senator from Georgia 
Fr, 



Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a 'History of the People of God,' 
in 11 vols. 4to . . . . . 

Fr. Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d eon of Charles XL, (assassinated) 

Fr. ■ , Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 

Amer. , Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 

Fr. Berryer, Pierre A., statesman .... 
Fr. Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander 

Fr. Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . . 

Fr. Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon's army 

Fng. Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Phillipsbnrg) 
Swe. Berzelias, John James, chemist .... 
Ger. Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer . . 

Fr. Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen) 

Amer. Bethune, George W., D. D., tlieologian and poet . 

Eng. Betterton, Thomas, famous actor . . . , 

ItaL Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer , 

Eop. Betty, William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius' , 
Eng. Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver . 

Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer . . , 

Fr. Bezout, mathematician . . , , 

ItaL Biancbini, Francis, mathematician and author . . 

Gr. Bias, one of tlie seven sages .... 
Fr. Bichat, an eminent anatcmist and physiologist . , 

Irish. Bickerstatf, Isaac, dramatist . • • , 

Eng: Bickersteih, Edward, theoloj;ic:il writer . . , 

Amer. Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy 

Eng. , John, an eminent Socinian writer , . . 

Amer. , Nicholas, a c:iptain in the United States Navy . 

Amer. , " , financier an 1 liilerateur . . , 

Biela, William, baron von, astronomer . , 

Amer. Bigeluw, John, medical writer .... 
Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian . , . . •. 

G.*. Bion, pastoral poet ..... 

Gr. , of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cjrreniac) • . 

Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician . . . . . 

Eng. Birbeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions 
Anter. Bird, Robert M., M. D., novelist .... 
Amer. Bimev, James G., anti-slavery politician . . 

Fr. Biro:, uke of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) 
Eng. Bish !•, Sir Henry R., musical composer . . . 

Amer. Biseell, "William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico 
Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer . . 

Ft. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author ... 
S^.an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the 

name of tho Cid ..... 

Scot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. pTOvost of Edinburgh 
I».Am. BlacV Hawk, Indian Chief .... 

fSig. Blackstone, i5ir William, an eminent lawyer and author 



BOBN. 

1091 
1779 
1781 

1681 
1778 
1798 
1814 
1790. 
1753 
1748 
1778 
1670 
177S 
1784 
176^ 
1805 
17S5 
I'^IS 
1791 
1753 
a519 
1730 
1662 
606 
1771 
1733 
r.786 
1783 
1615 
1750 
1786 
:.:82 
:187 



1774 

1776. 

1803 

1792. 

1561 

1775 

1811 

1759 

1767 

1040 
1784 

1768 T 
1723 



DIED, 
1751 

1153 

:8w 

1858 

1751 
1820 

186? 

:'8!?. 

1822 
1«44 
1734 



:\8is 

1862 
1810 
18P1 

1828 
1605 
1783 
1729 

1802 
1787 
1850 
1848 
1662 
1778 
1844 
1856 

1841 
0. 300 
0. 240 
1862 
1841 
1854 
1867 
1602 
185S 

1806 
\79a 

10£« 

1838 
1760 



12 



THE world's PKOGEESS. 



VATIOK. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Prus. 

Ger. 

Bwe. 

Brit. 

ItaL 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

•butch. 

Bom. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Colom. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 
Ft. 
Fr. 

Amer. 
Eng. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



KAME AVD PBOFESSION. 

Blackwell, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States 
Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician . , 

, Francis P., journalist and politician . . 

, Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soUers . 

, Eobert, a divine and poet • . • 

Blake, Joha L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &o. * 

Blake, Robert, a celebi-ated admiral . ■ 

Blanchai'd, Laman, essayist and journalist . . 

Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist , 

Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur 
Bloomfleld, E. v., classical scholar . . 

^ — , Robert, a poet . . • • 

Blucher, a celebrated military commander • 

Blum, Robert H, publicist and politician • , 

Blumenback, John Fred., naturalist , , 

Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . . 

Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy 
Boccalina, a satirist .... 

Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist , 

Bodin, John, a lawyer and author . . • 

Bodley, Sir Thos., Tonnder of library , 

Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author • . 

Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist . . 

Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians 
Boethius, a statesman and philosopher 
Bogalzky, Ohas. Henry theologian, (' Golden Treasury') 
Bohemond, a Norman adventurer . . . 

Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor . . 

Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Innamorato') « 
Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet . . 

Bolssard, Jean J., fabulist . • « • 

Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies . _ . 

, d'Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist 

Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., . . 

Bpliiigbroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer 
Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . . 

Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia • 

, Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain * 

, Louis, ex-king of Holland . , 

, Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France and 

emperor . . . « 

— — — — , Lucien, Prince of Canino . . 

-, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon , 



■ . , Napoleon, emperor of France 

Bond, William C, astronomer 
Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants 
Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist 
Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician , 

. , John, " . 

Bonpland, Aini6, traveller and botanist • 

Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian . 

Boone, Daniel, the first settler in Kentucky , 



BOBM. 


DiEn 


1821 




1718 


1800 


1791 




1821 




1699 


1777 


1788 


1857 


1599 


1657 


1803 


1845 


1757 


1783 


1789 


1849 


1788 


1846 


1766 


1823 


1742 


1819 


1807 


1848 


1752 


1840 




61 


1313 


1373 


1556 


1613 


1509 


1567 


1580 


1596 


1544 


1612 


1575 


162* 


1668 


1738 


465 


526 


1690 


1744 




1111 


1434 


1494 


1636 


1711 


1743 


1831 


1694 


1758 


1756 


1826 


1507 


1536 


1678 


1751 


1785 


1831 


1784 


1859 


1768 


1844 


1778 


1846 


1808 




1775 


1840 


1750 


1836 


1769 


1821 


1789 


1859 




1569 


1720 


1793 




1840 




1821 




1840 


1796 


1852 


1730 


_ 1823 



BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 



]3 



KATIOir. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Bopp, FranoiB, Sanscrit scholar . • » ' 

Ital. Bregli, philosoplier and mathematician • • 

Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian « 

ItaL Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools . 

Ital. Borgia, Caesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL 

Ital. , Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VU 

ItaL Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer . . 

Eng. Borrow, George, author of ' Gipsies of Spain' • 

Ft. Bosc, Louis A. "W., naturalist . . • 

£n^. BoBcawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral . 

Ital, Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer • 

Fr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France , . 

Fr. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian • • 

Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician . . 

Scot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . , • 

Eng. Buswell, James, the hiographer of Dr. Johnson , 

Eng. Boswoith, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer , 

Ital. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . , , 

Ital. Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian . , 

Amer. Botts, John Minor, politician , . 

Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution 

Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist . 

Fr. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author 

Fr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander • 

Fr. BDulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian • 

Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . « 

Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer 

Irish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist . . , 

Fr. Bourdaloue, a noted preacher . - , 

Fr. Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician . • 

Fr. Bourignt)n, Antoinette, a fanatical author • 

Fr. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 

Fr. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latm poet , 

Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon • , 

Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer • 

Fr. Boussingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist , , 

Ger. Bouterwek, Fred., ' Hist. Spanish Literature' 

Amer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . , 

Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &o. 

Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. . 

Amer. Bowdoin, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman 

Amer. , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain 

Amer. Bowen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author 

Eng. Bt'wles, William Lisle, poet . . , 

Eng. Bc<vring, James, statesman, poet and linguist 

Scot. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet . , . 

Eng. Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher » 

Fr. Boyer, Abel, lexicographer . . . 

Fr. , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) 

Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher . , 

Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician , 

Amer. Bozmen, John Leeds, historian and Jurist . . 



BOBH. 

1791 


vimu. 


1507 




1781 




1736 


1802 


1608 


1679 


15th Cent. 


1538 


1584 


1803 




1759 


1828 


1711 


1761 


1711 


1787 


1810 


186- 


1627 


1704 


1730 


1814 


1676 


1732 


1710 


1795 


1788 




1766 


1837 




1835 


1802 




178C 


1823 


1740 


1821 


1729 


1811 


1344 


1711 


1658 


1752 


1728 


1809 


1700 


1780 


1822 




1632 


1704 


1799 


1854 


1616 


1680 


1773 


1846 




1747 




1834 




1807 


1802 




1766 


1828 


1787 


1851 


1773 


1838 


1754 


1825 


1727 


1790 


1752 


1811 


1811 




1762 


1850 


1792 




1562 


1601 


1719 


1804 


1667 


1729 


1776 


1850 


1626 


1691 


1680 


1776 


1767 


18» 



14 



THE WORLD S PKOGEESS, 



KAriON. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Dan. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

N.A.In 

Fr. 

Mes. 

Eug. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

eer. 

Swe. 

Bar. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Er. 

Er. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eug. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Vi. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Brace, Charles Loring, philanthropist and traveller . 
Brackenridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist . 
Braddock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virginia 
Bradford, Aldeii, author of History of Massachusetts ' 



, Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phila. 1686 

, William, attorney-general of the U. S. 

, 'William, first printer in Pennsylvania 

, "William, second governor of Plymouth eolony 

Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician 
Eiadstreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley 
Bradwardine, mathematician and theologian , 
Brady, Rohert, physician and historian , 
Brahe, Tycho, a celehrated astronomer • 

Brainard, David, misionary to the Indians 

, J. G. C, a poet . . . 

.Brant, Joseph (Thayendanega), a Mohawk chief 
Braiitome, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler 
Bravo, Leonardo, a revolutionary patriot . 
Bray, Ann Eliza, novelist 
Breckinridge, John, D. D., theologian . 

, John C, Vice-President U, S. . 

, Robert J., D. D., Presbyterian theologian 

BreitkL".cpf, John G. E.., an eminent printer and type-found 
Bremer, Fredrica, novelist . . , 

Brennus, the leader of the Gauls . . • 

Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher , . 

, William, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims , 

Bridgewater, 7. uke of, introducer of canals in England 

. , I'ranoiB H. E., duke of, founder of 'Treatiser' 

Briggs, Charlas F., novelist and journalist . . 

, Een' y, matbematician . . . 

Brigham, i.£iariah, writer on insanity and philanthropist 
Bright, John, reform politician and M. P. , , . 

Brinvilliers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner • 

Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist . . , 

Brittan, John, architectural and antiquarian writer 
Brockhaus, Fried. A., founder of the publishing house . 
Brodhead, John K., author of ' History of New York' 
Brodie, Sir Benj. C, F. R. 8., surgeon and surgical author 
Broglio, due de, statesman . . . . 

Bronte, Anne, ' Acton Bell.' novelist . • 

, Charlotte, novelist . . • • 

, Emily Jane, ' Ellis Bell,' novelist , 

Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer . . 

, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and author . 

Brooks, Charles T., author of ' Translations from German ' 

, Erastus, journalist and politician. . , 

, James, journalist and politician . • 

-, John, LL.D., governor of MassaohuseUa 



, Maria, poet, (' Maria del Ocoidente ') . 

Brotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of ' Tacitus ' . 
Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist 



BORN. 

1826 
1786 
1716 
1715 



1755 
1659 
1588 
1692 
1612 

1709 
1546 
1718 

. 1697 
1742 
1540 
1692 
(abt.) 1800 
1797 
1821 
1800 
1710 
1802 
f. B. c. 390 
1785 

, 1560 
1736 
1756 

1536 

1796 

. 1611 

. 1723 
1771 
1772 
1814 
1783 
1785 
1820 

, 1816 
1818 
1706 
1803 
1813 
1S15 
1810 
1752 
1795 
1723 

. 1779 



1758 
1753 
1742 
1795 
1752 
1657 
1762 
1672 
1349 

1661 
1747 
1826 
1807 
1614 
1854 

1841 



1794 
1865 



16:4 
lo03 
1829 

1630 
1849 

1676 
1806 

?.857 
la23 

1862 

ls49 
1855 
184a 
1783 



1823 
1845 
1788 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



15 



KATICH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Irish. Brougham, John, actor and author . • 

Fr. Brougniart, Alexiinder, nimeralogiet and geologist 

Fr, • , Adolphe T., hotaniet, . . 

Fr. Broussais, F. J. V., medical and. physiological writer 

Ir.Ara, Brown, Ales., father of tlie eminent merchants 'Brown Brothers 

AmtT. , Arthur, a dintinguished scholar and barrister 

Amer. , (Blackwell), Antoinette L., pre;icher and philanthropist 

Amer. , Charles Brockden,. a novelist 

Amen • , Captain John, abolitionist and martyr . 

Scot. , Dr. Thomas, metaphyBician aud poet 

Amer, , Goold, grammarian, . , 

Amer. ■ , Henry Kirk, sculptor 

Amer. , James, senator, minister to France • 

Amer. , James, eminent publisher (Boston) . 

Eiig. — , John, D.D., a miscellaneous writer 

Eng. — , John, a divine and author . 

Amer. -— , Major-General Jacob, general in war of 1812 . 

Amer. — ■ — , Nicholas, principal patron Brown University • 

Eng. — - — , Robert, eminent botanist . . , 

Scot. — , Samuel, chemist and poet • • • 

£ng. , Thomas, satirist, . • , , , 

Scot. , Thomas, metaphysician . , . 

Irish. Browne, George, count de, an officer in the Eussian service 

£ng. , Sir Thomas, a physician, and philosophic writer 

Eng. , 'William George, a traveller in Africa, &c. 

Amer. Brownell, Thom:i8 C, Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut 
Eng. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, • ■ . 

Eng. • ■ — -, Robert, poet, • . . • 

Amer. Brownson, Orestes A., metaphysical writer • • 

Scot. Bruce, James, a celebrated traveller . , « 

Scot. , Robert, the deliverer of his country' - • 

Fr. Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral . , . 

Eng. Brummell, George Bryan, 'Beau Brummell' . • 

Fr. Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author . . . 

Fr. Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist 
Eng. Brunei, Isambard K., engineer of Great, Eastern, &e. . 

Fr. Brunei, Sir M, I., engineer.of Thamos tunnel, &c. , 

Fr. Brunet, Jacques Charles, ' Bibliographer's Manual' . 

Fr. Bruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order . , 

Hubs. Brunnow, Baron, diplomntigt .... 
Ger. Brunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander . 

Ger. — ■ , Luneburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, military com' 

mander ... ... 

Eng. Brunton, Mary B,, novelist, 'Discipline, ' &c. 

Rom. Brutus, Lucius Junius, foupder of the republican government 

Rom. , Marcus Junius, conspirator ag.ainst Caesar . . 

Fr. BruySre, John de la, a cel«brated writer . • 

Dutch. Bruyn, Cornelius de, traveller . . • , 

Bryan, Michael, ' Dictionary of Painters' . , 

Eng. Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary , , 

Amer. , William Cullen, poet, traveller , , 

Eng. Br,>:dgeB, Sir Egerton, eccentric litterateur , • 



BOEN. 


CIIIV 


1810 




1770 




1801 




1772 


i8oa 


rs ' 1764 






1806 


1825 




1771 


1810 


1800 


1860 


1777 


1820 


1791 


1857 


1814 




1766 


1835 


18Q0 


1855 


, 1715 


1766 


1722 


2787 




1828 


1769 


l?4l 


. 1781 


1S5S 


1817 


.^856 


1663 


17U4 


1778 


1820 


1698 


1792 


1605 


1682 




1814 


1779 


1865 


18C9 


1860 


1812 




VCZ 




. 1730 


1790 




1329 


*750 


1798 


1778 


1840 


1683 


1742 


1763 


1815 


180-.' 


1853 


nec 


184f 


1377 


1444 


1797 




1721 


1792 


I- 

1735 


ld03 


. 1778 


1818 


B. 


0. 505 


B. 


0. 4? 


1644 


1697 


1652 




. 1757 


•859 


1715 


1804 


1794 




1762 


1837 



u 



THE world's progress. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Buat Nanfay, Louis 0-., count de, a learned writer 
Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the Reformation 
Buch, Leopold von, geologist . . 

Buchan, 'William, a physician and author . • 

Buchf.nan, Claudius, a divine . • 

, George, an eminent writer 

, James, 15th president of the United States 

Uuckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman . 

, George Villiers, son of the former 

, James Silk, traveller and author . 
, Joseph T., journalist and author , 



If Alios. 

Fr. 

Fr, 

Ger. 

Scot, 

Beet. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

iSng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

iing. Buckland, Wm., D. D., geologist. 

Amer. Buckminster, Joseph, D. D., theologian . 

Amer. , Joseph S., author of ' Sermons,' &c„ 

Sng. Buckstone, John B., actor and playwright 

Amer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer . 

Polish. Buffier, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer 

i?r. 

Ft. 

Ger, 

Eng, 

Eng. 

.ti-or. 



Butfon, George Leclerc, count of, celebrated naturalist 
Bugeaud, T. B., marshal of France . . '■ , 

Buhle, J. G., ' History of Philosophy,' &c. . 

Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist . . 

, Geo., Bishop of St. David's, theological writer 

, Ole, famous violinist . , , , 

Swi.^B. Bullinger, reformer and author 

Amer. Bullions, Peter, D. D., author of educational works . 

Fng. Bulwer, Sir Henry L. diplomatist and political writer 

, (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist 

, Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist . 



Eng. 
Eng. 
Aust. 



Buol-Schauenstein, K. F., count of, statesman . 
Rush. Buc. on, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian 
Eng. Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrtm's Progress' . 

Ger. Burckhardt, John Charles, mathematician . , , 

'Swiss. — -, John Louis, oriental traveller . 

Soot. Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and mechanic . 

Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician . , , 

Ger. BTiger, G. A., poet .... 

Eng. i urges, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist • , 

Amer. Burges, Tristram, statesman and orator 

Eng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological 

Eng. Burgh, James, author ' Dignity Human Nature ' , 

Eng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author 

Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer . 

Swiss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law . 

Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman . 

Dutch. Burman, Peter, critic and editor . , 

O-e.. Buimeister, He; man, naturalist , . , 

Am«r. Bumap, George W., clergyman and author 

Eoot. Burnes, Sir Alex,, 'Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,' &c. 

Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian. Bishop of Salisbury 

, Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and author . 

, John, engraver, painter, and critic , 



Scot. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 



Barney, Charles, a doctor of music 



, 1191 


1551 


1774 


1853 


1729 


1791 


. 1766 


1805 


1506 


1582 


, 1791 




1592 


1628 


. 1627 


1688 


1784 


1855 


. 1779 




1784 


1856 


. 1751 


1812 


1784 


1812 


1800 




1778 


1839 


1661 


1737 


1707 


1788 


1784 


1849 


1763 




1786 


1864 


1634 


1710 


, 1810 




1504 


1575 


1791 


1864 


1803 




1807 




. 1797 




1791 


1860 


1628 


1688 


1773 


1815 


. 1784 


1815 


1791 




. 1770 


1844 


1748 


1794 


1786 


1864 


1770 


1853 


al author 1756 


1837 


1714 


1776 




1792 


1730 


1797 


1694 


1743 


, 1520 


1598 


1668 


1741 


1807 




, 1802 


1859 


1805 


1841 


y . 1643 


1725 


1776 


1858 


1784 




• 1726 


1»I4 



BIOGRAPHIC AI, INDEX. 



17 



Eng. 

Bug. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

£ng. 

Eng. 

©er. 

Amer. 

Amer, 

Mez. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng 

Oer. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng, 

Eng, 

Eng. 

Sng, 



NAME AND PH0FE8SS0N. 

Bnrney, Frances, (see Mme. d'AxbUiy), novelist • 

, James, admiral and author . • 

Burns, a popular and national poet . . . 

Burr, Col. Aaron, vice-president U. S, . • 

Burritt, Elihu, • the learned blacksmith ' and philanthropiBt 
Burroughs,. Stephen, notorious adventurer 
Burton, Robert, author of the ' Anatomy of Melancholy* 
— = — -, Wm. E., actor and author > . . 

Buschiiig, Aiithou Frederick, philosopher and geologioal writer 
Bush, George, D.D., theological and philosophical writer . 
Bushnell, Horace, D.D.^ theological and metaphysical author 
Bustamenle, Anaslasio, president of Mexico . . 

Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier > 

Butler, Alban, ' Lives of Sain is' . , 

— - — ', Andrew P., United States senator from South Carolina 

, Benj. F., statesman nnd jurist, attorney-general U. S, 
— — , Benj. P., major-general U. S. army in war for Union 

, Charles, Catholic historian and jurist 

, Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author 



— ■■ — , Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of " jiEschyl 
— — , Samuel, a humorous poet . . 

, Richard, colonel, an officer in the Revolution 

■ -" , "Wm. Allen, poet . . . 

, Wm. O,, statesman and general . • 

Buttman, Philip C, philologist . . 

Buxton, Sir Thomas P'owell, legisl. and philanth. , 
Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Ohaldaic lexicographer 

, John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer 

Byles, Mather, clergyman and author . 

Byng, Honorable John, admiral . . « 

Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet • 

, Honorable John, admiral . • « 

— • — ^, Lady Noel, wife of the poet . • 



U8," &o. 



1752 
1739 
1759 
1756 
?.811 
1765 
1576 
•.1804 
1721 
1796 
1802 
■i782 
1''38 
1710 
1796 



1750 
1692 

1774 
1612 

1825 
1793 
1761 
1786 
1564 
1599 
1706 
1704 
1788 
1723 
1793 



DIED. 

184C 
1820 
1796 
1836 

1840 
1639 
1860 
1893 
1859 

1851 
1792 
1773 

1857 

1858 

183? 
175J 
184C' 
168a 
1791 



1829 
1845 
1629 
1644 
1788 
1757 
1828 
1786 
1860 



o. 



Fr. Cabet, Etienne, communist > . • . 

Eng. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer of North America 

Eng. , Sebastian (son of John), navigator . 

Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator . • 

Span. Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos 

Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navii^ator ... 

Eng. Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . . . 

Scot. Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, Ac . 

Fr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles Ia, chemist and philoBopher 

Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet . • . 

Amer. Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . 

Rom. Caesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author" 

Ital. Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer • 

Fr. Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . . • 

Ffi Caill6, Ren6) ' Voyage k Timboucto,' *«. . • 

2 



. 1788 


I85d 


1477 


1557 


1500 




1810 




f. 1456 






1450 


1742 


1803 


. 1769 


1821 




680 


. 1743 


1786 


BO. 100 B. 


0. 44 


1743 


1795 


1787 






1B3» 



18 



TBE WORLD'S PROGEESS. 



Ital. 
Gr. 

Eiig. 

Span, 

Amer, 

Amer. 

Ital, 

Amer. 

Rom, 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Jr. 

Ital. 

Ft. 

S'ro 

,iiiner. 

Amer. 

~^'r. 

Sng, 

??erB. 

ISng, 

Scot, 

Scot, 

rort, 

iv, 

Amer. 
Scot. 
Sept. 
Scot. 
Scot. 
Swt. 
Scot. 
Ger. 
Fr. 
Vt. 
Eiig, 
Fr. 
Ital, 
Dan, 
Fr. 
Eng, 
'Span, 
Gr. 
Rom. 
JItal. 
•Brit. 
Brit. 
■Ital. 
Eng. 
^'Fr. 



KAME AND FBOFESSION. 

(/jijetan, "/.irdinal, diplomatist and author , , 

Calaber, ^lintus . . . . • 

Calamy, Elrrund, Presbyter-ian divine and author , . 

Calderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist . , 

Caldwell, Chaiies, eminent physician and author . . 

— — , Rev, James, revolutionary patriot . . 

Calepino. Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 languages . 
Calhc un, John C, senator of the United States • 

Caligula, Roman Emperor . . . • 

Caiippui, astionomer and mathematician . • 

Calixlus, Geo,, Lutheran theologian . • . 

Callirlachus, a poet . . • « 

Calli.iihenes, philosopher and historian . , • 

Ca'.mst, Augustine, an erudite divine and author • 

C£/:ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author . • 

Crionne, Charles Alexander de, minister of .state . 

Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Bi-'forniation . . 

Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author . . 

— ' , Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) 

Cambacerfes, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist 
Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George ILL 
Cambyses, second king of Persia . . 

Camden, "William, «n eminent antiquary and historian . 
Cameron, Ricliard, ' Covenanter,' founder of Cameronlans 
■■ ■ — ■ ■ — -, Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel . . , 

Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country . 

Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author . 

Campbell, Alex,, founder of a religious sect . . 

■ — — , George, a divine and author . , 

— —— , John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' &e,' 

— - — — — i John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich 

, John, lord ohanoellor, jurist, ' Lives of Chancellor 

— ^ — j Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c., Lord Clyde 



-, Thomas, poet, * Life of Petrarch,' &c. 



Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . . 

Campiston, John G. de, dramatist , . , 

Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian . . 

Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet . - • 

Canrobert, Franc. C, general in Crimea . « 

Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher . • 

Canute, King of Denmark and of England, ' the Great ' 
Carefigue, A. H. A,, historian . . , . 

Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . • 

Capmany, Don Antonio, historian , . • 

Capo d' Istria, president of Greece, 1827-31 . • 

Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor • . 

Caracoioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson . 
Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior, . 

Camusius, usurper of Empire in Britain 
Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician 
Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava 
Cardonne, Dennis- D., a& eminent orientaliat 



BOHtt. 


DlEB 


1510 


1593 


t 


250 


1600 


1666 


1600 ' 


1687 


1772 


1853 


. 1734 


1781 


1435 


1611 


1782 


1850 


12 


41 


f. B, 0. 830 




1586 


1656 


f. B. c. 150 




B. 


fr. 328 


1672 


1757 


1699 


1768. 


1734 


1802 


1509 


1623 


. 1803 






1676 


. 1753 


1824 


1774 


1850 


» » 


C. 521 


1551 


16?3 




16B0 




1719 


1517 


1579 


. 1752 


1822 


1792 




1709 


1796 


1708 


1775 


1678 


1743 


•B ' 1778 


1861 


. 1791 


1863 


1777 


1844 


1722 


1789 


1656 


1723 


. 1610 


1688 


1770 


1827 


, 1809 




1805 




995 


103S 


1799 




1713 


1781 


1754 


1810 


. 1770 


1831 


188 


217 


1770 


1799 


(abt.) 100 




250 


293 


1501 


1576 


1797 




1720 


1783 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



10 



NATi<»r. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Irish. 

Irish. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Span. 

Ger, 

Scot. 

Soot. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gua. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital, 

Rom. 

Eng, 

Ital, 

Port. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Rus. 

Rus. 

Span.E. 

Span. 

Eng. 

It. Fr. 

Eng, 

Eom. 



NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Carfime, Mark Antony, famous cook . • 

Caiew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars ' 
Carew, Thoraas, poet . . , , 

Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales . . 

, Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator . . 

, Henry C, political economist . . 

•, Miitthew, philanthropist, publisher, &c. 

, William, missionary to India . , 

Carlssimi, James, musical composer , . , 

Carleton, Wm., novelist . , , 

, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada 

Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author 

Carlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author , 

, Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer 

Carlos, Don, son of Philip XL, (hero of Schiller's tragedy^ 

, Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . 

Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico , 

Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times' . 

, Thomas, historian and metaphysician , 

Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy 
Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . . 

Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author . 

, "Wm. B., physiologist . . . 

Carri'l, Armand, historian and metaphysician . 

Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . . . 

Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Dec. of Indep. 
Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator . . 

— : , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller . 

Cartwright, Thomas, puritan divine . . . 

Carus, 0. G., writer on anatomy and physiology , 
Carver, John, Ist gov. Plymouth colony , , 

, Jonathan, traveller and author . . 

Gary, Henry F., poet, translator of ' Dante' . 
Casas, Bartholomew de las, ijhilanthropist and historian 
Casa, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist . , . 

Cassin, John, ornithologist . , , 

Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . . . 

Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian. 
Cassius, Longinus Cains, conspirator against Cassar . 
Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer 
Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author , . 

Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal , 
Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist . . . . 

Catesby, Mark, natura'ist . , . 

Catherine L, wife of Peter the Great . , 

II., empress the " Great " and the vicious 

, of Arragon, wife of Henry VI 11. . 

, of Bragaiiza, queen of Charles II. of England 

— — Howaid, queen of Henry VIII. . , 

— — ■ de Medici, wife of Henry 11. of France . 



, Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIIL 

Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator 



BORN. 


DIEIt. 


in^ 


1835 


16&3 


1770 


1589? 


1639 


1822 




1596 


1661 


1793 




1760 


l'-,39 


1761 


1822 


1600 


167i 


1798 




1724 


1808 


1720 


1795 


1802 


1864 


1768 


1840 


1545 


1568 


1788 


1856 


18— 




1721 


18C6 


1795 




. 218 B. 


C, 128 


1763 


1823 


1780 


1840 


18— 




1800 


1836 


1814 




1737 


1832 


1717 


1806 




1830 


1535 


1603 


1789 




1732 


1780 




1621 


1772 


1840 


1474 


1564 


1782 


1866 


1813 




1625 


1712 


470 


516 


B. 


0. 42 


1606 


1685 


1468 


1625 




1355 


1782 


1849 


1680 


1749 


1682 


1727 


1729 


1796 


1483 


1538 


1638 


1703 


1521 


1542 


1619 


1689 




1548 


B. 


C. 63 



20 



THB WOELD'S PKOGEBSS. 



KATION. NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Ft. Catinat, Nieholas, military oommauder . • 

Amer, Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . 

Rom. C:ito, Marius Fortius, the censor, statesman and author 

Kom. , Marcus Porcius, of Uiica, statesman . 

Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet . , , , 

Fr. Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician . , 

Fr. Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist . 

Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the ' Holy Court ' 

Fr. Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848 
Ital. E. Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos. 

Eng. Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . . 

Eng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer . 

Eng. — — ^ , Thomas, navigator ... 

Ital. Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman 

Eng. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England 

Fr. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer , 

Fr. Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator . • 

Eng. Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . . . 

Eng. , Eobt., earl of Salisbury, statesman . ^ • 

Eng. , Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman . . 

Rom. Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music 

Gr. Cecrops, 1st king of Athens . . . . 

Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music • 

Rom. Celsus, Auielius Cornelius, a celebrated physician • 

Gr. , an Epicurean philospher . . • 

Ital. Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed , , 

Rom. Censorius, a critic and grammarian . . • 

Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer . . • 

Span. Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of ' Don Quixote' 

ItuL Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian . « 

ItaL Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author . , 

Eng. Chalmers, Alex., ' General B ographical Diqtionary,' &c. , 

Scot. — , George, miscellaneous writer . 

Scot. , Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist • 

Scot. Chambers, Robert, publisher and author « . 

Eng. , Sir William, an architect , . • 

Scot. , William, publisher and author . 

Fr. Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon . 

Ger. ChamisBO, A. von, author of ' Peter Schlemihl,' &c. 

Fr. Champollion, the younger, ' Monuments de I'Egypte,' &c. 

Fr. ; Figeac, historian and antiquaiy . , 

Amer. Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer . . 

Amer. , William EUery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist 

Amer. ■ , William Henry, Unitarian minister and author 

Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor 
Amer. Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator 

Eng. Chapman, George, poetical translator . • 

Eng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer . . 

Fr. Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist .... 

Fr, Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of France 

Ger, Charles V. the Great, see Prescott's History, &c. . 

■ Swe. Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior . . 



Boatr. 


DIED. 


. 1637 


1712 


B. c. 232 B. 


0. 147 


B. C. 95 B. 


0. 46 


B. 0. S6 




1780 


1857 


. 1773 


1807 


1583 


1651 


1802 


1857 


1749 


1809 


1691 


1754 


1505 


1557 


1564 


1591 


1809 


1861 


. 1410 


1492 


1720 


1765 


. 1752 


1805 


1748 


1810 


(abt.) 1550 


1612 


1520 


1598 


io 2d cent 




(abt.) B. 


C. 1500 


1500 


1570 


f. 30 




. f. 50 






1599 


. f. 240 




1667 


1723 


. 1547 


1616 


1783 


1856 


. 1730 


1808 


1759 


1854 


. 1744 


1825 


1770 


1846 


1802 




1726 


1796 


1800 




1820 




. 1781 




1790 


1832 


. 1779 




1790 


1856 


)ist 1780 


1842 


1810 




1781 


1841 


1814 




, 1557 


1634 


1727 


1801 


. 1756 


1832 


742 


814 


1500 


1588 


1682 


176J 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



21 



KATI>ir. KAME AND PROFESSION'. 

'Em;. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender 

Fr. , J. A. C, natural philosopher . . , 

Ft. Charlevoix, Peter F. X., a Jesuit historian . , 

Amer. Chase, Philander, bisl.op of Prot. Epis. Church, Ohio . 

Amer. , Sa.moii P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio 

Fr. Chasles, V. E. Philarete, miscellaneous writer . 

Dutch. Chass6, David H., baron, military commander , . 

Fr. Chastelet, Gabrielle, marchioness, scientific author , 

Fr. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author , 

Ft. Chateaubriand, F. K., vicomte de, poet, statesman and traveller 

Fr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F., theological reformer . . 

Fr. Chatele., 1 aul du Hay, lord of, {Bertraiid Duguesclin) , 

Eng. Chathanr, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman . . , 

Eng. Chatterton, Thomas, famed for precocious learning • 

Eng. Chaucer, Geollrey, the father of English poetry . • 

Amer. Chauncey, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College 

Amer. , Commodore Isaac, naval commander . . 

Amer. Chesebro, Caroline, novelist and essayist . . 

Amer Cheever, Geo. B., congregational clergyman and author • 

Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist 

Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer 

ItaL Cherubini, M. L. C, musical composer 

Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman • 

Fr. Ohevreul, M. E., chemisi . . , , 

Acer. Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works , • 

En^'. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian and author . . 

•' r. C'hilo, Euphorus of Sparta, one of the seven wise men . f. : 

-imer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman . , 

Eng. Ohitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . . 

Pol. Chlopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland . 

»:.mer. Choate, Rufus, advocate, jurist and senator . . 

Fr. Clioiseul-Stainville C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author 

Eng. ChouU'S, John Overton, D. D., Bnptist minister and author 

fewe. Christina, queen, (daughter of G. Adolphus) . 

Afr;c. Cliristophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti • 

'jrr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher . . , b. c 

Gr. Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator • . 

Amer. Church, Benj., military commander and author • 

Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet . , * 

Eng. Gibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet , 

Bom. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators . B, 

Ital. Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer . 

Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general .... 

Bom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, the patriot , , f. b, 

Eom. Cinna, Lucius, Cornelius, partisan of Mariug , f. b, 

Ital. Cirlllo, Dominic, a botanist and physician 

Amer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revolution , 

Ft. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician . . 

Amer. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College • , 

Scot. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa . , 

Eng. Clare, John, poet ... , 

Eng, Clarendon, G. W, F., Villiers, earl of, statesman , 



BORN. 

1720 
1746 
1682 
1775 
1808 
1799 
1765 
1706 
1734 
1769 
1795 
1593 
1708 
1752 
1328 



1807 
1688 
1694 
1760 
1806 
1786 
1802 
1G02 
. 598 
1752 
1776 
1772 
1799 
1762 
1801 

len 

1767 
280 
344 

i6r.s 

1731 

1671 

105 

1754 

I 
456 

uV 

1734 

1713 
1703 
1783 
1793 
1800 



DIED 

173P 
182S 
1761 
1852 



1849 
1749 
1788 
1848 
1857 
1636 
1778 
1770 
140O 
1671 
l«i40 



1752 
1773 
1840 



1644 

1843 
1841 
1854 
1859 

1856 

1689 

1820 

207 

407 

1718 

1764 

1757 

!. 43 

1801 

H9 



1799 
1818 
1765 
1767 
1827 
:8«!4 



22 



THE WORLD'S PBOGKESS. 



NATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Atner. Clark, Louis Gaylord, editor of ' Knickerbocker' , • 

Amer. , Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist . 

^laf.r. , Wm., general, explorer of Rocky Mountains . 

Eng. Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator 

Eng. , Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist 

Amer. Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author 

Eng. , Mary Cowden, author of ' Concordance to Shakespeare,' 

_^,^ier. , McDonald ' the crazy poet,' 

Eng. , Rev. Samuel, 'Annotations on the Bible' . 

Eng. , Samuel D., theologian and philosopher • 

Eng. , Sir James, medical author , . , 

Eng. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist . • 

Ron>, Claudius, Appius, decemvir .... 

Eng. Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee 

Span. Clavigero, Francis X., historian of Mexico . . 

Amer. Clay, Cassius M., anti-slavery politician 

Amer. , Clement C, ex-senator of U. 8. from Alabama . 

_^iner. , Henry, statesman and diplomatist . . 

Amer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist .^ 

Amer. Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state . 

Gr. Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher . . . 

Amer. Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist . 

Amer. Clemens, Jeremiah,U. S. senator from Alabama . 

Clement, the name of 14 popes and 3 antipopes 

G-r. ■ — , of Alexandria, a ' father of the church' • 

Gr. dementi, Muzlo, musical composer . 

Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men . . 

Ital. Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue . 

Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen . . ■ . 

Swiss. Clerc, Jean le, theological writer • . 

Fr. Am. , Laurent, the oldest living teacher of deaf mutes . 

Amer. Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York 

Amer. , James, general Amer. Rev. . . 

Amer. , George, governor of New York and vice-president of U 

Eng. Clive, Robert, lord, military-commander 

Fr. Cloquet, Hjppolite, (brother of Jules), anatomist . 

Fr. Clot, or Clot^Bey, surgeon and medical writer in Egypt 

Amer. Col)b, Lyman, lexicographer and author . . • 

Eng. Cobbett, "William, political writer . • . 

Eng. Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer • • 

Eng. Tobham, Sir Jno. Oldcastle, lord, martyr . • 

Eng, Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander . > 

Eng. Oodrington, Sir Edward, vice-admiral . . 

Eng. Coffln, Sir Isaac, admiral, (b. in Nantucket) , . 

■Eng. Cogan, Tliomas, physician and miscellaneous writer . 

Eng. Coke, Sir Edward, a learned judge . . . 

Ft. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . • 

Amer. Colburn, Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, &c. . 

^Qier. , Zerah, precocious arithmetician . . 

^jner. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, to. 

Amer. , Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c. 

Sng. Coleridge, ff artley, author and poet . . . 



BORN. 


rwi'. 


1800 




, 1810 


1341 


1770 


183? 


. 1760 


1832 


1767 


1821 


1810 




,' &c. 1809 




1798 


1842 


1627 


1701 


1675 


172di 


1761 


1846 




B. C.450 


1627 


1701 


1720 


1793 


1810 




. 1789 




177t 


1852 


. 17V5 


1778 


1796 


185C 


. f. 260 




1780 


1-5S 


1814 






220 




1832 


. f. 559 






B. G 442 




B. C. 30 


1656 


173(5 


1785 




1769 


183 


1736 


1812 


r. S. 1739 


■•SJi 


1725 


177i 


1787 




. 1795 






186S 


1762 


1835 


1804 


1865 


1360 


1417 


1775 


1860 


1770 


1851 


1759 


1839 


. 1736 


1818 


1549 


1634 


1619 


1683 


, 1793 


1823 


1804 


1840 


1688 


1776 


1769 


1834 


1797 


1819 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 23 

HATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. ItlED^ 

Eng. Coleridge, Henry Neleon, litterateur . , (abt.) 1800 1843 

Eng. , Sarah, daughter of Samuel T., author . . 1803 1852 

Eng. : , Samuel T., poet and metaphysician , , 177? 1834 

Fr- Coligni, Gaspard de, admiral .... Vi-'l 1572 

Eng. Collingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral . , , 174S 1810 

Eu^. Collins, William, a popular poet .... 1720 1756 

Eng. Coleman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston) . , 1673 1747 

Eng. , George, dramatic writer .... 1733 1784 

Eng. , George, (the younger), dramatist . . 1762 1838 

Fr. Colombat, de I'Isere, medical writer . , . <abt.) 1800 

Araer. Colton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer . , 1789 1857 

Eng. , 0. C, autlior of 'Lacon' .... 1773 1832 

Amer. , George H., author of 'Tecumseh,' &c. , , 1818 1847 

Amer. , Walter, Kev. author of voyages ai^d travels . . 1797 1851 

Ital. Columbus, Christopher, tlie discoverer of America , 1441 1606 

Scot. Combe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer . . 1797 1S47 

Scot. , George, plirenologist and philosopher . . 1778 1858 

Fr. Coraiues, Philip de, statesman and historian ... 1445 ""SOg 

Hex. Comonfort, Ygaacio, President of Mexico , , 1812 

Amer. Comstuck, John L., author of popular school-books , . 1789 1858 

Fr. Compte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of " Posltivelsm " 1798 1857 

Amer. Cunant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic , , 1802 

Span. Concha, Jose de la, captau-geiieral of Cuba , , 1800 

Fr. Conde, Louis II. of Bourbou . . ' , , 1621 1686 

Fr. Conddlac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical writer . 1715 1780 

Fr. Condorcet, M. J. A. I^., Marquis of, metaphysician . . 1743 ' ''94 

Amer. Cone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman , , 1785 1S55 

Chin. Confucius, a celebrated phUosopher . . b. c. 550 

Eng. Congreve, Sir William, inventor of the ' Congreve rocket ' , 1772 1828 

Gr. Conon, an Athenian general . ... S. j. 390 

Amer. Conrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet . . , 181v 1856 

Fr. Consideront, Victor, socialist philosopler . , ISOr 

Scot. Constable, Archibald, publisher of Scott's poems, miscellany, &c. 1776 1827 

Fr. Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician . . 1767 >.830 

Gr. Constantine, (the Great), the first Christian emperor . 274 337 

Gr. , VII., (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author , 905 959 

Gr, , XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 1468 

Ir. Am. Conway, Thomas, maj. gea. in Revolution a ' cabaler,' &c. . (abt. 1778 

Eng. Conybeare, William D., clergyman and geologist . 1787 1857 

Eng. , William G. (son of the above), author of ' Life of St. Paul' 185T 

Eng. Cook, Eliza, poetess ..... 1818 

Eng, , James, a celebrated circumnayigator ■ . , 1728 1776 

Eng. Cooke, George F., an eminent actor • , , 1756 1812 

Eng. , George MuBgrove, ' History of Party' . , 1814 186f 

Amer. , John Esten, novelist and poet . » , 1830 

Amer. , Philip P., poet . . , , , 1816 1830 

Eng. , T. P., actor . ..... 1786 1864 

Eng. Cooper, Bramsley, surgeon and author . . , 1792 1853 

Amer. ; — , James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 1789 1851 

Amer. , Peter, merchant and philanthropist founder of Instituts 1791 

Amer. , Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . , 1725 1783 

Eng. ■ Sir Astley Faxton, physician and medical jwitor . 1768 18H 



24 THE WOBLD'S PBOGBESS. 

HATION. NAME AND FBOFESSION. 

Eng. Cooper, Thomas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) . 

Eng. , Thomas A., actor . • • . . 

Irish, Ooote, Sir Eyre, commander in India . . . 

PrusB. Cope'Dicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of the 
.?ythagorean system of the universe ... 

Eng, Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lyntihtirst (born in Boston, IT. S.) 

Fr, Corday d'Armans, M. Charlotte de, guillotined in Revolution . 

Ger. Corinna, a poetess, .flourished in the fifteenth century before Christ 

Bom. Coriolanus, Cajus Marcius, a warrior , . . . 

Fr. Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer . 

Ital. Cornaro, Louip, a noble author of a book on temperance , 

Eng, Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York . • , 

Fr. Curneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer . . . 

Fr. , Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist , 

Fr. Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian , 

Eng, Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer. and India 

Span, Cortez, Fernando, the brutal conqueror of Mexico , , 

Amer. Corwin, Thomas, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov. of Ohio « 

Ital, Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . ^ , 

Ital. " II. « .... , ^ 

Ital. " III. " «« •♦ . , , 

ItaL Costa, Paolo, litterateur . . . • . 

Eng, Costello, Dudley, author and journalist • . . 

Irish. ^^ , Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs , 

Dutch. Coster, John Lawrence, oue of the supposed inventors of printing 

Ger. Colta, Baron F., publisher and statesman . • , 

Eng. Cottenham, C. J. Pepys, lord cliancellor , , 

Fr. Cottin, Sophie, Madame, a novelist . • • . 

Eng. Cottle, Amos, versifier . . . , , 

Eng. , Jos., publisher ' EecoUections of Coleridge • , , 

Eng. Coiton, Charles, humorist and poet . , , 

Amer, — ^ ^ John (of Boston), a learned divine . , , 

Eng, , Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general . 

Fr, Coulomb, Charles Augustine de, philosopher . , , 

Fr, Eng, Courayer, P. Francis le, Koman Catholic theologian . 

Fr, Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist . . , , 

Fr, , Paul Louis, political writer . . , 

Fr, Court de Gebelini, Anthony, an antiquarian and author . , 

Fr, Cousin, Louis, historian . . , , , 

Fr. , Victor, statesman and metaphysician , , , 

Eng, Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans, Bible • « 

Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet • • • • , 

Sng, Cowper, William, lord chancellor . • , , 

Eng, , William, poet • • . . . 

Amer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet , , 

Amer. — , Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman . 

Amor. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy . . . 

ling. , William, traveller and historian . , , 

Amer. Cozzens, Fred S., author of essays and poems , , 

Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms , , 

Eng, Crabbe, Rev. George, poet * . • , 

fier. Cramer, John Andrew, miecellaneous writer • • • 



OBN. 


DIED. 


1759 


1840 


1776 


1849 


1726 


1783 


1473 


1543 


1772 


1863 


1768 


1793 


B. 


0. 488 


1788 




1467 


1565 




17-23 


1606 


1684 


1625 


1709 




1718 


1738 


1805 


1485 


1554 


1794 




1519 


1594 


1590 


1621 


1643 


1723 


1771 


1836 


1803 


1865 


1815 




1370 


1440 


1764 


1832 


1781 


1851 


1773 


1807 




1800 


1770 


1853 


1630 


1687 


1585 


1652 


1773 


1865 


1736 


1806 


1681 


1776 


1772 


1826 


1774 


1825 


1725 


1784 


1627 


1707 


1792 


1867 


1485 


1565 


1618 


1667 


1664 


1723 


1731 


1800 


1818 




1793 




1756 


1824 


1747 


1828 


3818 




1778 


1854 


1754 


1832 


1728 


1788 



BIOGEAPHICAL INDB2C 



25 



HATION. HAHE AMD PROFESSION. 

Eng. Cramer, J, Baptist,, musical composer • ■ • 

Eng. , Francis, '* " . , , 

Amer. Cranch, Wm jurist, judge IT. S. District Court D. 0. • 

£ng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . . 

Eng. Craahaw, Eichard, poet and divine . . • 

Rom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander 
Amer, Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist . . 

Ft Cr^billon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet , . 

Ger. Creuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary • . 

Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian , • 

Crcesus, King of Lydia, famed for riches . * • 

Eng. Croft, "Wm., musical doctor and composer . • 

Irish. Croker, John Wilson, statesman ;ind author . • 

Irish. , Thos. Crofton, author of ' Fairy Legends,' &c. 

£ag. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . . 

Eng. Cromwell, Oliver, military commander and statesman . 

Eng. , Thomas, earl of Essex, successor to Wolsey • 

Eng. Crowe, Catherine, author of 'Nightside of Nature' . 
Eng. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature . . 

Eng. — , Robert, humorous artist . , 

Scot. Cruden, Alexander, author of a ' Concordance to the Bible ' 
Eng. Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher . . • 

Amer. Cuftee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain , « • . 

Scot. CuUen, William, an eminent physician . . 

Eng. Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer , . 

Eng. , William Augustus, duke of, military commander 

Scot. Gumming, John, popular preacher and theoloi^ical author . 

Scot. , Rouallyn "W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author 

Scot. Cunningham, Allan, poel, biographer, &c. . . 

Irish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator 
Amer. Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court U. S, 

Amer. • , Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist . . 

Amer. , Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critic . 

Bom. Curtius, Rufus Quintua, historian. • . . 

Amer. Gushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist • . 

Amer. Cushman, Charlotte S., actress .... 

E. Am. , Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth . 

Amer. Custis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington . 

Fr. Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists 
^, , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist , , 

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church 

Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer . 

, of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author . 

, St., the apostle of the Sclavi . . , . 

Pers. Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire , 

YeixB, , the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia . 

PoL Czartoryski, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation , 



Fr. Dacler, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar , 

Fr. DagueiTe, Louis J. M., inventor of daguerreotyplng 
Amer. Dablgren, John A., naval officer and author . 



BORN. 


niBn. 


1771 


1858 


1772 


1848 


1779 


1855 


1489 


:556 




1650 


• B. 


0. 53 


1772 


1834 


1674 


1762 


1771 


1858 


, 1693 


1765 


B. c. 6th Cent. 


1657 


1727 


17S0 


1857 


1798 


1854 


1780 


1860 


1599 


1658 


1190 


:'.540 


1780 




1794 


1856 


1701 


1770 


1617 


1688 


1759 


1818 


. 1712 


1790 


1732 


1811 


1721 


1765 


1810 




1820 




1768 


1842 


1750 


18^ <f 


1809 




1812 




1824 




. 1800 




1816 




. 1580 


1615 


1781 


1857 


. 1769 


1832 


1773 


1838 




258 


376 


444 


315 


380 




822 


. B 


0. 659 


L. 


0. 400 


. 1770 


1860 


1651 


1720 


. 1789 


185] 



26 



THE WORLD'S PEOGEKSS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Atasr. Dahlgl en, CoL ITlric, mint, officer . . 

Swe. Dahlmai], Fred C, historian . , 

Amer. Dale, Richard, oommodore in Revol. war . 

Bwe. Dalin, Claus von, the father of Swedish poetry 
Amer. Dallas, Oommodore A. J., naval commander . 

Amer. ■, Geo., M., vice-pres. U. S. and diplomatist 

Amer. , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. S. 

Eng. Dalton, Jolin, chtmist and mathematician . 
Ger. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer 
Eng. Dumpier, William, an eminent navigator 
Amer. Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, &c. . 

Amer. , Richard H., poet and essayist 

Amer. , Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller 

Amer. , Samuel L., agricultural chemist , 

Venet. Dandolo, Eniico, doge of Venice . , 

Amer. Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author , 

Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist ..... 

Eng. , W., R. A., author of pictorial works on India . 

Ger. Dannecker, sculptor ('Ariadne,' &c.) . . ^ , 

ItaL Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets . 

Er. Danton, Geo. Jacques, leading revolutionist . , . 

Ital. Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at N. T.) . 

Eng. D'Arblay, Madame, (Funny Bumey) novelist . , , 

Eng. Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked . 
Amer. Darlington, Wm., botanist and politician ... 
Eng. Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural pliilod. and geologist . . 

Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander . 
Fr. Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur . . . 

Eng. Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist . . - . 

Amer. Davidson, Lucret.a M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius . 
Amer. Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet 
Amer. Davies, Charges, mathematician .... 

, Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer . 

Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian . . ' . 

Amer. Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism 

Amer. , Charles H, mathematician and naval officer , 

Amer. , Jefferson, general and U. S. senator from Mississippi , 

Eng. J John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits . 

Amer. , Matthew L., idographer of Burr, &c. . . . 

Fr. Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte's generals . , 

Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist , . , 

Amer. Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England . . 

Amer. Dayton, Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman . . . 

Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. 8. to France . . 

Amer Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars 1751 

Ame: . De Bow, .J. D. B., journalist and statistician 

Fr. Debruce, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer 

Swiss. Deoandolle, A. P., botanist 

Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the TJ. S. navy 

Eng. Decker. Tliomas, dramatic poet . . . 

Eng. Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer . . 

Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer . . 



BORN. 


DIEDi 


1842 


1864 


1785 




1756 


182- 


1708 


1753 


1791 


1844 


1792 




1759 


1817 


1766 


1844 


1699 


1773 


1652 


1,7U 


1813 




1787 




1815 




1795 




1110 


1205 


1752 


1835 


1790 


1845 




1837 


1758 


1841 


1265 


1321 


1759 


1794 


1749 


1838 


1752 


1840 


1815 


1842 


1782 




1705 


1766 


1761 


1840 


1605 


1688 


1808 


1840 


1823 


]838 


1798 




1724 


1761 


1576 


1631 


1826 




1807 




1808 






1605 


1766 


1850 


1770 


1823 


1778 


1829 


1611 


1668 


1807 




1758 


1789 


i 1751 


1829 


1820* 




1731 


1K2 


1778 


1841 


1779 


1820 




1638 


• 1527 


1618 


1661 


1733 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



27 



»ATtO». NAME AND PROFESSION. 

G. Am. DeKalb, John, baron, raaj.'gen. In Am. revol, army • 

Eng. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., geologist 

Fr. Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer , . 

Amer. Delancey, William H., Epis. Bishop "West New York 

Fr. Delavigne, Caslmir, dramatist . . 

Fr. Delille, James, a celebrated poet . . , 

Fr. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer . 

Bwiss. Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English OoSstitntion 

Bwisz. Deluc, Jean Andr6, natural philosopher . 

Pol. Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt 

. Gr. Demetrius Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman . 
Maced, ^ Pollorcetes, one of the successors of Alex, the Great 

Gr. Democritus, a celebrated philosopher 

Eng. De Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . . 



Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators < , 

Denham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller • 

Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian . , 

Dt-nman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England • • 

Ameji Dennie, author and editor of ' Portfolio,' &c. , 

Amer. Dennis, John, critic, embalmed in 'Dunoiad' . « 

Fr. D'Eon, Chevalier, equerry to Louis XV. • » 

Eng. DeQuincy, Thomas, essayist and critic . . « 

Derby, Edw. G. S. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesmar. 
Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman . , 

Desaix, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander . 
Descartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher . . . 

Desmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author • 

Dessalines, John James, Eniperor of Hayti « , 

De Soto, Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi , 

Destouclies, Philip Nerieault, dramatic writer < , 

Dutch. Deurhoff, William, founder of a sect, and an author 
Dan. Am. De Vere, Maximilian Scheie, philologist and essayist . 
Eng. Devereux, Robert, third Earl of Essex, parliamentary genera'. 
De Vigiiy, Alfred, count, poet and noveligt . ■ 

Dewees, "W. P,, medical writer . . . 

De Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic , 
Dewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist . 

De Witt, John, an eminent statesman , . . 

Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 

', del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler , 

Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer . 

^, Thomas (son of Charles), dramatist and song writer 

, Thomas Frognall, bibliographer . . . 



Gr. 

Eng, 
Ital. 
Eng 



Eng. 

KuB& 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Afric. 

Bpan. 

Fr. 



Fr. 

Amer. 
Ger. 

Amer. 

Dutch. 

Port. 

Bpan. . 

Eiig. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Boot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

iFr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



Dick, Thomas, author of ' Christian Philosopher' . 

Dickens, Charles, novelist . . . 

Dickinson, Daniel S., statesman . . . 

— =, John, author of ' Farmer's Letters * . 

Diderot, Denis, first editor of ' Encyclop6die M6thodique' 
Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder 

, Firmin, publisher and member of Deputies . 

-, Arab. Firmin, publisher and traveller 



Egypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3,000 to 6,000 worka 



sosir. 


DI8D. 


1732 


1780 


1796 


1855 


. 1749 


1822 


1797 


186- 


1794 


1843 


1738 


1813 


1688 


.1768 


1 1740 


1806 


. 1727 


181T 


1791 


1864 


B. c. 345 B. 


0.28? 


i, B. 


0.283 


. B. c. 460 




1806 




.B. c. 881 3 


c. 322 


1786 


1828 


:73-. 


1813 


'..'/''iJ* 


1854 


. r.768 


1812 


1757 


1783 


. 1728 


1810 


1786 


1869 


1799 




1743 


1816 


1768 


1800 


1696 


liiSO 


1762 


1794 


1760 


1886 


1600 


1142 


1680 


1754 


1650 


1717 


1820 




1592 


1646 


1799 


1863 


1768 


1841 


1780 


1849 


1794 




1625 


1672 




1600 


:abt ) 1560 




174S 


1814 


1771 


1841 


1770 


1847 


1772 


1859 


1812 




1800 


1865 


1732 


1808 


1713 


1784 


1730 


1804 


1764 


1<^ 


179t, 




Xa. C.80 





THE ■W:ORLD'S PROGRESS. 



f.l40 
265 

A. D. 1st 

B. 0. 430 

B. o. 367 

.1767 



NlTitfir. KAME AHD PEOFEBSION, ftOBK. 

PruBs. Diebitsoh-Zabalkatveky, count, militai-y commander • 1785 

G«n DitTenbaoh, John Fred., surgeon and surgical author * *. 1792 

Span. Diez, John Martin,, a patriotic military commander , 1775 

Eng. Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of AtheQaeum* • 1810 

Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist . . * . 1802 
Maced. Dinocrates, an architect; built Alexandria, &o. . . f. b. o. 350 

Rom. Diocletiaii) Valerius, emperor . . . » • 245 

Gr. DicGhrysostomj a rhetorician and philosopher . . fi b. c. 30 

Swiss. Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible • . 1576 

Gr. Dlodorus Siculus, a historian . . • . fi b. c. 10 

Gt. DiogeneSj the cyniCj philosopher . . • . b. c. 413 

Gr. ' , Laertius, biographer « • - • . 

Gr. Dion-Cassius, author of ' Roman History '4 « • 

Gr DionysiuB, a geographer . . . . 

Gr. — : • — ^, of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church 

Or. — '■ , the Areopagite, learned Athenian Christian 

Gr. — > the elder, tyrant of Syracuse • . 

Gr. . ■' ■ , of HalicamassuS) critic and historian . 

Gr. — ' ', the younger, tyrant of Syracuse • 

Eng. Disraeli, Isaac, ' Curiosities of Literature' . . 

Amer. Dix, Dcrthea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums • 

Amer. — ^ — , John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &(3, • 

Eng. Dixon, V 'lliam Hepworth, author and critic . . 1821 

Amer. Doane, jreo. "W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &o. . 1799 

fing. Dobell, Sydiey, poet ..... 1824 
Eng. Dodd, Dr. \ illiam, miscellaneous Writer (executed for forgery) 1729 

Eng. Doddridge, thi'lp, a gifted and pious divine and writer , 1702 

Eng. Dodsley, Ribert, publisher and author . . . 1703 

Ger. Doebereime'*, 7 "W,, chemist . . . • 1780 

Spaq. Dominic De jl^uzman, founder of preaching friars • « 1170 

Rom. Domitiaui eiiperor . . . « • 62 

Scot. Don, David, ootanist . . , • . 1800 

Ital. DonatsUo (^"cneto di BeUodi Bardi) sculptor ' . • 1383 

Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer « • . 1797 

Eng- Donne, John, poet and theologian . • • 1573 

Erig. Donovan, jSd ward, writer on natural history , • ,1798 

Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) . 1468 
Amer. Dorr, Thcmas "W., politician, elected (?) governor of Rhode Island 1805 

Fr:En. D'Orsay, Couiit Alfred, author, artist, and ' beau' « 1798 

Hind. Dost-MohE mmed, emir of Oaboo . , • • 1785 

Eng. Douce, Fif ncis, antiquarian and author . • • ' 1762 

Scot. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . ■ * 1474 

j^xaev. — — • . Frederick, abolitionist, politician atid editor * 1817 

Scot. ■ ■ — ,, Sir Howard, general, military and naval author • 1776 

_^mer. -^ , Stephen Arnold, United States senator from Illinois 1813 

Amer. Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher . . . .1777 

Amer. Downes, John, commodore in the United States navy . 1786 
Amer. Do-Wn'ng, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening 

and horticulture ..... 1815 

Amer. Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library 1772 

Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator . . . . f. 623 

Eng. Drake^ Dr. Nathan, physician and esBayist • » 1766 



filRD. 

1831 

1847 
1825 
1864 



313 

1649 

B. c. 323 

155 



cent, 
B. o. 367 
52 
B. o. 343 

1848 



1859 

1777 
1756 
1764 

1221 
96 
1840 
1466 
1848 
1631 
1837 
1560 
1854 
1852 
1863 
1834 
1521 

1861 
1861 
1834 
1855 

1852 
1856 

1831 



BIOGRAffllCAL INDEX. 



SO 



jrAtlON. 

Amier. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

E. Am. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ft. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ft. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Drak^, Joseph Rodman, poet 

, Samuel G., historian of the Indians, Boston, &c 

', Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator . 

Draper, John W., chemist and physiologist . , 

Drayton, Michael, poet, 'Poly-olbion' . , 

Drebbel, Oormjlius van, inventor of the thermometer • 
Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author 
Drouyn de I'iLuys, Edward, statesman . , 

Droz, Joseph, historical and pol itieal writer . 

Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights 
■ , Sir "William, scholar, author and diplomatist 



-, William, jioet 



Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany 
Dryden, John, an eminent poet . 

Duane, William, politician and author of ' Aurora ' , 
Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist 
Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian . . , 

Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author , 
Duchesne, Andrew, a historian , . , 

Duclos, Charles Piiieau, an historian . . 

Dugarme, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician 
Dugdale, Sir William, antiquar.uu author . , 

Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . , 

Duhalde, Jean B., geogr.ipher . , , 

Dumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, &c , , 

, Alexandie, (the younger), novelist and dramatist 

■i-, J. B., chemist .... 

Dumont d'UrviUe, J. S. C, circumnavigator , 

Bumont, John, traveller and political writer < . 

' — , P. S. L., writer on legislation . » 

Domouriez, Charles Francis Dupei'ler, military commander 
Dunbar, Geoige, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon' 

■ ' ■ — , William, poet . . . , 

Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral , . 

, William, logician and translator • , 

Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman • 

Dundonald, Earl of, (' Lord Cochrane ') admiral . 
Dunglisson, Robley, M, D., medical author , . 

Diinlap, William, painter and historian . , 

Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer • « 

Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . . 

Duiistan, Saint, abbot of Glastonbury and politician , 
Dupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman • , 

— - — , Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . . 

— — — , Louis E'.ie, an ecclesiastical historian < 

Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c., (at Philadelphia) 
Dupont, Samuel Francis, admiral . , , 

Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist . , , 

Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral , , 

Durand, Asher Biown, painter and engraver . , 

Durbin, John P., methodist divine and author • 
Durer, Albert, painter and engraver . , 



BOHN. 


J)tB*>: 


1795 


1821 


1798 




1545 


1690 


ISll 




1563 


16?i 


1572 


:1634 


1765 


I83t 


1806 




1773 


i85C 


1797 


1S40 


1700 


1835 


1585 


1649 


c. 38 


i 


1631 


1700 


1760 


1835 


1610 


1688 


: 


^th cent) 


:803 




1584 


1640 


1704 


1722 


1823 




1605 


1680 


1314 


1380 


1674 


1743 


1803 




1824 




1800 




1790 


1842 




1726 


1759 


1829 


1730 


1823 


1774 


1851 


1465 


1535 


1731 


1804 


1714 


1760 


1741 


1811 


1775 


1860 


1798 




1766 


1839 


1731 


1783 


1274 


1308 


925 


988 


1783 


1866 


1784 




1637 


1719 


1760 


1844 


1803 


1865 


1778 


1835 


1610 


1688 


1796 




1800 




1471 


1£2S 



so 



THB WORLD'S PE0GBES8. 



HATION, 

Atper. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Gor. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ei'g. 

Amer. 

Am«r. 



Gen 

Flem. 

©er. 

Gerj 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer, 

&:ng. 



KAMG AND FttOFEBSION. 

Durfee, Job, priest and author . . * 

Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author . . . 

Durham, J. G., Lambtpn, earl of, governor-general of Canada 
Duroo, Michael, Duke of Friuli, military commander 
Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer 

—, Theo., authoi' and journalist . , 

— ) Tlieo,, (son of the above), ethnologist and historian 

Duyckiuok, Evert Aug. , author and critic , 

— — •— , Geo. Long, author and critic > . 

Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . - , 

Dyer, John, poet, ' The Fleece ' . . , 

Dymond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist 

JSSastburn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass, . 
Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critic • 

Eaton, Amos, botanist .... 
— — — , Wm., military ofBcer and consul in Africa . 
Eokenian, John Peter, litternteur . , 

Eckford, rienry, eminent shipbuilder . . , 

Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian. 
Edgeworth, Maria, novelist . • . . 

Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . 

— — ') 1 ola B., theologian and miscellaneous authof . 

Edwards, 3^yan, an historian 

— '— — , .'.'ohn W., jurist and writer. on spiritualism , 

— — , Jcnathan, an able divine and metaphysician 

— , Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist . . 

— , W. J?., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) 

Eginhard, '^.n historian, biographer of Charlemagne • 

Egmont, 7 amoral, count, patriot and martyr « 

Bhrenberg, C. J., naturalist • . ' . * 

Eiehborn, F C, theologian and jurist ,' . 

Eldon, L.: J, lord chancellor of England , , 

Elgin, T., ;3ruce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin' marbles 

Elizabeth, queen ...... 

Eliot, Samael, author of History of Liberty' 
EUenborongh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice . . 

-=- ■"— , Edw. L,, earl of, governor-general of India 

E?lery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence 

EUesmere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author 

EUet, Eliza F., biographer and critic , , 

Elliot, John, 'the apostle to the Indians' . • 

Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist . , (abt.) 

Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter . . 

— —— Charles Wyllys, author of ' History of New England* 

— — — , Ebenezer, poet ' Corn Law Rhymes' • 

-, J. D., commodore in American navy • 

, Stephen, naturalist . . , 

Ellis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergyman and author • 

— — '.; Sir Honry- antiquary and author . ,, 



BOBir. 


DtKD. 


1790 


1847 


1628 


1723 


1792 


1840 


1772 


1813 


. 1752 


1817 


1766 


1849 




1868 


1816 




, 1823 


1863 


1797 




1700 


1758 


1796 


1720 



1801 




1793 




1776 


1842 


1764 


1811 


1792 


1852 


1775 


1832 


1674 


1730 


1767 


1849 


1330 


1376 


1802 




1743 


1800 


1799 




1703 


1757 


1777 




7T1 


840 


1552 


1568 


1795 




1781 


1854 


1760 


1838 


1771 


1841 


1533 


1603 


1821 




1760 


1818 


1790 




1727 


1820 


1800 


1857 


1604 


1690 


1795 




1812 




1817 




1781 




1785 


1845 


1771 


l8Se 


1815 




1777 . 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



31 



JTATIOW. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer, 

Eng, 

Scot, 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Amer. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Pr. 
Fr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 

Dutch. 
Ger. 
Gr. 
Span. 
Span. 
8. Am. 
Eng. 
Pru8S» 
Ger. 
Scot. 
Scot. 
Scot. 
Assyr* 
Span. 
Span. 
A met 
Pr. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Pr. 
Anst. 
Eng. 
.ACfic, 
Pr. 
Span. 
Swiss. 



NAME ANn PROFESSION. BOHN. 

Ellis, "Wm. Rev,, missionary and author , • (aht.) 1795 

Elliston, Robert "W., actor .... i.774 

Ellsworth, Elmer E., military officer in Union army . . 1837 

, Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the U. S. 1745 

Elmes, James, architect and author . . , , 1782 

Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India . . 1778 

Elssler, Fanny, daiiseuse ..... 1811 
Elzevir, Louis M. G. B., and A., pi-inters 16th and 17th centuries 
Embury, Emmii E., poet . . . . , 

Emerson^ Geo. B., educator and author . . , 

, Ralph Waldo, poet and essayist , , 

■William, a distinguished mathematician . , 

Emmet, Robert, ' United Irishman' (executed) 

, Tliomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator 

Emmons, Eben, geologist and author 
■■ — , Nathaniel, D. D., tlieologian and author . 
Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . . 

Encke, John Francis, astronomer . . 

Eiidicott, John, governor of Massachusetts • • 

Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist . 

Enfield, 'William, miscellaneous writer . * 

Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) 
EondU Beaumont, cheyalier, an eccentric ■writer and ,oc2aie 
Epaminondas, an illustrious Thehan general . 

Epictetus, a stoic philosopher 

Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of phi.o^tplwiB 
Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and -utl.tr . 
Erastus, Thomas, founder of 'Erastianlsm' theoiogy 
Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philosopher 
Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet ., .. . 

Ericcira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian • 

Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . 
Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century . 
Erman, A. G., ' Travels in Siberia,'. &c. . . 

Emesti, John Augustus, an eminent critic • • 

Erskine, Ebenezer, theologian . . . 

, Ralph, divine, ' Gospel Sonnets' . . 

, Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator 



Esarhaddoii, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin. ot Ar.iyrla 

Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist . 1589 

Espartero, J. B., Duke of Vittoria, statesman and soldier , 1792 

Espy, James P., meteorologist and author . • » 1785 

Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . • . , 1772 

Ess, L. Van, theological writer . . • • 1770 

Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior . • . 1567 

Estaing, Charles H., count d', naval commander , , 1729 
Esterhsizy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman . , 

Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and, dramatist • 1638 

Euclid, an eminent geometrician . , , f. B. 0. 300 

Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 166S 

Eugenie,. Marie de Gusman, Empress of France , , 1826 

Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician , , J707 



1806 
1797 
1803 
1701 
1780 
1764 
179e 
1746 

1791 
1589 
1804 
17tl 
1772 
1728 

f. 40 
0. 342 
1467 
1524 
C. 276 
1525 
1614 
1803 

1806 
1707 
1680 
1685 
1750 



DIKB. 

1831 
1861 
1807 

1859 



1863 



1782 
1803 
1827 
1863 
1840 

1865 
1665 
1849 
1797 
1804 
18J0 
B. 0. 363 

B. 0, 371 
1M6 
1533 

B. 0. 106 
1595 
1699 



l'J?l 
1756 
1752 
1823 
7th cent. 
1669 

1860 
1840 

1847 
16Q1 
1794 

1694 

1736 

17^? 



m 



THE world's PEOGRESS. 



BOBN. 


weft 


B. 0. 4$0 B. 


0. 40< 


and 






340 


. f. 360 




. 1755 


1819 


1781 


1831 


1620 


1651 


1790 


1847 


1794 


1865 


1803 




1792 




1789 




. 1757 


1833 



KATIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Gr. Isurlpides, a cele'brated tragic poet 

Gr. Euf.ehrus, 'bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the cturch, and 

occlesiastical historian . . . 

Rom. Eutropias, an historian . . • 

Rom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect • 

Amer. Evans, Oliver, inventor and engineer . , 

Amer, Evarts, Jeremiah, (see Amer. B. C. for Missions) , 

;■■ ig. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer . . 

•/^mer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist . 

Amer. — , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author 

fler. Ewjild, Geo. H. A. von, orientalist and theologian . 
I'sn.Am. Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics 

Amer. Ewing, This., statesman and jurist . , 

Eng. Exmouth, V.Jw. PeUew, viscount, admiral • 



Eng. Faber, George Stanley, theological writer ... 1773 1854 

Eng. , Frederick-Wm., Roman Catholic priest and theological 

author ...... 1815 

Rom. Pabiu»<, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior ... b. o. 204 

Gl-er. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer . . 1668 1736 

Ital. — , -Jobn Ohriatian, a celebrated entomologist . 1742 1807 

Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer . . . 1732 1803 

Eng. FabyaUj Hoba/t, chroni.iler . . • . 1450 1516 

Ital. Facciolato, oi FaccioUti. Jafc., philologist ... 1684 1760 

?ru8S. Fahrenheit, Qioriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher . 1686 1739 

Eng. Fairfax, Edwfi.^d, poet, translator of Tasso . . . 1633 

jjng; , Thon.as, lor. ly a general in the civil war . ,1611 1671 

Sag. Falconer, William, a poet ..... 1730 1769 

Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) . , 1355 

■Eng. Falkland, Luciuf Oary, viscount, polilicifin and author . 1610 1643 

Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Ricnard, poet and diplomatist . . 1,608 1660 

Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist . . . . . 1790 1867 

Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet * * 1588 1647 

Eng. Farmer, Hugh, the. dogian . . ... 1714 1787 

«\ttier. Famham, Mrs. Eli/.a W., traveller and philanthropist . 1815 1S64 

Irish. Farquhar, George, a dramatist .... 1678 170T 

Amer. Farrar, John, matcOiiiatician and author . , . 1779 1853 

Kr. Fanober, Leon political economist . . , . 1803 1854 

Fr. Panj'iel,Claude, historian and belles-lettres author , 1772 1844 

W-er. ITaust, John, one of the inventors of printing ... 1466 

J'r. Favre, J; C. Jules, lawyer and politician . . • 1809 

Eiig. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator . , . 1632 1693 

Amer. Fay, Theo. 8., author and diplomatist ... 1807 

Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer . . 1632 1693 

Engi Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East . . 1799 

Amer. Felton, Cornelius C, scholar and critic, president of Harvard 

College • . . . . . . 1807 1862 

Fr, F6n4ion, Francis de Salignac de la Motto de, an able Witer and 

one Of the most virtuous of men . . - , , 1651 iVlS 

Bwe. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist . , 1743 ITflC 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



33 



MTIOM. KAME ANO PROFESSION. 

Scot. FerguBOn, ^dam, tin historian and moral philosopher . 

Scot. , .James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c. 

Scot. Fergussou, James, architect and writer on art . 

Span. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian > , 

Scot. Ferrler, M^ry, novelist . . . , 

Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archbishop of Lyons 

Amer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist 

Amer. — ' , W.m. Pitt, TJ. 8. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas, 

Ger. Feuerhach, Ludwig, philosopher and author . 

Ger. Fearbach, Patjl John A. von, statesman ai;d jurist , 

Span, Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Fichte, John G.i philosopher . , , 

Ital. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . . 

Amer. Field, Cyrus W., prornoter of Atlantic telegraph , 

Amer. Field, Dayid Dudley, jurist and advocate 

Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author 

Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors . 

Eng. — '■ , Henry, a humorous novelist and dnimatist 

Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria , 

Amer. Fillmore, Millard, 13th president U. 8. > . 

Amer. Finney, Char'.es G., preacher and theological writer • 

Pers. Firdusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses 

Amor. Fisk, Wilbur, ^president Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &c, 

Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . 

Ilom. FlaminiuB, Titus Quintus, general and consul , 

Bom. ', Caius, general, consul, and censor of tribune 

Eng. Flamsteed, Jojin, first astronomer royal . , 

Eng. Flatman, Thomas, poet . . , , 

Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-ecnformist divine • 

Pr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate , , 

Ger. Fleischer, H..L., orientalist . , . , 

Scot. Fleming, John, hg,turali8t , . 

Scot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author . 

Eng. • ,, Giles, ppet .... 

Eng. ——' , John, a dramatist , * . . 

Eng. ,.Phinea8, poet .. . • . 

Fr. Floury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman 

Jr. ———, Claude, a divine and historian . . 

Amer. Flint, Bev. Timothy, novelist and historian . , 

Fr. Florian, John Pet^r Claris de, miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Fliigel, G. L.,, philologist and historian . , 

, Qer. -* — '—, John G., l^xicograiffter 

Ger. FoUen, C T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.) . 

' Pr. Fonblanque, J. 8. M., jurisprudence . '. 

- Fr. FonteneDe, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer 

Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author . • 

jjrig. ' , Samuel, a comic writer and.actor • • 

Eng. Forbes, Edward, naturalist and author . . 

Eng. " , John, M.JD., medical writer . , , 

Amer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian . • 

ItaU Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer , , 

Eng. Ford, John, an eaJ-ly dramatic author . • 

3 



BORKi 


StEO. 


1734 


1816 


1710 


1.7« 


1808 




1652 


1735 


, 1782 


1854 


1763 


183:9 


1771 


1837 


1806 




1804 




i 1776 


1833 


1701 


1764 


, 1762 


1814 


1433 


1499 


1819 




, 1805 




1822 




, 1787 


1855 


1707 


17.54 




1547 


1800 




1792 




940 


1020 


1792 


1830 


-1743 


J798 


B> 0. 230 B. 


c. 17 


B. 


0. .17 


. 1646 


719 


1633 


1688 


1627 


16.1 


1632 


1710 


1801 




1785 


1857 


• 1658 


1716 


1580 


1627 


. 1576 


1625 


1584 


1660 


1653 


1743 


1640 


1722 


1780 


1840 


1765 


1794 


1802 




1788 


1855 


1796 


1846 


1787 


1865 


• 1657 


1757 


1806 


1863 


1721 


i7n 


1815 


1864 


. 1787 




1700 




. 1688 




1586 


IMC 



THi: WORLD'S PEOGEES^g, 



VATJOK. NAME AND PEOPBSSION. 

flng, Ford, Richard, author of works on Spain , 

Ital Poresti, E. Felice, patriot and Htteratetcr . 

Amer. Forrest, Edwin, actor . . • 

Eng. Forster, John, 'journal! at and aothor • 

Cfer. , John R., traveller and naturalist . 

Amer. Forsyth, John,- diploniatist and Btatesinan . 

Eng, Fosbrooke, Her, T. D., archseologist (Ency. Antiq.) 

TtaL Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venicie 

Ital. FoBoolo, Nicol ITgo, poet and miiaical author ■. 

t!ng. Foster, John, essayist 

Pr. Fouch6, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a hrutal i:evolutionist 

iOer. FdTiqu6, Fried H. IJ. de la Motte, author of ' Undine,' &c. 

!&r. Fourier, Charles, founder of tire • social ' system , 

Fr. — — , Francis M. C, waiter on social science . 

Amer. Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist . , . 

Eng. Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators 

Eiig. , (Jeorge, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers 

Eng. , John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ? , 

Eng. — ^, Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace • 

Ital. Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit , « 

Franeia, Jos6 Q-. R., dictator of Paraguay . • 

Amet. Fratlcis, John W., physician and author . , 

Ital. — - — , Saint, founder of ' Franciscans ' . , 

Savoy. ,.de Sales, saint and bishop . , « 

Irish. —— — ^, Sir Philip, political writer . . . 

Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 

Bn£. — , 'Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer . . 

Scot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, Jacobite leader, beheaded . 

Piuss. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and author . 

Amer. Freeman, James, D.Di, first Unitarian minister in tT. S. 

Amer. Freliiighuysen, Theo,, statesman . , . • 

Amer. Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman , 

Amer. Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist . , , 

Eng. Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . • 

Ger. Freytag, G, W. F., ' Arabic Dictionary,' &c. « . 

Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator . » 

■Fer. Froebel, Julius, traveller atid author . , , 

Fr, Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet . « 

Amer. Frothinghara, Richard, Jr., historian and journalist • 

-Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist . . , 

Amer. —, Wm. Henry, composer and journalist , . , 

Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister ^ , 

Amer. — , Richard, D. D.,^ Baptist preacher and author 

Amet , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d'Ossoli, litterateur , 

Eng. , Thomas, a divine and historian . . 

Eng. Fullerton, Lady Georgian a, novelist . , , 

/Pr. PuretiSre, Anthony, a philosopher 

'Amer, Furness, ■William Henry, D. D., Uhitarian preafcher andauthor 

Ger. Furst, Julius, orientalist and philologist • 

BwisB. Fiiseli, Henry, painter and writer on' art • 



BOSS 


t«nai 


, 1796 


185S 


1793 


1S5S 


1806 




1812 




1T29 


179? 


1780 


1841 


, 1770 


1843 


1372 


1451 


. 1777 


1827 


1770 


1849 


, 1763 


1820 


1777 


1843 


, 1772 


1386 


1772 


1S31 


. 1809 




ors 1748 


1806 


. 1624 


1690 


1517 


1587 


. 1810 




1769 


1806 


1757 


1840 


1789 


1861 


1182 


1226 


, 1567 


1623 


1740 


1808 


1706 


1790 


1786 


18fl 


. 1667 


1747 


1712 


1786 


1T59 


1835 


1787 


1862 


1813 




1752 


1832 


, 1769 


1846 


1778 






1594 


■1806 




1333 


1400 


1812 




. 1780 


1845 


1815 


1864 


1754 


181S 


. 1808 




1810 


1850 


1608 


1661 


1812 




1620 


M83 


>r 1802 




1805 




1741 


1821 



BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. 



3d 



HATIOIT. NAME AND PBOFESSIOK. 

Avavi, Gadsden, Christopher, revolutionai'y statesman » • 

Amer. , James, state6m^\n and negotiator • • 

Eng. Gage, Thomas, last royal governor of Massachusetts . . 

Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author . . • 

Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..... 

Kiv Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian 
Amer. Gaines, Major-General E. P., military commander . . 

Rom, Gains, or Caius, jurist and legal -writer , . . 

Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physic an . • • 

£n.Am. Gales, Joseph, founder of ' National Intelligencer ' . 

Ital. Galileoj an illustrious philosopher and astronomer 
Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the 

science of phrenology .... 

Amer. Gallagher, Wiliiam D., journalist and poet 
S. Am. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnoL 
Amor. Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for 

deaf and dumb . . . . , 

Buss. Gallitzin, the name of several distinguished princes . . 

Kuss. , Demetrius Aug., a noble missionary priest . 

Scot. Gait, John, novelist ...... 

Ital. Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, dis- 
coverer of galvanic electricity .... 

Port. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 
Jew. Gamaliel, a Pharisi'e, doctor of the law . . 

Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist . . . • 

Span. Garc a, Maum-1, musical composer 
Span. Garcias- Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry 
Span. Garcilasto de la Voga, one of the conquerors of Peru , 
Eng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate , 

Ital. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader , 

Pr. Garnier, Count Germain, jurist . . . 

Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist , 

Amer. Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist politician . . 1805 

Eng. Garth, Sir fiamuel, physician and piiet . . . 1718 

Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince 
of Wales, for a misdemeanor .... 

Eng. Gaskell, Eliitaheth C, novelist ..... 

Fr. Gaasendi, i'uter, a celebrated philosopner . . , 

Gaston de l''oix, duke of Nemours, general, . , 

Amer. Gates, Homtio, a distingnishec; officer in the Revolution . 

Fr. " Gavarni," real name Sulpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist . 

Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet ..... 

Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F. chemist . . , , 

Span. Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian , . , 

Amer. Gayarre, iMaarles A., historian .... 

Eng. Gell, Sir \7illiam, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome) 
Ger. Gellert, Chrisiian Furchtegoit, a poot and mittcellaneoua writer 
klum. Gellius, An) ins. grammarian .... 

Fr. Genest, c; tf ent't, Edwara C , diplon-wiiJ . . 



BORM. 


DIED 


1724 


1808 


1788 


1858 




1787 


1670 


174C 


1755 


1829 


yo.H 


1806 


nv 


1849 




1st cent. 


131 




1786 




1664 


1642 


1758 


182S 


1808 




1761 


1849 


1787 


1851 


16th to 17th cent. 


1770 


1840 


1779 


\S?9 


1737 


179S 


le 


152-' 




8« 


1798 


184"' 


1779 


183? 


1503 


LIS'I 




155'> 


1483 


1565 


1806 




1754 


1821 


1716 


1779 



1350 


1413 


1820 


1865 


1692 


1655 


1489 


151Sr 


1728 


1806 


1801 




1688 


1732 


1778 


1850 


1S09 




1805 




1777 


183« 


1715 


17«9 


A.D. 


2d cent. 


1766 


1834 



8« 



THE WORLD'S PBOGBEHB. 



XAVIOK. KAME AND FROFE.SSION. 

Bar. GenghiflKhaiij a celebrated conqueror . . 

Genlis, Stephania Felicite, Countess de, tniscellaneous ■writer 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12lh century 
Oeotfi-oy-Saint Ililaire Btienne, zoologist . . , 

Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. . , 

Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France , 

Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Caisar, military commander 
Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. 8. 
Gerson, John Chailier de, an ecclesiuBtic and author 
Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller 
Oervinus, George Gottfried, historian and politician 
Gesenius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critic 
Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist . . . 

— , John Matthias, a philologist . . 



Fr. 

Ehg. 

Fr, 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Kom. 

Aiaer. 

Fr. 

Amer, 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Swiss, 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Amer 

Eng. 



Giannone, Peter, an historian ...» 
Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author 
Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England's historians 
Amer. Gibbs, Josiah W., philologist . ... 

Amer. Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both officers in the Bevo 
lution . • . . . . . 

— , Thomas Milner, statesman . • 



Eng. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng, 

Amer, 

Scot, 



Giddings, Joshua Beed, statesman . • • 

Gifford, William, a critic and poet . . 

, John, an historical and political writer • 

Gieseler, JohnK. L., church historian • 

Gilbert, James W., writer on banking 

, Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Ainer, 



Gilflllan, George, clergyman and author . . . 

Gill, John; a divine, oriental scholar and author 
Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author on engineering 
Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. . ■• . 

Amer. Gilman, John T., noted governor of New Hampshire • 



Amer, 

Eng. 

Eng, 

Eng, 

Ital. 

Ital. 



I Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author 



Gilpin, Bernard, ' apostle of the North ' - . • 

, Wm., writer on the picturesque . . 

Gilray, James, engraver and caricaturist 
G'oberti, Vinoenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman 
Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences . 

Sw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist - . . . 

Fr.Am. , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire • 

Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist . . , 

Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author « 

Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author . 

Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author . , 

Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain . • , * 

•Eng. Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author . 

Ger. Gluck, Christop W, von, musical composer . 

Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist 

Fr. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the 

Crusades 
Amer.' Goiaraan, John, M; D., a distinguished naturalist, dec. 
Sng. GodOlphin, Sidney, earl of, statesman . . 



BORN. 
1164 

1746 

1772 
1770 
1773 

1S14 
1363 
1816 
1805 
1786 
1516 
1691 
1676 
1809 
1737 
1790 



1807 
1795 
1757 
1T58 
1792 
1794 

1813 
1697 
1816 
1747 
1759 
1791 
16 7 
1724 
1757 
1801 
17o7 
1822 
1750 
1802 
1809 
1636 
1796 
1349 
1809 
1714 
1748 



1794 
1640 



sm, 
1227 
1830 

1844 

1842 

1852 

19 

1429 



1842 
1565 
1761 
175S 

1794 



1865 
.1826 
1818 
1854 
1863 
.1583 

1771 

1836 

1828 
.1858 
1583 
1804 
1815 
1852 
1829 

1831 



lesD 

1415 

1857 
1787 
1805 

. no« 

1830 
1712 



BIOGBAPHICAL INDBX, 



37 



■Anoir. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Irish. 

Dutch. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Hung. 

Gr. 

Russ. 

Bubs. 

Amer. 

En.Am. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Kom. 

Ger. 

Scot, 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ital, 

Irish. 

Dutch, 
Amer. 
Amet, 

Eng. 



NAME AHD PROFESSION. 

Godoy, Manuel dp, statesman, ' prince of the peaco*. • 

Godwin, Park^, journalist and historian . . 

, William, novelist and metaphysician . , 

Goethe, John Wolfgang, poet and novelist . . 
Goldoiii, Charles, the Italian Moliere . . , 
Goldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and migcellaneous writer 
Golius, James, orientalist and lexicographer . , 
Gonsaivo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior , , 
Good, John Mason, physician and author , . , 
Goodrich, Chauncey A., scholar and divine . . 
^ — , Frank B., (son of Samuel G.,) author . 



, Samuel Griswold, 'Peter Parley,' voluminous author 

Goodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee 
Gordon, ' lord^George,' political agitator . . 

, Wm., author of History of the United States , 

Gore, Catharine G., novelist . . , 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinaodo, ' loj-d proprietor of Maine' . 

Gorgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor) 
Gorgias, an orator and sophist .... 
Gortchakoflf, Michael, prince, general in Crimea, &o. . 
— -^ —, Alexander, prince, diplomatist . , 



Gorton, Samuel, enthusiast and author , . . 

Gough, John B., lecturer on temperance . , 

■ — , Hugh, viscount, general in India. &c. . • 

Gould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician . 

, Hannah F., poet . . , . • 

, John, naturalist and author . . 

Gourgaud, Gaspard, baron, one of Napoleon's generals 
Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . 
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat 

, Caius Sempronius . . , 

Graefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer . 

Grabame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Claver 

house, general . . . , , 
, James, a poet . . . . 



—, James, author of ' History of the United States ' 

Grammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of Memoirs' 
Grandville, J. S. G., caricaturist and artist . , 

Granier, Adolphe, journalist and historian , . 

Grant, Anne, (of Laggan,) novelist, essayist, &c. . 

, James, journalist and author , , , 

, James, novelist . . . , 

Granvelle, Ant. Pierre, cardinal de, statesman , , 

Granville, G. G. Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman . 

, John Carteret, earl, statesman . , , 

Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law , , 

Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman , 

, Thomas Colley, novelist . . , 

Gravesande, YTm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 
Gray, Asa, botanist, prof, in Harvard, author of* Flora,' &c. 

, Henry Peters, painter. . , , 

— — , John Edward, naturahst . , , , 



BOBS. 

1767 
1S16 
1755 
1749 
1707 
1731 
1596 
1443 
1764 
1790 
1826 
1793 
1800 
1750 
1730 
1799 



1818 
f. B. 0. 
1792 
1800 
1600 
1817 
1779 
1805 
(abt.) 1800 
1804 
1783 



1632 



1643 
1765 
1770 
1621 
1803 
1805 
1755 
1806 
1822 
1517 
1816 
1690 
f. 12th 
1750 
1796 
1688 
1810 
1819 
(abt.) 1800 



DIED. 

1851 

183S 
1831 
1793 
1774 
1667 
1515 
1827 
1860 

1860 
1880 
1793 
1807 

1647 

5th cent 
1861 

1677 



1865 

1852 

I4n2 

B. c. 133 

B. c. 121 

1703 

1689 
1811 
1842 
1707 
1847 

1838 



15SS 
1793 



cent. 



1821 
1864 
1713 



38 



thS world's peogress. 



katiAn. name and pkofession. bobn. dieii, 

Eng. Gray, Thomas, poet . . . ... 1716 1771 

Amer. Gray don, Alex., author of Eevolutiooary MemoirB ' • 1752 1818 

Amer. Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician . . , 1811 

i'r. Gregory I., the Great, pope, author . . . 544 fi04 

Ital. , VII., the Great, pope Hildebrand, celehrated despot . 1085 

Scot. , David, philosoplier and mathematician . . 1661 1710 

Irish. , George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . . . 1754 1808 

Scot. , James, philosopher and mathematician . . 1648 1685 

• , Na;!ianzen, St. Christian, writer . • • 328 3S9 

— of Nyssa, St. Christian, writer . • . 331 396 

Eng. — , Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer • 1774 1841 

Fr. of Tours, historian ...» 544 593 

Amer. Green, Ashbel D. D., clergyman and author . . . 1762 1848 

^nier. • , Horace, physician, author of medical works • 1802 1866 

Amer. Greene, Chas. G., journalist and politician . . • 1804 

Amer. , Geo. Washington, scholar and critic , . 1811 

Eng. , Matthew, poet . . . . . 1696 1737 

;^iiier. , Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution 1741 1786 

Amer. , Nathaniel, author and journalist . . . 1797 

Ung. , Robt., dramatist . . , ' . 1560 1592 

Amer. Greenhow, Robert, historical writer . . • . 1800 1854 

Amer. Greenleaf, Simon, jurist and author , , * 1783 1858 

Amer. Greenough, Horatio, sculptor and author . . • 1805 1852 

Eng. Grevilie, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author . 1554 1628 

Eng. Grey, Earl, statesman, whig. premier for "William IV. . 1764 1845 

Eng, , Lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition 1537 1554 

Ger. Qriesbaeh, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist . 1745 1812 

Amer. Griffin, Edward D., D. D., theologian , . . 1770 1837 

Irish. , Gerald, novelist ..... 1803 1840 

Amer. Grirake, Thomas S., jurist . . # . 1786 1834 

Ger. Grimm, J. M. C, miscellaneous writer . . . 1785 1863 

Amer. Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . . . 1774 1852 

Amer. Griswold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New England . 1766 1843 

j^ujer. , Rufus "Wilmot, author and critic . . 1815 1857 

i)utch. Gronovius, James, an erudite critic .... 1645 1716 

Eng. Grose, Francis, antiquary and author . . . 1731 1791 

Amer. Gross, Samuel D., physician, surgeon, and author ' . . 1805 

iEng. Grote, George, author of History of Greece . . 1794 

Ger. Grotefend, G. F., philologist .... 1775 1836 

Dutch. Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar . . 1583 1645 

Fr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, m-.irshal of France . . 1776 1847 

Amer Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. . . (Tenn.)1777 1840 

Ger. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist .... 1616 1664 

Ital. Guarini, John Baptist, a poet . . . . 1537 1612 

Ger. Guericke, Otto, experimental philos., inventor biftiieair-pufixp . 1602 1686 

Ital. Guerrazi, Francesco D., author and pbliticiaii . ; 1805 

Ital. Guiccardinl, Francis, an historian .... 1482 1340 

Fr. Guillotin, Joseph T.. henevoleiit physician, inventor of the guillotine 1738 1814 

Fr. Guise, Charles of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statiealnan 1525 15T4 

Fr. , Fr.incls of Lorraine, duke of, celebrated warrior . 1519 1563 

Fr. ——, Henry of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior . 1550 1588 

Fr. Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian,' and metaphysician • 1787 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



39 



ifAflOm. NAME AND FROFESglON. 

Not. G uiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior . . . 

Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician, inventor of the Gtlnter Bcale 
Gurney, Joseph John, philanthropist . (Soc 

Gurowsky, Adam de, count, publicist and author . 
Gurwood, John, Col., editor ofWellington's Despatches 
Gustavus 1., (Gustavus Vasa) king of Sweden 

11., Adolphus, king of Sweden j able 'warrior 

III., king of Sweden . . , 



Ei)g. 

Eng. 

Pol. 

Eng. 

Swe. 

Swe. 

Swe. 

Swe 

Amer. 

Soot. 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Fr. 

Eng. 



— IV., AdolphuB, king of Sweden 



Guthrie, James, secretary of the treasury to Pierce 

, "William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c, 



Guttenberg, John, one of the inventors of printing , 

Gutzlaft', Charles, traveller and historian of China 

Guyon, Jeanne M. B., de la Moite, mystical teacher and writer 

, Richard D., general in the service of Hungary, &c. 

Sw.Am.Guyot, Arnold H., writer on phyHcal geography . , 

Eug. Gwynn, Eleanor, (' Nell Gwynn ') mistress of Cliarles II. 
Hg. Au.Gyulai, Francis, count, commander of Austrian army in Italy 
Eng. Habington, Wm., puet . . • . 

Amer. Hackett, Horatio B., biblical critic • • * 

Amer. , James H., actor . . ■ • 

Pers. Haiiz, Mohammed, the Anacreon of Persia « • 

Ger, Hagenbach, Karl L., ecclesiastical historian • • 

Ger. Hahn, August, theological writer . . • • 

Ger. , Simon Frederick, an historian . . • 

Geir. Hahneman, founder of ' Homeopathy ' in medicine . 

Ger. Hahn-Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist 
Eng. Hakluyt, Biohaid, author of voyages, &c., of the English . 
Scot. Haldaue, Robert, philanthropist and theologian . 

Scot. Haldeman, S. S., naturalist and philologist . • 

Amer. Hale, Benj., D.D., educator and author , , 

Amer. , David, journalist, founder of N. Y. Journal of Commerce 

Amer. , Nathan, revolutionary patriot, executed as a spy . 

Amer. , Nathan, journalist, Boston Daily Advertiser , 

Amer. , Sarah J., poet and prose writer . . • 

Eng. , Sir Matthew, eminent and incorruptible judge . 

Pr. Halevy, J. F. C, musical composer . . • 

Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer • 
Eng. Haliburton, Thos. C, humorous writer, ' Sam Siick' . 

Eng. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. . , 

Amer. • , Gordon, first American missionary in Bombay , 

Amer. • , James, jurist and author . . . 

Amer. , James, geologist and palaeontologist . , , 

Eng. , Joseph, bishop of Norwich, theological author • 

Eng. —^, Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator . • 

Eng. Hallam, Henry, historian . . . • 

Amer. Halleck, Fitz Greene, poet . . • 

Swiss. Haller, Albert von, hiiscellaneous writer , , 

Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and matbematloian 
Eng. Halliwell, James Orchard, archseologist and author . 
Boot. Halyburton, Thomas, theological writer , • , 

Carth. Eamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general . , 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1015 


1085 


e 1581 


1619 


nds) 1788 


1S47 


1805 


1866 


, 1791 


1845 


1496 


1560 


1594 


1633 


1746 


1792 


1778 


1837 


1793 




5. 1708 


1770 


1400 


146d 


1803 


1851 


1H48 


1717 


1813 


1850 


1807 




1650 


1687 


1798 


1866 


1605 


1645 


1808 




. 1800 






1389 


1801 




1807 


1857 


1692 


1729 


1755 


1843 


18U5 




1553 


1616 


1764 


1842 


1812 




1707 




Be 1791 


1849 


1758 


1776 


1784 


1863 


1795 




, 1609 


1676 


1799 


1802 


. 1766 


1844 


1803 


1865 


1788 


1844 


1784 


1826 


, 1793 




1811 




. 1574 


1658 


1764 


1831 


. 1777 


1859 


1795 




1708 


1771 


1656 


1741 


1820 




1674 


1712 


• a- 


0. 22S 



M 



THE WDBLD'S PBOGRESS, 



KATION, 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Irish. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Carth. 

Carth. 

Nor. 

Amer, 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Sar. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amgr. 

Amer 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

i-r. 

^ng, 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

£q. A. 



NAME ASD PBOFESSION. BOBIT. DIED. 

Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, first secretary of treasui^, U. S. 1757 1804 

, Elizabeth, a talente(i,mi6cellaneou8 writer , 1758 1816 

, James, statesman, U. S. senator from South Carolina 1786 1857 

, Sir Wm., diplomatist and antiquary . . 1730 1803 

, Sir Wm., metaphysician . . . . 1788 1866 

,'^ Sir Wra. Rowan, mathematician and philosopher 1805 

— , Thos., Oupt., novelist, 'Men and Manners in America' 1789 1842 

,' Willi am Richard, archaeologist . . , 1777 1859 

Hammer, Bardii von, historian and orientalist . . • 1774 1856 

Hammond,' James, "poet . ' . . . • 1710 1742 

, James H., U. S. senator from South Carolina , 1807 

Hampden, John, a celebrated patriotic statesman , 1594 1643 

Hampton, Wade, generalin revolution . . . 1755 1835 

Hancock, John, a distinguished patriot, president of Congress 1737 1793 

Handel, Geo. Fiederict, one of the greatest musical composers . 1684 1758 

Hannibal, br Annibal, general against Rome • , b. c. 247 b. c. 183 

Hanno, navigator . . . . • , b. c. 5th cent. 

, the Great, general and statesman . « . b. o. 202 

Hanstein, G., mathematician and astronomer * • • 1784 

Harbaugh, Henry, author of religious works . ^ . 1817 

Hardenbergh, Karl A. von, statesman • . . 1750 

Harding, Chester, portrait painter . . . 1792 

— ; , James D., artiBt and author on art , . . 1798 



Hardinge, Henry, Viscount, general and governor-general of India 1785 

Hardwicke, Charles, theological writer . . . 1821 

Hare, Julius Charle's, archdeacon, theological writer . . 1795 

, Robert, bhemist and physicist . , , 1781 

Harlan, Richard, M. D., n.ituralist .... 1796 

Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, celebrated statesman . 1661 

Haroun AlRaschid, caliph, a patron of learning 

Harper, James; John, J. Wesley, and Fletcher, publishers, born 1795, 

Harrington, James, political writer .... 1611 

Harriott, Thos., mathematician and voyager to Virginia . 1560 

Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c. . . 1670 

— '■ , John, theological writer .... 1804 

— : — ., Thaddeus Wm., naturalist .... 1795 

Harrison, Gen. Wm. H., military commander and president U. 8. 1773 
Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College 

Harvey, AVilliam, discoverer of the circulation of the blood 1569 

Hase, Henry, (Slassical antiquary . . , . 1789 

— — , KarlAug., theological author . . . 1800 

Hassenclever, John Peter, painter (Dus'seldorf school) . ^ . 1810 

Ha8lam,Jo'hn, writer on insanity . , ' . , . 1764 

Hastings, miirdiuis of, military commander . . . 1754 

, Warren, governor-general of British India . 1733 

Hauser, Casper, a mysterious " wild boy " . . 

Ha'ussez, Baron, minister of Charles' X., traveller . . 1778 

Hatton, Sir Christophef, lord chancellor . . 

Hauy. Ren6 Just, liiineralogist .... 1742 

Havelock, Henry, general in India • • , • 1795 

Haven, Alice B., atithor of juvenile books . ... 1828 

HaViland, Jobn, architect . • • » 1792 



1822 
1866 
1863 
1856 
1859 
1855, 
1858 
1843 
1724 
■ 808 
7, 1801 ,'4 
1677 
1621 
1719 
1856 
1856 
1841 
168a 
1658 
1842 

1853 
1844 
1825 
1818 
1833 

1591 
1822 
1857 
1866 
1852. 



BIOGRAPHICAL imJEX. 



41 



irATIOM. NAME AKD FR0FES8I0K. 

Anier. Hawes, Joel, CongKegationa^ clergyman and author • • 

Eng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful adntiral • 

Eng. Hawksworth, Dr. Joliii, misuellaneous writer . , . 

Eng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator, oiiginator of the slave trade 

Eng. , Sir John, author of Histoiy of Music,' &c. . , 

Amer. Hawks, Francis Lister, Episcopal diviite and historian , 

Amer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist . . • . 

Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer , . 

Eng, Haydon, Beiij. A., historica painter . . , , 

Amer. Hayes, Isaac, Arctic navigator and author , , 

Eng. Hayley, "William, a poet and miscellaneous writer , 

Amer. Hayne, Robert Y.,, governor of South Carolina and senator IT. S. 

Amer. Haynes, Lemuel, colored preacher and patriot , 

Eng. Haywood, Abraham, translator of ' Eaust ' . . 

Eng. Hazlitt, William, essayist and critic . . • , 

Eng. Head, Sir Francis B., author of Travels, &c. . , 

Eng. , Sir George, author of ' Rome,' &c. . , , 

Amer. Headley, Joel T., author of biograph es and histories . 

Amer. Heath, Wm., major-general in the revolution, author of Memoirs 

Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine and poet . . . 

Eng. , Richard, bibliomaniac and book collector , , 

Ger. Hecker, Fred. K. P., politician . , , , 

Amer. — , Isaac P., Roman Catholic clergyman and author . 

Eng. Heckwelder, John, Moravian missionary and author . 

Ger. Hederick, Benjamin, a lexicographer ... 

Amer. Hedge, Fred. H., clergyman and author , . . 

Ger. Hcdwig, John^ a physician and botanist « , 

,Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian . • . . 

Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphy^cian • . . . 

Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and it ve/afiMr ... 

Ger. Heineccius, Jno. G.. juridical author , 

Rom. Helena, St., wife of ConstantiusChlorus, emperor . , 

,Gr. Heli odor us (of Emessa) the first romance writer . fl. 

Fr. Heloise, abbess of the Paraclete, famed for intrigue with Abelard 

Eng. Helps, Arthur, essayist and dramatist ... 

Fr. Helvetius, Claude A., philosopher • . . 

Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist • . . 

Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess .... 

Eng. Henfey, Arthur, botanist ..... 

Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquary and theologian 

Eng. Henley, John, clergyman and author, 'orator Henley' , 

Flem. Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer of N. A. , 

Eng. Henningsen, Chas. Fred., author and soldier , , 

Fr, Henry IV., an able and popular monarch . , , 

.Ajner. . , Caleb S., clergyman and author . . , 

Amer. , Joseph, pliysieist, director of Smithsonian Institute 

Amer. , Matthew, author of ' Comment, on the Bible ' . , 

Port. -^-^, the Navigator, prince, 3d son of John I. . , 

gcot. , Robert, an historian • . « . 

^nier. — — — , Patrick, an orator and patriot . , , 

Amer, Hentz, Caroline Lee, novelist • • • . 

Eom. Heraclius (born in Cappadocia;, emperor of the East . 



BOBN. 


DIEIX 


1789 


1867 


1713 


1781 


1715 


1773 


1520 


1595 


1719 


1789 


1798 


1866 


1804 


1862 


1T32 


1809 


1786 


1846 


1745 


1820 


1791 


1835 


1758 


1834 


1800 




1778 


1830 


1793 




1782 


1855 


1814 




1737 


1814 


1783 


1826 


1773 


183.3 


1811 




1819 




1743 


1823 


1675 


1748 


1805 




1730 


1799 


1760 


1842 


1770 


1831 


1799 


1856 


1681 


1741 


247 


327 


. 4th cent. 




1101 


1164 


1817 




1715 


1771 


15S1 


1617 


1794 


1835 


1800 




1802 




1692 


1756 


1640 


1699 


1815 




1553 


1610 


1804 




1797 




1662 


1714 


1394 


1463 


1718 


1790 


1736 


1799 




1858 


576 


641 



42 



THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. 



ItAIIOR. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORH. 

Gfr. Heraclitns, a philosopher . . . . f. b. o. 504 

Eog. Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherbury, diplomatist and philosopher 
Eug. Herbert, George, cUrgjman and, poet 

Eng.Am , Hunry Wm. novelist and miscellaneous author 

Eng. , Sidi.ey, statesman 

, Wm., (3rd Earl of Pembroke) poet . 

, Wm., dean of Manchester, poet and philosopher 



Eug. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Amer< 



Gr. 
Gr. 

Fr. 

Span. 

Max. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eiig. 

Jew. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Buss. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer . 

Heriot, George, goldsmith, founder of school 
Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, ' History of Philosophy' &c. 

, J. G. J.) philologist 

Hermogenes, a rhetorician ...» 

Herndon, Wm. L., naval commander and explorer 

Herod, Agrippa I, King of Judea, (grandson of Herod the Great) 

, the Great, King of the Jews 

Herodian, an historian .... 

Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works 
extant ....... 

Herold, L. G. P., musical composer . . 

Herrera, Anthony, an historian . • ' ■ 

, Jose J. de, president of Mexico > , 

Herrick, Robert, poet ... , , 

Herschel, Caroline L., astronomer 

, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers 

Herschell, Dr. Solomon, chief rabbi of the Jews in England 

, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher 

Hervey, Jatnes, a pious and amiable divine and writer 
, Thomas K., poet and prose writer . , 



Herzen, Alexander, publicist, editor and author . 
Hesiod, a poet, contemporary of Homer . , 

Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . , 

Heywoiid, Thomas, humorist and dramatist , , 

Hickes, George, a theologian and philologist ' , 
Hickok, Laurens P., metaphysical author . . 

Amer. Hicks, Klias, preacher of the Society of Friends 
Amer. Hildreth, Richard, autlior of History of the United States 
Fr. Hilaire, Geoff. St., naturalist . , 

Eng. Hill, Rowland, author of cheap postage in England . 
Eng. Hill, Rowland, Rev., eccentric clergyman . 

Eng. , Rowland, viscount, general in Spain and at "Waterloo 

j;jjg_ J yir John, a botanist and multifarious writer . 

Amer. Hillard, George S., author and journalist . . 

Jew. Hillel, the elder, compiler of the Talmud , , 

Amer. Hillhouse, James A., poet . . • . 

Eng. Hind, John Russell, astronomer . 

Eng. Hinton, John Howard, author of History of United States 
Gr. Hipparchus, astronomer . . . , • 

Gr. Hippocrates, the father of medicine . . . 

Hippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer . . 

.Amer. Hitchcock, Edward, D. D., theologian and geologist , 

, Roswell D., theologian, orator, and patriot 

Eng. Hoadley, "William, a celebrated prelate and author . 



r 1581 


1648 


1593 


1632 


1807 


1858 


1810 




1580 


1630 


1778 


1847 


, 1744 


1803 


1563 


1624 


. 18n4 




1772 


1848 


, f. 180 




1813 


1859 


) B. e. 7 


A. D. 44 


B. G. 71 


4 


f. 230 




B. c. 484 




179-3 


1838 


. 1659 


1625 




1851 


1591 


1674 


1750 


1848 


1738 


1822 


1760 


1842 


1713 


1758 


1799 


1859 


•1812 




B. 0. 907 




1729 


1812 


1650 




1642 


1715 


1798 




1748 


1830 


1807 


1863 


1772 


1844 


. 1795 




1744 


1833 


1772 


1842 


1716 


17T5 


1808 




B. c. 112 




1789 


mi 


1823 




. 1800 




B, C. 


2d cent. 


B. e. 460 




A. D 


3d cent. 



1793 



1676 



1761 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEIC 



43 



NATtOir. NAME AND PHOFESSION, 

Amer. Hobart, Joha Henry, bishop of New York , , 

Eng. Hobbes, Tliomas, a philosopher and translator. . 

Eng. Hobhousp, John Cam., Lord Broughton, author and statesman 

Pr. Hoohe, Lazarus, a military commander 

Amer. Hodge, Charles. Rev., theological writer 

Amer. Hoe, Richard M., an inventol' of printing presses 

Swiss. Hofer, AndreW) a Tyrolian patriot , . 

Eng. Hofland, Barbara, novelist . « 

Eng. Hoft'maii, David, lawyer and author . , 

Amer. Hofiinan, Charles Fenno, poet and novelist 

Scot. Hogg, James, ' the Ettrick Shepherd,' poet < , 

Hung. Hohenlohe, prince of, prelate, and alleged miracle workei* 

l)an. Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian 

Amer. Holbrook, John E., naturalist . . 

Eng. Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Hole, Matthew, writer on the Liturgy , 

Eng. Holingshed, chrdnicler . . . « 

Amer, Holland, Josiah Q-., journalist, poet and essayist 

Eng. — — , Lord, statesman and titlerateur , 

Eng. —, Philemon, a translator . . 

Araef. HolUs, Thomas, benefactoi* of Harvard College 

Amer. -^, Thomas, philaiithropist (life, 2 vols., 4to) 

Eng. Holman, James, a blind traveller and author . 
Amer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America' 

Amer, —- , Oliver "Wendell, physician, poet and egsayist 

Eng. Holt, Sir John, lord chief justice 

Amer. Holyoke, Edward Aug., physician and naturalist 

Scot. Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, 'Crlt'cism' 

Scot. — , John, a divine, dramatist attd historian . 

Gr. Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished 
Eng. Hone, Wm., author of ' Every Day Book,' and political works 
Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer . 

Eng. , Thomas, poet and humorist . , 

Dutch. Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet , , 

-Eag. Hook, Eobert, a mathematician . , 

, Theo. E., novelist and hutnorist , 

Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman history 
Hooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist 

, Richard, an eminent divine . . 

, Sir W. J., botanist . , 



Eng. 
Eng. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 



Hoole, John, a poet and translator , , 

Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs 

Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, "AnastaSlU 
Amer. Hopital, Michel de 1', chancellor of Frarce 
Amer. Hopkins, Ezek., first commodore IT. S. Navy 

Amer. , John H., protestant episcopal bishop of Vt. and author 

Amer. , Mark, clergyman and author . , 

Amer. , Samuel, an eminent divine and author . , 

Amer. ■ , Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

Amer. Hopkinson, Francis, s'gner of the Dec. of Independence and author 1737 



BOEN. 

1776 
1588 
1786 
1768 
1797 
1812 
1765 
1770 
1784 
1806 
1772 
1793 
1685 
1795 
1744 
1640 

1819 
1773 
1551 
16.59 
1720 
1787 
1763 
1809 
1642 
1728 
1698 
1724 
B. c. 907 
1779 
1724 
1798 
1687 
1635 
1788 
1690 
1816 
1553 
1785 
1717 
1495 
1770 
1505 
1718 
1792 
1802 
1721 
1707 



Amer. — — , Joseph, jurist and statesman 

ttom. Horace, Quintus Flaccus, Eminent poet 



1770 
: c. 66 



DIED. 
1830 
1797 

1797 



1810 
1844 
1854 

18^ 
1849 
1754 

1809 
1730 
1582 

1840 
1636 
1731 
1774 
1857 
1837 

1709 
1829 
1782 
1808 

1842 

isia 

1845 
1763 
1702 
1841 
1763 

1600 
J 865 
1803 
1555 
1831 
1573 
1802 



1803 
1785 
.791 
1842 
0. • 



44 



TfiE WORtD'S PSOGRESS. 



KATION. NAME Alib PBOFESSIOK. 

FJem. Hofn, l*hilip de Mont.count of, soldier and statDBman 

Eng. Home, George, a learned jirelate, bishop of Norwich 

Eng. — "" — , Richard H., poet and essayist 

Eng. ' - " ■ , Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and histoMan 

Eng. Horner, Francis, statesman and essayist , 

Eng. ■ • "- — , Leonard, geological Writer . . 

Eng. Horeley, Hamuel, a'prtOate And mathemEltieian 

tlotn. Hortensius, Quintus, drator . . » 

Atner. Hosack, David, M." D., medical and scientific writei? 

Heb. Hosea, prophet . ' . . . . 

Fr. Houdin, Robert, conjurer . > • 

Fr, Houdon, Jean Antoine, sculptdr . . » ' 

I'r. Houssayej Ars^iie, miscellaneous writef • 

Amer. House, Samuel G., physician aiid philanthropist . 

Amer. Houston, Sam., geheral, governor, and eX-governor Of Texas 

Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist . 

Amer. , John Eager, revolutionary soldier and statestuan 

Amer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing maChiiles . 

Eng. - -" , G4o. Aug.,' general in colonial war . ^ 

Eng. — , Richatd, lord,' earl, admiral , . , 

Eng. , Sii* Wm., 6ommandei--in'chief in America • 

Eng, Howell, James, autboi- of 'Lettei's' . . * 

Eng. flowitt, Mary (wife of "Wm.), novelist and poet » 

£lig. , "William, traveller, essayistj &c. . . 

Eng. Howley, 'William,' arch bisi Op of Caiterbury \ 

Eng. Hoyle, Edmund, writer on gaiiies . * . 

Swiss. Huber, Francis, nkturalist . 4 . 

Fr. Hue, Evariste R., Catholic missionary and author . 

£ng. Hudson, !&enry, discoverer of Hudson riter . 

Ft, Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author . 
Ger. flufeland, Chris. "W., medical author . , 

. Fr, Hugh Capet,' founder' of the Capetiah line of French MftgB 
Irish-Am. Hughes, John,' Catholi6 Archbishop N. Y. 
Fr. Hugo, 'Victor' M., novelist, poet, and statesman 
Amer. Hjill, Coiiimodore' Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer.), &ci 
Araer. ———, "Wm., general in 'War of 1812 . . . 

Ger. Humboldt, Karl Wllhelm, baron, statesman and authot 

PrusB. '■ , F. H. A., 'baron, travelle?, geographel', and nat. phil 

Soot. Hume, David, an historian and philosopher , , 

Eng. -^-r — , Jos., statesmaA and reformer . 

Amer. Humphrey, Heman, theologian and author . 
Amer. Humphreys, toavid, poet and diplomatist . 
Hung. Hunniades, John,' a celebrated warMor , 

Amer. Hunt, Freeman, author and journalist . 
Eng. —=^-, James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist . 
Eng. — "-, Leigh, poet and essayist . , 

Amer. — »-, Thomas S., chemist and eeologist . 

Scot. Hunter, John, surgeon and medical author 

Robert M. T., IT. 8. senator from Virginia 



Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 



Huntington, Selina, countess of, patron of Method: 

-r , "Wm., Antinomian preacher 
« ^'~' — ^1 deded. V., poet afid novelist 



sta 



boen. 


Diistik 


1522 


1568 


1730 


1793 


1803 




1780 


186^ 


1778 


1817 


1785 


1864 


1736 


1806 


C. 114 B. 


0. 50 


1769 


1835 


8th cent 


. B. C. 


1805 




1741 


182S 


1815 




1801 




1793 


1862 


1726 


1790 


1752 


1827 


1819 




1724 


1758 


1725 


1799 




1814 


1696 


1666 


1804 




1795 




1765 


1848 


1672 


17^9 


1750 


1831 


1813 


18^ 




1611 


1630 


l'72l 


1762 


1836 


S46 


996 


1798 


1894 


1802 




1775 


1845 


1753 


1825 


1767 


1835 


1769 


1S59 


1711 


1776 


1777 


1855 


1779 


1859 


1753 


1818 


1400 


1456 


1804 


1S58 


1784 


1859 


1785 


1859 


1826 




1728 


1792 


1809 




1707 


mi 


1744 


isis 


1816 





BIOGEAPHlCAL INDEX, 



45 



.VATtOK. 

Amer, 

Eng, 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Irieh. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Ind. 

Gr. 

Jew. 



NAME AND PBOPES8I0N. 

Hnntiflgton, Fred. D., clergyman and author . 
Uurd, Ricliard, bishop of Worcester, &g. • 

HuskiBson, Robon William, able statesman • 
Hubs, John, the great Bohemian reformer , 

Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer • 
Hutchinson, Anne, founder of N. E. Antinomians . 
■ — ■ , John, Colonel (Life by his widow) 



-, Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian 



Hutten, U.rich von, scholar and reformer 
Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician 

■ , James, a geologist and philosopher 
Huygens, Christian, a scientific author . . 
Hyde de Neuville, F. G., baron de, politician 
Hyder All, a celebrated warrior . 

Hypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher » 
Hyrcanua 1 and IL, high priests • 



fiOHK. 


DIED. 


• 1819 




1720 


1808 


. 1769 


1830 


1376 


1416 


1694 


1747 




1643 


161T 


1664 


n 1711 


1780 


1488 


1523 


1737 


1823 


1726 


1797 


1629 


1705 


. 1776 


1857 


1717 


1782 


370 


415 


1st and 2d cent. 



Turk. 

Gr. 

Span. 



Eng. 

Port. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Bcot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Eng. 
Eng. 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
• Bcot. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Span. 
Bpan. 
Gr. 
Heb. 
Ft. 
Gr. 
Bpan. 



lamblichns, Neo, Platonic philosopher « 

Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt , 

Ibycjis, a lyric poet . • . 

Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits 
- — , Saint, primitive father of the church 

—' — ' — , St., patriarch of Constantinople . 
Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist | 
Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal 
Ingersoll, Charles J., statesman and historian 

' i Joseph R., statesman and lawyer 

Inglis, Henry D., traveller and author » 

Ingram, Rev. Dr.«Jame8, Saxon scholar 
Inman, Henry, portrait and lands<rape painter 

— , John, jonrnalist and litterateur t 

Innocent, the name of thirteen popes . • 

Irenaeus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author 

Ireland, Samuel ' Picturesque Touf ' . . • 

, "W. H., amthor of the ' Shakespeare Forgeries' « 
Irene, a Byzantine empress . . . , 

Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of his generals 
Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels < 

, Peter, author (brother of 'Washington) . « 

, Rev. Edward, theological writer . • 

' , Theodore, author of ' Conquest of Plorida' , 
, Washington, historian and essayist . . 



-^, William, one of the authors of Salmagundi 



Isabella, the Catholic,- queen of Spain, patron of Columbus 

' IL, queen of Spain • , ' . 

Isaeus, an orator < . . « • 

Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophets • 

Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist « « 

Isocrates, an orator . • . * 

Iturbide, emperor of Mexico « « « 



« A. 6. 


4th cent. 


17ri9 




1848 


. 0. 550 






1491 




1556 
107 


779 




877 


1756 




1821 
1356 


. 1782 




1862 


1786 






1795 




1836 


1774 




I860 


1801 




1846 
18S0 


402' 


to 


1687 


2d cent. 


1750 




1800 


1777 




1835 


752 




803 


1610 




1651 


1810 






1771 




1838 


1792 




1834 


1809 






, 1783 




1859 


1766 




1821 


1451 




1504 


1830 






B. c. 418 






B. c. (abt) 800 


1792 




1857 


B. 0. 436 






. 1784 




1824 



46 



THE WOELD's PKOGRESS. 



KATIOir. NAME AND PBOFESSION. B0Rtr4 

Amer. Ives, Levi S., ex«protestant episcopal bisliop of IfTorth Carolina 1797 

.Amer. Izard, Kalph etatesmau (of South. Carolina) , • • 1742 



1804 



Amer. Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist, » 

Amer. — - — ■ , James, emlaent physician . . , 

Amer, -— , Gen. Andrew, military commander, president tT. S. 

Amer. — — ^ , Patrick T., eminent merchant 

Amer. — ■ — ■ , Thomas Jonathan (' Stonewall 'J, rehel general . 

Eng. ; , William (' of Exeter ') musical composer . 

Beb. Jacoh, the Patriarch . 
Ger, Jacobi, Fred, H., philosopher, novelist, &c, , 
Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist . 

Fr. Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer . . 

Er. Jacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom 
Pr. Jacquemont, Victor, traveller and naturalist . 
Dutch. Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist . 

Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar . 

Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist and historian • 

Amer. , Henry, philosophical writer . . . 

Amer. , John Angell, congregational clergyman and author 

, St., the Elder, apostle . . . 

, St., the Less, " . . , , 

Eng. Jameson, Anne, essayist and Writer on art . . 

ggot. -, Kobert, naturalist and author • • i 

Pers. Jami, or Djami, poet .... 

Scot. Jamieson, John, D. D., miscellaneous author • • 

Fr. Janin, Jules, litterateur . . ' • . 

Dutch. Janeen, Cornelius, founder of a sect ... 

Ital. JanUariUs, patron saint of Naples . , . 

Amer. Jarves, James J., traveller and author . , . , 

Amer, Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theOlogist . 

Fr. Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet . . . . 

Amer. Jasper, "William, heroic soldier of the Revolution , 

^mer. ——, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman • 

Amer. Jay, William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist . 

Eng, —. — , William, D.D., religious writer . • . 

Fr. Jeanne d'Arc, ' Maid of Orleans,' heroine . . 

Ger. Jean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician . 

Irish. Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer 
Amer. Jetferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d pros, of the U. S. 
Scot. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic 
Eng. Jefffeys, George, infamous judge 

Hind. Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant atid philanthropic 
Aust, Jellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia , . 

Eng. Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier . . 

Eng. Jenkyn8,/William, non-conformist (' on Jude ') ,, . 

Eng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine inuoculation 
Eng. Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscell^^noous, writer . • 

Scot. Jerdan, William, journalist . . , . 

H«b. Jeremiah, prophet . > . * * • 



1805 




. 1777 




1767 


1845 


1780 


1847 


1826 


1863 


1730 


1803 


B. 0. 1836 B. 


C. 1689 


1743 


1819 


1764 


1841 


*. 1770 


1840 


1762 


1834 


1801 


1832 


1727 


1817 


1750 


1817 


1801 


1860 


1811 




1785 


1859 




44? 




66? 


. ,1797 


1860 


1774 


1854 


1414 


1492 


1759 


isgs 


1804 




1585 


1638 


272 


305 


1818 




. 1786 


,1851 


1798 


, 1864 


1750 


1779 


1745 


1839 


. 17-79 


.1858 


1769 


1853 


1 .1412 


1431 


1763 


1825 


. 1736 


1775 


1743 


1826 


1773 


1850 


1648 


1689 


t . 1783 


1869 


1801 


1859 


1770 


1828 


1612 


,1685 


. 1749 


1823 


1704 


1787 


1782 




fL B. 0. 678 


671 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



41 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Jerolne, St, one of the fathers of the church 
Ger. " •■■ — , of Prague, reformer, companiou of Husb , 

Eng, .JeiTold, Douglas, essayist 

Eng. Jervis, sir John, earl St. Vincent, admiral . , 

Eng. Jewell John, learned prelate and author * 

Eng, Jewshury, Maria J., essayist . , , 

Pr. Joan of Arc, 'the greatest of heroines' , 

ItaL Joanna, queen of Naples , , , 

Hob. Joel, the pi'ophet .... 

Hoi. Johannes Secundus (Johannes Evprardj, poet , 

Fr. Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . , 

Eeb. John, the Evangelist . . . , 

Eng. , of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster 

Ger. "- ■■■ , king of Saxony and author . , 

PoL — — , III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general 

Eng. -, Edward, historian of N. El, gland ... 

Eng. Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writt- r i_ the cause of liberty 

Eng. — , Samuel, ' the Colossus of English literature' . 

Amer. — — , Alex B., philologist and miscellaneous writer 

Amer. —— , Andrew, president U. S. . , , 

Amer. — , Reverdy, jurist and statesman , 

Amer. , Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. 8, 

Amer. • — , Samuel, first president Columijia College and author 

Amer. , Walter R.. physicist .... 

Tr. AraiT. Johnson, Sir William, general and governor in North America 

Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . , , 

Scot. -— , Alex, K., geographer . • , 

Scot. , George, writer and naturalist . . 

Scot. — — - — , James F. W., chroniclar and agricultural author 

Er. JoinviUe, Jean, sire de, chronicler . , 

Fr. ■' — , Pranpois, prince de, third eon of Louis Philippe 

Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louis, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi 

Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer . 

Swiss. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer . 

Heb. Jonah, the prophet . . - , 

Amer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republic of Texas 

Eng. ■ , Inigo, an eminent architect . . , 

Amer. , Jacob, commodore in the U. S. navy 

Scot. -■' , John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States 

Eng. — — — , Owen, architect and decorator 

Eng. , Thomas Rymer, writer on anatomy and physiology 

Eng. - — -^, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 

Eng. , Rev. William, ' of Nayland,' Hutohineonian divine 

Eng. , William, divine and author . , 

Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist . 

Icel. Jonsson, Flnnur, Iceland!? historian 

Irish. Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. . 

t)an. Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author . 

Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author , 

Ft. Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) 

Jew. JosephuB, celebrated historian and warrior , , 

Heb. Joehua, gaccessor of Moseg ae leader of the Israelites 



1782 
1774 
1522 

1410 

!. 800 
1511 
1833 

1340 
1801 
1629 
1600 
1649 
1709 
1786 
1808 
1796 
1780 
1696 
1794 
1715 
1803 
1804 
1798 
1796 
1224 
1818 

1714 

1775 

i 

1798 
1572 
1770 
1736 
1809 
1810 
1746 
1726 
1726 
1574 
1704 
1762 
1779 
1698 
1761 
37 



f. B. 



DIED, 

420 
1416 
1857 
1823 
1571 
1833 
1431 



1536 

1852 

100 

1399 

1696 
1672 
1703 
1784 



1850 
1772 
1852 
1744 
1862 

1855 
1855 
1319 

1730 
1744 

0.862 
1858 
1652 
1850 
1792 



1T94 
1800 
1800 
1637 
1789 
1814 
1830 
1770 
1S14 
95 
0. 150« 



48 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



RATION. 

Heb. 
Heb. 

Tr. 

Ger. 
Hex. 



Jew. 

Heb. 

Amer. 

Airier. 

Amer^ 

Arber. 

Amer. 
Dan. 

Bom. 

Fr, 

Swiss. 

Hind. 

Ger. 

Get; 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Gr, 

Gr. 

Rom. 



NAME AND PKOFESSION. 

Josiah, 17th king of Judah . . . 

Jotham, king of Judah . . . i 

JoufEroy, Theo. 8., metaphysician and statesman 
Jourdan J. B., marshal of France . • 

Jovianus, Flavius C, emperor . , 

Juan, or John, of Austria, don, warrior • • 

Juarez, Benito, statesman and president . 

Juba, king of Numidia . . . • 

, king of Mauritania and historian . 

Judah, Halikadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist , 
Judas Maccabeus, patriot . . . 

Judd, Sylvester, author of ' Margaret ' , . 

Judson, Adoniram, missionary in India 

■ , Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above 

, Emily Chubbuck, third "wife of above, and author 

(' Fanny Forester ') . 
, Sarah Boardman, second wife of above , 



Juel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral 

Jugurtha, Numidian king . . • 

Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author, 

tate ' . . 
Julien, A. J., orientalist . , . 

JuUien, Louis G., musical composer, &c. . 

Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaul . • 

Junge, Joachim, philosopher 

Jung-Stilling, John H., mystic author . . 

Junius, Adrian, voluminous writer 
Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer 

, Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &c. 

Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist . 

Justin Flavius, A. J. ' the Elder,' Byzantine emperor 

, Latin historian . . . ' . 

, Martyr, one of the fathers of the church 

Justinian, Flavius A. J., ' the Byzantine ' emperor 
Juvenal, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satirists 



Apos- 



BORN. 


DIES. 


B.C. e^ 


B. C. 609 


B. C. 783 


B, 0, T42 


1796 


1842 


1762 


1833 




364 


1546 


1578 


1807 






B. 0.46 




B. c. 18 


129 


194 




B. C. 160 


1813 


1853 


1788 


1850 


1789 


1826 


1817 


1854 


1803 


1845 


1629 


1697 




B. 0. 104 


331 


863 


1799 




. 1812 


1860 


1816 




. 1587 


1657 


1740 


1817 


1512 


1575 


1771 


1813 


1784 


1839 


1748 


1836 


450 


627 


B. 0. 200 




91 


165 


482 


565 




128 



K 



Ger. Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian . . 

Ger. Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer . 
Fr. Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause 
Bwe. Kalm, Peter, traveller and botanist .... 
Kamehameha (or Famehameha) I. first king of the Sandwich 



Islands . . ... 

— , II. king, introduced Christianity . 

, III. introduced Constitution . « 

, IV. (Alex. Liholiho) 

Scot, Karnes, Henry Home, lord, judge and author . 

Amer. Kane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author . 
Ger. Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician . . . 

Russ. Karasmin, Nicholas M. historiographer of the empire 
■ Fr. Karr, J. B. Alphonse, miscellaneous author • . 



(abt) 



1651 1716 

1719 1799 

1717 1780 

1715 1779 

1800 

1824 

1817 1884 

1884 

1596 1827 

1820 1857 

1724 1804 

1766 182fl 

1803 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX; 



49 



KAnOX. NAME AND FBOFESSIOK. BORN. DIED. 

Eng. Kater, Henry, Tnatl)ematician . . , • 1777 1835 

Jx\Bh. Kavanagh, Julia, novelist • • • . • 1824 

Eng. Keaii, Charles John, actor • • • . 1811 

Eng. , Edmund, tragedian . . , , . 1787 1838 

Eng. , Ellen Tree, wife of C. J. Kenn, actresa . . 1805 

Amer. Kearny, Philip, Union general in war against rebellion * 1815 1862 

Eiig. Keats, John, a poet ..... 1796 1820 

Eng, Keble, John, divine and poet . . , , • 1790 

Irish. Keightley, Thos., miscellaneous author • • . 1800 

Keith, Geo. K. Elphinston, admiral .... 1746 1820 

Soot. , James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service 1696 1758 

, ThoR., mathematician, (' Use of Globes ') . . 1759 1824 

Fr. Kellerman, Frank C, duke of Valmy, general . , 1735 1820 

Ft. , Franc Etienne, son of above, general • . 1770 1835 

Irish. Kelly, Michael, composer and singer . • , 1762 1826 

Eng. Kemble, Charles, actor . . . • . 1775 1854 

Eng. — , Frances Anne, actress and author • . 1811 

Eng. , John M., scholar and historian , . , 1807 1857 

Eng. , John Philip, celebrated tragedian . . 1757 1823 

Ger. Kemfelen, "Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-player 1754 1806 

Eng. Kempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the 'Imitation of Chrisf 1380 1471 

Eng. Ken, Thos., bishop of Bath and Wells, theological writer . 1637 1711 

Amer. Kendall, Amos, statesman and author . . . 1789 

Amer. , George W., journalist and author . . . 1810 

Amer. Kendricii Asaliel C, Greek schohir and author . . 1809 

Scot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father C!ement) . . . 1782 1825 

Amer. Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman and novelist . . 1795 

Eng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author . . • 1660 1728 

Eng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critic . . 1718 1783 

Ir.-Am.Kenriek, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author . . 1797 1863 

Kent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Victoria . 1767 1820 

Amer. , James, jurist, chancellor of New Toik ... 1763 1847 

Amer. , William, judge, esteemed jurist ... 1861 

Eng. Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist ..... 1732 1802 

Eng. , John, poet . . . . ,1783 1856 

Ger. Kepler, John, eminent astronomer .... 1571 1630 

Eng. Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral . . . , 1726 1786 

Scot. Kerr, Robert, niiscellaneoua writer ...» 1814 

Amer. Key, Francis 8., author of 'Star Spangled Banner* . 1779 1843 

Eng. Kldd, "Wm., noted pirate, executed .... 1701 

Eng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist .... ]612 1690 

Scot. Kilmarnock, Wra. 4th, earl, Jacobite, beheaded . . 1702 1746 

Amer. Kimball, Richard B., author , . . . 1818 

Amer. King, John A., ex-governor of New York • • . 1789 1867 

Amer, , Rufas, statesman and diplomatist . . , 1755 1827 

Amer. , Thomas Starr, author ..... 1824 1864 

Amer. , William B., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president * 1786 1853 

Eng. Kinglake, Alex. Wm., M. P., author of ' Eothen ' . . l8o2 

Irish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican antiquities 1795 1837 

Eng. Kingsli'y, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet , , 1819 

Amer. Kip, "Wm. Ingraham, Prot Epis. bishop and author , 1811 

Amer. Kirkland, Caroline M^ author of travels and essayi , , 1864 



m 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



hat:ok, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Hung. 

Pru'sB. 

Fr. 

Ger, 

Ger, 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

;Eng. 

Aijaet 

Ger. 

.Ger. 

Ger. 
Dan. 
Ger. 
Pol. 

Hilng. 

Ger, 

Hung. 

Pol. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Bliss. 

Ger. 
. Ger. 
/Ger. 

Rubs. 



Fr. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Pr. 

Pr. 

Pr- 

Pr. 

Pr, 

Fr. 

Rom. 
Pr. 
Pr. 
Pi'. 



KAME AND PBOFEBglON. 

Kitchine,Williain, -writer on Oookery . , • 

Kitto, John, biblical scholar and author . . 

Klapka, George, patriot, soldier and author . • 

Kiapi'oth,' Henry J., philologist atd-ethnologist . 

Kleber, John Baptist, military officer . • • 

Klopstoek, the ' Milton of Germany ' < • 

Knapp, Geo., 'Chiist. theologian , • • 

-, Sataiuel L.,' miscellaneous -writer . • 

Knight, Charles, publisher, editor, and author . • 

=^-, Richard Payne, miscellaneous -writer . • 

Kno-wles, Jas, Sheridan, dramatic author and actor . 

Knox, Dr. Vicesimas, divine and miscellaneous author 
— —» -, Henryi military officer and statesman , • 

■ Knyphau'sen, bardn, general in British service • 

Koch, Christopher "WTlUam, historiau . . « 

Kock, Ch&rles Paiil de, novelist and dramatist 
Kohl, Johanff George,' traveller and author . . 

Koppen, Adolph Eouis, historical -writer and lecturer , 

Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet '. ^ . 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus, -warrior and patriot, served in the Ameri- 
can army during the Re-volution . . . 
Kossuth, Xajos (Louie), late governor of Hungary 
Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Per. von, historian, &c. . 
Kraitsir, 'Charle8,'philologi8t . , , 
Krasinski, Valerian, count, author . . e 
Krutnmafcher, Fred, Adolph., poet and theologiati * 

_— —— j Fred. William, religious -writer . . 

Krusenstfern, Adatn Jean, -navigator . . . 

Ktigler, Fraifz Theodore', writer on art, &o. • . 

Kuhnoel," Christ. P., critic . . . • 

Kurith, Charles S;,b6tanist' .... 

KuttiBofl; Michael L, G., field-marshal ' . , . 

'^- ' > « -Li. .. 

Labat, Jean S., misBiinary anH historian . . 

Lablache, Luigi, feno-wned vocalisf . , • 

Labouchere, SCenry, Baron Taunton, statesman . 

Laborde," A, L. Gi, comtede, traveller, &c. . . 

Labruy6re, see Bruyh'e .... 

Lacep^de, Bernard G. S, Delaville, count de, naturalist . 
Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author 
Lacretelfe, Charles, traveller and litterateur . . 

Lacroix, SylVestre P,i mathematician 

Lactantius, a father of the Church styled the Christian Cicero 
Laelius, Caiiis, publifcist, tribtlne, prsetor and consul . 
Laennel", an eminent physician . i . . 

Lafarge, MaHe C, notorious as a poisoner 
La Faye'tte, G, M., marqtiis, &c., military commander and Btates- 



Pr. 
Pr. 



-, Geo?ge W., statesman 



Lafltte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman 
-, Jean, cofsair, privateer* or pirate 



B0E». 


DIED 




1827 


1804 


1864 


1820 




1784 


1835 


1V54 


1800 


1724 


1803 


1763 


1825 


1784 


1S38 


1791 




1750 


1824 


1T84 


1862 


1752 


1821 


1750 


1806 


1730 


1789 


1737 


1813 


1794 




1808 




1804 




1791 


1813 


1746 


1817 


1802 




1761 


1819 


1804 


1860 


1780 


1855 


1768 


1843 


1770 


1846 


1808 


1858 


1768 


1841 


1788 




1745 


1813 


1663 


1T3S 


1794 


1853 


1798 




1774 


1842 


1756 


1825 


1802 




1766 


1817 


1765 


1833 




325 


0. 186 B. 


0. 115 


1782 


1826 


1816 


1852 



1757 



1834 



1768 . 1844 
1780 f 182» 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



61 



KATIOX. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Qer. La Fontaine, Aug. J. H., author of 200 volumes miscellaneous 

Fr. Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabulist . , 

Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Luuie, able mathematician . . 

Fi'. La Gueronniere, I.ouis E. A., viscount de, publicist . 

Fr. Laharpe, John Francis de, dramatist, critic, &c. , 

Scot. Laing, Malcolm, historian ...» 

Ft. Lalande, Joteph J. le Francis de, astronomer . 

Amer. Lamar, Mirabeau £., second president of the republic of Texas 

Fr. Lamaick, J. B. A. P., naturalist . ■ . 

Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789 

Fr. Lamartine, Alphonse de, poet, historian, traveller, and states' 

man • • . . . 

Eng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist .... 

Eng, _ , Lacly Caroline, novelist . . , 

Ital. Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution , 

Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist .... 

Eng, , Daniel, noted for corpulency, 789 pounds , 

Fr. Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer 

fr. Lamoriciere, Christ. LI J. de, general ' . . 

Ft. Lamotte Foiiqu6, t'red., baron de, novelist 'Undine' 

Bug. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education , , 

Amer. Lander, Fred. W, military officer (k. at Ball's Bluflt) . 

Eng; , Richard and Jiohn, travellers in Africa . 

Ft, Landon, C. P., auttor of works on the fine arts , 

Eng. , (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist . 

Eng. Landor, "Walter Savage, poet and essayist . , 

Eng. Landseer, John, engraver and author 

Eng, Lane, Edw. Wm., "orientalist, author of ' Modern Egyptians,' &c. 

Amer. , James, general^ U. S. senator for Oregon . 

<3-er. Lpnge, commentator on scriptui e . . . 

Amer. Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. 8. senator . 

Ital. Langfranc, learned archbishop of Canterbury . , 

Eng. Langhorne, John, miecellaueous autlior 

Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury 

Fr. Lames, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France 

Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, president of Council 

Eng. > William Petty, marquis of, premier 

Ital. Lanzi, Luigi, writer on art 

Fr. La Perouse, Jean F., count, navigator 

Fr. I^aplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer and geo 
metrician • . . , 

Lappenberg, Johaim M., historian 

Irifih- Lardner, Dionysius, writer on physical science 

j;ug, __ , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine . 

Fr. Larrey, Dominique J*., baron, "stirgeon and author 

Fr, La Salle, Robt. C.^, sieur de, navigator and author . 

Span. Las Casas, Barth de, missionary and historian . 

■pr. . biographer of Napoleon, &c. 

Nor. Lassen, Chris'., oriental philologist and historian 

Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer 

Eng. Latham, John, ornithologist . 

^ng, — — , Robert G., philologist and ethnologiBt , 



XOBN. 


DIED. 


1756 


1831 


1621 


1695 


1736 


1813 


1816 




1739 


1793 


1762 


1818 


1732 


1807 


1798 


1859 


1732 


1807 


1770 


1832 


1802 




1776 


1834 


1785 


1828 


1748 


1792 


1761 


1842 


1770 


1809 


1782 


1854 


1806 


1866 


1777 


1843 


1771 


1839 


1822 


1862 




1834 




1826 


1802 


1839 


1775 


1864 


1769 


1852 



1801 



1867 



1739 


1819 


1605 


1689 


1735 


17- 




1228 


1769 


1809 


1780 


1863 


1737 


1805 


1732 


1810 


1741 


1789 


1T49 


1827 


1794 




1793 


1859 


1684 


1768 


1760 


1842 


1635 


■ 1687 


1474 


1566 


1762 


1843 


1800 




1470 


1555 


1740 


185J 


1812 





52 THE WORLD'S PEOGKESS. 

NATIOB'. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Laud, "William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition 

Scot. Iiauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History 

Amer, Laurens, John, lieutenant colonel in Bevolutionary war 

Amer. , Henry, patriot and statesman . . 

Ft. Lava'ette, M. C, count de, military commander , 

Fr. La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV 

Swiss. Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist , 

Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist . 

Scot. Law, John, financier of the ' Mississippi Bubble * 

Eng. , "Wm., religious and mystical author . . 

Amer. Lawrence, Abhott, merchant and diplomatist . , 

Amer. , Amos, merchant and philanthropist • 

Amer. , James, captain in U. 8. Navy . 

Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh 

Amer. Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher . . 

Eng. Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist , 

Amer. Lear, Tobias, secretary to "Washington, diplomatist 

Fr. Lebrim, Pontius D. E., poet . • . 

Swiss. Leclerc, John, eminent critic . . • ^ , 

Amer. Le Conte, John, naturalist ... 

Amer. — ^ , John L. M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) 

Amer. '■ ,'John, M. D., naturalist, (Georgia) . 

Fr. Ledru-KoUin, Alex A., jurist and politician . 

Amer, Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman 

Amer. Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman . , 

Amer. , Charles, oflleer in the Revolution , • 

Amer. , Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . . , 

Amer. — 7—, Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence , 

Eng. — — , Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist . , 

Amer, — : — , Henry, general in Revolutionary War , 

Amer. , Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies 

Amer. ——, Richard Henry, pres. of Congress .^ . 

Eng. — — , Samuel, D, D., oriental scholar . . 

Eng. , Sophia, Miss, novelist . , » 

Eng. Leech, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. , 

Fr. Lefebvre, Pranjois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of France 

Amer, Legare, Hugh 8., jurist, statesman and litterateur . 

Fr. Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician . . . 

Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer 

Ger, Leibnitz, Godfrey William, able and learned philosopher . 

Eng. Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth 

Eng. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . , 

Scotch. Leigliton, Robert, able prelate . . 

Amer. Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer . 

Amer. Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . 

Eng. — ■ , John, eminent divine and author . 

Irish. , Thomas, eminent divine and author . 

"Pol. Lelewel, Joachim, historian . 

Fr. Lemaitre, Fred., actor . . . 

Eng. Lemon, Mark, humorist, editoi* of ' Punch ' 

Eng. Lempri6re, John, hiographer and lexicographer 

Fr. L'Enclos, Ninon de, noted courtezan . 





BORN. 


DIED 


I . 


1573 


1643 




1784 


1848 




1756 


1782 




1724 


1792 




1769 


1830 




1644 


1710 




1741 


1801 




1743 


1794 




1671 


1729 




1686 


1761 




1792 


185& 




1786 


1852 




1781 

18.7 


1813 




1792 






1777 


1860 




1760 


1826 




1729 


1807 




1657 

1784 


1736 




1825 
1818 






1808 






1751 


1788 




1740 


1782 




1730 (?) 


1782 


(abt.) 1800 






1734 


1797 




1T50 


1824 




1756 


1816 




1808 






1732 


1794 




1783 


1852 




1750 


1824 




1817 


1864 


ce 


1755 


1820 




1797 


1843 




1753 


1833 




1802 


1840 




1646 


1716 




1532 


1588 




1752 


1842 




1613 


1684 
1691 




1824 






1691 


1766 




1772 

1786 


1T85 




1798 
1809 






1824 






1615 


168S 



lUTIOM, 

Dutch. 
Dutch. 

Eng. 
Pr. 

Ital, 
G«r. 
Gr. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

KU£S, 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Tt. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ataer. 

Scot. 

Etig. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Bcot. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Amei 

Ger. 

BUSB. 

Eng. 

Dutch 

Ital 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Eug. 



BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. 

NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Lennep, David J. van, juriat and poet , , 

, Jan van, poet and novelist , , 

Lennox, Charlotte, aathoieas, (born in N. T.) . . 

Lenormand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer 
Leo, the name of twelve popes and six Byzantine emperors 
Leo X, pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts 
Leo, Henry, historian .... 
Leonidas I., kiiig of Sparta, the hero of Theimopylse . f. 
Leopold I, king of the Belgians ,, . , 

— I, emperor of Germany . , , 

Vi, " " . . 

II, " " . 

Lepidus, noted Boman family , , , 

Lepsius, Karl Rich., traveller and Egyptologist , 
Lermontort, Michael, puet .... 
Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist , , 

Leroy de St. Arnaud, J. A., marshal of France, general in chief 
Lesage, Alain Rene, novelist and dramatist, 'Gil Bias' 
Leslie, Charles Bobt., artist and author ... 
, Jolin, bishop, theological writer . , 

, John, mathematician and natural philosopher . 

Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist . . , 

Lessing, Gotthold E., critic and author . , , 

Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author . « 

L'Estiange, Sir Roger, political writer ... 
Leuret, Francis, anatomist .... 
Le Vaillant, Fran:i, traveller and ornithologist , , 

Lever Chas. Jas., novelist , . , , 

Leverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author . . 

Leverriei', Urbain J. J., astronomer ... 
Le Vert, Octavia W., authoress . • . , 

Leviznc, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher 
Lewes, George Henry, miscellaneous author 
TiCwis, Francis, sig.,er of the Declaration of Independence 

, Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c. 

— — , Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer. Monk Lewis 

, Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author , 

, Samuel, educationist ... 

, Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman . 

, Taylor," classical scholar and author . , 



Leyden, John, author • . . . , 

L'Hopital, Michel de, chancellor of France 

Liehtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher 

Lieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born in Berlin) 

Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist . , 

Lieven, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist . , 

Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author . , 

Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer and author , 

Liguori, Alfons M, de, saint and theological writer , 

Lilly, George, dramatist . • , . , 

, John, the Euphuist dramatic writer , , 

, William, astrologer .... 





63 


BORN. 


DIED. 


1774 




1802 




1710 


1804 


1772 


1843 


ts. 1475 


1521 


1799 




. B. c. 491 




1790 


186- 


1640 


1705 


. 1747 


1792 


1797 




B. c. 200 


36 


1811 




1811 


1841 


1798 




f 1801 


1854 


1668 


1747 


1794 


1859 


1570 


1671 


1766 


1832 


1805 




1729 


1781 


1815 




1616 


1704 


1797 


18r)l 


1753 


1824 


1806 




1803 


1836 


1811 




1820 






1813 


1817 




1713 


1803 


1754 


1832 


1773 


1818 


1774 




1799 


1854 


1806 




1802 




1775 


1811 


1504 


1573 


1742 


1790 


1800 




1803 




1784 


1857 


1735 


1814 


1735 


1814 


1696 


17S7 


1693 


1739 


1653 


1600 


1602 


1681 



54 



THE WOELD'S PBOGBESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PBOFEeSIOM. BOBN. DIED. 

Dutch. Limborch, Philip, theologian and author . . . 1633 1711 

Amer. Xlucoln, Abraham, staleoman, 16th president of the U. S. . 1809 1865 

Amer. , Benjamin,* major-general iu the Revolutionary War . 1733 1810 

^mgr. , Levi, attorney -general of the U. S. (from Mass.) . 1749 1820 

_^nier. , Levi, governor of Massachusetts . . , 1782 

Swe. Lind, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist . . . 1821 
Eug. Lindley, John, botanist ..... 1799 

Eng. Liniisay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of Travels, &c. 1812 

Scot. , Sti David, poet . . . . (abt) 1490 1555 

Swe. Ling, Peter E., pliysiologist and poet . . . 1776 1839 

Eng. Lingard, John, author uf History of England' . . 1771 1851 

Er. . Linguet Simon N. H., political writer and historian . . 1736 1794 

Swe. Linnseu's, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists . 1707 1778 

Lipsius, Justus, critic ..... 1547 1606 

Eng. Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon 1801 1S42 

Eng. Listen, John, comic actor . ...» 1776 1846 

Hung. Liszt, Francis, performer on piano . . . 1811 

Eng. Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist . • . • 1481 

Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 1781 1840 

Amec Livermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author . 1811 

Bug. Liverpool, Robert BankbJenliinson, earl of, premier • 1770 1828 

Amer. Livingston, Erockholst, soldier and jurist . . ■ 1757 1823 

_^mer. , Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman . 1764 1836 

Amer. ', Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence • 1716 1778 

j^mer. , Robert R., statesman and jurist . . 1747 1813 

j^jnei. — ■ , William, governor of New Jersey and poet • 1723 1790 

Scot. Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa . 1815 1866 

Rom. Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated historian . • , b. c. 59 A. d. 17 

Span. Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &c. , • 1756 1823 

Eng. Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author .... 1729 1783 

Fr. Lobau, count, marshal of France . . . 1770 1838 

Eng. Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician . . 1633 1704 

Scot. Lockhart, J. G-., critic and novelist, editor of ' Quarterly' . 1794 1854 

Eng. Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ' Portraits' . . 1756 1839 

Ind. Logan, English name of a famous Indian chief . . 1780 

Arjier. , James, colonial statesman and author . . . 1674 1751 

^juer. , John A , major-general in Sherman's campaign, M. C. 

Eng. Lofft, Capel, author ...... 1751 1824 

Irish. Lola-Montez. Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer • 1824 1861 

Lollard, Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne . • 1S22 

Buss. Lomonozoflf, Michael V., poet and historian • . 1711 1765 

Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman . • 1769 1F22 

Amer. Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author . 1784 

Amer. Longfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist . , ■ . 1807 

Or. Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher . f. b. c. 250 

Eng. Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house . . 1699 1755 

Amer. Longstreet, Aug s., jurist and author . . • 1790 

Amer. , Jai i, rebel general . . • • 

Er. Longueville, /. . G., duchess, politician . . • 1619 1679 

Amer. Longworth, ucilas, extensive wine manufacturer . t l''S2 1865 

Amer. Loomis, El'. "hysicist, astronomer . . * 1811 

Span. Lope de V ,/arplo Felix, poet and dramatist . . 1562 1638 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEXi 



hi 



NATIOir. NAME AND PEOFESSION. BOEN. DIED. 

Fr. Lorraine, Charles de, cardinal and politician , • 1524 1574 

Amer. Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist ... 1813 
Scot. Loudon, J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agriculture, 

and ai-chitecture . , . , . 1783 1813 

EnR. , Mrs. Jane "W., horticultural -writer ... 1800 1858 

FrenchJiOUIS, the name of eighteen kings of Franco . • 

Louis I., the Debonnaire ..... 778 840 

« IX, Saint . . . . , 1215 1270 

»* XL, ethofhouseof Valois .... 1428 1483 

XII., 8th " " . . . . 1462 1515 

XIIL, 2d Bourbon ..... 1601 1643 

XIV., 3d "...., 1638 1715 

XV., 4th '« . . . . . 1710 1T74 

XVI. . . . . . 1754 1793 

XVIL . . . . . , 1785 1795 

XVIIL ...... 1755 1824 

Pr. Louis, baron, eminent surgeon .... . 1S3T 

Fr. Phi.ippe, liing of the French ... 1773 1850 

Fr. Napoleon. Sec Bonaparte. 

Scot. Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason . . 1667 1747 

Amer. Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist ... 1811 1864 

Amer. , Kev. E. P., abolitionist journalist . . 1802 1837 

Irish. Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer ... 1797 

Irish. Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon . . 1769 1844 

Amer. Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author ... 1782 1861 

Amer. , James Russell, poet and critic • • • 1819 

Amer. , John, lawyer and philanthrop'st ... 1T69 1840 

Amer. ^——, John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute . . 1799 1836 

Ajner. -, Mary, iMrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer . . 1810 

Amer. Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union . 1722 1800 

Amer. , William J , statesman . . , ■ , 1782 1861 

Eng. , William Thomas, 'Biblio- Manual' ... 1S43 

Eng. Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author . . 1710 1787 

Span Loyola, Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits . « 1491 1556 

Eng. Lucan, 6. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea . . 180O 

Rom, , Marcus Aiinaens, Latin poet . ... 37 

Gr. Lucian, celebi-ated writer • • • • 120 210 

Rom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist , , , b. c. 148 b. c. 191 

Ger. Lucke, Gott C. F., theologian • • , . 1792 1855 

Rora. Lucretius, Caius Titus, eminent poet . . b. c. 95 

Rom. Lucullus, wealthy warrior . . , , b. c. ll.'j b; c. 49 

Eng. Ludlow, Edmund, republican judge of Charles L • . 1620 1693 

Span. Lully, Raimond, ' the enlightened doctor' , 1235 1315 

Amer, Lundy, Benjamin, abolifonist • . • • 1789 1839 

Amer. Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist . , 

Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformatioa, , 1484 1546 

Irish. Luttrell, Henry, poet . ^ . . • 5 , . 1851 

Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, military officer . • , >. . 1628 1695 

Gr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator . . , b. c. 898 

Eng. Lydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) « . , . 1875 1461 

Scot. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller , ,. 1797 

Amer. Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of Independei ^ 1749 1779 



56 



THE world's progress. 



KATiOir. NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Amer. Lynch, ■William P., captain U. 8. navy, Suthor of • Dead Sea,' 
Eng. Lyndhurst, lord, Btatesman and jurist (born in Boston) 
Amer. Lyou, Mary, teacher and philanthropist 

Amer. , Matthew, politician . . . 

Amer. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell afWilson's Creek 

Gr. Lysander, famous Spartan general ... 
Gr. Lysias, orator . . . • • 

Gr. Lysimiichus, one of Alexander's generals , • 

Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, poet and historian • 





BORN. 


DIB IX 


I,' &0. 


1805 
1772 






1797 


1849 


, 


1746 


1822 




1819 


1861 
B. 0. 395 


B. 


C. 459 




B. 


c. 360 


B. 0. 281 




1709 


1763 



m, 

Fr. Mahillon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . . 

Scot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . 

Irish. Macartney, 6«o., earl of, diplomatist . , . 

Eng. Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, historian, critic and statesman 

Eng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery statesman , 

Eng. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer . 

Scot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11th century . * 

Irish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . 

Irish. MacClure, Sir B. J,, discoverer of North-west passage 

Amer. Maoconnell, John L., novelist , . 

Amer. Maccorst, David J„ political writer . . 

Scot. Maccosh, James, clergj'man and author 

Scot. Macculloch, J. R., political economist and statistician 

Amer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies 

Amer. McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union Army 

Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. . 

Scot. Macdiarmid, John, author . . . 

Scot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine , . 

Er. Macdonald, 8. T. A., marshal of France . 

Amer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. S. Navy, victor on Lake 

Cbamplain . . . ' . 

Amer. McDowell, Irwin, commander Union Army . . 

■ Amer. Macduffle, Geo., U. 8. senator from South Carolina . 

Scot. Macgillivray. "Wm., naturalist . . . 

Scot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . 

Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics . 

Scot. Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer 

Amer. Mackean, Thos,, .jurist, statesman, signer of Deo. of Ind. 
Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels 

Soot. Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North . . 

Irish. Mackenzie, Robt. S., journalist, &c. . . 

Amer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist . . 

Scot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . 

Irish. Maoklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . , 

Scot. Macknight, James, divine and author . . . 

Aust. Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general , 

Amer. MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist . . 

Scot. Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician ^ 

Amer. Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. S. Supreme Court 

£iig. MacLean, L. E. L., (MisB Laadon), poet and novelist 



• 


1632 


1707 


, 


1756 


1836 


. 


173T 


1806 


esman 


1800 


1859 


, 


1768 


1838 




1733 


1791 


• 


1819 
1807 




, 


1826 






1797 


1855 


, 


1810 






1789 


1864 


, 


1826 




n Army 








1773 


1835 


, 


1779 


1808 




1720 


1790 


. 


1765 


1840 


Lake 








1783 


1825 


, 


1818 






1788 


1851 


, 


1796 


1852 




1797 


1857 


• 


1469 
1812 


1527 




1734 


ISIT 




1803 


1849 


. 


1745 


1831 




1809 




(abt.) 1810 




. 


1766 


1832 




1690 


1796 


. 


1721 


1800 




1752 


1828 


• 


1786 


1857 




1698 


174« 


, 


1785 






1804 


183S 



BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX. 



57 



XATtON. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Irish. Ma-clise, Daniel, historical paiutef . , , 

Amer. Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author . . 

Amer. Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer , , 

Scot. Maclure, William, geologist, &c . . , 

Fr. MacM:ilion, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal , 

Scot. MacNab, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman . 

Irish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. Y.) 

Amer, Macomb, Major-Geiieral AJex., military commander 

Amer. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N. Carolina 37 years 

Scot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer , 

Amer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion 

Eng. Macready, "Wm. Chas., tragedian . 

Scot. Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox 17T2 

Eng. Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author 

Ger. Maddler, Johann Henry, astronomer . . , 

Ajner. Madison, James, 4tb president of United States 
Welsh. Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America . 

Span. Madoz, Pascuale, statesman and author 

Bom. Maecenas, Caius C, minister of Augustus and patron of literature 

Ital. Maftei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. . , 

Amer. Maffltt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . • 

Irish. Magee, Wm., arcnbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) , 

Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator . . 

Fr. Magendie, Francis, physiologist . , . 

Irish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 

Fr. Magnan, Bernard Piene, marshal of France . . 

Amer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author 

Bar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which bears his 
name ...... 

Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Siiltan, conqueror of Constantinople 

Fr. Maimbourg, Loiiis, historian . . . 

Jew. Maimonides, Moses, celebrated rabbi . . • 

Fr. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen . , 

Ital. Maio, Angelo, discoverer and editor of Latin classics . 

Ilal. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author . • 

Eng. Maittiiire, Michael, bibliographer, &c. . . , 

Heb. Malachi, the prophet . . • • 

Swiss. Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian and author , . 

Amer. Malcom, Howard, clergyman and anthor . • 

Scot, Malcolm, Sir John, ' History of Persia and India' . . 

Fr, Malebranche, Nicholas, metaphysician . . 

Fr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) . , 

Ital. Malibran, M. F., Madame, vocalist . . , 

Fr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet . . • . 

Scot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer . , . 

Swiss. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian .... 

Eng. Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . . 

Eng. , Jas. H.H., (son of above), statesman , . 

Eng. , William of, historian . . , 

Eng. Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . . . 

ItaL Malphighi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist , 

Eng. Malthy, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist . . 



B9RN. 


DIED. 


1811 




1774 


1833 


1821 




1763 


1840 


1807 




1798 




1763 


1841 


17R2 


1841 


3 1757 


1831 


1738 


1796 


18-J8 


1864 


1793 




nox 1772 


1835 


1801 




1794 




1751 


1836 


12 th cent. 


1806 




re 


B. C. 9 


1675 


1755 


1794 


1850 


1765 


1831 




1521 


1783 


1855 


1793 


1842 


1791 


1864 


1810 




lis 

569 


632 


1430 


1480 


1610 


1686 


1131 


1204 


, 1685 


1719 


1753 


1821 


166S 


1747 


. B. C. 


5th cent. 


1787 


18G4 


1799 




1769 


1833 


1638 


1715 


1721 


1794 


. 1808 


1836 


1555 


1628 


1702 


1765 


1730 


1807 


1746 


1820 


1807 






1143 


1741 


1812 


1628 


1694 


1770 


185S 



5B 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIOH. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Pers. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

ItaL 

Ital. 

Er. 

Bom. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Pers. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Dan. 

Fr. 

Auat. 

Span. 

ItaL 

Span. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Eom. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Atder, 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Malte Brun, Conrad, poet and geographer • 

■ , M., geographer . « , 

Malthus, T. R., political economist . . 

Mamiani, Terenze, count, statesman and author . 

Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author 

Manes, or Manichaeua, founder of the Manichaean sect 

Manfred, prince of Tarentum, king of Two Sicilies 

Mtnin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . 

Mann, Horace, statesman and educ;itionist . 

Manning, Henry E., clergyman and author . 

Miinsel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian . 

Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior . 

Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general . , , 

, Wra. Murray, Karl of,, jurist and statesman 

Mantell, G. A., geologist . , . 
Manutius Aldus, celehrated printer and author 
, the Younger, printer and author , 



Paulus, (son of Manutius), printer 



BORtr. 
. 1775 

1766 
1799 
1300 
239 
(abt.) 1231 
1804 
1798 
1812 
1815 
1585 
1803 

. 1705 
1790 
1447 
1547 
1512 
1784 
17r)4 

B. c. 267 
1256 
1786 

1492 
1 i>9 



Manzoni, author of T. Promessi Sposi . , 

Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist • 
Maroellus, Marcus Claudius, general . , 

Marco Polo, Venetian traveller , • 

Marcy, "Wm, Learned, statesman . • • 

Mardonius, Persian general in Greece . 

Margaret of AngoulSme, queen of Navarre 
Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England 
Margaret of Austria, daughter of Max'mil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 
Margaret, queen of Denmark, &c., ' Semiramis of the North ' . 1353 
Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1552 

Maria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787 
Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (horn at Naples) . 1806 
Maria de Medici, queep of Henry IV. of France . . 1574 

Mariana, John, celebrated historian . . ' . . 16S7 

Maria Theresa, empress of Germany . . • 1717 

Marie- Amelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) . , 1782 

Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . . 1755 

Mariette, Aug. E., ^Egyptologi'^t and explorei: . , ,1821 

Mario, Giuseiipe, m:irquis of Candia, vocalist . , 1810 

Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution 
Marius, Caius, famous.general and demagogue , . b. c, 153 

Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior . , 1650 

Marmont, A. ,F. V., dnke of Ragusa, marshal of France and 

traveller .... .. . . . 1773 

Marmontel, Jqhn Francis, celeljrated writer . . . 1723 

Marlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatic poet . • . 1564 

Mapes, James J., agriowHurist . . , . 

Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi • 1637 

Marrast, Armand.joTunalist and politician . » . 1800 

Mars, Mademoiselle, actress ... • • 1778 

Marsden, oriental traveller and.historian . . . 1755 



DIBA 

1828 



1372 

2r 



1857 
1859 



1626 
1862. 
1793 
185- 
1517 
1597 
1574: 

1793 
;. 208 
1323 
1857 
!. 479 
1549 
1481 
1530 
1412 
1612 
1847- 

1642 

1624 
1780 

1793 



1722 

1852 
1799 
1593 
1865 
1G75 
1852 
1847 

ie3« 



Marsh, Anne, novelist , , . , 

Marsh, Geo, Eerldne, philologist and diplomatist 



(abt.) 1800 
. 1801 



BlOGBAPHrOAL iNBEX, 



US 



VAttOltt NAME AND PBOFEFaiOK. 

Eng. Marsh, Hel'bert, tiishop of Peterboiough, theological writai; 
Amer. Marsh, James, metnpliysician . . , 

Amer. Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. Si, biographer , 

Eng. Maiehnian, Joshua, missioiuiry in India, and author 
Eng. Marstoii, John, poet and draiuatiBt . . , 

Kom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist , . 

Eng. Martin, £enj>, optician and author » « 

Fr, Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . » , 

Alner. Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian * 

£ng. Martineau, Harriet, miscellaneous autlioress . « 

Eng. — , James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author 

trus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor • t 

Span. Miirtinez de la Rosa, don Franc, statesman and litterateur 
Oetk Maitius, C. F. P. Ton, botanist and traveller . 

Engl Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia . 

Mnrtyr, Justin, Christian apolcigist « « 

ItaL " ■■■ , Peter, reformer and theologian . « 

Eng. Marvell, Andrew, author and statesman « . 

Eng. Miiry I., first queen regnant of England . . 

Eng. ■= — , II., queen regnant with Wm. of Orange . 

Scoti -= — Stuart, qtieen of Scots . . « , 

Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller < « 

Eng. Maseres, Francis, 'baron,' mathematician « . 

Eng. Maskeleyne, Nevil, astronomer . . , 

Amer. Mason, George, statesman «... 
Amer. - ' — " , Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman . ' . 

Amer. ^=— , John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial fdrOes . 

Eng. ^ John, divine and author . . . 

Amer. ^ • " -- , John M., eminent divine , . , 

Amer. • ' " "'"■' , John, M., senator from Virginia, rebel . 

Amer. =-, John Y., statesman and minister to France , 

Amer. •= — — ^, Lowell, mttsical teacher and composer « 

Eng. , William, divine and poet . . , 

tnd. Massasoit, sachem of the WampanOags . 
Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals 
Eng. M.ifisey, Gerald, poet . . . , 

Fr. Marisillon, John Baptist, e'oquenf divine . . 

Massinissa, king of Numidia . . « . (al 

Boot. Masson, David, biographer and essayist . , 

Eng. Maunder, Samuel ' Treasury of Knowledge' > , 

Amer. Mather, Cotton, divine and author , , 

Amer. -'^= , Increase, clergyman and atithor . , 

Irish. Mathew, Theobald, ' Apostle of Temperance ' 

Eng. Mathias, Thomas, author of ' Pursuits of Literature' . 

Eng. M:itihew of Westminster, historian 

tng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist . , 

Amer. 'Matthias' (Robert Matthews), religious IrapoUtor . 

Fr. Matter, Jacques, philo.-opher and historian . , 

trish. Maturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet 

teng. M;iundrell, Rev. Henry, traveller in the East . . 

S'r. MaupertUis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. 

fiol. Maurioe, Count of Nassau, and Prince of OrangOj etadtholder 



fiOHX 


1)1 ED. 


1758 


1839 


1794 


1847 


. 1756 


1835 


1767 


lt?37 


abt.) 1670 


1634 


40 


100 


1704 


1782 


. 1704 


1783 


1810 




1764 


184« 


1800 




1763 


1835 


1786 




. 1781 


1812 


103? 


1679 


. 1500 


1561 


1621 


1678 


1515 


1558 


1662 


1694 


1542 


1587 


1792 


1848 


1731 


1824 


1732 


1811 


1726 


1792 


17^8 


1848 


1600 


1673 


1706 


1763 


nro 


1829 


. 1793 


1859 


1792 




1725 


1797 




1661 


. 1758 


181T 


1828 




1663 


1742 


B. Ci 2i0 B. 


0, 148 


1823 




1790 


1849 


1663 


1728 


1639 


1723 


1790 


1856 


4 1750 


1835 


13th cent. 


1776 


1835 


(abt) 1790 


183- 


1791 




1782 


1825 


1650? 


1710 


1698 


1759 


1687 


1625 



60 



THE WOELB'S PHOGBEBS. 



NATIOK. NAME ANn PROFESSIONt 

ICng. Maurice, Jno. Fred, D., clergyman and author . 
Eng. ' — , Thos. Rev., biBtory of Hindostan, &o» , 

Mauricius, Flavins Tib., Byzantine emperor « 

Amer. Maury, Matthew F., naval officer, astronomer, rebel, &o. 

Fn ) John Siffirein, cardinal and statesman , 

Eng. Mavor, Rev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &c. . 
Ger. Mavrocordato, statesman . . , 

Eng. Mawe, Joseph, mineralogist and coBchologist > . 

Ger. Maximilian I., emperor of Gtrroaiiy . » 

Ger. , prince, emperor of Mexico , , 

Rom. Maximinus, Cains J. V., emperor of Rome » 

Eng. Maxwell, Wm. R., ' Life of Wellington,' &c. . • 

Amer. Mayer, Brantz, lawyer and historioal writer , 

Ger. Mayer, Johann T., astronomer . . 

Eng. Mayhew, Henry, Edward, ThomaSj and Horace, brothers, 

morous and miscellaneous writers . , 

▲mer. -^ — • — , Jonathan, clergyman and author . • 

Fr, Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman , , 

Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks . , 

Ital. Mazzini, Giuseppe, democratic politician (Genoa) . 
Amer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac , 

Amer. ■ ' ■ ■ , Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author 
I.Amer.Meagher, Thos. F>, gen. in Union armies, gov. Idaho 
Eng. Medhurst, "Walter H., tmental scholar and missionary 

Medici, Hippolytus, cardinal .... 

, Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany 

' ■ , * pater patriae,' Florence 



(shot) 



hu 
(abt) 



Ital, 

Ita.1. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Turk. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Gr, 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Port. 

Span. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Russ. 

Bubs. 

G«r. 

Ger. 



-, Lorenzo de, poet, gov of Florence, and patron of arts 
-, Fietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts 



Mehemet-Ali, paeha of Egypt . , , ' 

Meiners, Christopher, historian . . , 

Melanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer , , 

Melbourne, Wm. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman . . 
Mellen, Grenville, poet . . . . ^ 

Melmoth, "Wm., 'Letters,' translation of Cicero, &c. , 

" - , ' Religious Life ' . , 

MelviUe, Andrew, religious reformer . , • 

, Herman, author of travels, romances . 

- — ■■ , Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author . 

Menander, comic poet .... 
Mendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer 

- — ■ , Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher 

Mendez-Pinto, Femam, adventurer, unjustly famed for lying 
Mendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and statesman 
Mengs, Anton Rafiiel, painter and writer on art . 
Meninski, Francis M., learned orientalist . . 
Mentchikoflf, Alex., prince, statesman , , 
, Alex., 8., admiral . . , 



Menno-Simonis, reformer, founder of 'Mennonites' 
Menzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian . . 

Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, geographer 

Amer. Mercer, Hugh, general in the Revolutionary yr%t . 



»OEjf. 


bits 


1805 




1755 


1821 


539 


60!t 


1806 




1746 


1817 


1758 


1837 


1790 




1T55 


1829 


1459 


1519 


) 1834 


1867 




233 


1795 


1851 


1809 




1723 


1763 


) 1812 




1720 


1766 


1602 


1661 




1709 


1809 




1815 




1789 






1867 


1796 


1857 


1511 


1535 


1519 


_ 1574 


1389 


1464 


1448 


1492 




1469 


1769 


1849 


1747 


1810 


1497 


1360 


1779 


1848 


1799 


1841 


1710 


1799 


1666 


1743 


1545 


1622 


1819 




1535 


1607 


C 342 


B. c. 290 


1809 


1847 


1729 


1786 


1510 


1580 


1503 


1575 


1728 


1779 


1623 


1698 


1672 


1769 


1789 






1561 


1798 




1512 


1694 


im 


1777 



fllOGKAlPHlCAL INDfiX. 



61 



WATtOW. NAME AND PEOFESSIOH. 

Amer. Meigs, Return J., revoL officer . 

Amer. Meriara, Ehen, statistician and meteorologist 

Fr. M6rim(5e, Prosper, novelist . . 

Eng. Merivale, Charles, historian • • 

Eng. • , Jolin Herman, poet , 

Swiss. Merle d'Aubign6, J. H., D. D., historian . 

Fr. Merovasus, founder Merovingian dynasty 

Fr. Mery, Joseph, poet and novelist . . 

Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., founder of 'Mesmerism' 

Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet . . 

Eng. Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada 

Bom. Metellus, the name of several famous plebeians . 

Aust. Metternich, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist 

Dutch. Meursius, John, erudite critic . . , 

Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer . . 

Eng. Meyrick, Sir Saml. E., antiquarian author « 

Fr. Mezerai, Francis de, historian . • 

Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist . , 

Gr. Miaulis, naval commander . • • 

Heb. Micah, the Prophet . • . . 

Ital, Micarl, Guiseppe, historian . . , 

Ger. Michaelis, John David, learned orientalist and critic • 

Ft. Michaud, Joseph, historian - . • • , 

Fr. Michaux, Andre, botanist, (' Sylva Americana ') . . 

Fr. Michel, Francisque, archaeologist . . . ■ 

Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian ..... 

Ger. Michelet, Karl Ludwig, philosophical writer . . . 

Pol. Mickiewicz. Adam, poet . . . . • 

Eng. Mickle, Willi.im J. poet, translator of ' Ltieiad,' ftc. • 

Eng. Middleton, Conyere, divine and elegant writer . « 

Amer. , Arthur, patriot and statesman . « , 

Eng. , Thomas, dramatist .... 

Amer. Mifflin, Thomas, general in Revolutionary War , . 

Fr. Mignet, P. A., historian ..... 

Port. Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal 

Amer. Milbum, William Henry, ' blind preacher ' and author 

Scot. Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist 

Eng. , John Stuart, political philosopher . > 

Eng. Millais, John Everett, 'pre-Raph;ielite' painter . , 

Amer. Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c., (' I'll try, sir') 
Eng. ■ , Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests , 

Scot. , Hugh, geologist ..... 

Amer. -, William, founder of the ' Millerites,' or second adventists 

Fr. Mllleroye, Charles Hubert, poet 

Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, naturalist, &c 

Eng. Millman, Henry Hart, Rev,, poet and historian 

Fr. Millot, Claude Francis Xavler, historian 

Eng. Mills, Charles, historian . . . 

Fr. Milne-Edward, Henri, naturalist 

Eng. Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman 

Eng. Milner, Joseph, author of ' Church History ' 

Amer. Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman 



fiOBM. 

1740 
1794 
1800 

1779 
1794 
411 
1798 
1734 
1698 
1785 
3. 250 
1773 
1579 
1791 
1783 
1610 
1774 
1772 



DIED. 

1823 
1864 



1844 

457 

1815 
1782 
1846 
69 
1859 
1639 



1717 
1767 
1746 
1809 
1798 
1801 
1798 
1734 
1683 
1743 

1744 
1796 
1802 
1823 
1775 
1806 
1829 
1776 
1634 
1802 
1781 
1782 
1759 
1791 
1726 
1788 
1800 
1809 
1744 
1773 



1848 
1682 
1849 
1835 
f, B. c. 750 
1839 
1791 
1839 
1802 



18.56 
1788 
1750 
1787 
1627 
1800 



1830 



1831 
1738 
1856 
1849 
1816 



1785 
1826 



1797 
1844 



63 



THE WOELB's PEOGEESS, 



KATIOKi 

€r, 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer6 

Eom. 

Mex. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer, 

Amer» 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Gen 

Turk. 

Bar. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Scot. 

Pr. 

Hoi. 

Eng. 

S-r. 

Er. 

Span. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

BwisB 

Swiss. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

El-. 

Eng. 

teng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

fr. 

fr. 

fr, 

Pr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



KAMG A?7D FBOFESSIOR. 

MiltiadeS) illustrious Athenian general , • 

Milton, John, tlie Homer of Britain . . 

Mini6, Claude E., inventor of the Mini6 rifle-btillet . • 

Minot, George R., historian ...» 

Miiiutiua^Felix, Marcus, christian writer . * 

Miramoa, Mguel, military leader . . . 

Mira,nda, Francis, revolutionary general . . 

MirabeaU) H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated character in the 

Revolution and author .... 
Mirbel, Charles F, B. de, naturalist . . 

Mitchel, Oraisby M., astronomer and patriotic general 
Mitchell, Donald G., essayist > . . 

-■ • — ■ ■' ) Maria, astronomer . . • . 

— , Samuel I.., celebrated physician and naturalist 

-, Thomas, classical scholar and critic . 



Mitford, Mary Tltissell, novelist and essayist 

', Rev. John, editor of poets, 

, William, historian and philologist 

Mithridates, king of Pontus, warrior 

Mitscherlich, E., chemist 

Mittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman 

Mohamraed'Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) 

—^■- -=--Beii Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites 

Mohler, Johann Adam R,, catholic theologian . 

Mohs, Fre lerick, mineralogist . 

Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer . 

M0II6, M. L., comte, statesman . . • 

Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist . 

MolesWorth, Sit William, statesman av;d author 
Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian 
Molifere, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist < 

Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author . , 

Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist . , 

Montfortj Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman . 
Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military ofB.cel* 
Moiiod, Adolphe, • reformed pastor ' and author . 

— , Dr. Frederick, ' reformed pastor ' at Paris , 

Monroe, James, statesman, 6th president United States 
Mouse, Gaspar, eminent geometrician . , 

Monsirelet, Engutrrand de, chroniclef , . 

Montagu, Basil, lawyer and author . . 

, n. . , — »j Elizabeth, author of ' dialogues,' &c. , 

.-, Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer . 

Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, statesman and poet 
Montaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist 
Montalembert, Charles P, count, statesman and author 
Montcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada 
Montebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal . . 

Montecuculi, Raimond, warrior 
Montespan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XlV. 
Montesqieu, Charles baron de,- able writel* . . 

Montez, Lola, female adventurer • • > 



XOBN. 


DIGS. 


B. 


0. 489 


. 1608 


1674 


1810 




. 1758 


1802 


8d cent. 




(abt.) 1830 


1867 


1750 


1816 


in the 




1749 


1791 


1776 


1854 


1810 


186- 


. 1822 




1818 




1763 


1831 


1783 


1843 


, 1786 


1855 


1781 


1859 


1734 


1827 


B.C. 123 B 


C. 64 


1794 


1863 


. 1787 




) 1769 


1850 


B f. 1650 




1796 




1774 


1889 


1798 


1851 


1781 


1855 


1822 




1810 


1855 


1754 


1817 


. 1622 


1673 


1585 


1600 


1714 


1799 




1265 


. 1608 


1670 


1802 


1856 


1794 


1863 


1759 


1831 


1746 


1818 


1390 


1453 


. 1770 


1851 


1720 


1802 


1690 


1762 


1661 


1715 


1533 


1692 


1810 




. 1712 


1759 


1769 


1809 


, 1609 


1681 


1641 


1707 


1689 


1755 


1824 


1861 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



63 



NAME AMD PROFESSIOK. 

Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns . 

II, last Atzec emperor . . , 

Montfaucon, Bern, de, archeeologist and author . 
Montgomery, James, poet , . . , 

— • — , Richard, intrepid military officer . 

— —~, Robert, poet .... 

Montholon, comte, secretary and biographer of Napoleon 
Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France . 
Monte, Vincent, poet .... 
Montmorency, noble family of France . . , 

Monlpensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &0 
Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader . 
Moore, Geo, H., author .... 

, Frank H , author . . • . 

, Clement C, writer of verses, &c. . . 

, Jacob Bailey, journalist and author . . 

, John, miscellaneous author 

, Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna 



BATIOH. 
Mex. 
Mex, 
Pr. 

Kng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot 

Scot. 

Ital. Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer 

Eng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . , 

Eug. , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher 

Fr. Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general . , 

Amer. Morflt, Campbell, chemist and author . . 

Amer. Morgan, Daniel, bria;. gen., in revolutionary war . 

Amer. , Jno. Henry, rebel flUibuster general . 

Eng. , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &c. . 

Eng. — , Sir Henry J., buccaneer 

Eng. Moiier, James, novelist, ' Hajji Baba' &c. 

Eng. Moruington, Q. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer 

Fr. Morny, Chas, A. count of, minister of Napoleon HI. , 

Amer. Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player 

Eng. Morrell, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer . 

MoiTis, Geo, P., poet and journalist 

, Gouverneur, distinguished statesman . 

, Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

, Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financ) 

Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist 
, Robert D. D., missionary and philologist 



Amer. 

Amer. 

< 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Scot> 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Heb. 

Ger. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Morse, Jedcdiah, geographer and statistical writer 

, Samuel F, B., artist and inventor of telegraph 

, Sidney E., journalist and geographer . 



Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi . 
Morton, J;is. Douglas, earl of, regent 

, John, signer of Declaration of Independence 

, Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist 

, Wra. T. G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (7) 

Moses, lawgiver of the Jews 

Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastieal historian . 

Motherwell, William, poet ... 

Motley, John Lothrop, historian 

Molt, Lucretia, minister of ' Friends' aad pMlanthropist 

, Valentine, surgeon and author . , 



BOBK. 


DIED. 




1471 


1480 


1520 


• 1665 


1741 


1771 


1854 


1737 


1776 


1807 


1855 


1783 


1863 


1493 


1667 


1753 


1828 


10th to 19th century 


1627 


1693 


1612 


1661 


1779 


1863 


. 1797 


1853 


1728 


1802 


1761 


1809 


1526 


1555 


1744 


1833 


1614 


1687 


. 1763 


1813 


1820 




1736 


1802 


1780 


1859 


, 1637 


1690 


1780 


1849 


1720 


1784 


1811 


1865 


, 1837 




, 1703 


1784 


. 1802 


1864 


1752 


1816 


1726 


1798 


cier 1703 


1806 


1782 


1834' 


1782 


1834 


1761 


1827 


1791 




1794 




1768 


1835 


1530 


1581 


(Penn) 1724 


1777 


1799 


1851 


) . 1819 




. B. c. 1571 B. 


C. 1451 


1695 


1755 


1797 


1835 


^ 1814 




1793 




1785 


18« 



64 



THE WORLD'S PB0GEES8, 



KATIOX. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit , , 

Ger. Moschus, bucolic poet . . . • f» 

Amer. Moullrie, Wm., general and Btateeman , • 

Mouradgea, D'Ohason, Armenian historian . , 

Anaer. Mowatt (Ritchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress . 

Ger. Mozart, C. "W. T., eminent coroposer 
Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, 
Ger. Muller, C. O., historian, archaeologist classical scholar . 
Swiss. MuUer, John von, celebvated historian, ' Universal History' 

Ger. , John, physiologist . . 

Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. I"., proverbial for 'stories' 

Eng. Manden, Jos. S., comedian . 

Fr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of ifaples 

ItaL Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian . 

Irish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator 

Scot. Murray, Alex., self-tanght linguist 

Scot. , Hugh, geographer (Encyclo) 

Scot. , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent 

Eng. , .John, the elder, eminent publisher 

Amer. , liiudley, grammarian . 

Amer. , Wm., Vans, statesman . « 

Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet . . 

Fr. MuBset, Louis C. A. de, poet , . 



BOBV. 


DIED 


1660 


1717 


B. 0. 160 




. 1731 


1805 


1740 


1807 


[abt) 1826 




1756 


1792 


cc. 1777 


1842 


1797 


1840 


1752 


1809 


1801 


1858 


1720 


1797 


. 1758 


1832 


1771 


1815 


1672 


1750 


1727 


1805 


. 1775 


1813 


1779 


1846 


. 1531 


1570 


1778 


1843 


. 1745 


1826 


1761 


1803 


B. 0. 1243 




1810 


1857 



N. 

Assyr. Nabonassar, first king of the Chaldeana . 

Assyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon 

Pen. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king 

Heb. Nahum, prophet . . 

Irish. Napier, Cbas., Jas., general in India, &c. 

Scot. — : , John, baron, inventor of logarithms 

Eng. , Sir Charles, admiral . . ' , 

Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonapsffte) 

Fr. — , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) , 

Fr. , III., (Louie Napoleon), emperor • 

Eng. N ares, James, musical docto'-, composer . 

Eng. , Rev. Edmund, ' Thinks I to myself 

Pers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor 

Span. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman 

Eng. Nash, Richard, styled ' Beau Nash ' . . 

Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general . 

Pers. NasBir Eddj"n, celebrated astronomer . . 

Span. Navarrete, M»rtin F. de, ' Collect of Voyages' 

Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of the ' History of the Puritans,' &o 

Amer. — — , John, novelist 

Amer. — — , Joseph C, litterateur . . . 

Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastieal historian 

Gr. Neaichus, admiral and voyager . . 

Chald. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon . 

Fr. Xecker, James, eminent financier and statesman 

Swiss. ■ , Madame J. C, wife of James, essayiat 



fl. B. c. 747 




fl, B. c. 626 




1688 


1747 


f. B. c. 


7th cent. 


. 1782 


18.53 


1550 


1617 


1786 


1860 


1769 


1821 


1811 


' 1832 


1808 




. 1715 


1783 


1762 


1841 




567 


1795 




. 1674 


1761 


1567 


1629 


1201 


1274 


1765 


1844 


. 1678 


1743 


1794 




. 1807 


1848 


1789 


1850 


. B, 0. 


4th cent. 




B. 0. 462 


1732 


1804 


1739 


17M 



BIOGEAPHICAL INDEIC. 



65 



IIATIOtr. NAME AND PEOFESSION. 

Eng. Neele, Henry, poet and miscellaneous writer . * 

Swiss. Neff, Felix, apostle of the Alps . . « • 

Heb. Nelxemiah, governor of Judea . . , , : 

Eng, Nelson, Hoiatio, viscount, celebrated admiral , . 

Bom. Nepos, Cornelius, historian . . • « 

Rom. Nero, infamous emperor . . » . 

Rom. Nerva, emperor . . . , . 

Rues. Nesselrode, Charles R., count, statesman and diplomatiBt , 

Gr. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, founder of Nestorians 

Ger. Neukomm, Sigism. chevalier, composer . . , 

Ger> Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. 

Eng. Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer . 

Eng. , Bir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers . 

Eng. , Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies) . 

Pr, Ney, Michael, marshal, ' the bravest of the brave • . 

Gr. Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . > 

RuBB. Nicholas 1., emperor, (1825-55) . . , 

Eng. Nichols, John Bowyer, printer and archaeologist . 

Eng. Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic . 

Eng. — , William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry 

Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer 



Ger. 
Eng, 
Ger. 
G«r. 
Pol. 
Eng, 



Nicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author 
Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquiiry . » 
Niebhur, B, G., statesman and historian 
, Carsten, celebrated traveller , 



Niemcewiez, Julias U., military commander and author 
Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . . 

Amer. Niles, Hezekiah, journalist 'Register' . » 

8we. Nilston, Sven, zoologist . . . . » 

Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author . 
Ger. Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer . 
Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist . . . • 

€Her. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author . . 

Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps. marquis of, novelist and Btatesman 
Eng. North, Francis, Ist lord Guilford, 'lord keeper' . . 

Eng. , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George IIL . 

Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer . . • 

Amer. Norton, Andrews theological, Unitarian author , 

Eng. -^-, Hon. Mrs., poetess ...» 

Amer. Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist pteacher . 

Amer. , Elipbalet, D. D., president of Union College and anther 

Eng. — -, John, poet and translator . . . 

Ger. Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author . . 

Eng. Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) . 

Amer. Noyes, Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . . , 

Irish. Nugent, lord, author of ' Life of Hampden,' &c. . 

Rom. Numa PompiliUB, second king of Rome . , f. b, 

Span. Nunez, Ah a C. de Vaca, explorer . . • 

O. 

Eng. Gates, Titns, Infemons pretender of the • Popish plot' « 
Ft. Oberlln, John Fred., philanthropist . • 

5 



BOBN. 


DIED, 


» 1798 


1828 


1798 


1829 


B. c. 444 




1758 


1801 




B. 0. 30 


37 


68 


82 


98 


1780 


1862 




439 


1778 


1857 


c 1782 




1725 


1807 


1642 


1727 


1704 


1782 


. 1769 


1815 


14th cent. 


1796 


1855 


1807 


1863 


y 1753 


1815 


1786 


1842 


, 1733 


1811 


1790 


1848 


. 1776 


1880 


1733 


1815 


1756 


1841 


. 1777 


1839 


1787 






1851 


1770 


1826 


1783 


1844 


1797 


1863 


1637 


1685 


1732 


1792 


1746 


1837 


. 1790 


1835 


1834 


1859 


1773 


1866 


1761 


1826 


1772 


1801 


1781 


1861 


1805 


1864 




1850 


B. 0. 714 






1564 


. 1619 


170t 


1740 


16d( 



THE WOKLD'S PEOQRESS. 



NATION 

Irish. 

Irish. 

Irish, 

Irish, 

Eng, 

Arab. 

Fr. 

Bar. 

Dan. 

Eng. 

Irisli. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Arab. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gr, 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Span. 

Er. 
Er. 

BuSB. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Gr. 
Irish. 
Irish. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Port. 
Scot. 
Egyp^ 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Ger. 
-Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Entr. 
Bom. 



NAME AND PBOFESSION. 80SN, 

O'Brien, Fitz-James, poet . • • • • 

, Wm. Smith, political agitator « • • 1806 

O'Connell, Daniel, political agitator . . • • 1775 

O'Connor, Fergne, chartist orator . . • • 1795 

Ockley, Simon, orientalist . . , | • 1678 
Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia - . . • 

Odilon-Barrot, C, H,, statesman . . . • • 1791 
Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy . . . • 

Oersted, Hans Ch., discoverer of electro-magnetism . . 1777 

Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia . • . 1698 

O'Keefe, John, dramatist . . . . . 1748 

Oken, Louis, naturalist . . • • . 1778 
Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer . . . « 
Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham .... 1360 

Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methoaist theologian and author . 1797 

Olivan, don ALesB., publicist ... . . « 

Olmsted, Deiiison, professoi-, astronomer, &c. . • 1791 

Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian . • • 1796 

Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . • \ • 581 

O'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napoleon and author • . 1778 

Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons . • 1691 

Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education . . 1771 

Oppian, poet . . . ' . . . f. ISO 
Orange, "William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533 

■, William II., prince of, stadtholder . . . 1626 

, William III., prince of, stadtholder, and king of England 1650 

Orflla, M. J. B,, chemist and toxicologist . • 1787 

Origen, one of the fathers of the church . •. • 186 

Orleans, L. J. P., duke of ' Egalit^,' guillotined . . 1747 

, Fer. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe • 1810 

Orloif, Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . . • 1734 

Onne, Robert, historian of India . . , , • 1728 

Ormond, James Butl'er, duke ofj statesman . • • 1610 
Orpheus, poet, sometimes styled the ' father of poetry' ^ • 

Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy . . 1676 

, Roger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author « 1621 

Orton, Job, dissenting divine and autlior . • • 1717 

Osgood, Frances, poetess .... 1812 

, Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author . . 1812 

Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer 1502 
Ossian, Gaelic hard, supposed to hare lived in the 3d century 
. Osy man dias, king of Egypt , . . . (abt.) 1500 

Otis, James, patriot and statesman . . • • 1725 

, Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist . * • 1767 

Otho L, king of Greece (born in Bavaria) , . . 1815 

Ottley, "Wm, Young, writer on art . . . 1771 

Otway, celebrated dramatist, •Venice Preserved' . • 1651 

Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France ... 1767 
Ouseley, Sir Gore, diplomatist .... 1769 

Overbeck, Fred., founder of modem religious Bchool of art 1780 

Overbury,. Sir Thog., (poisoned in the Tower) . . . 1581 

Ovid, Pub lius,N ISO, poet . . . . B. C, 43 



DIED. 

186E 
186- 
1847 
1855 
1720 
^67 

493 
1851 

1785 
1833 
1851 
1640 
1417 
1851 

1859 
1839 
644 
1836 
'1768 
1853 

1584 
1650 
1702 

253 
1793 
1842 
1783 
1801 
16SS 

1731 
1679 
1783 
1850 

1580 



1772 
1848 
1867 
1836 
1685 
1847 
1844 

1613 
17 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



HATlOir. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Span. Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of ' Voyages in the West InJies ' 
Amer. Owen, David Dale, geologist ,. . , , 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Welsh, 

Amer. 

Eng. 



-, John, independent theologian 
-, Richard, surgeon and naturalist 
-, Robert, political theorist 
-, Robert Dale, statesman and author 



Oxford, Horace Walpole, earl of, author 

P. 

Amer. Paine, Elijah, jurist ..... 

Amer. , Elijah (son of above), jurist . . , 

Amer. , John Howard, dramatist, ' Home, Sweet Home ' 

Amc-r. , Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot . . . 

Amer. , Robert Treat, son, poet, . . . 

Eng. , Thomas, political and deistical writer . . 

Fr. Paixhiin, general, inventor of guns bearing his name . 

Ven. Paez, military commander and president Venezuela i 

ItaL Paganini, Nicolo, famous Violinist . , , 

Eng. Paley, William, eminent divine and author . ' , 

Eng. Palgrave, Sir Francis, antiquarian author .' , 

Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, satirist ... 

Fr. Palissy, Bernard, ' the Potter' . , . 

Ital. Palladio, Andrew, architect .... 

Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist . . 

Eng. Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman . . 

Ger. Panzer, G. W. P., bibliographer . . . 

Ital. Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general . . 

Can. Papineau, L. .J , politician and patriot . . 

Rom. Papinian, .iinilius, civil lawyer .... 

Swiss, Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., alchemist . . 

Eng, Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist , , . . 

Fr, Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe 

Eng. , Matthew, historian .... 

Scot. Park, Milngo, celebrated traveller 

Amer. Parker. Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . 

Eng. Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author . 

ItaL Parma, Alexender Parnese, duke of, regent of the Netherlands 

Irish, Pamell, Thos., poet and divine . , 

Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . . 

Eng. , Thomas, lived 152 years . . 

Eng. Parry, Capt. Edward, Arctic navigator . 

Amer. Parsons, Theophilus, jurist . , . 

Amer. , Theophilus (son), jurist , 

Amer. Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist 

Amer, , Mrs. Sar.ah, ' Fanny Fern,' authoress 

Fr. Pascal, Blaise, emiueiit geometrician and writer 

Russ. Paskewltsch, Ivan F., prince of 'WarBaw, general 

Eng. Pasley, Gen. Sir Chas. W., engineer . 

Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . . 

6er. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Graelc lex.) 

Rom. PaterculuB, Caiua Velleius, historian . . (abt.) b. o. 



1807 
1616 



1771 



1717 



9IED. 

1540 
I860 
1683 

1860 

1797 



1767 


1843 


1796 


1853 


1791 


1851 


1731 


1814 


1773 


1811 


17*8 


1809 


1782 


1854 


17M 




1784 


1835 


1746 


1805 


1788 


1861 


1730 


1815 


1510 


1690 


1518 


1580 


1741 


1811 


1784 


1865 


1729 


1812 


1726 


1806 


1789 




145 


252 


1493 


1541 


1812 


1S62 


1838 






1269 


1771 


1804 


1810 


1860 


1759 


1829 


1546 


1592 


1679 


1717 


1746 


1825 


1483 


16.35 


1790 


1855 


1750 


1813 


1811 




1623 


1662 


1782 


1866 


1781 


1861 


1767 


1862 


1786 


183a 


90 





THB WOKLD'S progress. 



MATION. S^AME AMD PBOFESSIOK. 

Eng. Patmore, Coventry, poet . . , , 

Irish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland . . . 

Eng. , Simon, bishop of Chichester, Bible commentary 

Paul, Father, (see Sarpi) . . , 

Heb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles . . , 

Fr. , St. Vincent de. Catholic missionary . , 

Amer. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist . . 

Rom. Paulus-^milius, Iiucius, fell at Cannae . . 

Gr. Pausanias, spartan commander . , 

Gr. , topographical writer ... 

Eng. Paxton, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect . 
Eng. Payne, Roger, noted book-binder . . . 

Amer. Payson, Edward, D. D., congregational divine . 
Amer. Peabody, Eliz P., educational writer , . 

Amer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer , 

Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician . 

Eng. Pearson, John, bisliop of Chester, ' On the Creed ' 
Port. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria II.) 

Port. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal . v 

Eng. Peel, Sir Robert, 1st baronet, cotton manufacturer . 

Eng. , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman . 

Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) • 

Brit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect « 

Span. Pelayo, first king of Asturias 

Er. Pelissier, A. J. J., duke of MalakoflF, marshal 

Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot 

Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general . 

Fr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist . 

Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of , 

Eng. Penn, Granville, author 

Eng. — '■ — , William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania 

Eng. — '- — , William, founder and legishitor of Penneylvania 

Eng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiq^uary . 

Ital. Pepe, William Florestan, general , « 

Amer. Pepperell, Sir William, general . ... 

Ital. Pepoli, Charles, litterateur , 

Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of ' Diary' 

Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated 

Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic . 

Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromoi-e, ' Religious Ant, Poetry 

Fr. P6r6fixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . 

Eng. Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., 'Materia Medica' • 

Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer . • 

Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman . 

Amer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist . 

Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) 

Amer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c. 

Eng. -: , Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist 

Ft. Perouse, John F. Galaup, circumnavigator , • 

Fr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman . . • 

Amer. Perry, Matthew G., commodore, ('Japan') . , 

Amer. , Oliver Hazard, commodore U. S. navy ■ 



BORN. 

1823 

372 

1626 

1552 

1576 
1779 



B. C. 



DIED. 

493 
1707 
1623 

65? 
1669 
1860 

216 

470 



B. c. 
f. (abt.) 120 
1802 1865 

1739 1797 

1783 1827 

1802 

1799 1848 

1858 

1613 1686 

1837 186- 

1834 

1750 1830 

1850 

1552 1598 

354 

757 

1794 1864 
1789 1854 

B.C. 364 
1807 

1621 

1761 1844 
1621 1670 
1644 1718 
1726 1798 
1780 1855 
1697 1759 
1801 

1632 1703 

1762 1812 

1795 1857 
1728 1811 
1605 1670 
1804 1853 
1710 1736 

c. 490 B. 0. 429 
1785 1864 
1599 1660 
1766 1849 
1764 1854 
1741 1788 
1777 1882 
1T95 1858 
1T85 181S 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



69 



RATIOIt NAME AND FROFESSIOIT. 

Fr. Persigny, Jean G. V., politician aud diplomatist , 
Bom. Persius, Flaccus Aulus, satirist 

Ger. Perthes, Christian Frederick, bookseller, (life by son) 
Rom. Pertiiiax, emperor ..... 
Swiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 
Russ. Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior . , 

Fr. the Hermit, first mover of the crusades . 

Eng. Peters, Hugh, ' fanatic ' . • . • 

Eiig. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, warrior 
Ger. Petermann, August H., geographer . . , 

Amer. Petigrew, Jam«s Louie, of 8. C, Union statesman , 

Potion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti 
Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets 
Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. andh 
Ger. Pfeiffer, Ida, traveller and author 

Rom. PhsedruB, fabulist . . • • • 

Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess , • 

Philip II., king of Macedon, warrior . , . 

St., of Neri, founder of the Oratory • 

PhiUimore, John G., author on law , . 

Phillips, Ambrose, poet and dramatist , , 

, John, poet ♦ Splendid Shilling' . « 

, Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler , 

Philo-Judaeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria . 
Philopceraen, celebrated general . . , 

Phipps, Sir William, colonial governor Massachusetts 
Phocion, eminent Athenian general . . 

Photius, learned patriarch of Constantinople « 

Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. 

Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer . . , 

Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist • 
Pichegru, Charles, eminent general . . , 

Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman . 

, John, philologist . . • . 

Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer 
Pictou, Sir Thomas, general . . , 

Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th president U. S. . 

Pilate, Pontiufl, Roman governor of Judea 
Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist 

, William, distinguished orator and diplomatist 

Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets 

Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author , 

Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, navigator, d-.>!overed Brazil 

Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson 

Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit . . 

Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens . » , 

Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician , 

Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator \ , 

, William, 1st earl of Chatham, statesman 

, William, celebrated statesman, son of Lord Chatham 

Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages 

Pius IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) . , 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng, 

Jeir. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Scot. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

XtaL 



■uun. 
1808 


VJL&M 


34 


62 


1772" 


1848 


126 


193 


1745 


1827 


1672 


1725 


1050? 


1115 


1599 


1660 


1658 


1735 


1789 


1863 


1770 


1818 


1304 


1374 


storian 1778 


1854 


1795 


1858 


. f. 30 




1726 


1795 


B. C. 383 B. 


C. 336 


1515 


1595 


1809 


1865 




1749 


1676 


1708 


1768 


1840 


f. A. 


D. 40 


. B. c. 253 B 


C. 183 


1651 


1695 


B. c. 400 B. 


0. 318 


815 


891 


1768 


1837 


. 1746 


1826 


1769 


1824 


1761 


1804 


1746 


1829 


, 1772 


1846 


1655 


1724 


• 


1815 


1804 




, 


38? 




1825 


1765 


1822 


B. 0. 522 B. 


C. 442 


1758 


1826 


f. 1500 




n 1789 


1821 


1689 


1773 


. B. 


0. 627 


1765 


1847 


1699 


J 748 


1708 


1778 


1759 


1806 


B. c. 650 B 


S70 


. 1792 





YO 



THE world's PKOGRB9S, 



NATION. NAME AND FKOFESSION. 

Span. Plaarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . , . 

Eng. Platoche, James R., dramatist and miscellaneous writer . 

Gr. Plato, illustrious philosopher, founder of the Academic sect b. 

Rom. Plautus, comic poet . . . . b 

Eng. Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 

Eng. , liyon, cliemist, (born in Bengal) . 

Eom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history 

Bom. , the younger, warrior and author • . t 

Egypt. Plotinus, Platonic phiiosopher ... * 

Irish. Plunkc't, W. 0., lord chancellor of Ireland . • . 

Gr. Plutarch, celebrated biographer . • • 

Ind. Pocahontas, daughter o f Powhatan, of Va. . • • 

Eng. Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator • . 

Eng. — — ) D. R., learned prelate and traveller . , . 

Amer. Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . . • 

Ger. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist . . 

Amer. Poinsett, Joel B., statesman, diplomatist, and author . 

Fr, Poisson, D. S., mathematician . . . • 

Eng. Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury ^ . 

Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. • . 

Ft. , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman . « 

Amer. Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. . . • • 

Amer. , Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general , . 

Eng. PoUok, Robt., poet, ' Course of Time ' . . , 

Ital. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller . . 

Gr. Polybius, eminent historian . . • b, 

Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr and author . 

Port. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman .... 

Engi Pomfret, John, poet . . 

Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . 

Rom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior . (' The Great.') i 

Span. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America . . 

Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France . 

Pol. , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . . 

Ind. Pontiac, Indian chief . . . . • 

Eng. Poole, John, author of ' Paul Pry,' &c. . , . 

Eng. , Matthew, able divine and author , . • 

Eng. Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet .... 

^jjigr_ J John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist. 

Porphyry, Platonic philosopher .... 

Eng. Person, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic * • 

Ital, Porta, John Baptist, natural philosoplier , , 

Eng. Porter, Anna Maiia, novelist .... 

Amer. , David, commodore, U. S. Navy • • . 

^mer. , David D., rear-admiral . . . . 

Eng. , Jane, novelist, . . . • . 

j;iig. , Sir Robert Ker, author of ' Travels,' &o, . . 

Eng. Porteiis, Beilby, eminent prelate . . . . 

Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D.D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania, and educa- 
tional author ..... 

^fner. Horatio, D. D., episo. bishop of New York • . 

Eug, , John, archbishop of Canterbury. ' Gr, Antiq.' « 



BORN. 


DiEa 


1475 


1541 


1796 




0. 430 B. 


c. 317 


, C. 227 B, 


. c. 184 


1749 


1819 


1819 




23 


79 


61 


115 


203 


270 


1765 


1854 


50 


120 




1617 


1604 


1691 


1704 


1765 


1811 


1856 


1796 




1778 


1851 


1781 


1840 


150O 


1558 


1780 


1817 


1611 


1741 


1795 


1819 


1806 


1864 


1799 


1827 


1250 


1.S23 


c. 205 B. 


0. 123 




169 


1699 


1782 


1667 


1703 


1772 


1764 


1. 0. 106 B. 


,C. 48 


1460 


1521 


1763 


181S 


1732 


1798 


IT 12 


. 1769 


1624 


1779 


1688 


1744 


1823 




233 


304 


1759 


. 1808 


If 40 


1616 


1T81 


1832 


1780 


1843 


1776 


1850 


1780 


1842 


1731 


1808 


1800 


1863 


1674 


im 



MOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 



71 



XATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and translator , 

Eng. Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist , 

Irish. Power, Tyrone, comic actor . . , 

Bnss. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist , , 

Eng. Praed, Wiiithrop Mack worth, poet . , 

Amer. Pradt, Abb6 Dominique de, political writer 

Amer. Preble, Edward, commodore in the U. S. Navy 

Amer. Prentiss, Sargent S , lawyer and politician, famed foreloqui 

Amer. Presoott, Wm. Hickling, historian . . . 

Amer. Preston, "Wm. C, T7. S. senator for South Carolina 

Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty 

Eng. , Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque 

Eng. Prideaux, Humphrey, learned divine. . 

Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy 

Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer 

Amer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N. England 

Eng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . . 

Eng. Piinsep, Chas. R., political economist . 

Eug. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . , . 

Eng. Pritchard, J. C, ethnologist, 'Natural History of Man' 

Rom. Probus, Marcus Aure'.ius, emperor . . . 

Ital. Procida, John of, patr.ol . . , 

G-r. Proclus, a Platonic philosopher ■ • • 

Prooopi us, historian .... 

Bom. , Antliemiue, emjreror , * « 

Eng. Proctor, Miss .^de aide A., jioetess . . 

Eng. , Bryan W. (' Bany Cornwall '), poet and critic 

Rom. PropertiuB, Sextue Aureius, j oet 

Fr. Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorisi and socialist . 

Eng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary 

Ft. Psalmanazar, George, literary impostor 

Egypt. Ptolemy, C^audiup, eminent astronomer and geographer 

Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H.L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &c, 

Ger. PufEendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian 

Eng. Pugin, Augs. Welby, architectural writer . , 

Pole. Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S. service , 

Ital. Pulcl, Louis, poet . . • , , 

Hung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author . . 

Eng. Puroeil, Henry, musical composer . . * 

Eng. , Thos., mu.^ical composer . . . 

Eng. Piirchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage . 
Amer. Pursh, Fred,, botanist .... 
Eng. Pusey, E " vard Bour, D.D., founder of ' Puseyites' 
Amer, Putnam, Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution 

Amer. '-, Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio 

Eng. Puttenham, George, poet and critic, ' Art of Eng. Pocsie ' 
Eng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate . . , 

Eng. Pym, John, republican politician . • , 

Amer. Pynchon, Wm., founder of Sprinefleld, Ma°B. , 

Gr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Soot , 

Pyrrhus, king of Eplrus . . , , 

Gr. Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher . , 



BOHN. 


DIED_ 


17-21 


1804 


1T87 


1856 


1795 


1841 


1768 


1842 


1802 


1839 


1759 


1837 


1761 


1807 


1810 


1850 


1796 


1859 


1794 


1860 


1728 


1791 


1747 


1829 


1648 


1724 


1799 


1851 


1733 


1804 


1687 


1758 


1789 


1834 


1788 


1864 


1664 


1721 


1785 


1848 


232 


282 


1225 


1303 


410 


487 


410 


487 




472 




1864 


1787 




C. 62 B 


0. 12 


1809 


1865 


1609 


1669 


1679 


1763 


70 




1785 




1632 


1794 


1811 


1852 


1747 


1779 


1432 


1487 


1814 




W58 


1693 




1682 


1577 


1628 


1774 


1820 


1800 




1718 


1790 


1738 


1824 




1600 


1745 


1813 


1584 


1643 


1591? 


lb63 


0. 300 




B. 


0. 27» 


0. 586 B, 


C. 491 



THE WOBLD's FBOGBESS. 



NATIOir. NAME AND FBOFESSION. 

Eng. Quain, Jones, M. D., anatomist . , 

Eng. Quarles, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems' ■ . • 1592 

Fr. Quatremere, E. M., orientalist • • • • 1782 

Quekett, John, microscopist . • • • 1815 

Fr. Quesne, Abraham du, admiral • • • . 1610 

Quesnel, Peter, ' History of Jesuits ' . • . 1699 

Belg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician . • 1796 

Span, Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet . • • 1580 

Eng. Quin, James, actor . . . • • ■ • 1G93 

Fr. Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist . . . 1635 

Amer. Qaincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author , , 1772 

Amer. —, Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier . 1802 

Fr. Quinet, Edgar, litterateur ... , 1803 

Bpan. Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian . . 1772 

Rom. Quintilian, Marcus Fahius, celebrated orator . . ,42 
Bom. Quintus-Curtius, historian . . . f. time Vespasian 

Amer. Quitman, John A., general and gov. of Mississsipi , . 1799 

B 

Fr. Rabelais, Francis, ■wit and satirist . • • 

Fr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist , , 

Fr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress . . 

Eng. Radcliflfe, Anne, romance writer, ' Mysteries of Udolpho 

Aust. Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander m Italy 

Eng. Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector 

Eiig. , Sir Thos. Stamford, author of ' History of Java,' &c 

Amer. Eafinesque, S. C. J., botanist 

Dan. Bafn, C. C, historian and antiquary . 

Eng. Raglan, J. H. Fiizroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea 

Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist . 

Eng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Sunday schools ' 

Eng, Baleigb. or Ralegh, Sir Walter, ' a man illustrious in arms 

literature' , . • , • 

Hind. Rammohun, Boy, philanthropist . . 

Scot. Ramsay, Allan, poet .... 

^mer. , David, historian . , . 

Ppan, Bamusio, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages' . 

Amer. Randolph, John, of. Roanoke, eccentric statesman 

Xmer. ) Peyton, first president of Congress , 

Ger. Ranke, licopold, historian . , . 

Fr. Raoul, Rochette, arehEBologist and traveller , 

Heb. Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher 
Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, author of ' History of England' 

Bapp, Geo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists , 
Dan, Riisk, E. C, philologist and lexicographer , 

Fr. Raspail, F. V,, chemist and radical statesman 
PruBB. Rauch, Fred. A., metaphysician . . 

Oer. Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, histonan . • 

Amer, Rawle, William, juriet , . - . * • 



and 



BIF.D, 

1865 
1644 
1857 
1861 
1688 
1774 

1645 
1766 
1668 
1864 



1857 

122 

1st Cent. 

1858 



1483 

1689 
1820 
1764 
1766 
1788 
1781 
1784 
1795 
1788 
1784 
1785 

1552 
1776 
1685 
1749 
1485 
1773 
1723 
1795 
1790 
1798 
1661 
1770 
1784 
1794 
1806 
1781 
1759 



1553 
1699 

1858 
1823 
1858 
1863 
1826 
1842 

1855 
1842 
1811 

1618 
1833 
1758 
1812 
1557 
1833 
1775 



1725 
1847 
1832 

1841 

1836 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDSX. 



t§. 



KATIOH. KAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Rawllnson, Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist . 

£ng. Bay, John, naturalist and author 

Fr. Raynal, "William Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher 

Scot. Reach, Angus B., journalist and author . , 

Amer. Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral . , . 

£ng. Reade, Charles, novelist .... 

Fr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A. . . . . 

Eng. Redding, Cyrus, journalist and author , . 

Amer. Redfield, William C, meteorologist . , , 

Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief . . 

Amer. Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist . . 

Eng. — — , Isaac, critic and editor . , , 

Amer. , Joseph, general in revolution * , , 

Amer. , "Wm. B., politician and author , . 

Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an eacyclopsedia &c. , 

Eng. Reeve, Clara, novelist, 'Old English Baron' . 

Eng. , John, comic actor . . • • 

Eng. , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher , 

Fr. Regnard, John Francis, comic writer . • 

Fr. Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . . . 

Ger. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist , . 

Irish. Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist 

Scot. , Col., Sir Wm., engineer and metereologist, ' Use of Storms 

Amer. ——, S.amuel (J., naval commander . . . 

Scot. , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician . , 

Ger, Belnhaid, Francis V.. (founder of Christ.) , , 

Fr. R6musat, J. P. A,, liistorian and linguist . , 

Fr. Ren£, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . . . 

Eng. Rennel, Major J., geographer and traveller , 

Scot. Rennie, John, eminent eng'neer and architect . 

Amer. Reno, Jei^se L., general in Union army . , 

Eng. Bepton, Humphrey, lEmdscape gardener . . 

Turk. Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey . 

Fr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV. 

Ger. Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer 

Amer. Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg 

Eng. Ricardo, David, ■writer on political economy and finance 

■ — , Joseph Lewis, (on International law) • 

Fr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian . , 

Eng. Rich, Oiiadiah, bibliographer . , . , 

Eng. Richard I, Coeur de Lion, king of England . 

Eng. III, king, killed at Bosworth • 

Eng. Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet.) , 

Scot. , James, traveller in Africa . , 

Eng. , Samuel, eminent novelist , , 

Scot. , Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer 

Fr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman 

Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &c. , 

Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and proi. martyr , , 

Spam Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . « 

ItaL Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer • 

Jtal. Ristori, Adelaide, actress . . • 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1810 




1628 


1705 


1713 


1796 


1821 






1862 


1777 


1849 


1785 




1789 


1857 


1759? 


1830 


1808 


1854 


1742 


1807 


1748 


1785 


1743 


1825 


1723 


1803 


1799 


1838 


1814 


1865 


1647 


1709 


1810 




1788 




1818 




1791 . 


1858 


1783 


1861 


1710 


1796 


1753 


1812 


1788 . 


1832 


1409 


1480 


1742 


1830 


1761 


1821 


1825 


1862 


1752 


1818 


1802 


1858 


1614 


1679 


1779 


1859 


1820 


1863 


1772 


1823 


1812 


1862 




1-00 




1850 


1157 


1199 


H50 


1485 


1775 


1865 




1851 


1689 


1761 


1787 


1865 


1585 


1642 


1763 


1825 


1500 


1555 


1783 


1825 


1313 


1354 


1821 





u 



THE world's progress. 



NATrtlN. HAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng, Ritchie, Leitch, journalist and author . • 

Amer. Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, 'Richmond Enquirer' . 

Eng. BJtson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . • 

Amer. Rittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer . . 

Ger. Hitter, Aug. H., 'History of Philosophy' , . 

Ger. , Charles, geographer . . . • 

Span. Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet 

Amer. Rives, M. C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist . . 

Amer. Rives, John C, journalist, ' "WaHhington Globe ' . 

Amer. Rivlngton, Jas., royalist printer of N. Y. . . 

Scot. Roberts, David, landscape painter and author . 

Scot Robertson, "William, celebrated historian 

Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. L., ' the terrorist' of the revolution 

Amer. Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist 

Boot. Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter . (abt) 

Er. Rocharabeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal , 

Fr. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, F. A. F., duke de la . 

Fr . Rochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . . 

Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore U. 8. navy . . 

Eng. Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral . 

Eng. Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman . , . 

Epg, Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic . . 

Anier. , Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow 

Eng. ———, Samuel, poet . . . . 

Eng. Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist . 

Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author 

Fr. , M. J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . 

Fr. Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian . , 

Eng. Roraaine, William, divine and author . . . 

Eng. Bomilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman . 

Rom. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome . . 

Ger. Rongc, Johannes, educational and religious reformer 

Eng. Rooke, Sir George, admiral . . .' . 

Span. Rosa, don P>ancisci> Martinez de la, statesman, poet, historian &o. 

Span. Rosas, don Joan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres 

Rom. Rosoius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent . 

Eng. RoBGoe, Henry, biographt-r . . . . 

Eng. , William, biographer and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . , 

Ger. Rose, Gustave, chemist . . • • 

Eng. -, Hugh James, ' Biograph. Diet.' , 

Eng. — — , Wtn. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . . 

Ital. Rosellini, Hypolito, author of 'Monuments of Egypt,' &o, 

Amer. Bosecrans, W. S., gen. in Union army . . 

Ger. Rosenkranz, Jonas K, F., metaphysician and professor of phil 

osophy . • . . . 

Ger. RosenmuUer, E. F. C, orientilist . . , 

Ital. Rosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic , . 

Eng. Robs, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator . , 

Eng. — — , Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer , , 

Eng. Rosse, Wm. Pareons, earl of, astronomer • • 

Itai RoBsini, Joacbisu, musical composer . • 



BORN. 


SIEIV 


. 1800 


1869 


1778 


1854 


. 1752 


1S03 


1731 


1799 


. ^ 1791 




1779 


1863 


1791 




. 1796 


1864 


1724 


1802 


1796 


1864 


1721 


1793 


1759 


1794 


1794 


1864 


) 


1763 


1725 


1807 


. 1747 


1827 


1773 


1794 


1771 


1838 


1717 


1792 


1802 




1806 




1763 


1855 


17T9 




1733 


1793 


1754 


1793 


1661 


1741 


. 1714 


1795 


1757 


1818 


B 


C. 716 


1813 




1650 


1708 


.0. 1789 




. 1793 




B. 


0. 61 


1800 


1836 


1751 


1831 


1633 


1684 


1795 




. 1795 


1838 


1775 


1843 


1800 


1843 


1819 

1 




1805 




, ■ 1768 


1835 


1783 


1854 


. 1777 


1858 


1800 


1863 


1800 




1793 





BlOailAFHICAL mB£X. tH 

ItittOK. MAKE AND PBOFESBION. 

tteriJw.Eothsctild, Meyer Anselm, founder of the great bankiDg-honse 

^— *— , Anselm at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and 

Solomon, sous of Meyer Aneelm Botheohild . « 

Ger. Rotteck, Chas. W. R. von, historian . • • • 

f r. Rousseau, Jubn Baptist, poet . . . « 

Ft. — =- J John James, eioquent and paradoxical writer • 

Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist . , 

ItaL Rubini, Jno. Bajitist, tenor vocalist .... 
Ger. Ruckert, Frederick, poet • • . . 

Amer. Runiford, Benjamiu Thompson, count, ofSoer (in foreign Bervioe) and 

philosopher . . • < . 

Amer. Rumsey, James, inventor • • . < 

G«r. Rupert, prince, warrior . • • . . 

Amer. Ruschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and ecientiflc works 1807 
Amer. Rush, Richard, diplomatist . , « , 

3Eng. Rushworth John, ' Historical Collections ' • • 

Amer. Rusk, TIiob, J., V. S. senator from Texas • • • 

Eng. Buskin, John, writer on art . . , , 

Eng. Eussel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters^ 

Eng. , Lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty 

Scot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern ' . 

Eng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author 

Scot. '•, William, historian of modern Europe . . 

Irish. ■ ' , William H,, Times correspondent and author « 

Amer. Rutledge, Edward, statesman ...» 

Amer. , John (brother of above), statesman . * 

l)utch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral . , , , 

Eng. Eymer, Thomas, antiquary, ' Federa ' . • • 

S. 

Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist « , , 

Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition » 

Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible . . 

Fr. , Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . , « 

Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet ...«,, 

Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . . 

Turk. Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt « • , 

Fr. Saint'Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal . . » • 

Amer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution , ^ , 

Fr. St. Hilaire. Auguste de, botanist . . , , 

Fr. — ' — ^, Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist . • 

Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of 'Paul and Virginia,' &c. 

Ital. St. Real, Ceesar Vicliara abbi de, historian . . , 

!>• St. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher « , 

Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral ... 

tr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales ... 

3Eng. Sala, Geo. Auj;ustus, journalist and author . . . 

Bar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior . 

Eng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran . . 

Eng. Salisbury,, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesman 4 , 

tlom. Sallusi) Caius Crispus, hiBtorian * . . fi fi. 0. 



BOBM. 


mmy 


1780 


1821 


1776 


1840 


1670 


1741 


1712 


1778 


1673 


1718 


1796 


1864 


1789 




la 
1763 


1814 


1743 


179a 


1619 


1663 


1807 




1780 




1607 


1690 


1803 


1867 


1819 




1636 


1723 


1641 


1683 


1808 




1792 




1746 


1794 


1821 




1749 


1800 


1739 


1800 


1607 


1679 


i7ia 





1790 




1672 


1724 


1613 


1684 


1768 


1838 


1176 


1296 


1567 


1587 


1822 


J863 


1798 


1854 


1736 


1813 


1799 


1861 


1772 


1844 


1736 


1814 


1639 


16G3 


1760 


1823 


1734 


1823 


1790 




1827 




1137 


lies 


1660 


1738 


1650 


1612 


. 80 B. 


0. 8fi 



76 IHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

NATO*. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Satmagius, Clatldiue, scholar and author • • • 

Fr. Salvandy, N, A., comte de, statesman . * . . 

Pr. Salverte, niiticellaneous writer « » • • 

Heb. Samson, judge of Israel . . • * . 

Heb. Samuel, last judge of Israel . • ■ • 

Phce. SancoiiiAtho, philosopher and historian • • . 

Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist • « 

Amer. Sanderson, John, Uiierateur . . » , 4 

Amer. Sauds, Robt. G., poet and litterateur . • • 

Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer . • 

Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer . . 

Mex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president * 

6r. Sappho, poetess . . . . . f. b. 

Chald. Sardanapalue, king of Nineveh .... 

Ital. Sarpi, Peter, better known aa Father Paul, patriot and historian 

Heb. Saul, 1st king of Israel ..... 

!Fr. Sauley, Louis P. J., count de, antiquarian • . 

Fr. Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral . . • . 

Fr. Saurin, divine and sermon-writer . . • • 

Pr. SausBure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . ^ , . 

Fr. — , Nich. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. . . 

Eng. Savage, Richard, poet . . . . • 

Fr. Savary, Nicholas, 'Life of Mahomet,' 'Letters on Egypt' . 

Ger. Savigny, Fred. O. von, historian of Roman law . . 

Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence . 

Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 1696 

Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior 

Dan. Saxo-Grammaticus, historian . . . , 

Pr, Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J, B. Say 

Pr. — , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy . , 

Amer. — , Thomas, naturalist .... 

ItaL Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian . ■ 

Ital. , Julius Caesar, learned critic . • . . 

Scandenberg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 

Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer ... 

Eng. Scarlett, James, 1st lord Abinger, jurist . . • 

Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . . . 

Gei*. Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor . « . 

Swe. Scheele, Oharles Wm., eminent chemist • • 

Ger. Schelling, Fred. Augs., novelist .... 

Ger. ■ , Fred. W. J., philosopher . . . 

Amer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . . 

PruBS. Schill, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer 

Ger, Schiller, John Frederic C, eminent historian and dramatist 

Schimmelpenninck, Mary A., ' Mem. Port Royal' , 

Ger, Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist . « 

Ger. ■— — '— , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historiato . 

Ger. Schliermacher, P. D. E., classical philologist and theologittJi 

Ger. SoblOsser, M. S. P., historian , . . , 

Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian , • • 

Amer, Schofield, major-general and governor Virginia • • 

a«r, BchoU) historian . . ' . . • • 1766 1839 



BOSH. 


fitSDt 


1588 


1653 


1795 


1856 


1771 


1839 


B. 0. 12th Cent. 


B. c. nth 


Cent. 


f. B. 


. 760 


1804 




1785 


1844 


1790 


1833 


1623 


1672 


1600 


1667 


1798 




c. 606 




B. 0. 


876? 


1522 


1623 


B. c 


. 1055 


1807 




1767 


1836 


1677 


1730 


1740 


1799 


1767 


1845 


1697 


1743 


1750 


1788 


1779 


1861 


1452 


1498 


e 1696 


1750 


1600 


1639 


1134 


1208 


1794 




1767 


1832 


1787 


1824 


1640 


1609 


1484 


1558 


or 1404 


1467 


1540 


1600 


1769 


1844 


1610 


1660 


1764 




1742 


1786 


1766 


1839 


1775 


1854 


1773 


1809 


1750 


1805 


1778 


1856 


1767 


1845 


1772 


1829 


1768 


1834 


1776 


1861 


1736 


1794 



fiOH». 


DIED. 


1619 


1690 


1804 


1865 


1793 


1864 


1770 


1838 


1616 


1667 


1661 


1747 


1780 


1850 


1747 




1731 


1804 


1771 


1820 


1800 


1853 


1676 


1649 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDBIC. 77 

RATIOir. KAME AMD FR0FES8I0R. 

Dutch. Schomberg, Artnand Frederick, warrior . • 

Ger. Schomburgk, Sir Kobert H., iiaturaliBl and traveller 

Amer. Schonlcraft, Henry R., traveller and hietoriaii of the Indians 

Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F,, novelist . , , 

Dutch, fcichrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer . . • 

Ger. Schullemltouig, John Matthias, warrior * . 

Dutch. Schumacher, H. C, astronomer . . , • 

Ger. Schutz, (J. G., critic and lillerateur . , , 

Amer. Sclmyler, Puilip, general officer in Revolution . • 

Ger. Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general . . 

Ger. — , prince F., premier of Austria . . 

Ger. ScioppiuB, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian • 

Rom. Scipio, .^milianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) . B.C. 128 

Rom. — ■ , Publius Cornelius, sumamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) b. o. 189 

Scot. Scott, Michael, philosoj her, supposed magician . . 1291 

Eng. , Thomas, divine and bible commentator , • , 1747 1821 

Scot. , 8ir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular 

writers of modern times . , , 

Amer. , "Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chief U. 8. army 1786 

Fr. Scribe, Kugt-ne, dramatist • . • . 

Fr. Sebastian, count Horaie, marshal of France, statesman 

Eng. Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate . , , 

Dutch. Secundua, John, Latin poet • • . 

Amer. Bedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 

Amer. ■ , John, (of Coniu) Union general . 

Amer. , Theodore, statesman and political economist , 

Amer. — ■ :, Tlieodore, (son) lawyer and writer . 

Eng. Sedley, Sir Cliarles, poet . . , , 

Fr. S6gur, count Louis de, diplomatist and writer , 

Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian • • < 

Scot. Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer , 

Scot. Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) . . 

Chald. Semiramis, queen of Assyria . • , 

Rom. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, philosopher, statesman and moralist 

Eng. Senior, Nassau W., political economist . , 

Ger. Sennefelder, Aloys, of Municli, inventor of lithography 

Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian . , 

Amer. Sergeant, Johr, jurist and statesman . , 

Rom. Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval oomtnander , 

Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin 

Egypt, Sesostris, king of Egypt .... 

Fr. S6vign6, Mary de, marchloriess of, epifitolary writer 

Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) . 

Amer. — -, William H,, 6t;itegman, U, S. senator from N. Y., sec of state 1801 

Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate . . . 

Eng. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman 

Eng. , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, « Characteristics ' 

Eng. Shakespeare, John, orientalist • . . 

Eng. — — — ', "William, the greatest of dramatic poets 

En^ Sharp, Granville, philanthropist . , , 

Scot. , James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated . 

Kng. Shaw, George, natvjralist • • * . 



1T71 


1833 


army 1786 


1866 


1791 


1861 


1775 


1851 


1693 


1768 


1511 


1536 


1790 


1867 


. 1815 


1864 


1780 


1839 


. 1811 


1859 


1639 


1701 


1753 


1830 


1584 


1654 


• 


1723 


f . B. C. 1250 




: B. 0. 2 


65 


1790 


1864 


1771 


1884 


1490 


1672 


1779 


1852 


. B. 


C. 73 


1509 


1553 


f. B, c. 1500 




1627 


1696 


1747 


1809 


jf state 1801 




1640 


1692 


1621 


1683 


1671 


1713 


1774 


1858 


1564 


1616 


1784 


1813 


1618 


1679 


. 1761 


ISU 



19 



THE world's PE0QRES8. 



KATIOK, KAME AND PROFESSION, 

Amer. Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion . , 

Amen Shedd, "W. G,, D. D., theologian, historian, and crttio 
Eng. Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . * 

Eng. Shelley, Mary W. widow of P. B., the poet, novelist . 
Eng. — — , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . , 

Eng. Shenstone, William, poet .... 
Amer. Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department 

Eng. ■—— , Richard Brinsley, dramatist and orator . 

Eng. -—— — , Thomas, actor, and author . . • 

Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of London . , 

Amer. Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statesman . • 

Amer. , John, U. S senator from Ohio • • • 

Amer. '" — , William T., general , . . 

Eng. Sherwood Mrs., novelist , , . . 

Irish. Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and drataatist . « 

Eng. Shirley, James, dramatist > . . • 

Eng. Shovel, Sir Oloudesley, able naval officer « • 

Amer. Shtthrick, John Templar, naval officer * • 

Amer. —'^— , "William B., rear admiral , 

Eng. Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Old and New Tesament' 
Eng. Sibbee, Richard, theologian, 'Bruised Reed' . 

Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses . 

Eng. Sidmouth, viscount, (H. Addingtoii) stalesmnn « 

Eng. Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and autlior . , 

Eng. — — — , Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author * 
Oer. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, natuialist and botanist . , 

Amer. Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-65 • 

Amer. Sigourney, Lydia H., poet and essayist . , , 

Amer. SilUman, Benjamin, ohemist and geologist . • 

Amer. — ^ , Benjamin (son), ohemist and grologist . 

Eng. Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor • 

■— — — , Simon Sty lites, Syrian Ascetic . . 

Amer. Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet ' . . 

Gr. Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet • • 

G-r. — — — : — , of Eos, lyric poet > • • • 

Scot. Simpson, Robert, mathemuticiati • • • 

Eng. — ^ , Thomas, " • • • 

Eng. Sinclair, Catharine) authoress . , , 

Hind. Sing, M, rajah Run jeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere . 
Swiss. Sismondi, J. C. L., historitin . . . 

Eng. Skelton, Jolin, pool laureate to Henry VIII . . 

Ger. Sleidan John Philipson, historian . . . 

Eng. Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist . . 

Scot. Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political economy 

Scot. , Alex, poet ...... 

Eng. ) Charlotte, poet .... 

Amer. , General Samuel, military commander and statesman 

Eng. , Horace, poet, 'Rejected Addresses,' &c. . 

Eng. — — , James, poet, u u , , 

Eng. , John. ' History Viginia' , . 

Eng. , John Pye, theological writef • • * 

Amer. ———, Joseph, Mormon prophet • * • 



BOSN. 


DIEB 


1740 


1825 


1787 


1863 


. 1798 


1851 


1792 


1822 


1714 


1763 


1751 


1818 


1722 


1788 


, 1678 


1761 


1721 


1793 


1775 


1853 


1792 


1851 


1594 


1666 


1650 


1705 


1778 


1815 




1754 


. 1577 


1635 


1756 


1831 


. 1757 


1844 


1620 


1683 


. 1554 


158& 


1796 




. 1824 




1791 


1865 


1779 


1864 


1759 


1836 


392? 


461? 


1806 




B. c. 660 P 




550? 




J 687 


1768 


1710 


1761 


1800 


1864 


1779 


1839 


1773 


1842 


1450 P 


1529 


. 1506 


1556 


1660 


1762^ 


y 1723 


1790 


1830 




1749 


1806 


1752 


1839 


1779 


1849 


1775 


1839' 


. 1579 


1631 


1774 


1851 


1805 


184'; 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



i9 



NATION, Kami: aud profession. 

£ng. Smith, Rev, Sidney, essayist, critic and moralist « 

Eng. , Sir J:imee E., botanist and naturalist . • 

Eng, ' ' , Sir William Sidney, military commiinder . 

Eng. , T. Southwortb, writer on sanitary refoi-m . 

Eng. , William, classical scholar and author 

Eng. Smithson, Jameri, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U. 

Scot. Smollett, Dr. Tobins, novelist and historian 

Eng. Smyth, Wm., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer 

Eng. , Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer 

Eng. Soane. Sir John, architect and virtuoso . . 

Pol. Sobieski, John III., kinp of Poland, warrior 

Ital. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect . 

Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers 

Or. , ecclesiastical historian . . • 

Span. Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . • 

Heb. Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs . 

Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . 

Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer . 

Eng. Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer . . 

Eng. , Wm., poet, 'The Chase' . . . 

Ger. Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist . 

Gr. Sophocles, eminent tragic poet . . 

Fr. Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the 8. College at Paris. 

Amer. Soul6, Pierre, U. 8. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist 

Fr. Souli^, Frederick, novelist and dramatist . 

Soulouque, Fanetin, es-empevor of Hayti 

Fr. Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of Fr 

and statesman .... 

Eng. South, Robert, eminent divine 

Amer. Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator U. S., N. Y. 

Eng. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) . 

Eng. Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet . . 

Eng. Southey, Mrs. Robt,, (Caroline Bowles), poet . . 

Eng. , Robert, poet, historian, biographer . 

Fr. Souvestre, Emile, essayist .... 

Pr. Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . 

Gr. Sozoraen, ecclesiastical- hlr-torian 

Amer. Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer 

Eng. Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . 

Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary 

Eng. Spence, Wm., entomologist . 

Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York 

Eng. , earl of, statesman . 

Amer. , John C, jurist and sec navy 

Eng. ■ '- , Wm. R., translator . . 

Eng. Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . . 

Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior 

Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheistf) . 

Ger. Spohr, Louis, musical composer 

Amer. Spooner, Shearjashub, (Diet o/ Painter*) . 

6er. Sprengel, Kent, botanist 

Eng. Spurgeon, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman 



BORN. 

1768 
1759 
1764 
1790 
1814 

1721 
1764 
1788 
1753 
1629 
1539 
I. C. 470 B. 
5th cent 
1610 



f. B. 



1650 
1790 
1692 
1804 
B. C. 495 
1201 

1800 
1789 

1769 
1638 
1787 
1750 
1662 
1787 
1775 
1806 
1800 

(abt.) 1794 
1827 
1561 
1783 
1765 
1758 
1788 
1770 
1553 
1571 
1633 
1783 

1766 
18-34 



nrED. 
184S 
1828 
1840 
1861 

1835 

iin 

1849 
1865 
1837 
1696 
1594 
. C.400 

, A. D. 

1686 
0. 975 
C.598 

1716 

1743 

1854 

C.404 

1274 

184T 



1851 
1716 
1842 
1814 
1746 
1854 
1843 
1854 
1858 
450 
1866 
1864 
1643 
1860 
184S 
1836 
1855 
1834 
1598 
1636 
1677 



18S3 



THE WOBLD'S PEOGEESS. 



16th 



KATION. NAME AND PR0PEB3I0N. BORN. 

(ier. Spurzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at BoBton) . 1776 

Amer. Sprague, Charles, poet ..... 1791 

Amer. , Wm. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and hiBtorian . 1795 

Amer. Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary . . . 1820 

Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, ' Hist. Bible * . . 1680 

Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoreBS . 1766 

Fr. , Madame, talented writer . . . .1693 

Eng. Standisb, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N. E. . • 1584? 

Eng Btanfield, Clarkson, marine painter . , • . 1798 

Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor . . 1753 

Eng. Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller . . . 1776 

Eng. , Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Hahon, historian 1805 

Amer. Stanton, Edwin M., secretary of war . . 

Amer. Stark, John, distinguished ofllcer in the Bevolutioij . 1728 

Kom, Statins, Publius Pepinus, poet .... 61? 

Eng. Staunton, Sir Geo. L. 'Embassy to China'. . . 1737 

Irish. Steele, Sir Eichard, essayist and dramatist . . . 1671 

Eng. Steevens, Geo., 'Comment, on Shakespeare' . . 1736 

Eng. Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author . . 1789 

Er. Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Eobert and Henry, printers 

Amer. , John L., traveller and author . . 

Eng. Stephenson, George, engineer . . • 

Eng. , Robert, «♦ . . , , 

Scot. Sterling, Wm., M. P., bibTiographier and critic . 

Ger. Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author . 

Irish. Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer , 

Eng. Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms , 

PruBS. Steuben, Fred. W. A , baron, who generously aided the American 

cause . . .... 

Amer. Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . , 

Amer. Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England . 

Amer. Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chaplain in the U. S. Navy and author 

Scot. ,Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer . 

Amer. Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian ... 

Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of "Worcester and author 

Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of ' Six Nations,' ' Brandt,' and ' Red 

Jacket' . . • , . 

Rubs. Storch, Henry F., political economist . . 

Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence . 
Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian . . 

Amer. Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic . . . 

Amer, , Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist • 

Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist . . , . 

Gr. Strabo, eminent geographer . . . 

Eng. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . 
Eng. Stratford de Eedcliffe, viscount, diplomatist , 
Ger. Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical ' Life of Jesus' 

Ger* , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author 

Eng. Strickland, Agnes, historian of ' Queens of England' 
Eng. Strype, John, theologian, biographer and historian 
Russ. Struve, Fred. Geo. ]Wm., astronomer , • 

Scot. Stuart, Gilbert, historian . . , 



1805 
1788 
1803 
1806 
1806 
1713 



1749 

1784 
1798 
1753 
1727 
1633 

1793 
1766 
1779 
1525 

1814 
1746 
19 
1593 
1788 
1808 
1786 
1809 
1643 
1793 
1742 



1833 



1752 
1817 
1750 
1656 
1867 
1816 
1839 



1823 
96? 
1801 
1729 
1800 
1859 
Bent. 
Ii52 
1848 
1859 
1S44 

1768 
1549 

1794 
1838 
1857 

1828 
1795 
1699 

1844 
1835 
1845 
1605 



1839 
1641 



1737 

1864 
1780 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



^"t 



MJUIOtt. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Stuart, James, -aroliltect and author . , 

Araer. , James B. B., Confederate general , 

Amer. »^, Moses, theologian and philologist . , 

Bng. Sturge, Joseph, philanthropist . . , 

Ger. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. writer, « Reflections,' &c. 
Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands 
Fr. Suchet, Louis Gabriel, celebrated marshal . , 

Eng, Buckling, Hir John, poet and dramatist . . 

Sue, Eugene, novelist . . ■ « 

Suetonius, PauUnus, warrior . . • • 

, Xranqnillus Caius, historian • . 



Fr. 

Rom, 

Rom, 

Dan. 

Gr. 



Suhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian • 

Suid;ig, Greek lexicpgrapher . • 

Amer. Sullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer • 

Amer. —^ , John, revolutionary general 

Amer. , Wm. LL. D., political writer . 

Fr. SuQy, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman 

Amer. ■ ' , Thomas, portrait painter 

Amer. Sumraerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher 

Amer. Samner, Charles, U. S. seiu from Mass., orator and philanthropist 

Amer. — — — Edwin Vose, Union general . 

ibg. ■ John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author 

Amer. Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. 0. , 

Eng. Sunderland, Rplit. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman 

Eng. Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet , 

Eng. Surtees, Robt.,. antiquary aud poet 

Bng. Sussex, Aug. Fred,, duke of, son of Geo. IIL . 

Eng. Sutton, Chas.jklannersj-arch. of Canterhury 

Knss. Buvaroff, or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel 

rior . . , . . . 

Eng. Swain, Charles, poet . , 

Dutch. Swammerdam", John, naturalist and anatomist . 
Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect , 
Irish. Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist , , 

Eng. Swihbnme, Algernon, poet , 

Amer. Swinton, "Wm., critic and historian, ' Army of Potomac' 
Eng. Sydenham, C.W. Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of C:inada, &c. 
Rom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and b rutal usurper . 
Eng. Syms, Michael CoL, • Embassy to Ava' , . • 

Afric. Syphas, Numidian prince . « • • 



Rom, Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian • 

Rom. ■ - , Marcus Claudins, emperor . . • 

Bwe. Tfiglioni, Marie, dansuese . ♦ • 

Eng. Talbot, Jno., let earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . 

Amer. , Silas, mil. and naval ofllcer in Revolution , 

Eng. Talfonrd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist 
Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist . 
Eng. Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . . 

Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., RevoL officer ... 
Fr. Talma, Francis Joseph, one of the greatest of actors « 
6 



BORN. 


DIED. 


• 1713 


1788 


1832 ? 


1864 


• 1780 


1851 




1859 


1740 


1786 


1602 


1682 


1772 


1826 


, 1613 


1641 


. 1S08 


1857 


37 




• f. 100 




1728 


179S 


f. abt. 1000 




1744 


1808 


1740 


1795 


1774 


1839 


an 1560 


1641 


1783 




1798 


1825 


opist 1811 




1796 


1863 


1780 


1862 


. 1734 


1832 


• 1641 


1702 


. 1515 


1547 


• 1779 


1834 


1773 


1843 


1755 


1828 


ruel war- 




1730 


1800 


• 1803 




, 1637 


1681 


, 1689 


1772 


. 1667 


1745 


1793 


1841 


B. 0. 137 B. 


C. 78 




1809 


• B. 


0. 201 


. 56 


135 


200 ? 


276 


1804 




, 1373 


1463 


, 17.iO 


1813 


. 1795 


1854 


1754 


1838 


1529 


1586 


1754 


1836 


. 1763 


1S2« 



THE WOELd's progress. 



NATIOK, 

Tartar. 

Amer. 

Soot. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital, 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Bng. 

Eng, 

Eag. 

Eng. 



NAME AND FBOFESSION. 

Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince 

and conqueror • • , 

Taney, Roger B., chief-justice U. S. . • 

Tannahill, Robt., poet . . • • 

Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer . 

Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America , 
Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul 
— — , Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets 
Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsio 

■ ', Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic . 

Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer . 

, Isaac, essayist .... 

, Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer . 

, John, ' the Water Poet ' . . • 



Eng. 
Amer, 



Eng. 

Swiss, 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Engr. 

Ger, 

Eng, 

Eng. 

Bom. 



Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger, 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Gr. 
Fr. 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Gr. 
Rom, 
Gr. 
Span, 
'Eng. 
Gr, 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Pr, 



, Sir Robert, sculptor and architect . 

— — , Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . 

J Tom, dramatist . . 

— — , Wm., miscellaneous writer. . . 

, Zachary, major-general 1J. S. Army, victor in, Mexico, 

pres. U. S. , . 

Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) 
Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . . » 

Tell, WiUiam, one of the champions of Swiss liberty 
Temple, Sir 'William, statesoian and writer . 

Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer . 

-■ ■ — , Rev. Wm,, famous for 'France' . • 

— — — , Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and Writer 
Tennyman, William T., 'Hist, of Philosophy' ,-. 
Tennyson, Alfted, poet laureate 

Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-juBtice K,B 
'i'erence, or Terrentius, comic writer , 
Tertullian, Q. S, F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of 

the Church . 

Terry, Alired H., of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher 
Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . 
Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture , . 

Tlialberg, Sigismund, pianist 
Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of 

Philosophy , , . . 

Themistocles, eminent Athenian « . . 

Th^nard, chemist and statesman . « 

Theocritus, pastoral poet , . ' . , . f. S, 

Theobald, Lewis, comment. onShakspeare . 
Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian . . 

Theodosius, Flavins, Roman emperor and warrior 
Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . . 

Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writet 
Thesiger, Sir Fred., .'attorney-general of England . 
Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy 
Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian , . 

Thierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine,. historian . • 

— — , Am6d6e S. D., historian , • 



177T 


1864 


1774 


1810 


1754 


1833 


1493 


1568 


1544 


159£ 




1836 


1S25 




1787 


1863 


1613 


1667 


1580 


1654 


1714 


1788 


1758 


1833 


iai7 




1800 


1849 


1794 


1850 




1813 


1757 


1834 




1354. 


1628 


1698 


1703 


1764 


1705 


1777 


1804 




1761 


1819 


1810 




1762 


1832 


. 192 





160 



245 



1811 


1863 


1752 


1823 


1812 




0. 639 B. 


a. 543 


0. 535 B. 


0, 470 


0. 285 






1744 


386 


457 


346 


395 


0. 371 




1515 


1582 


1794 




0. 576 




1795 


1856 


1797 





BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 



NATIOH. 

Pr. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Scot 

Amer. 

Dan. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Bom. 

Bom. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Ger. 
Gr. 

Tart 
Hind. 

Swiss. 

Kom. 

Eng. 

Er. 

Eng. 

Buss. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Irish. 

Amer. 



Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 
Ft. 

Eng. 
Bom. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Thiers, Adolphe, historian and statesman . . 

Thiersch, P. W., Greek philologist, &c. 
Tliirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St David's, historian 
Tholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian . 

Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . 

, Ool. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author 

Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer 

, Chas., president of Oongrese . . 

, Dr. Thomas, chemist . . 



, James, popular poet . . 

Thoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist . 
Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor . , . 

Thrasybulus, Athenian general , , 

Thucydides, historian . . . . , 

Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor , , 

Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, warrior and emperor . 
TibuUus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . , . 

Tickel), Thomas, poet and essayist in Spectator , 
Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature . 

Tieck, Ludwig, poet and essayist . 
Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, ' Psyche' • . . 

TiUolson. John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury 
Tilly, John F., count de, military commander. . 

Timoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse . , 

Timour Beg. See Tamerlane • . . 

Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior , 
Tissot, Simon A., medical writer 

Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, emperor, father of his 
Tobin, John, dramatist, ' Honey Moon ' . , 

Tocqueviile, Alexis de, publicist and statesman , 

Todd, Robt B., ' Medical Cyclopaedia ' &c. . 

Todleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers . . 

Tomline, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop ofWinchester 
Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. U. S. . , 

Tone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion 
Tooke, John Home, politician and philologist . , 

, Thos., 'History of Prices' . 

, Wm., miscellaneous writer . . . 

Toplady, Augustus M., eminent divine . , 

Torquemada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general . , 

Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist . 
Torrey, John, botanist and chemist . . , 

Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, inv. of barometer 
Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . 
Totten, Joseph G., rnilitary engineer . , 

Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist . . 

Toussaint I'Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti 
Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ' Comment on Bible ' . 
Tracy, A. L. O. Destutt, comte de, writer on Education and 

losophy ..... 
Traill, Thos, J., editor ♦Encyclo. Britannica' . , 

Trajan, Marcus U. C., able emperor and warrior . 



BOEN. 


SIED 


1798 




. 1784 


186C 


1797 




1799 




ithor 1783 




1778 


1849 


1729 


1824 


1773 


1852 


1700 


1748 


1817 


1862 


1771 


1844 


B. 


0, 889 


B. 0. 469 B 0. 400 


1732 


1806 


B. c. 84 


37 


f. B. c. 30 




1686 


1740 


1791 




1773 


1853 


1774 


1810 


1630 


1694 


1559 


1632 


. B. 


C. 337 


1739 


1799 


1728 


1797 


people 40 


81 


1770 


1804 


. 1805 


1859 


1810 


1866 


1818 




1750 


1787 


. 1774 


1826 


1763 


1798 


1736 


1812 


1774 


1858 


1744 


1820 


1740 


1778 




1498 


1783 


1840 


1608 


1647 


• 


S52 


1788 




. 1776 


1854 


1745 


1803 




1857 


Phi- 




1754 


1836 


. 1781 


1862 


62 


117 



84 



THE WOELD'S PKOGEESS. 



KATIUir. l^AUE AND PBOFESSIOIT. 

Eng. Tredgold, Thos., civil engineer and author , 
Eng. Trench, Rev. Rich, Chenevix, poet, philologist and theologian 
Ger. Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for hia adventures . 
Eng. Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer . , 

Fr Tristan, I'Hermite, Francis, poet . , , 

Eng. Trollope, Mr?. Frances, novelist and traveller . 

Dutch. Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral , , 

Amer. Troost, Gerard, chemist and geologist . , 

Amer. Trumbull, Col. John, statesman ana hist, painter . 

Amer. , Benj., historian of Connecticut . . 

Amer. , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut • 

Amer. ■ , John, poet, born in Ot. 

Eng. Truro, Thos., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor . 
Amer. Truxtoii, Thos., naval commander . . 

Eng. Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical -writer. , . 

Amer. , Beverley, lawyer and novelist . , 

Amer. Tuckerman, Heniy T., critic and essayist . , 

Amer. • , Jps., writer and philanthropist 

Amer. Tudor, Wm-, edito^ N. Amer. Rev. and biographer . 
Eng. Tupper, Martip. Farqn^ar, poet ,and essayist . 

Fr, Turenne, Viscount, de, eminent warriot . * 

Ft. Turgot, Anne^^obt.Jas., statesman . « 

Eng. Turner, Dawson, bptanist and antiquary . . 

Eng. ^, Edward, 'Elements of Chemistry' . 

Amer. , Samuel H,,, Rev., theologian and critic . 

Eng. — , Sliarpn, 'History of England' . . 

Amer. , "Wm. W., printer ^nd philologist . . 

TurretiH, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) . 

, Francis, (son) " " " . 

, John A. (son) «« «« «t 

Eng. Tusser, Thos., author of ' 500 points of Good Husbandry' 
Amer. Twiggs, David E.,. rebel general , . , . 

Eng. Twining, Rev. Thos., translator of Aristotle . • 

Amer. Tyler, John, ex-pres. U. S., and rebel 
Eng. Tyndale, Wm., refornier and first translator of the Bible 

English ,. . . 

'Amer. Tyng, Stephen H., D.,D., epis. divine and author . 
Eng. Tyrrell, James, historian , . . . 

Gr. Tyrtaeus, poet . . . . 

Scot. Tytler, Alex. Eraser, historical and misc. writer 

ggQt_ —^ Patrick Eraser, historian, ' Life Mary Queen of Scots 

gcot. , Wm., historical and misc. writer • 

. . IT 

Ger. TJhland, Ludwig, poet . . . 

Span. UUoa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author . 

"Dncas, North American Jndian chief (Mohegans) 

Eng. Upcott, William, autograph collector and historian 

Amer. Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretaiy of state 

Scot. TJje, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author . 

Irish, Usher, James, learned divine and historian 



BORN. 


DISU 


: ' 1788 


1829 


lan 1807 




1726 


179* 


1741 


1810 


• 1601 


1655 


. . 1778 


1863 


. 1597 


1652 


1776 


1850 


, 1756 


1843 


- 1735 


1820 


1740 


1809 


1750 


1831 


. . 1782 


1853 


, 1755 


1822 


1705 


1774 


1784 


1851 


1778 


1840 


1779 


1830 


1810 




, 1611 


1675 


. 1727 


1781 




1858 


, 1798 


1839 


. 1791 


1861 


. 1768 


1847 


1810 


1859 


, 1588 


1631 


1623 


1687 


1671 


1737 


1500 


1536 


1790 


1862 


, 1784 


1804 


1790 


1862 


B into 




1500 


1536 


1800 




1642 


1718 


. f. B, C. 668 




1747 


1813 


ts' 1790 


1849 


17U 


1782 


, 1787 




, 1716 


1795 


. 1680 




, 1779 


1845 




1844 


. 1778 


1857 


. 1580 


1656 



. BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX, 



85 



NATIOir. • NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. ValUiant, Sebastib I, eminent botanist . , 

Dutch. Valcknenaer, Louis Gaspar, able philologist and critic , 
Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses , 

Valentia, George A., viscount, * Voyages aud Travels ' 
Bom. Valerian, •emperor- . , - , , 

Rom. Valerius Flaceus, poet- . , • , • 

Kom. MaximuSj-historian . . • 

Ital. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist ~ , • 

Amer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States 
Eng. Vancouver, George, navigator . . . 

Eng. Vandenhofl', John, actor , . « 

Amer. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter • « . 

Dutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India • 

Amer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general • , 

Eiig. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism • 

Amer. Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist , 

Amer, Van Rensselaer, Stephen, ' the, Patroon' • 

Rom. Varro, Marcus T., the most; learned of the Romans . 
Ital, Vasari, George, architect and biog., ' Lives of the Painters' 
Ger. Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist 
Ft. Vattel, F. de, jurist, auj;hor of Law of Nations « 

Fr. Vauglian, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer . 

Eng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., ' dissenting ' divine and histori 
Span. Vega, Garcilapso de, poet „ , . 

Span. , Lopez de, draipatic poet . 

Fr, Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon 

Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior 
Eng. Venn, Rev. Henry, 'Whole Duty of Man' 
Ital. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer . 
Eng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet , 

Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter . 

Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral . . 

Eng, , Robert, founder of Vernon Gallery 

Ft, Veron, Loijis Desire, author and journalist 

Amer, Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critic 

Fr. Veriot, Ren6 Hubert, abb6 de, historian , 

Eng. Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary 

Bom. Vespasian, Titus Flavins, warrior and emperor 

ItaL Vespucius, Anjericus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given 

to the new world 
Eng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress 
Ital. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy . 
Eng. Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain 
Eng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt. - , 

ItaL Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . . 
Fr. Vidocq, Eugene, Ffencb ciiief detective police 
Fr, Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist 
Fr. Vigny, Alfred, couiit de, poet and critic 
Fr. Villars, Louis Hector, duke of, able general 
Fr. VillemaiDjAbel, Fr. politician aud author 



bOBN. 


DIED 


1669 


1722 


1715 


1785 


f. 12th cent. 


1770 


1844 




2601 




881 


f. 30 




1406 


1457 


1782 


1864 


1750 


1798 


1790 




1776 


1852 


1593 


1645 


1823 


1863 


1612 


1662 


1781 


1851 


1764 


1830 


0. 116 


B. c. 27 


1512 


1574 


1771 


1826 


1714 


1767 


1633 


1707 


1503 


1536 


1562 


1635 


1795 




1654 


1712 


1725 


1797 


1814 






1846 


1789 


1864 


1684 


1759 


1774 


1849 


1798 




1655 


1735 


1684 


1756 




T9 


1451 


1518 


1797 


1858 


1820 




1819 




1826 


1855 


1490 


1566 


1775 


1850 


1820 




1799 




16-.3 


1734 


1791 





86 



THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME ANB FK0FE8SI0N. 

Eng. Vince, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer 

Fr. Vinet, Alex. R., theologian 

Rom. Virgi I, or Publius VirgiliuB Maro, the greatest of Roman poets 

Hal. Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary , . 

Ital. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architeot . * 

Ital. Vittoria Colonna, scholar , * 

RusB. Vladimir the Great, grand duke • • 

Dutch. Voet, Jolin, jurist at Leyden , , 

Dutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht , * 

Ger. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist . , 

Pr. Volney, count, celebrated writer . . 

Ital. Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) 

Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, 

ai^d historian • • • 

Ger. VoBS, J. G., historical painter • • 







BOBN. 


DIES 


)mer 






1821 


. 


, 


1797 


1847 


Oman poets 


B. c. 70 


B. 0. 19 


, , 






1831 


» 


f.B 


c. 27 




• • 




1490 


1547 


, 


, 




1015 


, 




1647 


1714 


, 


, 


1619 


1667 


• • 




1829 


1856 


, 


, 


1757 


1820 


, , 




1745 


1826 


philosopher 


1 






, , 




1694 


1778 


• 


• 


1577 


164d 



Ger. Waagen, Gustavo Fried., art critic , , 

Amer. Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist , 

Amer. , James S. (son), patriotic general , 

Ger. "Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist 

Amer. "Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York , 

Eng. 'Wakefleld, Edward Gibbon, political economist 

Eng. , Gilbert, scholar and critic . , 

Amer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian , . 

Fr. "Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . , 

Eng. Walker, John, lexicographer . , 

Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury 

Amer. , 'William, ' filibustering' adventurer 

Amer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist . 

Scot. , "William, patriot and hero 

IriBh. , 'William Vincent,. musical composer ' . 

Ger. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general , 

Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet . . • 

Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general • 

Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author , 

Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman • 

Amer. "Walsh, Robert, author and journalist . , 

Eng. 'Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . 
Amer. "Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-ehancellor of New Tork 
Eng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist 

Eng. , Izaak, angler and biographer 

Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. Y. 

Eng, Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . 

Amer, Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution , 

Soot, Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian . 

Amer, Ware, Henry, rev., 'Unitarian theologian and author 

Amer, — — , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author 

Amer, — — ^, William, novelist, ' Zenobia,' &c. 

Amer, Warren, John Collins, eminent surgeon . , 

Amer, — —— ^, Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill 



176S 


1844 


1807 


1864 


1805 




1792 


1854 


1796 


1862 


1756 


1801- 


1762 


1864 


1810 




1732 


1807 


1801 




1824 


1860 


1817 


1852 


1276 


1305 


1815 


1865 


1583 


1634 


1603 


16£7 


1597 


1688 


1718 


1797 


1676 


1745 


1784 


1858 


1586 


1590 


1815 


1865 


1600 


1661 


1593 


1683 


1789 




1698 


1779 


1748 


1800 


1780 


1853 


1764 


1845 


1794 


1843 


1797 


1862 


1778 


1856 


1741 


1778 



BIOGBAPHICAL INDSX. 



8^ 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

■Warren, Mrs. Mercy, historian, ' American Review' 

■ ■, Samuel, jurist and novelist, ' 10,000 a Tear' 

Sir John Borlase, naval officer ... 

■Wartoii, Joseph, poet and critic . . 

' — , Thomas, poet and critic . . 



HATION, 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng, 

Eng. "Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker' 

Amer. Washington, Bushrod, jusiice of supreme court of U. S. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Scot. 



, George, the father of his country . 

, "Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution , 

"Waterland, Rev. Dr., theoioijical and polemical writer 
"Watson, Elkanali, merchant, agriculturist, and historian 

Robert, hieiorian . . . 

, Richard, eminent prelate and writer . . 



"Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer • 

, Robert, bibliographer . . . , 

Eng. "Watts, Alario Alex., poet and journalist . . , 

Eng. —^-^ Dr. Isaac, divine, poet, ai.d miscellaneous writer , 

Amer. Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. econ. 
Amer. Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution 
Eng. Wi-ale, John, publ'sher and editor, engineering, &c. . 

Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author , 

Weber, Carl Maria von, eminent composer , , 

Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critic • , 

Webster, John, dramatic poet • « • « 

, Daniel, statesman . . , , 

, Noah, author of English Dictionary , ' , 



Amer. 
Ger. 

Eng. 

Eug, 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 



BORN. 

1728 
1807 
1754 
1720 
1728 

1759 
1732 
1752 
1683 
1758 
17S0 
1737 
1736 
177i 
1799 
1674 
1796 
1745 
1792 
18,9 
1786 
1783 

17th 
1782 
1758 
1733 
1731 



Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . , 

Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain , 

Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies . 

Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . . . 1821 

"Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. 

of Ireland ... . . 1760 

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, dnke of, mil. com. and statesman 1769 
"Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author . . 

, Edward, theologian and scholar . , , 1663 

, Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaesthesia , . 1815 

Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review . . 1794 

Eng- Am. "Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Hamp,, also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 



Eng. , Sir Thomas, Earl of Staflbrd . . 

Ger. Werner, Abraham TheophiluSj, mineralogist . 

Ger. , Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist , , 

Eng. Wesley, Rev. Charles, 'Hymns' . , 

j;ng_ , John, founder of Methodist society , , 

Eng. Westall, Richard, historical painter 

Eng. Whateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and edu- 
cational writer ...... 

Amer. Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess . , 

Bng_ , Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Comman Prayer* 

Amer. Wbenton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator 

Eng. Wheatslone, Cliarles, electrician . . . 

Amer. Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College 

Eng. "Whewell, Rev. William, theol,, scientific and educatioual writer 



1593 
1750 
176S 
1708 
1703 
1765 

1787 
1763 
1€86 
1785 
1802 
1711 
1795 



DIED. 

1814 

1822 
1800 
1790 
1471 
1829 
1709 
1810 
1740 
1842 
1780 
1816 
1819 
1819 
1864 
1748 
1865 
1796 
1862 
1856 
1826 
1813 
cent. 
1852 
1843 
1805 
1795 
1825 
1852 

1842 
1852 

1727 
1848 
1845 
1820 
1641 
1817 
1823 
1788 
1791 
1837 

1863 
1794 
1742 
1848 

1778 
1806 



■88 



apB wobld's pkogkess. 



■Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



HATION. NAME AND FBOFESSIOK, 

Amer. Whipple, Edwin P., critic and essayist . • 

Amer. Whistier,_George Wm.; engineer of Bussinn railways 

Whiston, Wm., divine, matheioatician and translator . 

"SVhitliy, David, learned divine, conunentaior of New Testament 

White, He .ry Kirke, poet ., , , . 

, Rev. Joseph Blanco, priest and English author 

, Wiliiam, one of the two first bishops of the P. B. church 

in United States ..... 

Whitefleld, George, founder of the Calvanistic Methodists . 
Amer. Whitney, Eli^ inventor of cotton gin ... 
Amer. Whittierj^John Greenleaf, poet and essayist . 

Amer. Whittingham, Wm. E.., epis. bp. of Maryland and author 
Eng. Whittiiigton, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London . 
Eng. Wickliflfe, or Wicbli^ John, the morning star of the Reformation 
Ger, Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer • • 

Eng. Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian . • • 

Eng. Wilberfo^ce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author . • 

Eng. :-, "William, statesman and philanthropist . 

Amer. "WUde, Richard Henry, poet and to^eratezw . • 

Eng. Wilkeis, John,, celebrated political cbaracter • • 

Scot, Wilkie, Sir David,, histoiical painter . . . 

Eng. Wilkins, Johq, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian 

Eng. , ^ir Charlgs, oriental philologist . • 

Amer. Wilki nson, James,jgeneral in Revolution and author . 

Eng. , Si;' John Gardner, Egyptologist . » 

Eng. Williams ,of Wyke^am, arch-ecclesiast and statesman 
Amer. Williams, Ele^zar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL a 

Eng. , jHelen Maria, miscellaneous writer . • 

Eng. ■ — , Joh|i, missionary and author . • • 

Eng. , Major-gen. Sir Fenwick, defender of Kars • 

Amer. , Otho H., general .... 

En.Am. — ■ — , Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island . . 

Amer. Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N'. Carolina . 
Amer. Willis, Nath. Pai'ker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jou: 

: nallsi . . . . • . > 

Scot. Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist . . 

Eng. , Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . , , 

Eng. — , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit 

Soot , John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist 

Eng. , Mrs. Cornwall, Barron, author 

Winckelman, John, Joachim, ' History of Art ' . 



Ger. 

Aust. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Swiss. 



"Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo 
Windham, William, statesman . • • 

Winer, George Bened.,.prot. theologian . • 

Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot . . • 

En.Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony , 

j;ng_ — , , Forbes, physician and writer on insanity , 

Amer. , Hubbard, D. D., editor and author 

Am.er. , Miron, D. D., missionary and orientalist « 

Eng. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, ' courtpainter ' . 

En.Am.Winthrop. John, governor of colony of Mass. . • 

En. Am.—- — — , . John Cson),. governor of Connecticut . 



BOBN. 


]>IE& 


• 1819 




1800 


1849 


. 1667 


1752 


t 1638 


1726 


1785 


. 1806 


1775 


1841 


CJI 

. 1747 


1836 


1714 


1770 


. 1765 


1825 


1808 




. 1805 






1419 


on 1324 


1384 


1733 


1813 


. 1792 


1836 


1805 




. 1759 


1858 


1789 


1847 


, 1717 


1797 


1785 


1841 


1614 


.1672 




1836 


. 1757 


.1825 


1797 




. 1324 


1404 


1787? 


.1858 


, 1762 


1827 


1796 


1839 


, 1800 




1748 


. 1794 


1606 


1683 


1735 


1819 


r- 
. 1807 


1867 


1766 


1813 


, 1778 


1858 


1808 


1860 


, 1785 


1854 




.1846 


. 1717 


1768 


1787 


1862 


, 1750 


1810 


1789 


1858 




1386 


1595 


1655 


• 1810 




1800 


1864 


, 1789 


1864 




1803 


, 1588 


1649 


1606 


1676 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



S9 



NATION. KAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Wiuthrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot 
Wirt, William, attorney-general U. 8. and biographer 
Wiseman, Nicholas, cardiua!, Rumau catholic theol. and author 
Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist 
Withers, George, poet . . , , 

Amer. Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot « 

Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian . ' , . 

Scot. Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian , 

Woflington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress , • 

Wolcott, Joan, known as Peter Pindar, poet , 

, Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence 

, Roger, colonial governor of Conn. 



"Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 



Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller . 

Ger. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . * 

Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general . , 

Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir John Moore ' . . 

Ger. WoltF, John Christian, philosopher aud mathematician 
Eng. Wollaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. , 

Eng. "Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman * 
Eng. 'WoOstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author . • 

Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biogjapher , 

Eng. , Robert, archasoiogist and secretary of state , 

Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist . , 

Eng. Woodfall, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) , 

Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician aiid astronomer 
Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler (.seeTytler) historian 
Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian • . , 

Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. . , 

Amer. Woodwortb, Samuel, pott, 'Oaken Bucket ' • 

A-mer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army . , 

Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philanthropist , 

Wooster, David, Revolutionarj' general . , 

Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, ' Century of Inventions 

, Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer • 

Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., ' Ancient Greece' . 



Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Aust. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



, William, poet laureate . . , 

Worth, William J., major-general IT. 8. army , 

Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller and author . 
Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . , 

Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian . 
Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect , 

Wright, Faniy (Madame Darusmont), ' Social Reformer' 

, Silas, governor of New York and senator U. S. 

, Thotoas, antiquarian author . , 

Wnnnser, D. S., tield-marsbal in Austrian army , 
Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author , 

, Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . , 

"Wycherley, William, dramatic poet . . , 

Wycliffe, see Wicklife, reformer . , 

Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanth 
Wyndham, Sir William, statesman . . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


, 1828 


1861 


1772 


1835 


ithor 1802 


1865 


. 1761 


1818 


1590 


1667 


• 1722 


1794 


. 16S6 


1708 


. 1679 


1734 


1719 


1760 


1738 


1818 


nee 1727 


1797 


1079 


1767 


1795 


1862 


1759 


1824 


1726 


1759 


1791 


1823 


1679 


1754 


1766 


. 1828 


H71 


1530 


1759 


1797 


1632 


1695 


1716 


■1771 


. 1789 


1851 


. 1745 


1822 


1773 


. 1827 


1747 


1813 


1770 


1851 




U86» 


1785 


1842 


. 1789 




1720 


1773 


, 1710 


1777 




1667 


1784 


1865 


• 1770 


1850 


. 1770 


1850 


* 1794 


1849 


. 1806 


1855 


1568 


1689 


. 1751 


1831 


1632 


1723 


:796 


1853 


. 1795 


1847 


1810 




1717 


1797 


. 1820 




. 1503 


1540 


. 1640 


1715 


1324 


1404 


th. 1324 


1404 


1687 


1740 



dO 



THE WOELd's PBOGEESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Wyse, Sir Thomas, M. P., writer on education . 

Amer. Wythe, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot 



s tt.it>. 



1806 



Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, 'Apostle to the Indies' . . 

G-r. Xenocrates, philosopher . . , 

Gr. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics 

<Jr. Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general 

Pers. Xerxes I., king of Persia .... 

Pers. II., king of Persia . , , 

Spau. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman • 



Amer. Tale, Elihu, early patron of Tale College . . 

Eng. Tarrell, "William, naturalist and author. • , 

Eng. Touatt, William, author of works on the horse . 

Amer. Toung, Alex, D. D., historian of Pilgrims , . 

Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writer . . , , 

Amer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons . , , 

Eng. ) Charles, actor . . • , 

Eng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer . . 

Eng. , Thomas, phy&ician and philosopher 

Gr. Tpsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev. 

Span. T riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet , , 



Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A., voluminous writer • • 

Heb. Zechariah, the prophet . . . • 

Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, eminent wnter , • , 

Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher . » . • 

Gr. , founder pf the sect of Stoics 

Zeuobia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of 
the arts ..... 

Heb. Zeplianiiih, the prophet .... 
Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . . 

Swiss. ■ , John George, miscellaneous writer . 

Ger. Zinzendorl, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians • 

Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . 

Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher . « 

Eng. Zouoli, Thomas, theologian and biographer 
Gr. Zozimus, historian ..... 
Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, ' Tales ' 
SwisB. Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer . , 

Ger. Zumpt, Earl, author of Latin Grammar • • 



, 


1506 


1552 


B 


0. 406 B. 


C. 314 


£b. 


c. 540 




B. 


c. 416 B. 


c. 360 




B 


c. 465 




B. 


0. 425 




1457 


1517 




1648 


1721 




1784 


1856 




1777 


1847 




1800 


1854 




1741 


1820 




1801 






1777 


1856 




1681 


1765 




1774 


1829 




1792 


1828 




1750 


1790 




1T14 


1795 


f. B. 


C. 520 






1668 


1750 


B 


C. 463 




B. 


0. 362 B 


c. 264 


sot 




300 


tB 


c 520 






1743 


1815 




17:18 


1795 




1700 


1760 




1730 


1788 




1737 


1815 




f. 400 






1771 


1848 




1484 


1531 




1702 


1858 



mOORAPHICAL mDKX.— ABTI8T8. 



n 



ARTISTS. 



PAINTERS— ENGRAVERS— SCULPTORS— AECHITEOTS. 



SATION. NAME AND fROPESSION. 

Gr. AgatharcUSi inventor of perspective scenery in theatfeSt Painter 

Gr. Ageldas . . . . . Sculptor. 

Gr. Agesander, sculptor of ' Xaocoon and his Children ' Sculptor. 

ItaL Albano, Francis, ' the painter of the Graces ' , . Painter. 

ItaL Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., Sc, and Archit. 

Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto . . • . Painter. 

Gr. Alcarmenes (pupil of Phidias) . > Sculptor. 

Scot. Allan, Sir William .... Painter. 

Amer. Allston, "Washington . , Port, and Histop. Painter, 

ital, Andrea del Sarto .... Painter. 

Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc, and Arch, 

Ital, Angelo, Michael (CaraVaggio) . . • Painter. 

Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters . Painter, 

Gr. ApoUodorus, an Athenian ... Painter. 

Ital. Appianl, of Milan .... Painter. 

Gr. Arlstldes, of Thebes .... Painter. 

Ft. Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Hietor. Engraver. 

(Eight painters and engravers named Atidran nearly contemporary.) 



f. B. O, 
B. C. 

1678 
1400 



f. 
1781 
1779 
1488 
1474 
1569 

f, 

f. 
1754 

f. 
1640 



SieO. 

B. C. 480 

6th Cent. 

5th Cent. 
1660 
1490 
1520 

B. 0. 450 
1850 
1843 
1530 
1663 
1609 

B. 0. 380 

B.C. 408 
1817 

B. 0. 240 
1703 



ItaU 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Mem. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Irish. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

ItaL 

ttaU 

Ital. 

Itar. 

ttaL 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ital. 



Bacoio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra fiartolo 

meo) ... 

Bacon, John . « « 

Baker, Geo. A. (N. Y.) * 

Balen, Henry van ■ , 

Bandinelli, Baccio . • * 

Banks, Thomas . . 

Barents, Dietrich . . . 

Barker, Bobert, inventor of panoramas 
Barry, James . . . 

Barry, Sir Ohas. ■ . . 

Bartolini, Lorenzo . . 

Bartolozzi, Francesco « i 

Bariolomeo, Fra di San Marco 
Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leand^ 
Batoni, Pompey . . • 

Bauer, Ferdinand . . 

Beechy, Sir William . . 

Beard, Wm. H. (N. T.) 
Beaumont, Sir George BC, . 

Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentine 



Painter. 


1469 


1517 


. Sculptor. 


1740 


1799 


, Port. Painter. 






. . Painter. 


1560 


1632 


. Sculptor. 


1489 


1569 


• . Sculptor. 


1745 


1805 


Sistor. Painter. 


1534 


1582 


Painter. 


1740 


1808 


. Painter. 


1741 


1805 


, . Architect. 


1795 


1860 


. Sculptor. 


1777 


1850 


« Engraver. 


1730 


1813 


Painter. 


1469 


1517 


Leand^ Painters. 


16th Century. 


Painter. 


1708 


1787 


Botanical Painter. 




1826 


. Landscape Painter. 


1763 


1839 


• Painter. 






. , Painter. 


1753 


1827 f 
1684 '' 


• Engraver. 


1610 



92i 



THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS. 



NATION. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Flem. 

Eng. 

Amer» 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Flem. 

Eng. 

ItaL 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

ItaU 

Anier. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

fJem, 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Bellini, Q-iov.) founder of the Venetian echool . Painter. 

Bellini, Gentine .... Portrait Painter. 
Benini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp'r, and Aroh't. 

Berchem, Nicholaa . . . Engraver. 

Bewick, Johu, publisher of various works with wood- 



cuts . . 

Bierstadt, Albert (N. T.) 
Bird, Edward 
Blake, William 
Bologna, John of (in Italy) 
Bone, &enry . 

Bordone, Parts . . 

Both, John and Andrew 
Bourdon, Sebastian . 



. Wood Engraver. 

, Landscape Painter. 

. . Painter, 

Painter and Engraver. 

Sculptor and Architect. 

Enamel Painter. 

• * Painter. 

• Painters. 

Painter and Engraver. 



Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). . Painter. 

Boydell, Jno, (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 
Brentel, Francis , ' , ' . , Painter. 

Bramante D'TTrblho, Francis L., (1st of St, Peter's 



Church) 

Brevooit, J. E. (N. T.) . , 

Brill, Matthew . , , 

Brill, Paul . . , 

Brown, Geo. L. , , , 

Brown, Henry Kirke . . 

Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck . 
Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence 
Buonarotti, see Angelo 
Burnett, James • . . 



. Architect, 

Landscape Pointer. 

• . Painter. 

Landscape Painter. 

« Painter. 

( • Sculptor. 

« Painter. 

• Architect. 



BOBir. 
1462 
1421 
1598 
1624 

1760 

1772 
1757 
1524 
1755 
1503 
1610 
1616 
1756 
1719 
f. 1635 

1444 

1550 
1656 

1814 
1370 
1377 



DIBO. 
1512 
1501 
1680 
1689 

1795 

1819 
1826 
1608 
1834 
1588 
1650, '56 
1671 
18U 
1804 



1514 



1584 
1626 



1441 
1444 



Landscape Painter. 1783 1816 



Ital. Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 1532 

Ital. Cagliari, Benedict, CaTlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and 

sons of Paul 

Eng. Calcott, Sir A. W. , - . , - Landscape Painter. 1779 

ItaL Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio ... Painter. 1495 

Gr. Calimachus . , , Sculptor and Architect. f. i 

Ital. Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese . . . Painter. 1527 

Ital. Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 1697 

Ital. Canova, Antonio . , , , Sculptor. 1757 

Ital. Caracci, Ludovico , . • ^ . Painter. 1555 

ItaL Caracci, Agostino . • . • Painter. 1558 

Ital. Caracci, Annibale , , « , Painter. 1560 

Ital, Caracci, Anthony . , » , Painter. 1583 

Ital. Caravaggio, see Angelo , , « . 

Ital. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oscuro 

with three plates to imitate drawings . . 1486 
Fr. Casas, Louis Francis. ,. . Painter and Architect. 1756 
Amer. Casilear, John W. (N. T.) , . Lands. Painter. 
Span, Castillo y Saavedra, Anthony . . Painter. 1603 
Ital. Cavendone, James . ^ . . Fresco-Painter. 1577 
Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of auto- 
biography , . , . • Painter. 1500 



1588 



1844 
1543 
, 0. 540 
1587 
1768 
1822 
1619 
1601 
1609 
161S 



1530 

1827 



1667 
ISOtf 



1570 



BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. — ARTISTS. 



03 



KATION. 

Span. 
Flem. 

Eng. 

Amer. 
Gr. 

Ft. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Itnl. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Dutch. 

Ital, 

Eng. 

Er. 

Er. 

Fr. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Fr, 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 


Bonw. 


DIED. 


Cegpedes.Paulde 


Pamter, Sculptor, Architect. 


1538 


1608 


Champ:igue, Philip de . 


, . . Painter. 


1604 


1674 


11 T> *■ ♦ 


. , , Painter. 


1643 


1688 


"^~~~- . — , donn JDapiiSv 




Chantry, Sir Francis « 


, , . Sculptor. 


1781 


1841 


Chapman, John G. 


, , , Hist. Painter. 






Cliares . . . 


, . . Painter. 


f.» 


0. 300 


Chaudet, Anthony Denis 


• . Painter and Sculptor. 


1763 


1810 


Church, Fred. E. 


. . , Lands. Painter. 






Cignani, Carlo 


« , , Painter. 


1628 


1719 


Cmabue, Giov., Florentine 


... , Pail. ten 


1240 


1300 


Claude Gelee— called Claude Lorraine . . Painter. 


1600 


1682 


Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the 


Medicean Venus) . Sculptor. 


f.B. 


C. 180 


Clevcnger, Shobal Vail 


Sculptor. 


1812 


1844 


Cole, Thomas . , 


Lands, and Hist. Painter. 


1802 


184S 


Collins, William 


Lands, and Fam. life Painter. 


1788 


1847 


Colman, Saml. (N". Y.) . 


. , Lands. Painter. 






Constable, John 


• . . Painter. 


1776 


1837 


Cooper, Samuel . . 


. Miniatnre Painter. 


1689 


1776 


Copley, John Singleton (born 


in Boston) . Painter. 


1737 


1815 


Cornelius, Peter von . 


Painter. 


1787 




Correggio, Ant., founder of the Lonibard school Painter. 


1493 


1534 


Cort, Cornelius . 


. Eni?raver. 


1536 


1578 


Cortona, Pietro da, Tuscan 


. . Painter. 


1596 


1669 


Cosway, Richard , 


, . . Painter. 


1740 


1828 


Courtois, James, known as H 


Borgognone • Painter. 


1621 


1673 


— — - — , William (brother) 


, Painter. 


1628 


1679 


Couture 


, . . Painter. 






Couston, Nicholas (also his brother William) . Sculptor. 


1658 


1731 




Sculptor and Architect. 
Paint., Sctilp., etc. 


1716 


1777 
1590 


Cousin, John . 


1500 


Cox, David 


. . Lands. Painter. 


1723 


1859 


Cranach, Lucas . 


. • , • . ■ Engraver. 


1470 


1553 


Cranch, Christr. P. • • 


, • - . Painter. 






Crawford, Thomas . 


, . ■ . ■ Sculptor, 


1814 


1857 


Cropsey, Jasper F. (N. T.) 


• . . Lands. Painter. 






Cuyp, Jacob G. . 


Lands, and Cattle Painter. 


1568 


1649 


— — , Albert (son of Jacob) 


. Lands, and Cattle Painter. 


1606 


1667 


, Benjamin , 


. . . Hist. Painter, 


1650 





Eng, Danby, Francis • • • . Painter. 1793 1861 

Eng. Daniel, Thomas • » * • Lands, Painter. 1749 1840 

Eng. — • — , Wm. . . . . Lands. Painter, 1769 1837 

Ger. Dannecker, John Henry, ' Adriadne,' &c. . Sculptor. 1758 184J 

Amer. Darley, F. O. C, , . . Painter and Designer. 1822 

Fr, David, James Louis , . . , Painter, 1750 1825 

Fr. -, Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French 

school) . . . • . Sculptor. 1780 1856 

Fr. Delacroix, F. V. E. , , , , Painter. 1798 1883 

Fr. Delaroche, Paul . . • Hist. Painter. 1797 1866 



64 THE WOELD'S PR0GEBS3. 

NATIOK. HAMB AND PBOFESSION. BORN. DIED 

Ger. Denner, Balthasar .... Port. Painter. 1685 1741 

Dutch, De Witt, Jaraes . . . . Painter. 1695 1747 

Gr. Dtnocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c,) Architect. f. b, o. 330 

Ital. Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. 1616 1686 

Ital. Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. 1681 1641 

Ital. Donatello, or Donate . . . Florentine Sculptor. 1383 1466 

Fr. Dor6, Gustave . . . Painter and Designer. 

Amer. Doughty, Thomas . • . Lands. Painter. 1793 1868 

Dutch. Douw, or Dow, Gerard . . Familiar Life Painter. 1613 1674 

Fr. Dubuffe, . . • . Hist. Painter, 

Fr. Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse , . Painter. 1611 1665 

Amer. Dunlap, William . . Hist, Painter. 1766 1839 

Amer, Durand, Asher B. (N. Y.) . . Painter and Engraver. 

Ger. Durer, Albert (aud author) . Paint., Eng., So., and Arch. 1471 1628 

E 

Eng, Eastlake, Chas, L. . . . . Painter. 1793 1865' 

Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 1768 1869 

Eng. Eginton, Francis, restorer of the art of painting on 

glass .....' Painter, 1737 1806 

Amer. Ehninger, Tohn W. (N, T.) . . . Painter. 

Amer. Elliott, Chas. L. (N, T.) . . . Port, Painter. 

Eng. Etty, Wm. . • . . . Painter. 1787 1849 

Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sicyon) . Painter. 

Dutch. Eyok, John van (said to have invented painting In oil) Painter. 1370 1441 



Ital.Am.Fagnani, G. . . . 

Eng, Fielding (Copley Vandyke) . 

Eng. Flaxman, John . . . 

Eng. Finden, "Wm. 

Amer, Forbes, Edwin ... 

Scot. Forrest, Robert . • 

Fr. Frfere, Edouard 

Swiss, Pnseli, Henry (resided in England 

Swiss. jJohnG. . 



G 

Eng, Gainsborough, Thomas . . 

Fr. Gerard, Fran. P. S,, baron . 

Fr. , John 1, (Granville) . 

Italv Ghiberti, Lawrence , . 

Eng, Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak 

Eng. Gibson, John . . . 

Amer. Gifford, Sanford R. . 

Fr.Am. Gignoux, Regis , 

Ital. Giordani, Luke (the Protetis df Painting) 

Ital, Giorgione, Barbarelli . . 

Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) 

IV, Girardon, Francis . . 

EV. Girodet, TrioBon Aim£ Louii 



. Port, Painter* 






. Lands. Painter. 






. Sculptor and Artist. 


1755 


182* 


Engraver. 


1787 


186S 


. . Painter. 






' . Sculptor. 


1790 


1862 


. Genre Painter. 






Painter. 


1741 


1823 


. . Painter. 


1706 


1781 


. Lands. Painter. 


1727 


1788 


Painter. 


1770 


1837 


Caricaturist, 


1803 


1847 


. Florentine Sculptor. 


1378 


14«6 


oak , Sculptor. 


1648 


1721 


. . Sculptor. 


1791 


1867 


. Lands. Painter. 






Lands. Painter. 






j) . Painter. 


1629 


1704 


Painter, 


1477 


1511 


Paint. Sculp, and Arch. 


1276 


133t 


. Soulp. and Arch. 


1630 


1716 


Painter. 


1767- 


1824 



BIOGBAPHICAIi iNDEX. — ^ARTISTS. 



95 



NATION. NAME AND PKOFESSION. 

lUl. Giulio Bomano (Pippi) .... Painter. 

Fr. Goujon, John, the French Phidias . . Sculptor. 

Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. 

Amer. Greenough, Horatio . < . Sculptor. 

Amer. Greene, E. D. E. . . . Port. Painter. 

Ft. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter. 

Ital. Quercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter. 

ItaL Guido, Reni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter. 



loaw. 


siEn 


1492 


1546 


1515 


1572 



1806 

1726 
1590 
1574 



1852 

1805 
1606 
1642 



H 

• . . Painter. 

. • Painter. 

• • • Painter. 
. Landscape Painter. 

. . . Architect. 

. Historical Painter. 

« . . Painter. 

. . Engraver. 

• • , 'Painter. 
. . Painter. 

Historical Painter. 

. . Landscape Painter. 

. . . Painter. 

Portrait and Historical Painter. 



Eng. Harlow, Geo. Henry . 

Amer. Hart, "Wm., b. in Scotland 

Amer. Hart, Jas. M. •• . 

Amer. Haseltine, "W. Stanley 

Eng. Haviland, John , 

Eng. Haydon, R. B. . 

Amer. Healy, Geo. P. . 

Eng. Heath, Charles 

Amer. Hennessy, W. L • 

Amer. Hicks, Thos. . 

Eng. Hilton, William . , 

Flem. Hobbema, Mynderhout 

Eng. Hogarth, William 

Swiss. Holbein, Hans . 

Ger. Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates . Engraver. 

Amer. Homer, Winslow .... Painter. 

Flem. Honthorst, Gerard (called Glierarda del Notte) . Painter. 

Araer. Hosmer, Harriet .... Sculptor. 

Dutch, Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . . . Engraver. 

Fr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) . Sculptor. 

Fr. Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver. 

Amer. Hubbard, Rich. W. .... Painter. 

Amer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) . . . Sculptor. 

Amer. Huntington, Dan. ... Painter. 

Eng. Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . . . Painter. 

Dutch. Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) . Painter. 

Dutch. , Justus (The Old) , , . Painter. 

Dutch. (The Young) . . Painter. 



178T 
1823 
1828 

1792 
1786 
1808 



1823 
1786 
1611 
1697 
1498 
1607 

1592 
1831 
1698 
1746 
1736 

1806 
1816 
1827 
1682 
1659 
1684 



1819 



1853 
1846 



1849 



1839 
1699 
1764 
1554 
1677 

1660 

1780 
1828 
1813 



1749 
1716 
1706 



Amer. Inman, Henry 



Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1801 



1846 



Amer. Jarvis, J. W. . 
Amer. Johnson, Eastman (N. T.> 

Amer. , David (N. Y.) . 

Fr. Johannot, Chas. H, A. 

Fr. , Tony (brother) 

Amer. Jones, Alfred, N. Y. 

Eng. , Inigo , 

Amer. , Thos. D, 



. Portrait Painter. 

Painter. 

. Painter. 

Painter and Designer. 

Painter and Designer. 

• . Engraver. 

• Architect. 

« . Sculptor. 



1800 
1803 



1672 



1887 
1852 



1659 



96 



THE world's PEOGEESS. 



NATION. 

Flem. Jordaens, Jacol) 
Ital. Julio, Eomano 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 



BORN. DIED. 

Painter. 1595 167« 

Painter and Arphitect, 1492 1546 



Swiss, Kaufflnan, M. A. Angelica C. (in England) 

Amer. Kensett, John F. , . , 

Ger, Kiss, August . . , 

Ger. Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) 



Poetical Painter. 

, Painter. 

• Sculptor. 

. Painter. 



1807 



1747 

1818 

1802 1865 

1648 1T23 



Dutch. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Bng. 

Gr. 

Ft. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ft. 

Eng. 

Gr. 



Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver. 
Landon, C. P. . . Writer on Art and Painter. 

Landseer, Chas. . . . Painter of Genre. 

) John .... Engraver, 

, Sir Edwin . . . . Painter. 

Lang, Louis (h. in Germany) ... Painter. 

Lawrence, Sir Thos. . . . , Painter. 

Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XLV.) . . Painter. 

Leech, John . . . Hiimorist Artist. 



Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) 
Le Sieur, Eustace (the French. Raphael) 
Leslie, Chas. R. (resided in England) . 
Lessing, Carl Fred. 

Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) . 
Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . . 

Liverseege, Henry . . 

Lysippus (made 600 statues) 



Painter, 
Painter. 
Painter. 
Painter. 
Painter. 



Painter and Engraver. 

. Painter. 

. Scalptor. 



m; 



Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Flem. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Malbone, Edward G. 
Marshal], "Wm. C. 

, Wm. C. . 

Martin, John . 

Masaccio 

Matsys, Quintin . 



Ital, 

Amer, 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Span. 



Mazzuolo, Franois 
McEntee, Jervis , 

Meissonier, Justus A, 

, Jean L, 

Mengs, Anthony R. (the 
Metzu, Gabriel , 

Mieris, Francis . 
Mignard, Peter . 

Mignot, Louis R. 
Mills, Clark . 
Mind, Gottfried , 
Morghen, Raphael , 
Morse, Samuel P. B, 
Mount, William Sidney 
Moreland, George 
Murillo, Bartholomew S. 



. • . Miniature Painter. 

... Sculptor. 

. • , . Engraver. 

• . . . Painter. 
... Painter. 

.... Painter. 

... Sculptor. 

.... Painter. 

. . . Painter. 

. Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. 

... Fainter. 

Raphael of Germany) . Painter. 

. . Familiar Life Painter. 

• . Familiar Life Painter. 

. . . Painter. 

• • . . Painter. 
• • . Sculptor. 

• • . . Painter. 
... Engraver. 

.... Painter. 

. • . Painter. 
. • . . Painter. 

• • . Fainter. 



1640 



1769 
1803 
1814 
1769 
1619 
1816 
1618 
1617 
1794 
1808 
1816 
1494 
1803 
f. B. 



1777 
1813 

1789 
1402 
1460 

1503 

1695 
1815 
1729 
1615 
1635 
1610 

1815 

1768 
1T58 

1807 
1764 
1613 



1711 

1826 



1862 



1830 
1696 

1680 
1655 
1859 



1533 

1832 

0. 324 



1807 



1854 
1427 
1529 

1540 

1760 

1779 
1669 
1681 
1696 



1814 
1833 



1604 
1682 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. — AKTISTS, 



91 



N 



HATIOIT, 


NiME AND PROFESSION. 1 


B0E5J. 


DIBD^ 


Dutch. 


Neefs, Peter . . . 


Architectural Painter. 


1570 


1651 


Eng. 


Newton, Gilbert (Stuart) 


Historical Painter. 


1785 


1835 


Eng, 


Nolle kins, Joseph . . 


. . Sculptor. 


1737 


1823 


Eng. 


Northcote, James . . • 


, Painter. 


1746 


1831 


Eng. 


O 

Opie, John . . • 


. Painter. 


1761 


1807 


Dutch. 


Ostade, Adrian van (interiors) . 


Familiar Life Painter. 


1610 


1685 


Dutch. 


Ostade, ISaac (winter scenes) . 


, Painter. 


1617 


1671 


Eng. 


Owen, 'WiUiam ... 


, Painter. 


1769 


1825 


Amer. 


P 

Page, "Wm. , " . . 


, , Painter. 


1811 




Fr. 


Pajou, Augustin ■ • . 


, Sculptor. 


1730 


1809 


Ital. 


Palladio, Andrew . . 


, . Architect. 


1518 


1580 


Span. 


Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. 


Painter. 


1653 


1726 


Ital. 


Pannini, Gioy. Paolo . 


Architectural Painter. 


1691 


1764 


Gr. 


Parrhasius, of Ephesus . 


Painter. 


f. B. 


c. 420 


JLmtt, 


Peale, Charles W. . Historical and Portrait Painter. 


1741 


1827 


Amer. 


, Rembrandt 


Painter. 


1778 


1860 


Fr. 


Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvrej Architect. 


1613 


1688 


Ital. 


Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) 


Painter. 


1446 


1524 


Swiss. 


Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) 


, . Painter. 


1607 


1691 


BeL 


Peters, Bonaventura . , . 


Marine Painter. 


1614 


1652 


Bel. 


, Francis Lucas . . 


, . Painter. 


1606 


1654 


Bel. 


-, John . . • 


Marine Painter. 


1635 


1677 


Gr. 


Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) . Sculptor, b. 


, c. 498 B. 


c. 431 


Eng. 


Phillips, Thomas, R. A. . . 


Port. Paiuter. 


1770 


1845 


Fr. 


Picart, Bernard . , . 


. Engraver. 


1663 


1733 


Fr. 


Pigalle, John Baptist , . 


Sculptor. 


1714 


1785 


Ital. 


Pietro, da Pietre . • 


Hist. Painter of Rome. 


1671 


1716 


Fr. 


Piles, Roger de , , . 


Author and Painter. 


1635 


1709 


Ital. 


Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) 


. Engraver. 


1707 


1778 


Ital. 


Polidors, da Caravaggio . . 


, Painter. 


1495 


1543 


Gr. 


Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) 


, Sculptor. B. 


c. 430 




Ital. 


Pordenone, Regillo da . . 


, Painter. 


1484 


1540 


Dutch. 


, Potter, Paul (unequalled in amwai! painting) . Painter. 


1625 


1654 


Fr. 


Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape painting) Painter. 


1594 


1665 


Ital. 


Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) . 


Landscape Painter. 


1613 


1675 


Ital. 


Piombo, Sebastiano del . * 


, Painter. 


1485 


154T 


Amer. 


, Powers, Hiram . « 


, , Sculptor. 


1805 




Fr. 


Pradier, Jacques • . » 


•Sculptor. 


1798 


1852 


Amer. 


Pratt, Mathew . . 


, . Painter. 


1734 


1805 


Gr. 


Praxiteles . '. . 


Sculptor, f. 


B. c. 350 




Eng. 


Prout, Samuel , . . 


■VVater-colorist. 


1783 


1852 


Fr. 


Prudhon, of Cluny , 


Painter. 


1760 


1823 


Fr. 


Puget . . Sculptor, 


Painter and Architect. 


1622 


1694 


Bng. 


Pugin, Augustus A. W. . 


. . Arcbitect. 


1811 


1853 



98 



THE WOBLD'S PEOGKESS, 



KATION. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

fr. 

Eng. 

Fletn. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fiem. 

Soot. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Eog. 



R 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Raphael, d' Urblno (real name Sanzio) A prominent Painter. 



Hist, and Port. Painter. 
, . Sculptor. 

• , Art Designer. 

Painter, 

Writer on Art and Painter. 

, Animal Painter. 

. . Painter. 

« • Painter. 

• Sculptor, 

. Painter. 

• Painter. 

. Paint**'. 

« Painter. 

• Sculptor. 

Painter. 

Rowlandson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Paint, and Eng. 
Euhens, Peter Paul .... Painter. 

Runoiraau, Alexander . . . Painter. 

Euysdael, Jacob , . Landscape Painter. 

Ruysdael, Solomon • . • . Painter. 

Kyckaert, David . • , . Painter. 

Pyckaert, Martin . . Landscape Painter. 

Rysbraeck, leter . . , Landscape Painter. 

Rysbraoh, John M. (works in. Westminster Abbey) Sculptor. 



Raphael da Rhegio (Raffaelino) 
Eauch, Christian David 
Rembrandt van Eyn, Paul Geritz 
Retsch, Moritz . • 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua . 
Richardson, Jonathan , 

Riedinger, John Elias , 

Rober, Fleury • , 

Roberts, David . . . 

Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) 
Romney, George , . 

Eoos, Philip Peters * . 

Rosa, Salvator • . 

Rossiter, Thomas P. . . 

Roubilliac, L. P. , . . 

Rousseau, James . . 



BOBN. 

1483 
1552 
1781 
1606 
1779 
1723 
1665 
1695 
1797, 
1796 
1746 
1734 
1655 
1614 

1695 
1630 
1756 
1577 
1736 
1636 
1616 
1615 
1591 
1657 
1694 



9IBD, 

1520 
1580 
1859 
1669 
1859 
1792 
1745 
1767 

1864 
1816 
1802 
1705 
1673 

1762 
1693 
1827 
1646 
1785 
1684 
1670 
1677 
1636 
1716 
1770 



8 ' 

Ital. Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) , 

Ital. Salvi, Nicholas . , , 

Ital, Sanmicheli, Michael . . . 

ItaL Sarto, Andrea del, see Vanucchi . 

Eng. Savage, James , . , 

ItaL Seamozzi, Vincent . . 

JPruss. Schadow, J. G. . . • 

Ger. Schadow, Godenhaus F- W. . 

Ger. Schadow, Rudolf . . . 

Dutch. Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) 

Ger. Scheflfer, Ary .... 

Ital. Sehidone, Bartolomeo ; . . 

Gr. Scopas . • • . 

Eng. Sharp, William . . . 

Amer. Shattuck, Aaron D. . . , 

Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy 

Eng. Sherwin, John Keyse ... 

Amer. Smillie, Jaujes ... 

Amer. -, George H. , : , • 

Amer. r, James D. . . . 



Painter, 1605 1685 

Architect. 1699 1752 

Architect. 1484 1559 



Architect. 


1778 


1852 


Architect. 


1550 


1616 


Sculptor. 


1764 


1850 


Painter. 


1789 




Sculptor. 


1786 


1822 


Painter. 


1643 


1706 


Painter. 


1795 


1858 


Painter. 


1560 


1616 


Sculptor. B. 


C.460 B. 


C. 353 


lingraver. 


1740 


1824 


Painter. 






Painter. 


1795 


1850 


Engraver. 


1761 


1790 


Engraver. 






Painter. 






Painter. 







BIOGRAPHICAL I^^DEX. — ARTISTS. 



99 



HATIOK, 

Amen 

Plera, 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Bpan. 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 



NAME AND PE0FES8I0N. 

Smj-hcrt, John (b. in Scotland) . . . Painter. 

Snyders, Francis . Landscape and Animal Paiuter. 

Soulllot, J. G. (church of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect. 

Spaendoack, Gerr.idvan . , Flower Painter. 

Spagnoletto, Giuseppe Ribera la • , . Painter. 



Steen, Jan , 

Stone, William O. 
Strange, Robert 
Strickland, William 
Strutt, Joseph, . 



• • . Painter. 

( • Portrait Painter. 

• • . Engravor. 

• . . Architect. 

. . Author and Painter. 

Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect. 
Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Bcnjaniiu West . Port. Painter. 

Sunder, Lucas (see Cranach) ... Upgraver. 



BOBN. 


DIED. 


1684 


1751 


1579 


1657 


1714 


1781 


1746 


1822 


1589 


1656 


1636 


1689 


1721 


1792? 




1854 


1749 


1802 


1713 


1788 


1756 


1828 



ItaL Tenerani, Pietro . . . 

Eiem. TeiiitTs, David, the elder (pupil of Ruhens) 

Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) 

Scot. Thom, Jas. (Tarn O'Shanter, &c.) 

Eng. Thoruhill, Sir Jas. . . * 

Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert ... 

Ger. Titck, Christ Fried . 

Gr. Tinianthes (contemporary ■with Parrhasius) 

Ital. Tintoretto (Venetian — pupil of Titian) . 

Ital. , It (James Robusti) 

Ital. Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school 

Fr. Troyon, Cou.stantiue ... 

Amer. Trumbull, John ... 

Eng. Turner, J. W. M. . , . 



• Sculptor. 


1789 




. . Painter.' 


1582 


1649 


) . Painter. 


1610 


1694 


Sculptor. 


1790 


1850 


Historical Painter. 


1676 


1732 


Sculptor. 


1772 


1844 


. Sculptor. 


1776 


1851 


. Painter. 


f. B. 


c. 240 


. Painter. 


1480 


1579 


, Painter. 


1512 


1594 


• Painter. 


1480 


1579 


Painter. 


1813 


1865 


Historical Painter. 


1756 


1843 


. Painter. 


1775 


1851 



u 



Eng. U'wins, Thomas, R. A, 



Painter. 



1783 



1S57 



Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Flem . 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

8ic. 



Van Beest (b. in Holland ?) • . Marine Painter. 

Vanbrugh, Sir John (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arcli't. 



Vanderlyn, John 

Vander Neer, Arnold . • 

Vandervelde, Adrian. . • 

, the younger . 

, "Wm., marine and battle 



Vanderwi'rf, Adrian 

Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait 

Vaneyck, Hubert 

Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) 

Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . 

Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan 

Vasai-i, George, biographer of artists 

Vast, Joseph . 



Historical Painter. 
Landscape Painter. 
Landscape Painter. 
. . Painter. 

Painter. 
Historical Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 
Architect. 



Architect and Painter. 
Designer and Engraver. 



1672 
1776 
1619 
1639 
1633 
1610 
1654 
1598 
1366 
1370 
1488 
1700 
1512 
1710 



172G 
1852 
1683 
1672 
1707 
1693 
1718 
1616 
1426 
1441 
1530 
1773 
1574 
1782 






100 



THE •WOELD'S progress. 



VATIOK. 

Span. 

Flem, 

Amer. 

I^r. 

Fr. 

ItaL 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

ItaL 

Fr. 



NAME AND PEOFESSION. 

Velasguez, Jas. R. de SyMa y . . . Painter. 

Verboecklioveu, Eugene . . Painter of animals. 

Ver Bryck, C. . . . . Landscape Painter. 

Vemet, Horace , , . Historical Painter. 

Vernet, Joseph . . . . . Painter. 
Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) 
Verrochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking 



features in a plaster mould . . 

"Vertue, George (500 plates) . 
Vignola, Jas., Caprarola palace and St. Peter's 
Vinci, Leonardo da . . . 

Vitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . . 

Volpato, John . 
Vouet, Simon, founder of French Bchool, contempora' 



ry of Charles L 



Sculptor. 
Engraver. 
Architect. 
Painter. 
Architect. 
Engraver. 

Painter, 



TT 



BOEIt, DIEB. 

1599 1660 
1799 

1813 1844 

1789 1863 

1714 178« 



1422 
1684 
1507 
1452 

f B. 0. 
1733 



1582 



1488 
1756 
1575 
1519 
30 
1802 

1649 



Fr. "Wallly, Cha|y da . . . 

Amer. Ward, J. Quinoy A. 
Eng. Warren, Charles, perfector of engraving 
Fr. "Watteau, Antoine . . , 

Amer. Weir, Eoht. "W. . 

Amer. , James F. . . . 

Dan. 'Wertmuller, (p) (painted in America) 
Amer. West, Benjamin 
Eng. Westall, Richard . 

Eng. , WilUam R. A. br. 

Amer, White, Edwin . . . 

Amer. Whittredge, Worthington . . 

Scot. Wilkie, David . 

Eng. Wilson, Richard . . 

Eng. WooUett, William 

Dutch. "Wouverman, Philip 

Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &c.) 

Eng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &c, 

Eng. "Wyatt, R. J. . 



Architect. 


1729 


1798 


Sculptor. 






on steel Engraver. 




1823 


, . Painter. 


1684 


1721 


. . Painter. 


1803 




Painter. 






Port. Painter. 






Painter. 


1738 


1820 


Historical Painter. 


1781 


1830 


Designer. 


1781 


1856 


Painter. 






Landscape Painter. 






Familiar Life Painter. 


17S5 


1841 


Landscape Painter. 


1713 


1782 


Engraver. 


1735 


1785 


, Painter. 


1620 


1668 


, , Architect. 


1632 


1723 


s.) . Architect. 


1743 


1813 


. . Sculptor. 


1795 


1850 



Span. Ximenes, Fran. 



Painter. 



1598 



1666 



Flem. Tples, Charles de 



Z 



Painter. 1510 



1663 



Ital. 


Zahlia, Nicholas 


. . Architect, 


1674 


1650 


Gr. 


Zeuxis, celehrated ancient . 


. . Painter. 


B. c. 490 B. 


0. 400 


Ger. 


Zincke 


Enamel Portrait Painter. 


1684 ^ 


1769 


Ital. 


Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo 


. . , Painter. 


1539 ■'•" 


' 1639 


Ital, 


Zuocaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo , 


. . Painter. 


152t 


1668 


Ital. 


Zuocarelli ... 


, . Painter. 


1710 


1788 



Inn 



